Chapter Eleven Approaches to Instruction

Overview Devising and using objectives The behavioral approach to teaching The cognitive approach to teaching The humanistic approach to teaching The social approach to teaching

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Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain Knowledge

Remembering previously learned information such as facts, terms, and principles

Comprehension
Grasping the meaning of information by putting it into ones own words

Application
Applying knowledge to actual situations

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Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain Analysis

Breaking down ideas into simpler parts and seeing how the parts relate and are organized

Synthesis
Rearranging component ideas into a new whole

Evaluation
Making judgments based on internal evidence or external criteria

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Taxonomy Categories and Problem Solving

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Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Affective Domain Receiving (attending)

Willingness to receive or attend

Responding
Active participation indicating positive response or acceptance of an idea

Valuing
Expressing a belief or attitude about the value or worth of something

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Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Affective Domain Organization

Organizing various values into an internalized system

Characterization by a value or value complex

The value system becomes a way of life

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Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Psychomotor Domain

Perception
Using sense organs to obtain cues needed to guide motor activity

Set
Being ready to perform a particular action

Guided response
Performing under the guidance of a model

Mechanism
Being able to perform a task habitually with some degree of confidence and proficiency

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Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Psychomotor Domain Complex or overt response

Performing a task with a high degree of proficiency and skill

Adaptation
Using previously learned skills to perform new but related tasks

Origination
Creating new performances after having developed skills

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Magers Recommendations for Use of Specific Objectives

Describe what you want learners to be doing when demonstrating achievement and indicate how you will know they are doing it. In your description, identify and name the behavioral act that indicates achievement, define the conditions under which the behavior is to occur, and state the criterion of acceptable performance. Write a separate objective for each learning performance.
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Gronlunds Recommendations for Use of General Objectives Examine what is to be learned with reference to lists of objectives. Use such lists to formulate general objectives of instruction that describe types of behavior students should exhibit. Under each general instructional objective, list up to five specific learning outcomes that provide a representative sample of what students should be able to do when they have achieved the general objective.
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Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Objectives

Objectives seem to work best when students are aware of them, treat them as directions to learn specific sections of material, and feel they will aid learning. Objectives seem to work best when they are clearly written and the learning task is neither too difficult nor too easy. Students of average ability seem to profit more from being given objectives than do students of higher or lower ability. Objectives lead to an improvement in intentional learning but to a decline in incidental learning.
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The Behavioral Approach to Teaching: Direct Instruction

Focusing almost all classroom activity on learning basic academic knowledge and skills. Having the teacher make all instructional decisions. Keeping students working productively toward learning new academic knowledge and skills as much as possible. Maintaining a positive classroom climate by emphasizing positive reinforcement and avoiding the use of aversive consequences.
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Components of Direct Instruction

Orientation
Introduction and overview of the lesson

Presentation
Explaining and demonstrating new material

Structured practice
Teacher leads class through problem

Guided practice
Students work on problems with teacher assistance

Independent practice
Students practice on their own
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Using Technology to Support Behavioral Approaches Drill-and-practice CBI tools Integrated learning systems Multimedia to embellish a lecture

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The Cognitive Approach to Teaching: Facilitating Meaningful & Self-Directed Learning Communicate clear goals Use attention-getting devices Emphasize organization and meaningfulness Present information in learnable amounts and over realistic time periods Facilitate encoding of information into longterm memory Practice what you preach
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The Cognitive Approach to Teaching: Constructivism Provide scaffolded instruction within the zone of proximal development (ZPD) Provide opportunities for learning by discovery Foster multiple viewpoints Emphasize relevant problems and tasks Encourage students to become selfdirected learners
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Using Technology to Support Cognitive Approaches Helping students process information Discovery and exploratory environments Guided learning Problem- and project-based learning Situated learning

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The Humanistic Approach to Teaching: Student-Centered Instruction The humanistic approach pays particular attention to the role of noncognitive variables in learning; specifically, students needs, emotions, values, and selfperceptions. Maslow: Let Children Grow Rogers: Learner-Centered Education Combs: The Teacher as Facilitator
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The Humanistic Model Defining the helping situation Exploring the problem Developing insight Planning and decision making Integration

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Using Technology to Support Humanistic Approaches Learner-centered process Helping students meaningfully construct and represent knowledge Create challenging and novel learning environments that help students link new information to old Achieve complex learning goals Build thinking and reasoning strategies
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The Social Approach to Teaching: Teaching Students How to Learn from Each Other
Competitive structures
Structures in which ones grade is determined by how well everyone else in the group performs

Individualistic structures
Structures that are characterized by students working alone and earning rewards solely on the quality of their own efforts

Cooperative structures
Structures that are characterized by students working together to accomplish shared goals

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Elements of Cooperative Learning Group heterogeneity Group goals/positive interdependence Promotive interaction Individual accountability Interpersonal skills Equal opportunities for success Team competition

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Why Does Cooperative Learning Work? Motivational effect Cognitive-developmental effect Cognitive elaboration effect

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Using Technology to Support Social Approaches Social constructivist learning Cooperative and collaborative learning

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