Hydrogen Fuel Cells

Hydrogen (H2) is a fuel not an energy source.

It is the most abundant element but must be removed from larger molecules like water or petroleum.

Production
Hydrogen can be produced from Fossil Fuels (currently 90% of 42 mtons/yr) Water

Production
Fossil Fuels Coal
converted to mixture of hydrogen (50%), methane (35%), and carbon monoxide (8%)

Steam Reforming Methane (SRM)

Most efficient, widely used, and cheapest

Partial Oxidation
Range of feed stocks, 75% SRM

Directly cracking Methane or other hydrocarbons

Production
Fossil Fuels
The downside: All of these methods release CO2

Production
Water: Electrolysis Electricity + H2O H2 + O + H2O (steam) Large-scale units using alkaline electrolyte can run at 7075% efficiency (EE - H2 ) Smaller systems with polymer electrolytes reach 8085% efficiency (EE - H2 ) Steam electrolyzers in development may be able to reach 90% efficiency (EE - H2 )

Production
Water: Electrolysis
When using electricity generated from thermal power stations the overall efficiency of converting fossil fuel to hydrogen via electrolysis would, typically, be only about 30%.
(Rand, Dell, 2005)

CO2 is released at the power plant

Production
Water: Direct Methods Thermochemical
Could utilize waste heat from a nuclear plant Could be achieved with solar mirrors

Photoelectrolysis sunlight to H2
presently only 12% efficiency new technique reporting 4.5% efficiency

Biophotolysis algae to H2

Production
Review

Congressional Research Service

Hydrogen Storage
The Challenge: store large amounts of hydrogen at ambient temperature and pressure. -compressed gas tanks -cryogenic liquid hydrogen tanks -metal hydrides -chemical reactions (e.g. hydrolysis) -nanomaterials
Jeff Long, UC-Berkeley

One solution: a three-dimensional lattice of tiny hollow cubes, each capable of storing eight hydrogen molecules inside

Hydrogen Storage

J.T.S. Irvine / Journal of Power Sources 136 (2004) 203207

Uses
Ways to release the energy
Catalytic Combustion
High control, low temperatures possible Heating, cooking

Direct Steam Generation

Burn it with pure oxygen to form pure steam Peak load generation

Internal Combustion Engine

More efficient (20%) less powerful (15%) than gasoline ICE Can be used in gas turbines and jets

Fuel Cells

Uses
Fuel Cell
Inputs: Hydrogen Oxygen Outputs: Electricity Water Heat

Uses
Types of Fuel Cells Alkaline fuel cells (AFC) Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEMFC) Phosphoric Acid fuel cells (PAFC) Direct Methanol fuel cells (DMFC) Molten Carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) Solid Oxide fuel cells (SOFC)

Uses
Types of Fuel Cells
Overall reaction is the same H2 + O2 H2O Low temperature fuel cells AFC, PEMFC, PAFC, DMFC High temperature fuel cells MCFC, SOFC Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Vehicles Small-scale distributed power generation

Uses
Applications of Fuel Cells

Uses
Applications of Fuel Cells

Portable Devices (Direct Methanol)

Cell Phone Laptops Field Equipment for military

Distributed Generation
Commercial and Residential stationary

Light Duty Vehicles

Uses
Applications of Fuel Cells

V. Ananthachar, J.J. Duffy / Solar Energy 78 (2005) 687694

Why Fuel Cells and the Hydrogen Economy?

CA hydrogen highway action plan
Energy security National security Energy diversity Environment Climate change Public health

Energy/National Security

Total U.S. primary energy production and consumption, historical and projected, 1970 to 2025.
SOURCE: EIA (2003)

Energy Diversity

U.S. primary energy consumption, by fuel type, historical and projected, 1970 to 2025.
SOURCE: EIA (2003).

Environment/Climate Change

U.S. emissions of carbon dioxide, by sector and fuels, 2000. SOURCE: EIA (2002)

Environment/Climate Change

Estimated volume of carbon releases from passenger cars and light-duty trucks: current hydrogen production technologies (fossil fuels), 20002050. Source: NAS

Public Health
Particulate air pollution Smog Other air pollutants

htttp://airnow.gov

Feasibility of a U.S. Hydrogen Economy

Steven Smriga Scripps Institution of Oceanography

Policy and Political Milestones

2002: U.S. President Bush launches FreedomCAR, a partnership with automakers to advance research needed to increase practicality and affordability of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles 2003: Bush State of the Union Address announces $1.2 billion hydrogen fuel initiative to develop technologies for hydrogen production and distribution infrastructure needed to power fuel cell vehicles and stationary fuel cell power sources 2004: Governor Schwarzenegger launches Californias Hydrogen Highway Network initiative 2005: CA Senate Bill 76: $6.5 million in funding for state-sponsored hydrogen demonstration projects through 2006

Hydrogen Production using Domestic Resources

Major driver: Reduction in dependence on foreign oil The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that the hydrogen fuel initiative and FreedomCAR initiatives may reduce our demand for petroleum by over 11 million barrels per day by 2040 approximately the amount of oil America imports today. America imports 55 percent of the oil it consumes; that is expected to grow to 68 percent by 2025.

-www.whitehouse.gov, January 2003

Hydrogen Production using Domestic Resources

Resource
Coal Natural gas Biomass

Consumption factor*
1.3 1.2 2.4

Domestic oil
Wind Solar Nuclear

??
140 >740 3.2

*Factor by which U.S. would need to increase current consumption of this resource to produce required hydrogen equivalent
Source: U.S. Dept. of Energy, H2 Posture Plan, 2004

Source: National Fuel Cell Research Center, UC-Irvine

Hydrogen: Toward Zero Emissions

Combined heat and power systems Carbon capture and storage Future energy sources: wave, geothermal, nuclear fusion Energy storage of renewables
Modules that couple wind and solar with hydrogen production
Capture intermittent output Batteries may be superior for short term applications Contributes to distributed generation

Making Fuel Cells Affordable

Barriers include:
durability fuel supply (some FCs require extremely pure fuel), and raw materials (e.g. platinum and other precious metals used as a catalyst)

Making Fuel Cells Affordable

Factors toward weakening these barriers:
Widespread fuel cell vehicle demonstration projects
California Hydrogen Highway (e.g. Chula Vista) Canada, Japan, EU, others

Fuel cells already used in stationary power backup systems Public-private partnerships and alliances setting goals
Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance (SECA)

The overall U.S. hydrogen market is estimated at $798.1 million in 2005 and is expected to rise to $1,605.3 million in 2010. The overall European hydrogen market is estimated to be about $368 million in 2005 and is expected to grow to $740 million in 2010.
Source: Fuji-Keizai USA, Inc.: 2005 Hydrogen Market, Hydrogen R&D and Commercial Implication in The U.S. and E.U.

Reduction in Carbon Emissions

hydrogen fuel cell efficiency: 40-60% combustion engine efficiency: ~35% potential for cleaner energy production

Source: U.S. Dept. of Energy

Transition to Hydrogen Vehicles

Possible optimistic market scenario showing assumed fraction of hydrogen fuel cell and hybrid vehicles in the United States, 2000 to 2050. Sales of fuel cell light-duty vehicles and their replacement of other vehicles are shown.
Source: The Hydrogen Economy: Opportunities, Costs, Barriers, and R&D Needs (2004); National Academies Press.

Source: Dept. of Energy, Hydrogen Posture Plan

Source: Dept. of Energy, Hydrogen Posture Plan

Challenges to the Hydrogen Economy

Ted Beglin

Two aspects: 1) Feasibility 2) Misalignment with goals

Can it happen? Feasibility

Chicken and the Egg Cost of infrastructure Competition Storage Public Perception Land Usage

Can it happen? Chicken and the Egg

The FCV market depends upon the availability of a hydrogen infrastructure The hydrogen infrastructure must be promoted by hydrogen use Neither serves any purpose without the other

Can it happen? Cost of Infrastructure

Replacement value of the current energy system and related end-use equipment would be in the multi-trilliondollar range Both the supply side (the technologies and resources that produce hydrogen) and the demand side (the technologies and devices that convert hydrogen to services desired in the marketplace) must undergo a fundamental transformation. In no prior case has the government attempted to promote the replacement of an entire, mature, networked energy infrastructure before market forces did the job Market pressures from lacking petroleum supplies and/or US participation in a CO2 credit-trade market are needed to push this forward NAS, 2004

Can it happen? Competition

Incumbent technologies do not stand still, but continue to improve. The cost of the current energy infrastructure is already sunk, favoring technologies that use it.
Gasoline, Diesel, and CNG Hybrid Vehicles Bio-diesel and Ethanol

Can it happen? Competition

NCEP, 2004

Can it happen? Storage

Goals for Hydrogen On-Board Storage to Achieve Minimum Practical Vehicle Driving Ranges Energy Density Megajoules per kilogram Megajoules per liter General Motors Minimum Goals 6 6 Compressed/Liquid Hydrogen (Currently) 4/10 3/4 DOE Goal

10.8 9.72

NOTES: Energy densities are based on total storage system volume or mass. Energy densities for compressed hydrogen are at pressures of 10,000 psi. SOURCES: DOE (2002b, 2003b)

Can it happen? Storage

Compressed gas tanks
Lacks energy to volume ratio For example, for more than a 200-mile driving range, todays natural gas vehicles usually require two 5,000 psi tanks or one 10,000 psi tank, taking up most of the trunk. (NAS)

Cryogenic liquid hydrogen tanks

About 30% of the energy in the hydrogen is wasted in the liquefaction and filling process Emptying equipment is both complex and costly Boil-off rate is such that the liquid can only be stored for a few days at most. (Rand, Dell 2005)

Can it happen? Storage

Advanced methods may have to provide the solution, but are still in development
metal hydrides chemical reactions (e.g. hydrolysis) nanomaterials

Can it happen? Public Perception

Public perception of safety is affected by Hindenburg Syndrome However, it is not clear that H2 is any more dangerous than natural gas or gasoline Irony: Because of high diffusion, it may be safer
Addison Bain, NASA veteran presented compelling evidence in 1997 that the Hindenburgs cotton covering was coated by a substance with similarities to rocket fuel. The same ship filled with inert helium still would have burned. Peter Hoffman, Tomorrows Energy, 2001

Can it happen? Land Usage

New transmission lines are increasingly difficult to build, largely because of public opposition. The transmission system is being used for purposes for which it was not originally designed, and upgrades are not keeping pace with the increasing loads on it. Unless this situation is corrected, it may hamper the use of electrolyzers in distributed hydrogen generation facilities. Building pipelines to carry hydrogen may encounter some of the same sitting problems.

Should it happen?
Reliance on Natural Gas rather than Oil Carbon Sequestration Picking a winner

Should it happen? Recap the Goals

CA hydrogen highway action plan
Energy security National security Energy diversity Environment Climate change Public health

Should it happen? Energy/National Security

We could be trading one foreign dependency for another
The initial hydrogen economy would most likely depend upon the reforming of natural gas If natural gas is used to produce hydrogen, and if, on the margin, natural gas is imported, there would be little if any reduction in total energy imports, because natural gas for hydrogen would displace petroleum for gasoline.
NAS, 2004

Should it happen? Environment/Climate Change

Two sources of carbon stand out
Coal burned for electricity Petroleum burned in transportation fuels

Hydrogen must address both to benefit the environment

U.S. emissions of carbon dioxide, by sector and fuels, 2000. SOURCE: EIA (2002)

Should it happen? Environment/Climate Change

Successful carbon sequestration is necessary, otherwise CO2 from petroleum will come from fossil fuel reformation to produce hydrogen Energy shifted from oil could result in massive coal mining to make up the difference Energy/National security would be addressed but not greenhouse gases Conservation, advancement of renewables, and nuclear power would be the only emission free hydrogen if CO2 sequestration is not realized

Should it happen? Public Health

Although fuel cells only emit water, internal combustion use produces NOx, leading to smog Unintended consequences of H2 leakage may include reduction in global oxidative capacity, increase in tropospheric ozone, and increase in stratospheric water that would exacerbate halogen induced ozone losses (Dubey, Los Alamos National Laboratory, 2003)

Should it happen? Energy Diversity

Quite the opposite, it could reduce us to predominately rely on coal The hydrogen economy needs support from some combination of increased renewable power, reinvigoration of nuclear power, and conservation to promote diversity

Should it happen? Energy Diversity

Picking winners? The track record
50s Nuclear power too cheap to meter Late 70s, early 80s oil price assumptions to justify large amounts of spending 90s battery powered cars

Other technologies, should funding favor H2?

Battery technology Biomass based fuels

Sources
N.Z. Muradov, T.N. Veziro4glu / International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 225 237 M.A.R. Sadiq Al-Baghdadi / Renewable Energy 29 (2004) 22452260 J.T.S. Irvine / Journal of Power Sources 136 (2004) 203207 S.A. Sherif et al. / Solar Energy 78 (2005) 647660 B. Johnston et al. / Technovation 25 (2005) 569585 W.W. Clark et al. / Utilities Policy 13 (2005) 4150 D.A.J. Rand, R.M. Dell / Journal of Power Sources144 (2005) 568578 Manvendra K. Dubey, Science for sustainability, Los Alamos National Laboratory, 2003 Brent D. Yacobucci, Aimee E. Curtright, A Hydrogen Economy and Fuel Cells: An Overview, Congressional Research Service, 2004 Hoffman, Peter Tomorrows Energy, 2001. The Hydrogen Economy: Opportunities, Costs, Barriers, and R&D Needs (2004): National Academies of Science NCEP, ENDING THE ENERGY STALEMATE A Bipartisan Strategy to Meet Americas Energy Challenges, Dec 2004 www.hydrogenhighway.ca.gov www.fuelcells.org htttp://airnow.gov

alternatives to gasoline engines: clean diesels gasoline-electric hybrids hydrogen internal combustion engines (H2ICE) hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCV)

 Physical and regulatory infrastructure

Safety codes and standards Public awareness about fueling systems Training for fuel distribution personnel

FreedomCAR Partnership Plan identifies technology milestones to measure progress in 2010 and 2015 (these can be downloaded from www.eere.energy.gov/vehicle.html). Some of the key 2010 milestones include: Electric propulsion system with a 15-year life and capability to deliver at least 55 kW for 18 seconds,and 30 kW continuously at a system cost of $125/kW peak. Internal combustion engine powertrain systems that cost $30/kW,have a peak brake engine efficiency of 45%,and meet or exceed emission standards. Electric drivetrain energy storage with a 15-year life at 300Wh and with a discharge power of 25 kW for 18 seconds at a cost of $20/kW. Material and manufacturing technologies for high-volume production vehicles that enable/support the simultaneous attainment of affordability,increased use of recyclable/renewable materials,and a 50% reduction in the weight of the vehicle structure and subsystems.

Biological: Biofuel cells have been reported (see Ref 6) achieving several hundred nanowatts of power, in which tethered biological enzymes at two electrodes first strip a hydrogen ion off glucose and then combine the H+ with oxygen to create both power and water.

Types of Fuel Cells

Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC) Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) Direct Methanol Fuel Cell
Fuel cell types are generally characterized by electrolyte material. The electrolyte is the substance between the positive and negative terminals, serving as the bridge for the ion exchange that generates electrical current.