Integrated Circuit (IC)

Integrated Circuits
Integrated circuit (informally, a chip) is a
semiconductor crystal (most often silicon)
containing the electronic components for the
digital gates and storage elements which are
interconnected on the chip.
Terminology - Levels of chip integration
SSI (small-scale integrated) - fewer than 10 gates
MSI (medium-scale integrated) - 10 to 100 gates
LSI (large-scale integrated) - 100 to thousands of
gates
VLSI (very large-scale integrated) - thousands to 100s
of millions of gates
Classification of ICs
1. Monolithic IC
2 .Hybrid IC
Depending on their mode of operation
ICS are further classified into
a) Linear IC
b) Digital IC
Advantages of ICs
ICs allow batch fabrication
They are very smaller in size and
weight
Maintenance is easy
Power Consumption is low
Reliability is better
High frequency performance is better
They are less likely to be faulty.
Disdvantages of ICs
Large capacitances canot be produced
Inductors and transformers canot be
fabricated
The performance of pnp transistor is
poor
Power dissipation capacity is small.



OpAmp
Operational Amplifier
Sourav Sarkar
Lecturer
ECE , SIT
Introduction
The term operational amplifier, abbreviated Op Amp, was coined in
the 1940s to refer to a special kind of amplifier that, by proper
selection of external components, can be configured to perform a
variety of mathematical operations. Early op amps were made
from vacuum tubes consuming lots of space and energy. Later op
amps were made smaller by implementing them with discrete
transistors. Today, op amps are monolithic integrated circuits,
highly efficient and cost effective.

Typical Op Amp IC Packages
Dual-in-Line
package (DIP)
Metal Can Package
Op Amp Pin-out connections
Dual-in-Line Plastic Package
OFFSET
NULL
OFFSET
NULL
Op Amp Pin-outs Metal Can
Amplifier Basics

Before jumping into op amps, lets take a minute to review some
amplifier fundamentals. An amplifier has an input port and an
output port. In a linear amplifier, output signal = A X input signal,
where A is the amplification factor or gain.

Depending on the nature of input and output signals, we can have
four types of amplifier gain

Voltage (voltage out/voltage in)
Current (current out/current in)
Transresistance (voltage out/current in)
Transconductance (current out/voltage in)

Some History


1964: The First Linear IC
The A702 Op-Amp
12 Transistors
Designer: Bob Widlar
1965: A Best-Seller
The A709 Op-Amp
14 Transistors
Designer: Bob Widlar
0.60 Inches
Facts
Usually Called Op Amps
An amplifier is a device that accepts a varying
input signal and produces a similar output signal
with a larger amplitude.
Usually connected so part of the output is fed
back to the input. (Feedback Loop)
Most Op Amps behave like voltage amplifiers.
They take an input voltage and output a scaled
version.
They are the basic components used to build
analog circuits.
The name operational amplifier comes from the
fact that they were originally used to perform
mathematical operations such as summation
subtraction, integration and differentiation.

Opamps can also be used in signal amplification,
wave forming, impedance transformation, active
filters , oscillators, voltage regulators, analog to
digital (AD) / digital to analog (DA) converters.
IC opamps are useful in communication
equipments, instrumentation and data
processing .
The advantage of Op-Amp is that negative
feedback can be applied. The performance of
the Opamp with negative feedback is controlled
by the feedback elements independent of the
characteristics of the transistors, capacitors and
resistors that constitute the Op-Amp. As the
Feedback elements are passive the circuit
operations are very stable and predictable.
The Op-Amp ICs are inexpensive and have
temperature stabilisation.

Important features of Op Amp
1. High open loop gain (ideally
infinite) which implies that even
the smallest difference between
the two inputs results into
saturated output voltage
2. High input impedance (ideally
infinite) implies that there is no
current flowing into the input of an
op amp


Virtual Ground
These two conditions give rise to
VIRTUAL GROUND, where the voltages
at both the inputs are maintained at
exactly same level.
To achieve this condition, a feedback
circuit between the output and the
inverting input terminal of the op amp is
necessary.
This results into many applications of op
amp, which qualify it to be OPERATIONAL:
adder, subtractor, multiplier, divider etc.

i
(+)
, i
(-)
: Currents into the amplifier on the inverting and noninverting lines
respectively
v
id
: The input voltage from inverting to non-inverting inputs
+V
S
, -V
S
: DC source voltages, usually +15V and 15V
R
i
: The input resistance, ideally infinity
A : The gain of the amplifier. Ideally very high, in the 1x10
10
range.
R
O
: The output resistance, ideally zero
v
O
: The output voltage; v
O
= A
OL
v
id
where A
OL
is the open-loop voltage gain
The Operational Amplifier
+V
S
-V
S
v
id
Inverting
Noninverting
Output
+

_

i
(-)
i
(+)
v
O
= A
d
v
id
R
O
A
R
i
OP-AMP
Ideal Op-Amp Model
Gain is infinite

Input resistance is
infinite

Output resistance is
zero

Input voltage is zero

Input current is zero

A
V
V V
V
V
OUT OUT
IN
=

=
+
R
IN

R
OUT
= 0
V
IN
= 0
I
+
= 0 I

= 0
Feedback
Like most engineered systems, the op-
amp uses feedback to realize its
potential value.
Feedback comes in two forms
Positive Feedback
Negative Feedback
It seems like positive feedback might be
best, but negative feedback makes the
op-amp work
Golden Rules for Op-Amps
The output attempts to do whatever is
necessary to make the voltage
difference between the two inputs zero.
(Negative Feedback is Required)
The inputs draw no current.
Positive and Negative
Feedback
Connecting the output to the positive
input is positive feedback
Connecting the output to the negative
input is negative feedback
Op-Amp Configurations
Inverting Op-Amp
Current through R
1
equals the current
through R
f

No current in the inputs
The voltage at both inputs is zero
V
2

V
2
0 =
Op-Amp Configurations
Inverting Op-Amp Continued
Current through R
1


Current through R
f

I
V
R
V
R
1
1
1
1
1
0
=

=
I
V
R
V
R
O
f
O
f
2
0
=

=
Op-Amp Configurations
Why the minus sign for the current
through R
f
?
The convention for Ohms Law is that the
current flows from the high voltage to the
low voltage for a resistor
Here the current flows from the low
voltage (ground) to the high voltage (V
O
)
Op-Amp Configurations
Inverting Op-Amp Continued
The current through R
1
must equal the
current through R
2
since there is no
current in the inputs.
Combining the two equations for the
currents
V V
R
R
OUT IN
f
=
1
Noninverting Amplifier
Op-Amp Configurations
Non-Inverting Amplifier
No voltage difference between inputs

Resistors act like voltage divider

V
2

V V
1 2
=
V
R
R R
V
O 2
2
1 2
=
+
Op-Amp Configurations
Non-Inverting Amplifier Continued
Combining the two equations for the
voltages gives us the relationship between
input and output


Note that this formula is different in the lab write up
V V
R
R
OUT IN
= +
|
\

|
.
|
1
1
2
Voltage follower/Unity gain buffer
Summing Amplifier (Variation of the
inverting amp)
Now, since (I
1
+I
2
) = I
t

-(V
1
/R
1
+ V
2
/R
2
) = V
out
/R
f
V
out
= - R
f
(V
1
/R
1
+ V
2
/R
2
)
If all the resistors are the same then V
out
= - (V
1
+ V
2
)
Hence we end up with a summing device.

Summing Amplifier (Variation of the
inverting amp)
The formula is
true for more
inputs:
Exercise:
When R
f
is larger than the other resistors using the
same analysis show that :
Comparator
OP-AMP as an Integrator and
Differentiator

Differentiator
The circuit gives
an output which
is proportionl to
the derivative of
the input voltage
w.r.t the time.

Now, the charge
through the
capacitor is given by
qc =CVin ..(1)

If we differentiate
equation (1) with
respect to time we
get:



dt
dV
C
in
=
dt
dq
c
Now recall that the
rate at which charge
flows is current.


dt
dV
C I
in
c
= =>
(2)
-Recall that because of the feed back, Ir = -Ic also because
of the zero volts between the resistor and the capacitor,
the voltage across the capacitor is Vin and the voltage
across the resistor is Vout
Now IT = V OUT / R

= -
R
V
out
dt
dV
c
in
dt
dV
RC V
in
out
=
Finally
.(3)
-From equation (3) we see that if the product of RC = 1
then Vout = - dVIN / dt

Op amp Differentiator
V
in

V
out

C
in

R
f

V
out
= R
f
C
in
(dV
in
/ dt )
I
f

I
in

I
in
= C
in
dV
in
/dt = I
f
= V
out
/ R
f

Integrator
Again, the charge through the capacitor is given by
qc=CVout (4)
- If we differentiate
equation (1) with respect
to time we get:

dt
dV
C
out
=
dt
dq
c
-Again recall that the rate at which charge flows is current.

dt
dV
C I
out
c
= =>
. (3)
-Now IT = VIN / R

dt
dV
C
out
- Ic = - Ir, hence

= -
R
V
in
dt
dV
out
= -
in
V
RC
-
1
(4)

Integrating both sides of equation (4) gives

Vout = -
}
+
t
in
k dt V
RC
0
1
Where k is the Vout at start time (t=0)
The output voltage is thus proportional
to the time integral of the input voltage
so the circuit is referred to as
integrator.


Finally if RC = 1, then

Vout = -

}
+
t
in
k dt V
0
Op-Amps: Practical Issues
Op-Amps require power
741 requires plus and minus 15V
Others may require only positive or both
positive and negative voltages
Output voltage is limited to
Usually filter capacitors are connected to
power to reduce noise
< < + V V V
CC OUT CC
Op-Amps: Practical Issues
We use real op-amps: 741
Note the pin connections for the IC
Note: Literally a
Black Box
Op-Amps: Practical Issues
Note the pins (not all are used)
Extra resistor corrects offset problem
+ 15 V
- 15 V
V1
R1
Vout
R2
Rstabili ty
+
1.0 uF
+
1.0 uF
-
+
U1
LM741
3
2
6
7 1
4 5
R
R R
R R
stability
=
+
1 2
1 2
ICs come in many
types of packages.
We will use the 8-
pin, dual-in-line or
DIP package
Note the other
offset nulling circuit
Input Offset Voltage (V
oi
)
This is the voltage that must be applied to one of the input pins to give a zero output
voltage. Remember, for an ideal op-amp, output offset voltage is zero!

Input Bias Current (I
b
)
This is the average of the currents flowing into both inputs. Ideally, the two input bias
currents are equal.

Input Offset Current (I
os
)
This is the difference of the two input bias currents when the output voltage is zero.
Virtual Ground
. Since an operational amplifier has very high open loop gain, the
amplifier acts automatically to make the potential difference between
its inputs tend to zero. The non-inverting (+) input of the operational
amplifier is grounded; then its inverting (-) input, although not
connected to ground, will assume a similar potential, becoming a
virtual ground. The circuit operation is illustrated more attractively by
means of a voltage diagram; for this purpose, the two resistors are
replaced by one linear potentiometer.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio
(CMRR)
It is the ability of an op amp to reject the
signal which is present at its both inputs
simultaneously i.e. the common mode
signal
CMRR = A
OL
/ A
CM
, where A
CM
is common
mode voltage gain defined by V
out
/ V
CM

Ideally CMRR is infinite
For IC 741 it is 90 dB