Aerodynamics Course Notes v3

FDeg Year 2
Aerodynamics
2009/2010
Prof Andrew Rae
Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 2
Learning Outcomes and Assessment Methods
Learning Outcomes - On successful completion of this
module, the student will be able to:
Assessment Methods
1. Identify and analyse the aerodynamic forces on an
aircraft. Explain the effects of airflow at subsonic,
transonic and supersonic speeds.
Exam
2. Discuss the different types of aerodynamic
experimental methods and the advantages and
disadvantages of each method.
Assignment
3. Describe the factors leading to flow separation and
solve simple boundary layer and skin friction problems,
using standard basic results.
Exam
4. Discuss the relative merits of standard wing planforms
and explain the use and benefits of lift augmentation
devices.
Exam/Assignment
Content (1)
Fundamentals:
Static dynamic and total pressure; Bernoullis principle; Speed of
sound and Mach number; ISA tables.

Lift generation:
Circulation, lift and downwash; Kutta condition; Kutta-Joukowski
theorem; spanwise lift distribution, loads and bending moment.

Subsonic Flows:
Contributions to subsonic drag; zero-lift drag, skin-friction;
Horseshoe vortex system; wing planforms in subsonic flow;
induced drag; span efficiency; tip devices; wing design through twist
and camber including wash-out and wash-in.

Content (2)
Viscosity:
Definition; boundary layers; Reynolds number; velocity profiles; no-
slip condition; effect of surface roughness on skin friction; laminar
and turbulent flows; local and global skin friction calculations;
boundary layer thickness definition; momentum and displacement
thickness; equivalent body in inviscid flow; transition and flow
separation.

Aerodynamic methods;
History of aerodynamic testing; Wind tunnel types; low speed and
high speed testing; Open and closed circuit (Eiffel/Goettingen) type
tunnels; Open, closed and slotted/porous working section type
tunnels; Flight testing; Model mounting systems; upwash, buoyancy
and blockage correction methods; Mach similarity; Methods of
increasing Reynolds number; Powered wind tunnel models;
Pressurised, cryogenic, heavy gas and water tunnels; Introduction to
CFD; Description of CFD; Advantages and disadvantages of CFD;
Examples/demonstration of CFD usage.

Content (3)
Lift augmentation and flow control devices;
The need for high lift; history of high lift; slats, flaps and other high
lift devices; the effects of slots; Coanda effects and blown devices;
powered high lift devices; vortex generators.

Supersonic Flows:
Critical Mach Number; formation of shockwaves; Normal and
oblique shockwaves; Effect of wing thickness and camber; Wave
drag and methods of reducing wave drag (Wing Sweep, Transonic
Area Ruling, Supercritical Aerofoil design, Wing design); Shockwave
control and the Shock-induced separation.

Swept wings:
Swept wing flows; Effect of spanwise and normal velocity
components; qualitative description of 3D boundary layers on swept
wings; Forward, rearward and variable sweep wings; control surface
effects; delta wings and vortical flows; vortex flap; aerodynamics of
aircraft at high incidences.

Static dynamic and total pressure;
Bernoullis principle; Speed of sound and
mach number; ISA tables.
Fundamentals
Circulation, lift and downwash; Kutta
condition; Kutta-Joukowski theorem;
spanwise lift distribution, loads and
bending moment.

Lift Generation
Lift generation (1)
Circulation
A term meaning rotation, which in aerodynamics is usually associated
with vorticity.

An commonly seen example is a type of forced circulation called the
Magnus effect

If a cylinder or sphere is made to
rotate as it travels through air,
friction causes:
the air on the forward moving side
to slow down
the air on the rearward moving
side to speed up
a differential pressure (Bernoulli)
and a lift force

The object moves sideways
A David Beckham
free kick
Lift generation (2)
Slice on a golf ball
Some you might have seen..
A curve ball
Spin on a tennis ball
Purposely ignoring cricket - polishing, seam, boot studs, etc. are all
separation control (dimples on a golf ball).see later.
An aerofoil is a body that induces the same effect through shape
only.

Consider first inviscid flow (no friction)

Lift generation (3)
The flow around a body produces changes in velocity and thus
changes in pressure
but the pressure variations are symmetrical, i.e. no lift

Note: Pictures from An Album of Fluid Motion (Parabolic
Press)

Dye injection shows the streamlines in water flowing at
1mm/s between glass plates spaced 1mm apart. It is
interesting that the best way of showing the unseparated
patterns of inviscid flow (which would be spoiled by
separation in a real fluid of even the slightest viscosity) is to
go to the extreme of creeping flow in a narrow gap, which is
dominated by viscous forces, i.e. boundary layers.

So, in inviscid flow, the pressures on the upper and lower surfaces
of an aerofoil are equal and thus so are the velocities:

In real life (air, water) the flow is viscous:
The flow on the lower surface will not traverse the sharp trailing edge
there is a limiting curvature (pressure gradient) round which a viscous
fluid will flow (spoon under a tap)
By not doing so it creates a creates a partial vacuum (low pressure) on
the trailing-edge upper surface
This draws the upper-surface flow down to the trailing edge too
Both upper and lower-surface flows leave smoothly at the aerofoil at the
trailing-edge
the Kutta Condition (M.Wilhelm Kutta, Germany, 1902)
Lift generation (4)
So, the combination of pressure gradients and the Kutta condition
results in higher velocity air over the upper surface and lower
velocity air over the bottom surface and hence lift

A mathematical way of representing this is to take the inviscid flow

Lift generation (5)
So, the combination of pressure gradients and the Kutta condition
results in higher velocity air over the upper surface and lower
velocity air over the bottom surface and hence lift

and add circulation (rotation, a vortex)

Lift generation (6)
As with the Magnus effect, the result of the circulation (vortex) is lift:

Lift generation (7)
=

This circulation is also known as the bound vortex and forms part of
the horseshoe vortex system (see later)

The vorticity is not just a mathematical device, it is a real effect and
can be seen most obviously when it is shed from a wing tip.
In addition, the velocity gradients in the boundary layer produce
vorticity that is thus distributed along the aerofoil surface.
Lift generation (8)
The circulation (vortex) has a strength (I) and the lift generated by
a 2-D aerofoil (or per unit span for a 3-D wing) is given by:

(the Kutta-Joukowski Theorum)

where is the density of the air and U is the velocity of the aerofoil.
Thus for a given speed and altitude, higher lift means stronger
vorticity.

So, could there be lift without friction?
Lift is a result of the surface pressure distribution
an inviscid phenomenon
But the differential pressure between upper and lower surfaces is a
result of the Kutta condition
a viscous phenomenon
I = U L
Lift generation (9)
For a finite wing, the combination of
bound and shed (free) vorticity is called
the horseshoe vortex system
A simple, finite, rectangular wing can be
represented as a single bound vortex of
constant strength, and a pair of semi-
infinite trailing vortices
The bound vortex is located at the
centre of pressure (~c/4)

Lift generation (10)
Anderson Fundamentals of Aerodynamics

The starting vortex
When an aerofoil starts
moving the flow tried to curl
around the trailing edge
In so doing the flow velocities
there become very large
Consequently a thin region of
very large velocity gradient
(and thus high vorticity) is
formed at the trailing edge
Once the flow is established,
the flow leaves the trailing
edge smoothly (Kutta
condition) and the velocity
gradients disappear
The shed vorticity rolls up into
a starting vortex
Trailing vorticity an aside (#1)
Crow instability
Condensation trails from a B-
47 taken at 15s intervals after
its passage
Trailing vorticity an aside (#2)
Wake vorticity and wake
encounters
Especially on descent ( U I)
The bound and trailing vortices are examples of vortex
filaments:
Lines of constant strength (point) vorticity
They can be curved but for current purposes we will consider only
straight filaments
The vortex filament will induce flow around it, depending on its
strength and direction of circulation
E.g. the bound vortex.

.and the trailing vortices too
Based on the Biot-Savart Law (see Anderson, Fundamentals of
Aerodynamics Section 5.2), the magnitude of the velocity (V) at a point (P)
that is at a perpendicular distance (h) from a vortex filament of strength is
given by the equation:

The magnitude of the induced velocity decreases with increasing distance
from the vortex
h
V
t 4
I
=
h
V

So from before, with the horseshoe vortex system, the downwash
(w) induced along the span of the wing by the trailing vortices can
be shown as:

Anderson Fundamentals of Aerodynamics

The angle of attack
() between the
chord line and the
free stream (V
) is
the geometric angle
of attack

The downward component of velocity generated by downwash at
the wing is w, producing a local relative wind inclined from the
below V
the induced angle of attack

i
. This has two effects:
The angle of attack seen by the aerofoil is less than the geometric
angle of attack and is known as the effective angle of attack
eff
=
i
The local lift vector is perpendicular to the local relative wind and
thus is now inclined behind the vertical by the angle
i
and thus has
a longitudinal component which contributes to drag, D
i
But what is wrong with this picture?
Only applicable to rectangular wings
No taper, no twist, no sweep
Not even brilliant for that:
Downwash of infinite value at the wing tip?

Consider the concept of lift distribution
The variation of lift along the span

For the horseshoe vortex system, the bound vortex is of constant
strength and the lift is thus constant across the span
BUT
The equalisation of pressure at the wing tip (bleed between upp an
lower surfaces) means that in reality there is zero lift at the wing tip

The lift distribution of a simple horseshoe vortex system would thus
be draw as:

Whereas it should be:

(The local lift is the local height of the lift distribution and the total lift is the area under the lift distribution curve)
y
To model reality better we introduce a concept called the lifting line
Ludwig Prandtl (Gttingen, 1911-1918)
What happens if we take a single horseshoe vortex and add
another of smaller span on same chordline?

2
b
2
b
2

By playing games with the number, span and strength of the
horseshoe vortices we can achieve any lift distribution to define any
planform
Still used today for preliminary calculations, bearing in mind its
limitations (inviscid, incompressible)
Wing loading
The mass of an aircraft divided by the area of its wing planform
A useful indicator of an aircrafts handling and performance

&

Take-off and landing performance
Rearranging the equation for lift coefficient gives

and therefore

So for aircraft with the same lift coefficient at take-off and landing (and
in the same atmospheric conditions) the aircraft with the bigger wing
will need less speed at take-off and landing, or less lift coefficient at
the same speed

S V
L
C
L
2
2
1
=
g W
S
Mg
C V
S
L
S L
= = =
2
2
1
C
L
= lift coefficient
= pressure
V = velocity
S = wing area
M = aircraft mass
g = acceleration due to gravity
W
S
= wing loading
L
S
C
W g
V
2
=
S
W V
Initial climb rate
Newtons Second Law; F = Ma
At rotation, the lift generated is greater than that needed to balance the
aircraft weight otherwise the aircraft would not get airborne.
The vertical force due to the difference between the lift generated and
the aircraft weight is thus
Lift Weight = L Mg

=

And the vertical acceleration can then be found from

So for the same lift coefficient the aircraft with the lower wing loading will
have the greater initial climb
Mg C S V
L

2
2
1
C
L
= lift coefficient
= pressure
V = velocity
S = wing area
M = aircraft mass
W
S
= wing loading
a
v
= vertical acceleration
g M C S V a M
L v
=
2
2
1
g C V
W
a
L
S
v
=
2
2
1
Turning performance
An aircraft performing a constant-speed,
constant radius turn obeys the mathematical
rules of circular motion
The velocity (rate of change of position) is the
distance travelled around the circle (the
circumference) divided by the time taken to
complete a rotation. i.e.

The acceleration is rate of change of velocity
divided by the time taken to complete a
rotation. The velocity rotates by 2 in time T.

Rearranging and substituting gives

C
L
= lift coefficient
= pressure
V = velocity
S = wing area
M = aircraft mass
W
S
= wing loading
a
v
a
c
= centripetal acceleration
T
R
V
t 2
=
T
V
a
c
t 2
=
R
V
a
c

2
R
V
a
c
2
=
Turning performance (continued)
The centripetal force is given by
Newtons 2
nd
Law and is equal to
the horizontal component of lift, so

C
L
= lift coefficient
= pressure
V = velocity
S = wing area
M = aircraft mass
W
S
= wing loading
a
v
a
c
= bank angle
L

u u
u
sin
2
sin
2
sin
2
1
2
2
L
S
L
L
C
W
C S
M
R
S C V
R
V M
= =
=
And thus turn radius (R) is proportional
to wing loading
Gust response

The acceleration due to a gust (a transient
increase or decrease in lift) is, from Newtons 2
nd

Law:

Thus an aircraft with higher wing loading has
better ride quality

C
L
= lift coefficient
= pressure
V = velocity
S = wing area
M = aircraft mass
W
S
= wing loading
a
v
a
c
= bank angle
S
v
W
L
M
S L
a
A
=
A
=
N.B. These analyses are good indicators of aircraft performance
and handling but should be treated with care as they are
essentially static assessments of what are, in reality, dynamic
manoeuvres
Mean wind direction, turbulence, aircraft pitch, roll, yaw, etc.
A lot of mathematical analysis, but what does it mean in practice?

Landing and take-off performance
Airbus aircraft have lower wing loading than Boeing aircraft and thus can
trade this for lower C
L
at take-off and landing
Simpler and lighter high-lift devices (see later)
Initial climb rate
The original A340 is underpowered but gets way with it because of low
wing loading
It can achieve a certifiable climb rate even with relatively small engines
CFM56 on A340-200 and -300 (34,000 lb
f
each)
RR Trent 500 on A340-500 and -600 (60,000 lb
f
each)
Turning performance
Fighter aircraft
The difference between fighter and interceptor
Turning performance
Fighter aircraft
The Spitfire had much lower
wing loading
BUT
The Bf109 had automatic
leading-edge slats
Higher C
L

Gust response
Airbus (low wing loading)
Lower landing and take-off speeds, better initial climb
vs
Boeing (high wing loading)
Smoother cruise

Gust response
Low-level bomber vs high-level bomber
Returning to lift distribution
The load resulting from the lift generated by a wing requires a structure
strong enough to sustain it
The lift can be idealised as acting at the centroid of the lift distribution:

So the wing tries to bend upwards when it generates lift
This load must be absorbed by the wing spar
Bending moment is dependent on the magnitude of the lift and how far it acts
from the wing root

Moment arm
Wing root bending moment
0g to 1g flight
2.5g gust and manoeuvre load

Ways to alleviate wing root bending moment
Engines
Winglets
Contributions to subsonic drag; zero-lift
drag, skin-friction; Horseshoe vortex
system; wing planforms in subsonic flow;
induced drag; span efficiency; tip devices;
wing design through twist and camber
including wash-out and wash-in.

Subsonic Flows
Definition; boundary layers; Reynolds
number; velocity profiles; no-slip condition;
effect of surface roughness on skin
friction; laminar and turbulent flows; local
and global skin friction calculations;
boundary layer thickness definition;
momentum and displacement thickness;
equivalent body in inviscid flow; transition
and flow separation.

Viscosity
What is viscosity?
The material property that measures a fluid's resistance to flowing
It concerns the transport of mass, momentum and energy when the
molecules move.
It results in friction between air and any surface over which it flows

Viscosity (1)
Boundary Layers
A thin region of the flow adjacent to a surface, where the flow is retarded
by the influence of friction between a solid surface and the fluid
(Anderson, Fundamentals of Aerodynamics)
Its characteristics (size, composition, etc.) are determined by a variety of
things
viscosity (friction)
Shape (pressure gradient)
Reynolds number (density, velocity)
Extremely difficult to measure
Still not fully understood
Transition mechanisms
The limit on many numerical
methods
Viscosity (2)
y (v)
x (u)
u=U

y=0, u=0, v=0
U

Boundary Layers
Inviscid vs Viscous
Viscosity (3)
Reynolds number
A non-dimensional measure of the ratio of inertia forces (U
2
) to
viscous forces (U/d)

Where = density
U = velocity
d = reference length
= viscosity

Which gives

d U
= Re
Viscosity (4)
One of the most powerful parameters
in fluid dynamics
Helps assess the similarity or
equivalence of differing flow
conditions
Scale effect
High Re flows approach inviscid
conditions (thin boundary layers)
Stokes
Reynolds
Reynolds number
Viscosity (5)
Reynolds number
Some examples
Viscosity (6)

Gliders
Re <20000
X15
Re = 6 million
A380
Re = 80 million
Reynolds number
Wind tunnel coverage
(see Aerodynamics Methods)
EWA Wind Tunnel Performance Envelopes
0
5
10
15
20
25
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Mach Number
R
e
y
n
o
l
d
s

n
u
m
b
e
r

(
m
i
l
l
i
o
n
s

p
e
r

m
e
t
r
e
)
QinetiQ5m
ONERAS1MA
CIRAIWT
VZLU 3 m
ONERAF1
FOI LT1
DNW-LLF

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40
Mach Number
R
e
y
n
o
l
d
s

n
u
m
b
e
r

(
m
i
l
l
i
o
n
s

p
e
r

m
e
t
r
e
)
ONERAS2MA
DNW-HST
ONERAS1MA
ARA-TWT
CIRAPT-1
VZLU A1
CIRAIWT
FOI T1500
FOI S4
FOI S5
FOI TVM500
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
Mach Number
R
e
y
n
o
l
d
s

n
u
m
b
e
r

(
m
i
l
l
i
o
n
s

p
e
r

m
e
t
r
e
)
ONERAS2MA
DNW-SST
FOI T1500
FOI S4
FOI S5
FOI TVM500
Low-speed w/t
Transonic w/t
Supersonic w/t
European
Wind Tunnels
ETW (Cryogenic)
Viscosity (7)
Velocity profiles
The rate at which the velocity increases from zero at the wall to
freestream velocity at the edge of the boundary layer

The edge of the boundary layer can be difficult to define so a
(sometimes artificial) definition is imposed:
u = 0.99 U

The boundary-layer depth (the distance from the surface where u =
0.99 U
) is defined as

Viscosity (8)
y (v)
x (u)
u=0.99U

y=0, u=0, v=0
U

Boundary-layer
velocity profile

Viscosity (9)
Shear Stress
The assertion that the velocity at the surface is zero
The action of viscosity tugs at the surface (rubbing hands together)
Generates shear stress (
xy
)

dy
du
dy
du
xy
t =
You can imagine this as two adjacent layers of
fluid, each at different velocities rubbing
against each other
The shear stress is thus related to the
difference in velocity between the two layers
and that is defined by the velocity gradient
(du/dy), so

In reality there is a semi-infinite number of
adjacent layers (solid boundary)

Viscosity (10)
No-slip condition
The no-slip condition maintains
that the flow at the surface is
stationary
i.e. that u = 0 at y = 0
This is difficult to justify
theoretically and is
demonstrably not true in many
cases
But it is close enough to the
truth (and the convenience of it
as a boundary condition so
large) that its consequences
are accepted
Viscosity (11)
Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layers
When a boundary layer starts on a surface it is laminar, i.e. smooth with the
stream lines roughly parallel to the surface
At some point a transition occurs (due to roughness, contamination, pressure
gradients, etc.) to a turbulent boundary layer

There is a general mean motion roughly parallel to the surface, but in addition
there are local rapid, random fluctuations in velocity direction and magnitude
These fluctuations provide a powerful mechanism for mixing within the layer
Just as viscosity give rise to shear stress, the turbulent fluctuations give rise to
eddy shear stresses
Consequently there a important differences between the characteristics of
laminar and turbulent boundary layers
Viscosity (12)
Boundary-layer profile
Steeper profile
Viscosity (13)
Boundary layer on a flat plate

Boundary layers on a wing combine to form the wake (profile drag, C
Do
)

Viscosity (14)
Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layers (see also later)
Transition
Viscosity (15)
Characteristics which encourage transition
Increased surface roughness
Boundary-layer tripping on wind tunnel models
Dimples on a golf ball
Increased freestream turbulence
Wind tunnel comparisons
Adverse pressure gradients
Amplification of instabilities
Sailplane wing profiles
Heating of the fluid by the surface
Amplification of instabilities

The inverse of all these encourage laminar
boundary layers

Viscosity (16)
Reynolds Experiment
Classic experiment examining
laminar and turbulent flow in pipes
Flow through a pipe metered by a
stopcock
Dye injection at the centreline of the
tube mouth
Reynolds noted that low speed the
dye filament remained smooth and
narrow
At higher speed the filament broke
up and diffused throughout the
cross section
The speed at which it occurred was
different for pipes of different
diameter
Relationship to U
and d, i.e Re
Viscosity (17)
Reynolds Experiment
a & b laminar
c - turbulent
Viscosity (18)
Reynolds Experiment
Results
Recreation at the
University of
Manchester using
Reynolds original
apparatus a century
later
Laminar
Transitional
Turbulent
Turbulent
Blasius Equation
Uses the boundary layer equations
Reduction of the Navier-Stokes equations
to simpler forms which apply to boundary
layers
Continuity
x momentum
y momentum
Uses a function to turn a set of partial
differential equations into a single
ordinary differential equation

See Anderson Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, Chapter 18.2
0 2
' ' ' ' '
= + f f f
( )
= =
V
u
f
x
V
y q
u
q
'
Viscosity (19)
0 =
c
c
+
c
c
y
v
x
u
2
2
y
u
y
v
v
x
u
u
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
u
0 =
c
c
y
p
u
Where is the kinematic
viscosity , defined as
Viscosity (20)
Blasius Equation
The important result is that the solution of the
equation is a velocity profile and that it is a function
of only
This form of the velocity profile is independent of the
distance along a surface (x)
Self-similar solutions
If f=u/U
o
,

the b.l. edge is at f=0.99 and =5.0

x
x
x
V
x
V
y
Re
0 . 5
0 . 5
=
= = =

o
u
o
u
q
The reduction of the boundary layer
equations to an ODE is only valid for
certain conditions
E.g. flow on a flat plate

Viscosity (21)
Local Skin Friction
Remember that shear stress within
the boundary layer was defined as

So shear stress at the wall (skin
friction) is given by

And the local coefficient of skin
friction (c
f
), the skin friction at a point
x along a surface, is given by

And is the local coefficient of drag
due to viscosity

dy
du
xy
t =
0 =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
y
w
dy
du
t
2
2
1

=
V
c
w
f
t
Viscosity (22)
Local Skin Friction
From the boundary layer and Blasius equations
1
it can be shown that

And so the local shear stress is given by

Reference [2] describes a numerical solution of the Blasius equation
and tabulates the results, giving f(0) = 0.4696, so

Where Re
x
is the local Reynolds
number

( ) 0
2
' '
0
f
x
V
V
dy
du
y
u
=
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
( ) 0
2
2
' '
2 2
2
1
f
x
V
V
V V
c
w
f
u

= =
( )
( )
x
f
f
f
x V
c
Re
0
2
2
0
2
2
' '
' '
= =

x
f
c
Re
664 . 0
=
1 Anderson Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, 3
rd
Edition,
Chapter 18.2
2 Schlichting, Boundary Layer Theory, 8
th
Revised and
Enlarged Edition, Page 158 and Table 6.1
Viscosity (23)
Global Skin Friction
If the local skin friction drag coefficient is c
f
, the global or total drag due to
friction on that surface (say the chord of a wing, c) is found by integrating
the local skin friction over the length of that surface. i.e.

Substituting the previous expression for local skin friction coefficient gives

And

Where Re
c
is the Reynolds number based on the wing chord

}
=
c
f f
dx c
c
C
0
1
c
f
C
Re
328 . 1
=

= =
}

V
c
c
dx x
V c
C
c
f
328 . 1
) 664 . 0 (
1
0
2
1
Viscosity (24)
Boundary layer thickness and displacement thickness
Remember we described the boundary layer thickness, , as being the
distance from the surface where u = 0.99U

We now introduce the concept of displacement thickness,
*

y (v)
x (u)
u=0.99U

y=0, u=0, v=0
U

y (v)
x (u)
u=0.99U
u=0.99U

Shaded regions have equal area
*
Viscosity (25)
Boundary layer displacement thickness
The displacement thickness can be thought of in two ways:
(a) The thickness representing the missing mass flow if it were crammed
into a flow with the free stream characteristics (cf. inviscid)

(b) The boundary layer displaces the flow around an object by acting as
additional volume
y (v)
x (u)
u=0.99U
u=0.99U

Shaded regions have equal area
*
Viscosity (26)
Boundary layer displacement thickness derivations
(a) Missing mass flow

}
1
0
y
dy u The actual mass flow between y=0 and y=y
1
is
The hypothetical mass flow between y=0 and
y=y
1
if the boundary layer were not present is
The difference between the two is the missing
mass flow
And this can be expressed in terms of
*

}
1
0
y
e e
dy u
( )
}

1
0
y
e e
dy u u
*
o
e e
u
Viscosity (27)
(a) Missing mass flow (continued)

So

Or
( )
}
=
1
0
*
y
e e e e
dy u u u o
} |
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
0
*
1
y
e e
dy
u
u
o
Viscosity (28)
(b) Displacement of external streamlines

}
=
1
0
.
y
e e
dy u m
} |
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
0
*
1
y
e e
dy
u
u
o
The mass flow at Station 1
At Station 2, the mass flow between
the surface and the same streamline is
Since the surface and the streamline
form the boundaries of a stream tube,
the mass flow must be constant, i.e.

Or
*
0
.
1
o
}
+ =
y
e e
u dy u m
*
0 0
1 1
o
} }
+ =
y
e e
y
e e
u dy u dy u
as before
Viscosity (29)
Boundary layer displacement thickness
The displacement of external streamlines raises the idea of simulating a
viscous flow using inviscid methods by modelling an effective or
equivalent body

The viscous flow is modelled by expanding the shape by the
displacement thickness
Should be an iterative process!
Viscosity (30)
Boundary layer momentum thickness
While the displacement thickness accounted for the missing mass flow
another important boundary-layer characteristic accounts for loss of
momentum within the boundary layer

The mass flow across dy (dm) = u dy
Now, momentum flow across dy in the b.l. = dm u = u
2
dy

Momentum across dy if it were in the freestream = dm u
e
= ( u dy)u
e
Therefore, the loss in momentum associated with dm = u(u
e
u)dy
So the total momentum deficit from y=0 to y=y
1
= ( )
}

1
0
y
e
dy u u u
Viscosity (31)
Boundary layer momentum thickness
We can now introduce a thickness () representing the missing
momentum if it were crammed into a flow with the free stream
characteristics, i.e.
The missing momentum flow =
e
u
e
2
=

And so

This momentum thickness () is the height of a hypothetical
streamtube carrying the missing momentum flow at freestream
conditions
The momentum thickness can be used to generate a similar effective or
equivalent body, this time representing a body exhibiting an equivalent
momentum loss

( )
}

1
0
y
e
dy u u u
} |
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
0
1
y
e e e
dy
u
u
u
u
u
Viscosity (32)
Methods of measuring boundary layer state
Hot wires
Hot films
Measurement element is one arm of a Wheatstone
bridge
Measure the voltage changes required to keep a
constant current (CCA), or the current changes
require to keep a constant temperature (CTA)
Sublimation/Evapouration
Heat transfer (IR)
All have difficulties
Intrusion, chemicals, temperature gradients, viewing
angle, calibration, interpretation

Viscosity (33)
Boundary layer transition
From Reynolds pipe flow experiment a critical Reynolds number was
observed, below which the flow was laminar and above which it was
turbulent.

The discovery that transition occurred on surfaces did not come until
much later
Transition on a flat plate

2300 Re =
|
.
|
\
|
=
crit
crit
d u
u
6 5
10 10 5 . 3 Re =
|
.
|
\
|
=

crit
crit x
x U
u
Viscosity (34)
Factors affecting
transition
Pressure gradient
Positive pressure
gradients suppress
turbulence
Adverse pressure
gradients amplify
them
Flow direction
Disturbances suppressed by positive pressure gradient
Disturbances amplified by negative pressure gradient
Shape of the profile
Viscosity (35)
Factors affecting transition
Pressure Gradient
On a wing transition generally occurs at or just after C
Pmin
where the
pressure gradient changes from +ve to ve (e.g. laminar separation
bubble): 5% is a rule of thumb

Viscosity (36)
Pressure Gradient
Turbulent vs Laminar

Viscosity (37)
Surface roughness
Imperfections or roughness elements
act like little bluff bodies, shedding
eddies which disturb a laminar boundary
layer and can induce transition
It is possible to reduce drag by inducing
transition through roughness
Only if separation is normally of a
laminar boundary layer
A turbulent boundary layer is more
resistant to separation than a laminar
one
Triggering transition before separation
means the boundary layer will separate
later
Golf Ball
Viscosity (38)
Factors affecting
transition
Surface
roughness

Addition of a trip
wire
Laminar
separation
Transition
at the wire
Turbulent
separation
Viscosity (39)
Surface roughness
Ice
Liquids (rain & de-icing fluid)
Viscosity (40)
Freestream turbulence (and noise)
E.g. on a flat plate, transition starts
with the formation of Tollmien-
Schlichting (T-S) waves
External excitation (especially of
matching frequencies) can amplify
the waves and hasten transition
3-D geometries (e.g. swept wings)
In addition to chordwise
disturbances we now have
spanwise flow and spanwise
disturbance.
Traditional civil aircraft-type wings
are fully turbulent
Attachment line transition
Viscosity (41)
Boundary layer separation
Once the pressure gradient on a
surface becomes positive the
pressure rises with distance
The effect of which is shown [top
right]
Loss of kinetic energy which is only
partially compensated for by mixing
within the boundary layer
The velocity profile becomes less full
with the inner part of the layer
slowing down w.r.t. the outer
The shear stress at the wall reduces
With a sufficiently large pressure
gradient a point where the shear
stress becomes zero and the flow on
the surface is on the point of
reversing
Viscosity (42)
The reversed flow forms a large eddy under the outer
part of the boundary layer (wakes)
Open separations are generally unstable and highly
dynamic
Closed separations exist (laminar bubbles) but even
these are unsteady
Classic wind tunnel surface flow visualisation can
indicate these regions
Oil flow (time averaged)
Tufts (point data)
Viscosity (43)
Bluff body separations
E.g. delta vortices

Viscosity (44)
Boundary layer modelling
It is important to capture the boundary layer with sufficient fidelity in
viscous CFD methods
Concentration of mesh points close to the surface
History of aerodynamic testing; Wind tunnel types; low
speed and high speed testing; Open and closed circuit
(Eiffel/Goettingen) type tunnels; Open, closed and
slotted/porous working section type tunnels; Flight
testing; Model mounting systems; upwash, buoyancy
and blockage correction methods; Mach similarity;
Methods of increasing Reynolds number; Powered wind
tunnel models; Pressurised, cryogenic, heavy gas and
water tunnels; Introduction to CFD; Description of CFD;
Advantages and disadvantages of CFD;
Examples/demonstration of CFD usage.

Aerodynamic Methods
The need for high lift; history of high lift;
slats, flaps and other high lift devices; the
effects of slots; Coanda effects and blown
devices; powered high lift devices; vortex
generators.

Lift Augmentation and Flow
Control Devices
Early (propellor-driven) aircraft had low wing loadings and thus
low take-off and landing speeds
High-lift systems were either not needed or were relatively simple
Leading-edge devices, at least on civil aircraft, were rare
Trailing-edge devices were primarily plain or split flaps
Lift augmentation and flow control devices (1)
The advent of the jet engine saw an increase in cruise speed
and wing loading
High-lift systems became necessary for take-off and landing (improved
C
L
/C
D
and C
Lmax
)
Slotted leading-edge slats and trailing-edge flaps became commonplace and
some were extremely complex.

But the technology of slotted devices was born around 1920
A mixture of careful design and pure accident
Handley-Page
In 1911 Sir Frederick Handley-Page noted that square wings (AR=1)
maintained lift to a much higher incidence than more conventional
rectangular wings (AR6)
In 1917 he and his aerodynamicist (R.O.Boswell) tried to combine the
low drag characteristics of high aspect ratio with the delayed stall of low
aspect ratio by incorporating chordwise slots in a conventional wing
Wind tunnel test results
were disappointing
Despite many variations
in shape, gap and
proportion the idea could
not be made to work
Handley-Page
At some point someone (whether Handley-Page, Boswell or one of the
carpenters, it is not clear who) had the idea of cutting spanwise slots
Parallel to the leading edge, at about c/4 and sloping upwards and rearwards
The initial tests on a RAE15
aerofoil gave a spectacular
25% increase in maximum lift
An improved slot shape in a
RAE6 aerofoil gave a 50%
increase, with only a slight
increase in drag
Various test throughout 1918
and 1920 showed that
chordwise location was
crucial
Lachmann
Independently, a parallel investigation was being conducted by a
German engineer-pilot, Gus Lachmann.
He transferred to the flying corps from the cavalry in 1917 but stalled and
spun-in during an early training flight, breaking his jaw
In hospital he pondered the cause of his accident and how stall could be
prevented, concluding that a cascade of small aerofoils within a normal
wing profile might be better
He took his idea to the
German patent office in
February 1918 but this was
rejected unless he could
prove experimentally that the
idea would work
Lachmann
He approached Prof Ludwig Prandtl at Gottingen who agreed to do the
tests for 50
Lachmann had no money and so borrowed it from his mother
The results convinced the patent office to grant his application
Lachmann ended up working for
Handley-Page after the end of
WW2
-
The consensus was that the slot
behaves as a boundary-layer
control device
The jet through the slot
It was not until 1972 (A.M.O.
Smith) that the correct physical
principles underlying its operation
were finally understood

Types of high-lift device - trailing edge

Take-off
Predominantly Fowler motion
Landing
Fowler motion plus deflection
Types of high-lift device - leading edge
HIGH-LIFT SYSTEM TERMINOLOGY
Slat
Cove
Shroud
Fixed leading
edge (D-nose)
Vane
Main flap
Main element
Take-off
Slat deployment and take-off flap setting (large Fowler motion and a little
deflection)
Landing
Slat deployment, landing flap setting (large Fowler motion and large
deflection) and spoilers (shroud) after weight on wheels
BOEING TRAILING-EDGE SYSTEM TERMINOLOGY
So what effects do high-lift systems have?
Flaps shift the C
L
- curve
Greater lift at a given incidence and greater C
Lmax
, but
Reduction in maximum
Slats extend the C
L
- curve, increased
max

An example of how certification requirements lead to design choices
e.g. Airbus A340
An example of how each design choice affects others
e.g. fuselage length, fuselage shape and undercarriage height
( = climb angle)
The National High-Lift
Programme (NHLP)
Instigated by the RAE in the
late 1960s in response to a
perceived American lead in
high-lift system design
Current UK designs (BAC1-11,
Trident, VC-10) had much
simpler leading and trailing-
edge devices than their US
equivalents (707, 727, 737,
747, DC-8, DC-9, DC10)
It was considered that more
complex meant more powerful
UK industry had been
combined into BAC and HAS
which was contemplating the
next generation civil transport

Boeing 737
HS Trident
The National High-Lift
Programme (NHLP)
Lasted through to the late 1970s
and its legacy continues today
Combinations and permutations of 8
different leading-edge devices and
11 different trailing-edge devices
Defined the design philosophy for
the Airbus A320 and all subsequent
Airbus aircraft
Flap chord, slat chord, shroud
length, deflections, etc.
Identified Reynolds number (scale
effect) and testing fidelity as
important design parameters
RAE (QinetiQ) 5m Pressurised
Wind Tunnel
So how do high-lift systems really work?
A.M.O. Smith (Douglas) illuminated the aerodynamics community in 1972
The low-speed aerodynamicists equivalent of Darwins Origin of the Species
but nowhere near as easy to read!

Prior to 1972:
Fresh momentum through the
slot
High energy air from lower
surface to upper surface
A.M.O. Smith
Leading-Edge Slat Effect
Circulation Effect
Dumping Velocity
Off-Surface Recovery
Fresh Start for the boundary
layer on each element
Leading-Edge Slat Effect

The leading-edge of a downstream
element benefits from the
circulation of an upstream element
The velocity induced by the
upstream element runs counter to
that of the downstream element
Reduction of the pressure peak on
the downstream element and a
resilience to high angle of attack
Works mainly at high angle of
attack when the slat is generating
a lot of lift and where the main
element is highly loaded
The main element has a similar
effect on the flap

Load on the main element is reduced, but
the combination of slat and main element
is positive
Circulation (Flap) Effect
The trailing-edge of an upstream element benefits from the circulation
of a downstream element
The velocity induced
by the downstream
element reinforces
that of the
downstream element

Increased resistance
to main element
trailing-edge flow
separation and a
resilience to high
angle of attack

Dumping Effect
The circulation effect not only improves the performance of the upstream
element
The increased trailing-edge velocity due to the circulation of the
downstream element means that the boundary layer (wake) from the
upstream element is accelerated
Relieves the pressure rise on the trailing-edge of the downstream
element and improves its ability to resist flow separation

Off Surface Pressure Recovery
The boundary layer of the upstream
element is dumped at higher
velocity and impinges upon the
boundary layer of the downstream
element
The deceleration of the upstream
wake is thus more efficient than if it
were in contact with a solid
boundary

Fresh Boundary Layer Effect
Each element starts with a fresh boundary layer at the leading edge
Thin boundary layer can withstand stronger adverse pressure gradients
than thick ones

Viscous Effects and Separation
Confluent boundary layers modify pressure gradients and boundary
layer velocity gradients

High-Lift Optimisation
All of the above means that each element has an optimum position
relative to its neighbour
That position will change with the position of further upstream or
downstream elements
In practice, for a 3-element system (slat, main element, flap) the flap
position is optimised using a (e.g. 9 point) optimisation matrix, then the
slat is optimised in a similar way. The flap is then re-optimised with the
slat in its new position and ditto for the slat
The optimisation of a system with a triple-slotted flap is not trivial!

Coanda Effect
The tendency of a fluid jet to be attracted to a nearby surface
Used to enhance lift usually either by using the engine exhaust or
dedicated blowing of engine bleed air through slots

Blown devices (boundary layer
control)
Counteracts the deceleration and
growth of the boundary layer by
injection of momentum
Over blowing (jet effect) can
produce lift enhancement over and
above potential flow theory
(F-104 Starfighter, F-4 Phantom, A-
5 Vigilante, Buccaneer, TSR.2. etc)

Engine exhaust
(Antonov 72/74, YC, Boeing
Globemaster III)

Blown devices (boundary layer control)
Reduces engine performance
Requires internal ducting
Weight
Volume
Maintenance

Flow control
Which for high lift usually means separation control
Entraining or redistributing higher momentum air close to the flap surface
and delay flow separation

Vortex generators
Small blades (rectangular or triangular) that create vortices close to the
surface

Flow control An example of
Aerodynamics Research
Conventional vortex generators can cause a
significant drag penalty
Hence the concept of sub-boundary-layer vortex
generators (SBVGs)

2-D separation control using SBVGs
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
x (mm)
100
200
300
400
z
(
m
m
)
10mm Wheeler Wedge with 1h gap
x=52h from separation
spacing = 12h
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
x (mm)
100
200
300
400
z
(
m
m
)
10mm Wheeler Wedge
x = 52h from separation
spacing = 12h
-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1
x (m)
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
z
(
m
)
5mm wedges
x=104h from separation
spacing = 12h
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
x (mm)
100
200
300
z
(
m
m
)
10mm wedges
x= 52h fromseparation
spacing = 12h
-300 -200 -100 0 100
x (mm)
50
100
150
200
250
300
z
(
m
m
)
Umean: -5.0 5.0 15.0 25.0 35.0
No VG's
a) Basic flow (no control)
c) Joined Counter-rotating vanes
b) Forwards wedges
d) Counter-rotating vanes spaced
apart by 1h
a) Basic flow (no control)

b) Forwards wedges
c) Joined Counter-rotating vanes
d) Counter-rotating vanes spaced apart
by 1h
Regions of constant streamwise velocity above the bump in vertical plane of symmetry.
Extension to 2.75D (sweep and taper)

Extension to fully 3D and to high
Reynolds number

340 flap flow separation (AWIATOR)
No VGs
VGs on
A380 in QinetiQ 5m Wind Tunnel
Flow control
Alternative flow control devices
Air jet, Synthetic jets
Thousands of devices
Networked, Sequenced
Rapid response
Manufacturing
Embedding in composite/metal structures
Power supply
Calibration
Maintenance
Robustness
Certification
Consequences of failure
Flow control
Loads control
Performance degradation
Flow control
Also used for as separation
control on:
Pylon/slat junction
Douglas invention
Big effect on C
Lmax

Flow control
Pylon/slat junction

Flow control
Also used for as separation control on:
Flight control devices

Gloster Javelin
Boeing 727
Flow control
Afterbody

Rockwell B-1 Lancer
Flow control
Shock/boundary layer interaction

Boeing 737
Factors affecting high-lift
performance
Surface roughness
Ice
Liquids (rain & de-icing fluid)
Abnormal use of high-lift
devices
British Airways Boeing 777
crash at Heathrow (January
2008)
Glide approach due to loss
of power
Correct selection of take-off
setting
Maximum L/D
Critical Mach Number; formation of
shockwaves; Normal and oblique
shockwaves; Effect of wing thickness and
camber; Wave drag and methods of
reducing wave drag (Wing Sweep,
Transonic Area Ruling, Supercritical
Aerofoil design, Wing design); Shockwave
control and the Shock-induced separation.

Supersonic Flows
Incompressible flow
Most of our analysis so far has assumed that the flow is incompressible

We do this because it allows us to simplify things in two important ways
The density is known and can be treated as a constant in, for example, the
continuity equation

1
u
1
A
1
=
2
u
2
A
2

The interaction between mechanical and thermal energy is weak which permits
use of a simplified version of the energy equation
This assumption does not, however, match reality
All fluids are compressible, even liquids
If the pressure changes in a flow are sufficient to cause significant density
changes we have to abandon the incompressible flow assumption
It is more likely to be of concern in a gas than in a liquid
A pressure change of 500kPa (~72psi) causes a density change of 0.024% in
water but 250% in air

Supersonic flows (1)
Forward influence
In subsonic flow pressure changes are
propagated through the fluid at the
speed of sound through pressure waves
The pressure changes caused by a
body moving through a fluid are thus
transmitted through the fluid
The air ahead of a subsonic aircraft, for
example, therefore knows that it is
coming because the pressure changes
are transmitted forward
The degree to which the flow ahead of
body is altered depends greatly on the
pressure changes on the body itself and
these are dependent on its shape and
speed
This effect is known as forward
influence and can be a very important
consideration

Compressible flow
As an aircraft approaches the
speed of sound, the difference
between the speed at which the
pressure waves are transmitted
ahead of it and that of the aircraft
reduces
So the time between the
pressure wave and aircraft
passing through the same point
reduces
When the aircraft reaches the
speed of sound (Mach 1) the air
receives no warning and so has
to react instantly to the presence
of the aircraft
This instantaneous change can
lead to shock waves
Compressible flow
An aircraft does not have to be travelling at the speed of sound to
generate shock waves
The wings are designed to accelerate the air to produce lift so shock
waves will form at relatively low Mach number
Shock waves can be
a problem even at
landing speed
the acceleration
generated by a slat
can be so severe
as to cause near
sonic flow on its
upper surface as is
a design limit
C
L
for C
p
-10
Critical Mach number
The speed at which sonic flow occurs on a body is called the critical
Mach number
Shock waves cause drag (wave drag) (see later) and so the speed at
which they start to form is important
For example, the economy of a civil aircraft reduces dramatically once
strong shock waves form its wings and the point at which this occurs is
the drag rise Mach number
the wing section must be designed so that the design cruise speed is below
the drag rise Mach number

Mach wave
If we imagine a stationary disturbance emitting pressure waves (e.g.
sound) the waves will propagate uniformly from the source
Ripples in the surface of water
The waves will travel at the speed of sound (c) so that after a time interval
(t) the waves will have travelled a distance of ct

Mach wave
Now suppose that there is a flow over the disturbance travelling at Mach
0.5, i.e. V = c
In addition to spreading into the fluid, the waves will also be swept
downstream by the flow
As a result the waves bunch up on the upstream side and spread out on
the downstream side and the rate at which the fluid experiences the
disturbances is greater on the upstream side than the downstream
If the disturbance was sound an upstream listener would here a different
frequency to one downstream
Doppler effect

Mach wave
Now suppose that the flow past the disturbance is sonic, i.e. at a speed
exactly equal to the speed of sound (M =1, V = c)
In this case the waves are swept downstream at exactly the same speed
at which they spread
The waves cannot propagate upstream and the fluid is not affected by the
disturbance until it arrives at it

The upstream waves will sit on
top of each other forming an
envelope
The fluid experiences the total
effect of all of the waves at once
upon crossing the envelope
Mach wave
Finally suppose that the fluid flows past the disturbance at supersonic
speed, i.e. a speed greater than the speed of sound (M > 1, V > c)
At supersonic speed the disturbances are swept downstream faster than
they can spread
All the waves are confined to a triangular (in 2-D) or conical (in 3-D)
region extending downstream from the disturbance
The waves form an envelope of half angle

Only the fluid inside the
envelope is affected by the
disturbance
If it were sound it would be
silent outside the envelope
The envelope is called the Mach
wave (in 2-D) or the Mach cone
(in 3-D)
Mach angle
The half angle of the envelope can be calculated

So the Mach angle () is given by:

Because the fluid experiences
the combined effects of a
disturbance almost
instantaneously, the fluid
property and velocity variations
may be discontinuous
E.g. density changes
Schlieren technique
M V
c
t V
t c 1
sin = =
A
A
=
M
1
sin
1 -
=
Shock waves
A finite strength disturbance (e.g. a sharp wedge or cone) in supersonic
flow creates a finite strength wave which is stationary with respect to the
disturbance
These finite strength disturbances are known as shock waves
They are extremely thin and fluid properties change dramatically across
them
Shock wave on an A320 in cruise
Super-critical wing design (see later)
Normal and oblique shock waves
A shock wave that is perpendicular to the upstream flow is a normal
shock
One that is inclined at a constant angle to the upstream flow is an oblique
shock
A curved shock has a varying angle between it and the upstream flow
Normal shock waves
Consider a normal shock wave of zero thickness as shown in the picture
The continuity equation along a streamline is
1
u
1
A
1
=
2
u
2
A
2
For a section of the shock wave, the area before and after the shock will
be equal, i.e. A
1
= A
2
= A, so

1
u
1
=
2
u
2

The ideal gas law is

And we can write the velocity as

So
1
u
1
=
2
u
2
becomes

or
T R
p
=
T R M Mc u = =
2 2
2
2
1 1
1
1
T R M
T R
p
T R M
T R
p
=
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
2 2
1
1 1
T
T
p
p
M
M
T
M p
T
M p
= =
Normal shock waves
Now consider the forces acting across the shock wave
The momentum equation gives

The force is equal to the pressure difference across the shock wave
= pressure x area = p
1
A = p
2
A

Therefore

or

and

A u A u F
x
2
1 1
2
2 2
= E
A u A u A p A p
2
1 1
2
2 2 2 1
=
T R
p
T R M Mc u
=
= =
) 1 (
) 1 (
2
2
2
1
1
2
M
M
p
p
+
+
=
) 1 ( ) 1 (
2
2 2
2
1 1
M p M p + = +
2
1 1
2
2 2 2 1
u u p p =
Normal shock waves
We also need to make use of the energy equation
The state of a gas is defined by several properties including the
temperature, pressure, and the volume which the gas occupies.
From the first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy) we find
that the internal energy of a gas is also a state variable
That is, a variable which depends only on the state of the gas and not on any
process that produced that state
We are free to define additional state variables which are combinations of
existing state variables
Normal shock waves
The new variables often make the analysis of a system much simpler
For a gas, a useful additional state variable is the enthalpy (H) which is
defined to be the sum of the internal energy E plus the product of the
pressure p and volume V, i.e. H = E + pV
The enthalpy can be made into a specific variable ( ) by dividing by the
mass
Propulsion engineers use the specific enthalpy (or more often the
change in specific enthalpy) in engine analysis more than the enthalpy
itself
h
~
Normal shock waves
How do we use this new variable called enthalpy?
Let's consider the first law of thermodynamics for a gas
For a system with heat transfer Q and work W, the change in internal
energy E from State 1 to State 2 is equal to the difference in the heat
transfer into the system and the work done by the system:

E
2
- E
1
= Q - W

The work and heat transfer depend on the process used to change the
state.
For the special case of a constant pressure process, the work done by the
gas is given as the constant pressure p times the change in volume V. i.e.

W = p (V
2
- V
1
)

Substituting into the first equation, we have:

E
2
- E
1
= Q - p (V
2
- V
1
)
Normal shock waves
Let's group the conditions at State 2 and the conditions at State 1 together:

E
2
- E
1
= Q p (V
2
- V
1
)
becomes

(E
2
+ p V
2
) - (E
1
+ p V
1
) = Q

The (E + pV) can be replaced by the enthalpy H

H
2
- H
1
= Q

From the definition of the heat transfer, we can represent Q by some heat
capacity coefficient C
p
times the temperature T

H
2
- H
1
= C
p
(T
2
- T
1
)

Normal shock waves

We have previously divided by the mass of gas to produce the specific
enthalpy equation version

The specific heat capacity (c
p
) is called the specific heat at constant
pressure
This final equation is used to determine values of specific enthalpy for a
given temperature
Across shock waves, the total enthalpy of the gas remains a constant
( ) ( )
2 2 1 2 1 2
~ ~ ~
T c h T T c h h
p p
= =
Normal shock waves
The energy equation for this situation is:

where is the heat transfer rate,

is power (rate of work),

is mass flow rate,

and is specific enthalpy.

Work is the energy transfer by the action of a force through a distance
Because we have defined the thickness of the shock wave to be zero, there
can be neither heat transfer or work as they require finite volumes
So the equation reduces to:

|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
2 2
~ ~
2
1
2
2
1 2
u u
h h m W Q
s

h
m
W
Q
s
~
2
~
2
~
2
2
2
2
1
1
u
h
u
h + = +
Normal shock waves
So we now have five equations:
Continuity
1
u
1
=
2
u
2
(1)

Momentum (2)

Energy (3)

Enthalpy (4)

Equation of state p
2
=
2
R T (5)

And five unknowns, the flow conditions after the shock wave:

2
, u
2
,

p
2
,

, and T
2

These equations then are sufficient to calculate these unknown conditions
in an ideal gas
2
~
2
~
2
2
2
2
1
1
u
h
u
h + = +
2
1 1
2
2 2 2 1
u u p p =
2 2
~
T c h
p
=
2
~
h
Normal shock waves
Using the continuity and momentum equations

We introduce a characteristic Mach number

where a
*
is the value of the speed of sound at sonic conditions, not the

actual local value, and
2
2 2
2
1
1 1
1
u
u
p
u
u
p
+ = +

1 2
2 2
2
1 1
1
u u
u
p
u
p
=

1 2
2
2
2
1
2
1
u u
u
a
u
a
=

p a =
-
-
=
a
u
M
- -
= T R a
Normal shock waves
The energy equation we had as

where u
1
and u
2
are velocities at any two points along a 3-D streamline
We had that for a perfect gas, , so

Also for a perfect gas, c
p
c
v
= R
Which we can modify by dividing through by c
p
to give

or
2
~
2
~
2
2
2
2
1
1
u
h
u
h + = +
T c h
p
=
~
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
1
u
T c
u
T c
p p
+ = +
c
p
- specific heat at constant pressure
c
v
- specific heat at constant volume
p v
p
p p
p
c
R
c
c
c
R
c
c
= = =
1
1 1 so and
1
=
R
c
p
Normal shock waves

So

remember

so

If we make the Point 2 on the streamline
represent sonic flow, then u = a
*
so that

or
2 1 2 1
becomes
2 2
2
2 2
2
1 1
2
2
2
2
1
1
u T R u T R u
T c
u
T c
p p
+
= +
+ = +
T R a =
2 1 2 1
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
u a u a
+
= +

2 1 2 1
2
*
2
* 2 2
a a u a
+
= +

2
*
2 2
( 2
1
a
u a
1) 2 1
+
= +


Normal shock waves

Rearranging the equation and applying it

first ahead of the shock wave and then behind it, we get

a* is the same constant value because the flow is adiabatic, i.e. one in
which no heat is added or removed from the system

Substituting this pair into

Gives
2
*
2 2
1) ( 2
1
2 1
a
u a
+
= +

2
2
2
* 2
2
2
1
2
* 2
1
2
1
2
1
and
2
1
2
1
u a a u a a

+
=
+
=

1 2
2
2
2
1
2
1
u u
u
a
u
a
=

1 2 2
2
2
*
1
1
2
*
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
u u u
u
a
u
u
a
=

Normal shock waves

Rearranging

Gives

Dividing by u
2
- u
1
gives

Which can be rearranged and solved for a* to give
a* = u
1
u
2
This is called the Prandtl relation and is a useful intermediate relation for
shock waves
1 2 2
2
2
*
1
1
2
*
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
u u u
u
a
u
u
a
=
1 2 1 2
2
*
1 2
2 1
) (
2
1
) (
2
1
u u u u a u u
u u
=
+
+
1 2
2
*
2 1
2
1
2
1
u u a
u u
=
+
+

Normal shock waves
The usefulness of the Prandtl relation is shown if we recall the equation

Dividing through by u
2
gives

And converting to Mach number

And rearranging gives

2
*
2 2
1) ( 2
1
2 1
a
u a
+
= +

2
* 2
1) ( 2
1
2
1
1
) / (
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= +
u
a u a
2
1 1
1) ( 2
1
1
) / 1 (
2
*
2
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
M
M
2
2
2
*
2
*
2
( 2
) 1 (
( ) / ) 1 ((
2
M
M
M
M
M
1)
or
1)
+
+
=
+
=

Normal shock waves
We now take the Prandtl relation and incorporate the characteristic Mach
number (M* = u/a*)

a* = u
1
u
2
becomes or

On the previous page we derived the equation

Substituting this into

Gives

And solving for M
2
2
- -
=
a
u
a
u
2 1
1
*
1
*
2
*
2
*
1
1
1
M
M M M = =
2
2
2
*
( 2
) 1 (
M
M
M
1) +
+
=
*
1
*
2
1
M
M =
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
) 1 ( 2
) 1 (
) 1 ( 2
) 1 (

(
+
+
=
+
+
M
M
M
M
| |
2 / ) 1 (
2 / ) 1 ( 1
2
1
2
1
2
2

+
=

M
M
M
Normal shock waves

The equation is an important result

It shows that the Mach number after a normal shock wave is dependent
only upon the Mach number before it
If M
1
=1, then M
2
=1 and this is an infinitely weak shock wave, or Mach wave
If M
1
>1, then M
2
<1, i.e. the flow after the shock wave will be subsonic
As M
1
increases above 1 the shock wave becomes progressively stronger
and M
2
becomes progressively less than 1
As M
1
, M
2
approaches a finite minimum value

which for air ( = 1.4) is 0.378

| |
2 / ) 1 (
2 / ) 1 ( 1
2
1
2
1
2
2

+
=

M
M
M
2 / ) 1 (
2
M
Normal shock waves
Now we have a way of determining the relationship between the Mach
numbers before and after a normal shock wave
We also need to determine the relationships between the other flow
parameters
2
/
1
, p
2
/p
1
, and T
2
/T
1
Using the

continuity equation (

1
u
1
=
2
u
2
) and the Prandtl relation
(a* = u
1
u
2
) we get

Substituting into the above equation

Gives
2
*
1
2
*
2
2 1
2
1
2
1
1
2
M
a
u
u u
u
u
u
= = = =
2
2
2
*
( 2
) 1 (
M
M
M
1) +
+
=
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
( 2
) 1 (
M
M
u
u
1) +
+
= =

Normal shock waves
To obtain the pressure ratio we combine the continuity equation with the
momentum equation

1
u
1
=
2
u
2
and

To give

Dividing by p
1
and recalling that

For u
2
/u
1
in this equation we can substitute

|
|
.
|
\
|
= = =
1
2
2
1 1 2 1 1 1
2
2 2
2
1 1 1 2
1 ) (
u
u
u u u u u u p p
2
1 1
2
2 2 2 1
u u p p =
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
( 2
) 1 (
M
M
u
u
1) +
+
= =
1 1
2
1 1 1 1
p a p a = = or
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1 1
1
1 2
1 1 1
u
u
M
u
u
a
u
u
u
p
u
p
p p

Normal shock waves
The substitution gives

Which simplifies to

To get the temperature ratio we use the gas equation p = R T, i.e.

Which gives

(
+
+
=
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
1 2
) 1 (
( 2
1
M
M
M
p
p p
1)
) 1 (
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
+
+ = M
p
p

|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
1
2
1
2
p
p
T
T
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
) 1 (
( 2
) 1 (
1
2
1
M
M
M
h
h
T
T
+
+
(

+
+ = =
1)
Normal shock waves
So now we have

) 1 (
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
+
+ = M
p
p

2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
) 1 (
( 2
) 1 (
1
2
1
M
M
M
h
h
T
T
+
+
(

+
+ = =
1)
| |
2 / ) 1 (
2 / ) 1 ( 1
2
1
2
1
2
2

+
=

M
M
M
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
( 2
) 1 (
M
M
u
u
1) +
+
= =

Normal shock waves
Note that all these relationships are in terms of upstream Mach number
(M
1
) only
M
1
is the determining parameter for changes across a normal shock wave
in a perfect gas
This is a good example of the power of the Mach number as a governing
factor in compressible flow
As before, at M=1 p
1
=p
2
,
1
=
2
, and T
1
=T
2
and we have a normal shock
wave of vanishing strength; a Mach wave
As M
1
increases above 1, p
2
,
2
and T
2
all progressively increase

Normal shock waves
In the limiting case, where M
1

= =
+
=
= =
=

1
2
1
2
1
2
2
1 1
1 1
lim
1
1
lim
lim
2
1
lim
p
p
p
p
M
M M
M M
6
0.378
So as the upstream Mach

number increases towards
infinity
the downstream Mach number
decreases to a finite value
density increases to a finite
number
but temperature and pressure
can increase without bound

Measurement of velocity in compressible flow
In low-speed, incompressible flow, the velocity can be measured using a
Pitot-static tube
The total pressure is measured by the Pitot tube and the static pressure from a static
pressure orifice
Bernoulli gives the dynamic pressure as the difference between the two
The same is true in high-speed, compressible flow if we use Mach number
instead of velocity, although the formulae are different for each Mach-
number regime
Subsonic compressible
Supersonic compressible
For Region 1 the isentropic flow
relationships hold

(see slides A at the end of the section
for derivation if desired)
Solving for M
1
2
gives

) 1 (
2
1
1
1 , 0
2
1
1
|
.
|
\
|

+ =

M
p
p
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1
1
2
) 1 (
1
1 , 0 2
1

p
p
M
Using the relationship for Mach number
becomes

So, unlike incompressible flow, a
knowledge of the total and static
pressures is not enough
We also need to know the freestream
speed of sound, a
1
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1
1
2
) 1 (
1
1 , 0 2
1

p
p
M
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1
1
2
) 1 (
1
1 , 0
2
1
2
1

p
p
a
u
Now in supersonic flow the Pitot tube creates a stagnation region and the
flow is brought to rest at the throat
However, because the upstream flow is supersonic and the Pitot tube is an
obstruction, there will be a bow wave ahead of it
The centreline streamline crosses the
normal portion of the bow shock
So the flow is decelerated to subsonic
speed (non-isentropically) through the
shock wave
And then (isentropically) to zero velocity
at the throat
The total pressure measured by the
Pitot tube is (p
0,1
) but of the flow behind
a normal shock wave (p
0,2
)
However, knowing the freestream static pressure (p
1
) and the throat total
pressure (p
0,2
) is still enough to calculate the freestream Mach number (M)
Where p
0,2
/p
2
is the ratio of total and
static pressure after the shock and
p
2
/p
1
is the static pressure ratio across
the shock
1
2
2
2 , 0
1
2 , 0
p
p
p
p
p
p
=
) 1 (
2
2
2
2 , 0
2
1
1
|
.
|
\
|

+ =

M
p
p
] 2 / ) 1 [(
] 2 / ) 1 [( 1
2
1
2
1
2
2

+
=

M
M
M
) 1 (
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
+
+ = M
p
p

Substituting rearranging and simplifying gives
This is called the Rayleigh Pitot tube formula
It relates the Pitot pressure measured by the
tube (p
0,2
) and the freestream static pressure
(p
1
) to the freestream Mach number (M
1
)

1
2 1
) 1 ( 2 4
) 1 (
2
1
) 1 (
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 , 0
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
=

M
M
M
p
p
Oblique shock waves
Most shock waves form an oblique angle with the upstream flow
Normal shock waves are just a special case of oblique shock wave where
the angle is 90
In addition to oblique compression waves where the pressure increases
discontinuously across the shock wave, there are expansion waves
where the pressure decreases continuously across the shock wave
Oblique shock waves
Consider supersonic flow encountering a concave corner
The wall is turned upwards at an angle
An oblique shock wave will form at the corner where the streamlines before
and after the shock are all parallel, deflected through the angle
The Mach number suddenly
(discontinuously) decreases while
the pressure, density and
temperature all suddenly increase
Oblique shock waves
Now consider the same supersonic flow encountering a convex corner
The wall is turned downwards at an angle
A series oblique shock waves form an expansion fan will form at the
corner
The fan opens continuously away from the corner
Again the streamlines before and after are all parallel, deflected
continuously and smoothly through the expansion angle
The Mach number smoothly
(continuously) increases while the
pressure, density and temperature
all smoothly decrease
In contrast to essentially 1-D normal
shock waves, oblique shock and
expansion waves are inherently 2-D
i.e. the flow field properties are a
function of x and y
Oblique shock waves
If we return to the oblique compression
wave, this is representative of supersonic
flow past a wedge
The wedge semi-angle is now and the
angle of the oblique shock wave is
The relationship between the shock
angle (), the wedge angle () and the
upstream Mach number (M
1
) is given by

(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
=

2
1
2 1
1
1
2
1
1 1
M
|
| |
| u sin
cos sin
tan
(See slides B at the end of the section for derivation if desired)
This is the --M relation and it specifies as a unique function of M
1

and
The results from the equation are plotted graphically on the next slide
and the graph is used to solve oblique shock problems
Oblique shock
waves
The wedge angle
() plotted against
shock angle ( )
for varying
upstream Mach
number (M
1
)
Oblique shock waves
The graph illustrates a lot of physical
phenomena associated with oblique
shock waves:
For any given upstream Mach number
M
1
, there is a maximum deflection
angle,
max
If the physical geometry is such that
>
max
then no solution exists for a
straight oblique shock wave
Nature establishes a curved shock wave
detached from the corner or the nose of
a body
Note that as the freestream Mach
number increases,
max
also increases
straight oblique shock waves can exist at
higher deflection angles at higher speed
But there is a limit (for gamma = 1.4)

max
45.5 as M
1

Oblique shock waves
For any given less than
max
there are
two straight oblique shock solutions for a
given upstream Mach number
E.g. if M
1
=2.0 and

=15 then can equal
either 45.3 or 79.8
The smaller value is called the weak shock
solution and the larger value is the strong
shock solution
The terms weak and strong derive from
the fact that the for a given upstream Mach
number (M
1
), the larger the wave angle the
larger the normal component of upstream
Mach number (M
n,1
) and thus the larger the
pressure ratio p
2
/p
1
That is, the higher-angle shock wave will
compress the air more than the lower-
angle shock wave
In nature the weak shock solution usually
prevails
Oblique shock waves
Whenever you see straight, attached oblique
shock waves (as shown in the bottom picture)
they are almost always the weak shock
solution
It is safe to make this assumption unless you
have information to the contrary
Note that the locus of points connecting all the
values of
max
divides the weak and strong
shock solutions
Above the curve the strong shock prevails
Below the curve the weak shock prevails
There is another curve just below this one
This is the dividing line above which the
downstream Mach number is subsonic (M
2
<
1) and below which it is supersonic (M
2
> 1)
For the strong solution the downstream Mach
number is always subsonic
For the majority of weak shock solutions the
downstream Mach number is supersonic
Use of oblique shock waves
Engine inlets
We saw before that the
freestream Mach number at
which the flow on an aerofoil
first becomes sonic is the
critical Mach number, M
cr
If we define the static pressure
in the freestream as p
and
that at a point A on an aerofoil
as p
A
, we can use the
isentropic pressure ratio (slide
169) to give us

) 1 (
2
2
0
0
] 2 / ) 1 [( 1
] 2 / ) 1 [( 1

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
= =

A
A A
M
M
p p
p p
p
p
Recall that pressure coefficient is given by

where

So
=
q
p p
C
p
2
2
1

= V q
) (
2
2
2
1
2
1
2 2
2
2 2

= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
= =

p a M p
V
p
p
V
p
p
V q
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1
2
2
p
p
M
C
p

Critical pressure coefficient
So the pressure coefficient at point A is
given by

This is the compressible equivalent of
the Bernoulli equation, relating local
pressure to the local Mach number
The critical pressure coefficient
(C
p,cr
) is the pressure coefficient at the
point where the flow on the aerofoil first
becomes sonic, i.e. M
A
=1

This equation allows us to calculate the
pressure coefficient at any point where
the local Mach number is 1 (i.e. along
the sonic line)
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=

1
] 2 / ) 1 [( 1
] 2 / ) 1 [( 1 2
) 1 (
2
2
2
,

A
A p
M
M
M
C
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=

1
] 2 / ) 1 [( 1
] 2 / ) 1 [( 1 2
) 1 (
2
2
,

M
M
C
cr p
When the freestream Mach number is
precisely equal to the critical Mach number,
there is only one point on the aerofoil where
M=1, namely point A
In this case M
= M
cr
and

This equation has no connection with aerofoil
shape and is thus a universal relationship
which can be used for all aerofoils
The Prandtl-Glauert rule relates the
incompressible pressure coefficient (C
p,0
) to a
compressible one:

(Other approximations exist, but this is the
simplest and most common)
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=

1
] 2 / ) 1 [( 1
] 2 / ) 1 [( 1 2
) 1 (
2
2
,

cr
cr
cr p
M
M
C
2
0 ,
1

=
M
C
C
p
p
To estimate the critical Mach number we need
to:
By some means (either experimental or
theoretical) obtain the low-speed,
incompressible value of C
p,0
at the minimum
pressure point on the aerofoil
Using a compressibility correction (e.g. Prandtl-
Glauert) plot the variation of C
p
with M
(curve
B)
The point where curve B crosses the line
representing

Is the point where sonic flow occurs at the
minimum pressure location on the aerofoil
The value of M
at this intersection is thus the

critical Mach number M
cr
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=

1
] 2 / ) 1 [( 1
] 2 / ) 1 [( 1 2
) 1 (
2
2
,

cr
cr
cr p
M
M
C
The graph is not an exact determination of M
cr
The curve for C
p.cr
is exact, but curve B is only an approximation
Hence the value of M
cr
obtained is only approximate
However, such an estimate is useful for preliminary design and the
results are accurate enough for most applications

Effect of thickness
Thicker aerofoils perturb the airflow more and create greater suction on
the top surface than thinner aerofoils
That is, on a thick aerofoil the value of the pressure coefficient at the
minimum pressure location will be a larger negative number than the
equivalent value on a thin aerofoil
Plotting this results
shows immediately that
a thick aerofoil has a
lower critical Mach
number than a thin one
For high-speed aircraft it
is desirable to have a
high value of M
cr
and
this drives the designer
towards a thinner wing

Effect of thickness
For example a Lear Jet has a 9% thick aerofoil, while the Piper Aztec
has one that is 14% thick

Drag-divergence Mach number
As we increase the freestream Mach number (M
), from a to b, for a
given aerofoil the drag remains virtually constant
We then encounter the critical Mach number where the flow on the
aerofoil first becomes sonic, point c
As we increase M
to slightly above M
cr
(to point d) a finite region of
supersonic flow appears on the aerofoil
As we nudge M
still
higher we encounter
point e where the drag
suddenly starts to
increase.
The value of M
where
this sudden increase in
drag starts is called the
drag-divergence Mach
number

Douglas dC
d
/dM > 0.1
Boeing C
d
= 0.002

Drag-divergence Mach number
Beyond the drag-divergence Mach number the drag coefficient can be
very large, typically increasing by a factor of 10 or more
This drag increase is associated with an extensive region of supersonic
flow over the aerofoil terminating in a shock wave
For an aerofoil design for low-speed application, the local Mach number
can reach 1.2 or higher and the terminating shock can be very strong
These shocks generally cause severe flow separation, with an
attendant increase in drag (wave drag)

Drag rise reduction
Research since 1945 has focused on reducing the large drag rise
Instead of a factor of 10 increase in drag at Mach 1, can reduce it to 2
or 3?
Several design ploys have been utilised to achieve this
The first was the use of thin aerofoils
We have already seen that thinner aerofoils have higher critical Mach
numbers than thicker ones

Drag rise reduction

Variation of thickness-to-chord ratio for a representative selection of different aircraft
Drag rise reduction
The second design ploy was to use
swept wings
Imagine a straight wing with a
thickness-to-chord ratio (t/c) of 0.15
If we sweep the same wing at 45
the flow sees the same physical
thickness but the chord has
extended

and the thickness-to-chord ratio
has reduced
Thus by sweeping the wing the flow
behaves as if the aerofoil is thinner
and it has a higher critical Mach
number
c
c
c 1.41
cos
=
O
=
2
North American F-86 Sabre
Area rule
Beside using thin, swept
aerofoils to reduce the drag
rise at Mach 1, two other
concepts have been
developed
The first of these is the area
rule
The early jets did not have
enough thrust to overcome
the massive drag rise near
Mach 1
Even the early century
series aircraft designed to
provide the UASF with
supersonic fighters in the
early 1950s (e.g. the
Convair F-102 Delta
Dagger) could not at first
penetrate the sound barrier
in level flight
Area rule
The picture shows the area distribution (the variation of cross-sectional
area with distance along the aircraft axis) of a typical US aircraft of that
period
Note the discontinuities in the distribution
Ballisticians had known for almost a century that bullets and shells with
smoothly varying cross-sections were faster than those with those with
abrupt or discontinuous shape changes
Area rule
The NACA engineer Richard Whitcomb applied this knowledge to the
problem of transonic aircraft
He reasoned that the area distribution should be as smooth as possible
This meant that, in the region of the wing and tail, the fuselage cross-
sectional area had to reduce to compensate for the additional area of
these structures
This led to the coke bottle shape and the design philosophy is called
the area rule
Area rule
The F102 was redesigned and rebuilt in 118 days and achieved M1.22
F-102
Straight-sided fuselage
F-102A
Coke bottle fuselage
Area rule
Other ways of area ruling
Boeing 747-100
Boeing 747-400
Area rule
Area rule
Some aircraft cannot change the fuselage shape so extra volume is
added to smooth the area distribution
Kuchemann carrots
Convair CV-990
The supercritical aerofoil
While thinner aerofoils help reduce the drag rise near Mach 1, there is a
practical limit on how thin an aerofoil can be
Spar depths and fuel volume
So is there a way we can delay the drag rise to higher Mach numbers for
an aerofoil of given thickness?
Increasing M
cr
is one
way, but another is to
increase the increment
between the critical
Mach number and the
drag-divergence Mach
number
i.e. increase the gap
between point c and
point e
An aerofoil which does
this is known as a
supercritical aerofoil
The shape of a supercritical aerofoil is compared to a common NACA 64-
series aerofoil in the picture
The supercritical aerofoil has a relatively flat top leading to a region of
supersonic flow with lower Mach number than the NACA 64-series
In turn, the terminating
shock is much weaker
and thus creates less
drag
The picture shows the
NACA section at a
lower Mach number
but the supersonic
region is taller, the
local Mach numbers
higher and the
terminating shock
stronger than the
supercritical aerofoil at
a higher speed
The picture shows experimental data from the two aerofoils
The drag divergence Mach number for the NACA 64-series aaerofoil is
0.67 and for the supercritical aerofoil is 0.79
The relatively flat upper
surface is achieved
through negative camber
for the forward 60% of
the aerofoil
This lowers the lift which
is compensated by
extreme positive camber
on the rearward 30%
This produces the cusp-
like shape of the lower
surface near the trailing
edge
Handley Page Victor

Airbus A300

Shock-induced separation
The onset of transonic shock-induced
flow separation is not confined to
large increases in drag
It can also trigger a variety of
aeroelastic instability and response
phenomena including flutter,
oscillations and control surface buzz,
shock-induced oscillations
That is, the shock is not always static
We might wish, therefore, to consider some form of shock wave
control
This will consist of either
Modification of the geometry at the foot of the shock wave to either
smear a single shock into a series of weaker ones or fix its location
(shock bump)
Modification of the boundary layer to withstand the pressure gradient
across the shock (passive or active vortex generators, suction or
blowing)
Shock bodies
To maintain their operational
ceiling of 70,000 feet
(21,000 m), the U-2A and U-2C
flew very near their maximum
speed
However, the aircraft's stall
speed at that altitude is only
10 knots less than its maximum
speed
There was a danger when
turning that the inner wing
stalled because it was going too
slow and the outer wing stalled
because of shock formation and
shock-induced separation
This point of the flight
enveloped was referred to by
the pilots as "coffin corner"
Total aircraft drag
Trim Drag
Wave (Wing) Drag
Parasitic Drag
Nacelle Interaction Drag
Unaccounted Drag
Vortex (Induced) Drag
Profile drag
Drag Breakdown of a Representative 4 Engine Civil
Transport Aircraft
At Design Cruise Mach Number & Lift Coefficient
Supersonic flows (A1)
Isentropic flow (derivations)
The basic equations:
Continuity
1
u
1
A
1
=
2
u
2
A
2

Momentum

Energy

Enthalpy

i.e.

Equation of state

Speed of sound
2
~
2
~
2
2
2
2
1
1
u
h
u
h + = +
0 ) )( (
1 2 2 1 2
1
2 2 1 1 2
2
2 2 1
2
1 1
= + + + A A p p A p A p A u A u
2 2 1 1
~
,
~
T c h T c h
p p
= =
2
2 2
1
2
2
1 2
1
1
u T c u T c
p p
+ = +
2 2
2
1 1
1
T
p
T
p

=
M
u
T c T R
p
a
p
= = = = ) 1 (

Supersonic flows (A2)
Isentropic flow (derivations)
The energy equation

Thus becomes

Or

If we take p
1
as p
0
(stagnation conditions) and p
2
as p (local conditions) and
rearrange the equations, we get

2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
) 1 ( 2 ) 1 ( 2
+ =
+
p u p u
) 1 (
2
0
2
1
1

+ =

M
p
p
2
2 2
1
2
2
1 2
1
1
u T c u T c
p p
+ = +
1 2 1 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
+ =
+

a u a u
Oblique shock angle (derivation)
The basic equations (note the resolution of the velocity vector into
components normal to and tangential to the shock wave):
Continuity
1
V
1n
=
2
V
2n

Momentum (normal to the shock wave)

Momentum (parralel to the shock wave)
i.e. no change in pressure)

Energy (from slide Supersonic flows (25))

(a
*
is the value of the speed of sound at sonic conditions and is constant)

2
1 1
2
2 2 2 1 n n
V V p p =
t n t n
V V V V
1 1 1 2 2 2
0 =
2
*
2 2
1) ( 2
1
2 1
a
u a
+
= +

Supersonic flows (B1)

Applying the energy equation before and after the shock gives

From
1
V
1n
=
2
V
2n
and it follows that V
1t
=V
2t
i.e. the tangential velocity is the same on both sides of the shock
Since the tangential velocity doesnt change we just need to determine the
normal velocity after the shock
Again using continuity we get

Where p
2
/
2
and p
1
/
1
can be eliminated using the equations at the top of
the slide

n n
n n
V V
V
p
V
p
2 1
1 1
1
2 2
2
=

t n t n
V V V V
1 1 1 2 2 2
0 =
2
*
1
1
2
1
2
1
( 2
1
2
a
p V V
t n
1) 1 -
+
= +
+

2
*
2
2
2
2
2
2
( 2
1
2
a
p V V
t n
1) 1 -
+
= +
+

Dropping the station subscript (1 or 2) for V
t
(because V
1t
= V
2t
) gives

Which we arrange to the form

This equation is satisfied when either factor is zero
The solution that the second factor is zero (i.e. V
1n
V
2n
= 0, or V
1n
= V
2n
)
corresponds to a shock wave of zero intensity, or a Mach wave
Setting the first factor to zero gives a non-trivial solution:

2
2
2 1
1
1
t n n
V a V V
+
=
-
n n
n
t
n
n
t
n
n n
V V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V V
a
2 1
2
2
2
1
2
1
1 2
2
*
2
1 1 1
2
1
=
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

0 ) (
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 1
2 1
2
2 1
2
*
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
n n
n n
t
n n
V V
V V
V
V V
a

From the picture we get V
1n
= V
1
sin and V
t
= V
1
cos and we substitute
these into the previous equation to get

Which can be written as

And we can replace a*/a
0
and a
0
/V
1
for terms involving and M to give
|
|
| sin
cos
1 sin
2
1
1
2
2
1
V
V
a
V
n
+
=
-
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
-
|
|
2
2
1
0
0
1
2
1
cos
1 sin V
a
a
a V
V
n
(
+
+
+
=
2
1
2
1
2
1 2 1
M
V
V
n
1
sin
1 sin
|
|
From the picture we can see that V
2n
is related to the wave angle( )and
deflection angle () by

V
2n
= V
t
tan( - ) = V
1
cos tan( - )

Which may be equated to the equation
at the bottom of the previous slide to give

Or

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
=
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1 1
) (
M
|
| |
u | sin
cos sin
tan
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
=

2
1
2 1
1
1
2
1
1 1
M
|
| |
| u sin
cos sin
tan
Swept wing flows; Effect of spanwise and
normal velocity components; qualitative
description of 3D boundary layers on
swept wings; Forward, rearward and
variable sweep wings; control surface
effects; delta wings and vortical flows;
vortex flap; aerodynamics of aircraft at
high incidences.
Swept Wings
Why sweep the wings
Weve already seen that wing sweep increases the effective t/c
But it also moves the wings behind the bow shock
Swept wings (1)
Incidence of a shock on a
wing
Sweeping the wing back alters
the onset Mach number, i.e.
that normal to the leading
edge, M
n
If the wing is swept at the
angle of the Mach line

M
n
= M
cos (90-)
= M

sin
=1
That is, the normal Mach
number is unity
Sweeping it back further
reduces the normal Mach
number to subsonic
Swept wings (2)
Bell X-1 and X-2
Swept wings (3)
Effect of sweep on pressure
Recall that the pressure
coefficient is dependent on
onset Mach number only

So the normal pressure
distribution is thus related to
the normal Mach number

And thus varies with sweep
Swept wings (4)
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1
2
2
p
p
M
C
p
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1
2
2
p
p
M
C
n
pn

Velocity components
Sweep introduces a
spanwise component
of the freestream
velocity on the wing
Transition of the
boundary layer can
now occur in each
direction
The surface flow is
different to the
freestream
This creates shear
stresses and an
additional transition
mechanism

Swept wings (5)
Cross-flow instabilities
The shear causes waves and vorticity in a spanwise direction
In addition to 2-D transition (Tollmien-Schlichting waves) there is
additional 3-D transition mechanism due to these spanwise
disturbances or cross-flow instabilities

Swept wings (6)
Stall characteristics
Rectangular wings have larger downwash
angles at the tip than at the root
The effective angle of attack at the tip is
therefore lower at the tip and it will stall
last
However, rectangular wings are not very
efficient
They have more induced drag than the
ideal elliptical planform
A compromise is to taper the wing
But with a small tip chord come reduced
local Reynolds number, increased
effective angle of attack and thicker
boundary layers (due to spanwise flow)
This generally leads to swept, tapered
wings being prone to tip stall

Swept wings (7)
Tip stall
Tip stall is not good!
Ailerons become ineffective
Loss of lift means the aerodynamic centre moves forward
Pitch up

Swept wings (8)
Methods to
prevent pitch-up
Wing twist
By twisting the
wing tip nose
downwards
(wash-out), the
local angle of
attack is reduced

Swept wings (9)
Methods to
prevent pitch-up
Wing fences
Reduces or stops
the spanwise flow

Swept wings (10)
Methods to prevent pitch-
up
Wing snags, saw teeth,
dog teeth
Generate discrete, strong
vorticity that helps the flow
remain attached

Swept wings (11)
up
Forward sweep
The spanwise velocity is in
the other direction tip to
root
Other advantages include:
Better pilot vision as the
wing root is relatively far
aft
Wing spars can be placed
behind a weapons bay
rather than through it
Controllability to much
higher angle of attack
(67 for the X-29)

Swept wings (12)
Grumman X-29
Schleicher ASK 13
up
Forward sweep
The main disadvantage is
structural
The wing tip tends to twist
up, increasing the local
load and thus increasing
the twist even more
An unfortunate tendency
that can be countered by
strengthening the structure
of a metal wing or using
cunning layups of carbon
fibre
Aeroelastic tailoring

Swept wings (13)
Junkers Ju 287
Hansa HFB320
Sukhoi Su-47
Variable sweep wings
We have seen that a swept wing is more suitable for high speeds
An unswept wing is suitable for lower speeds
A variable-sweep wing allows a pilot (or flight control system) to
select the correct wing configuration for the plane's intended speed
The variable-sweep wing is most useful for those aircraft that are
expected to function at both low and high speed, and for this reason it
has been used primarily in military aircraft
Swept wings (14)
Messerschmitt Me P.1101
Bell X-5
Grumman XF10F Jaguar
But the extra mechanisms are heavy
Swept wings (15)
Tornado
Swept wings (16)
Sukhoi Su-17
Rockwell B-1
Tupolev Tu-160
Grumman F-14
General Dynamics F-111
MiG-23
Delta wings
Delta wings are a special form of swept wing pioneered by Lippisch
The wing leading edge remains behind the shock wave generated by the
nose of the aircraft when flying at supersonic speeds
While this is also true of ordinary swept wings, the delta's planform carries
across the entire aircraft which has structural advantages
Another advantage is vortex lift
Beyond a certain angle of attack, the wing leading edge generates a stable
vortex which remains attached to the upper surface of the wing
This gives delta wings a relatively high stall angle

Swept wings (17)
Convair XF-92
Lippisch P.13
Delta wings
Types of delta wing
Swept wings (18)
Vortex lift
Leading edge boundary layer rolls up into a vortex
Swept wings (19)
Vortex lift
The wing generates lift like a conventional aerofoil at low angles of attack
The leading edge vortices form at increasing angle of attack and
contribute significant lift and enable stability and control at relatively high
angles of attack
Swept wings (20)
Vortex lift
The solution for low-speed, high-lift performance of Concorde (Kuchemann
at RAE)
Swept wings (21)
Vortex lift
Aircraft that wish to operate at high angles of attack tend to generate and
utilise vortex lift
This can be from areas other than the wing, e.g. leading-edge extensions
(LEX)
N.B. Fin Buffet
Swept wings (22)
Vortex lift
The limiting factor is a phenomenon called vortex burst
Vortex bursting is a phenomenon in which the structured character of the
vortex is destroyed resulting in a loss of most of the vortex lift
Swept wings (23)
It occurs due to
adverse pressure
gradients acting
on the vortex
When the vortex
burst occurs on
the wing (as
opposed to
downstream of the
wing) the lift drops
substantially.
Vortex flap
The concept of the vortex flap was to reposition the leading-edge vortex
system which normally develops over a delta (or high-sweep) wing at high
angles of attack onto a forward facing flap surface
This results in a reduction of induced drag due to a thrust component
derived from the low pressure on the flap.
Swept wings (24)
Vortex flap
NASA Langley conducted flight tests on a modified NF-106B Delta
Dagger
Swept wings (25)
Vortex flap
NASA Langley conducted flight tests on a modified NF-106B Delta
Dagger
Swept wings (26)
=9, 30 vortex flap
Vortex flap
Swept wings (27)
=13, 30 vortex flap
Vortex flap
Swept wings (28)
=13, 40 vortex flap
Vortex flap
The flow
visualisation shows
that the flowfield
does not behave as
anticipated
The vortex flap
generates lots of
weak vortices rather
than a single strong
one
The next vortex
along the span is
triggered by the
secondary vortex of
the previous one
Swept wings (29)
Vortex flap
Never really adopted
operationally
Typhoon uses a drooped nose
device not dissimilar to the A380
Swept wings (30)

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FDeg Year 2

the induced angle of attack

Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 159

Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 160

Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 161

Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 165

Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 168

So as the upstream Mach

Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 175

Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 187

at this intersection is thus the

Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 216

Supersonic flows (B1)

Supersonic flows (B2)

Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 219

Supersonic flows (B3)

Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 220

Aerodynamics 2009/2010 Page 227

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