Sustainable Energy Systems: MS (Mech)

1 7/24/2012
Sustainable Energy Systems

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS
MS (Mech)
2 7/24/2012

Solar Energy
INTRODUCTION
3 7/24/2012

The Sun emits energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation.

These radiations are received by all planets, not only earth.

The Earth intercepts only about one-half of one-billionth of the Suns
total energy output.

The Sun emits so-called shortwave radiation. The wavelength range
is 3003000nm (0.3-3.0m).

The total spectrum includes near ultraviolet, visible, near infrared and
shortwave infrared light. The spectrum of visible light is 400-700nm
(0.4-0.7m). The shorter the wavelength of light, the more energy it
contains.

The term electromagnetic energy comprises all types of energy that travels from its
source through space in the form of harmonic waves along straight paths at the uniform
speed of light (3x108 m/sec). Radiation is the term that pertains to the emission and
propagation of electromagnetic energy in the form of waves.
Solar Energy
4 7/24/2012

5 7/24/2012

Solar spectrum
6 7/24/2012

EM Spectrum
7 7/24/2012

It takes about 8 minutes for sun energy to reach the
atmosphere of the Earth and a part of it is reflected back to
the outer space. The proportion of the incident light which
is reflected back is called planet albedo ( )

As the output of energy from the sun is nearly constant, the
amount of solar energy incident on a small area of the top
of the atmosphere can be calculated. This amount is called
solar constant. The strict definition is that the solar
constant is the amount of solar energy incident in
1s on a 1m
2
area along the direction of propagation (units
J/sm2).
8 7/24/2012

SOLAR RADIATION
9 7/24/2012

10 7/24/2012

Solar Collectors

Methods for collecting solar energy for the production of
either heat or electricity include:

1. appropriate architecture,

2. at collectors,

3. evacuated tubes,

4. concentrators, and

5. solar ponds.
11 7/24/2012

Flat collectors work with both direct and diffused light. They
provide low temperature heat (less than 70 C) useful for ambient
heating, domestic hot water systems, and swimming pools. This
type of collector is affected by weather and its efficiency
decreases if large temperature rises are demanded.
Flat collectors
12 7/24/2012

Flat Plate Solar
Collector
Sheltered Tank
Solar Collector
Vacuum Tube
Solar Collector
13 7/24/2012

Evacuated Tubes

This type of collector consists of two concentric cylinders, the
outer one of glass and the inner, a pipe through which the
liquid flows. They bear a superficial resemblance to fluorescent
lamps. A vacuum is established between the two cylinders,
reducing the convection heat losses.

Evacuated tubes are non directional and can heat liquids to
some 80C. They are usually employed in arrays with spacing
equal to the diameter of the outer tube. It is customary to place
a reflecting surface behind the array.

14 7/24/2012

15 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Solar Thermal
Solar panels heat
up water without
involving generating
electricity.
Solar heating capacity was 145 GW-
thermal in 2008.

16 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Solar energy trapped by
the solar troughs heats
the thermal oil.

Oil circulating in a closed
loop heats high volumes
of water to generate
steam at high
temperatures (up to
400
o
C).

Steam turbine generates
electricity.
Solar Thermal
Typical Solar Trough System for
Power Generation (heat to work)
Steam
Turbine
Steam
Generator
Electric
Generator
Condenser
Cooling Tower
Thermal oil is
circulated in a
closed loop
Solar
Troughs
17 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Solar Thermal
A parabolic trough is a solar thermal energy collector.
It is constructed as a long parabolic mirror (usually coated silver or polished
aluminum) with a Dewar tube (vacuum flask) running its length at the focal point.
Sunlight is reflected by the mirror and
concentrated on the Dewar tube.

The trough is usually aligned on a
north-south axis, and rotated to track
the sun as it moves across the sky
each day.
18 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


- 354 MW installed capacity
- power 232,500 homes
- have a total of 936,384 mirrors
- cover more than 1,600 acres (6.5 km
2
)
- lined up, the parabolic mirrors would extend over
370 km.
- 3000 broken mirrors (mostly by wind) per year are
replaced
Solar Thermal
Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) is the largest solar energy
generating facility in the world.
It consists of nine solar power plants (built between 1984 and 1990) in
California's Mojave Desert,
where insolation is among the best available in the US.
19 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Technological status mature
Average growth 17-20% per year
Solar Thermal
20 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Solar Thermal
The solar cooker has a parabolic
reflector to concentrate more than a
m
2
of sunlight into an area about 17
cm in diameter.

The control arm allows the reflector to
be set facing the sun and holds the pot
at the focal point regardless of the
reflector tilt angle.

The stand holds the other two together
and allows the cooker to be rotated to
follow the sun as it moves across the
sky.
21 7/24/2012

Parabolic Trough

Solar Central Receiver

Solar Dish/ Sterling
DEMONSTRATED TECHNOLOGIES:
22 7/24/2012

Solar Dish/ Sterling
Multiple mirrors that approximate a
parabolic dish.

Receiver absorbs solar energy &
converts to heat.

Heat is delivered to Sterling engine

Average efficiencies >20%

23 7/24/2012

Solar Central Receiver
Also called Power Towers
Heliostats computer controlled mirrors
Reflect sunlight onto receiver

24 7/24/2012

Solar Central Receiver Solar Two
10 MW
Two-tank, molten-salt
thermal storage system
Barstow, CA
Demolished in November
2009
Solar Tres is now being built
in Spain will be 17 MW
Source: http://www.trec-uk.org.uk/csp.htm
Molten salt as its working fluid, allowing it to be
stored in the molten state for power generation
at any time.
25 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


CSP Comparisons
All use mirrored surfaces to concentrate sunlight onto a receiver
to run a heat engine
All can be hybridized with auxiliary fuel sources
Higher temperature -> higher efficiency

Annual Measured
Efficiency
Required
Acres/MW
Suns of
concentration
Dish Sterling

21% 4 3000
Parabolic
Troughs
14% 5 100
Solar Central
Receiver
16% 8 1000
26 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


The concept is very straightforward, being
based on the law of physics that hot air
rises.

The tower uses solar insolation and radiation
to heat air beneath a large collector
(greenhouse) that creates a constant flow of
air to drive conventional turbines.

The turbines are located at the base of the
tower in the center of the collector.

the movement of the heated air through
these turbines is caused by the updraft
effect created by the tower

The process is passive, needing no outside
energy input to start or maintain it. The only
moving components in the system are the
rotors of the turbine.

27 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


28 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Solar Energy and geometric effects
Altitude effects the suns radiation reaching on earth

At air mass one (m) the solar input is considered to be 1.07 kw/m2

Solar power density = I = I( )cos
= it is the zenith angle as discussed

already
Z
2
I( ) ( ) 1.07 / I o kw m = =
29 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


For larger angle light traverses large thickness of the atmosphere
and more photon are scattered and/or absorbed , Thus, the value
of I decreases with increasing .

The angle varies from sunrise to sunset and also on a monthly
basis as the sun angle at noon (noon being defined as that time
of day when the sun angle, i|f, is at a minimum) varies from L -
23.5 in June to L + 23.5 in December, where L, the latitude is in
degrees.

This assumes a Northern Hemisphere location for the solar
collector. In the Southern Hemisphere, the signs should be
reversed.
30 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Atmospheric effects on solar power input as a function of the solar angle
31 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Tracking Systems
It is possible to eliminate the geometric portion, cos (), of by tilting
the detector until the sun is aligned with the collector normal. Figure
indicates the angular positions for such a tiltable collector (not yet
perfectly aligned) when positioned in the Northem Hemisphere.
However, such an action will not reduce the length of the
atmospheric path, and, hence, the effect on I( )

32 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


The average year is 365 and a fraction days long, during which time
the sun traverses approximately 47 from north to south and back
again. Therefore, the change in solar angle measured on a north-to-
south basis is approximately eight degrees per month, a relatively
small number. Each day, however, the sun rises in the east and sets
in the west, covering about 180 degrees of arc in an average period
of 12 hours. In computing the total solar insolation (TSI), defined as
the energy received each day directly from the sun, a reasonable
value can be obtained using the following expression:
I
where D is the amount of day light for a given day, I is
determined by computing the solar angle () ; (Figure on last
slide) and using Table, and () is defined in Figure
33 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Tracking and Collection device configuration
Several solar energy collector configurations of interest:

(A) Collector lying, unmoving, flat upon the ground. In this case, the
angle of the collector with respect to the ground, is zero.

(B) The collector can be mounted upon some mechanism that
insures that the collector is always pointed at the sun with the
angle, ", zero at all times.

(C) A collector can be mounted upon the ground, unmoving, but at
some fixed angle, , to the horizontal. This angle will be
southward facing in the Northern Hemisphere, and will be, clearly,
northward facing in the Southern Hemisphere.

(D) It is fixed at some angle, , in the north-to-south direction, but
is capable of following the sun in its east-to-west motion( Polar Axis
Tracking).
34 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


For A type we can write
Where is the average north-south angle, for a given day,
between the sun and the zenith, and is the east-west angle
between the sun and the surface normal as the sun traverses
the sky from sunrise to sunset.
We may write :
where t is the time (a value of zero
corresponds to sunrise).
35 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


For C type we can write (unmoving, but angled collector)

We may write :
where t is the time (a value of zero
corresponds to sunrise).
36 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


For collector that tracks only from east to west
37 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


The solar insolation (TSI), in kwh/m
2
per year is function
of latitudes from zero (the equator) to 70 , collector
orientation and tracking mode
No Tracking mode implies a collector which is fixed at
some north-to-south angle;

East-West Tracking implies a mechanism that moves the
collector only in the east-to-west direction, while the north-to-
south angle is fixed at the given angle (this omits corrections
for changes in the seasonal north-to-south solar orientation);

Ideal Tracking signifies a two-axis tracking mode that
maintains the collector normal pointed at the sun at all times
that the sun is above the horizon.
38 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Solar input (insolation) per square meter per year at the
earth's surface as a function of latitude and collector tilt, with the
tracking mode as a parameter
39 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


40 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


41 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


The optimum collector angle
and maximum energy input as
a function of latitude for No
Tracking (fixed), East-West
Tracking (single axis) and Ideal
(two-axis) Tracking .
42 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Thermal Collector Capture and Loss Mechanisms

To perform an energy balance on a solar thermal collector, one
usually isolates the surface that absorbs the incoming radiation,
and balances energy inflow and outflow to and from it.

In a flat-plate collector, this is called the absorber plate and for a
concentrating collector, it is often called the receiver
(5.1)
where:
- rate of useful energy leaving the absorber (W)
- rate of optical (short wavelength) radiation incident on absorber (W)
- rate of thermal energy loss from the absorber (W)
43 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


The useful energy for a solar thermal collector is the rate of
thermal energy leaving the collector, usually described in terms
of the rate of energy being added to a heat transfer fluid passing
through the receiver or absorber,
m - mass flow rate of heat transfer fluid (kg/s)
c
p
- specific heat of heat transfer fluid (J/kg
.
K)
T
out
- temperature of heat transfer fluid leaving the absorber (K)
T
in
- temperature of heat transfer fluid entering the absorber (K)
44 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Energy balance on a solar collector absorber / receiver.
45 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


The area of the collector on which the solar irradiance falls is
called the aperture (opening) area of the collector. The
incident solar resource then is:

where:
I
a
- solar irradiance entering the collector aperture (global (total) or
direct (beam))(W/m
2
)
A
a
- aperture area of the collector (m
2
)
46 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


This solar resource is reduced by a number of losses as it passes
from the aperture of the collector to the absorber.

These processes depend on the type and design of the specific
collector,

The rate of optical (short wavelength) energy reaching the absorber
or receiver is the product of the incoming solar resource multiplied by
a number of factors, all less than 1.0 describing this reduction:

- capture fraction (fraction of reflected energy entering or impinging
on receiver)

- reflectance of any intermediate reflecting surfaces

- transmittance of any glass or plastic cover sheets or windows

- absorptance of absorber or receiver surface

47 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


.The capture fraction is a measure of both the quality of the shape of
the reflecting surface, and the size of the receiver. Often this is described
in terms of spillage i.e. the fraction of reflected energy not impinging on or
entering the receiver. A poorly shaped concentrator, or a receiver too small
will make this number considerably less than 1.0.

Reflectance is a property of any reflecting surface associated with the
collector. Properly designed concentrators will have capture fractions of
0.95 or higher, and silver/glass mirrors can have a reflectance of 0.94
and new aluminum reflecting surfaces have a reflectance of about 0.86.

The transmittance is the fraction of solar radiation passing through all
transparent cover material that sunlight passes through on its way to the
absorber. Cover sheets of glass or plastic are used on flat-plate
collectors, above the absorber to reduce convective heat loss.

48 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


The absorption term represents the fraction of solar energy incident
upon the surface, that is absorbed (the remainder being reflected).

A good black surface can have an absorption of greater than 0.98,
however, as surfaces degrade, this value can decrease. It is important
to point out that this property is for radiation in the solar or visible
spectrum. For most real surfaces, the absorption varies as a function
of the wavelength of the incident energy.

There is a class of surfaces used in solar collectors, called selective
surfaces that have a higher absorptance in the visible spectrum than
at longer wavelengths, thereby reducing thermal radiation loss.
49 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Heat Loss Mechanisms
50 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


FLAT PLATE SOLAR COLLECTOR
51 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Ground Reflected
Diffused Beam Radiation
See example 5.9.1 for application of this equation of Solar
Engineering_of_Thermal_Processes_3rd_Edition
52 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


This equation has a draw back that mean temperature is difficult
to find because it is the function of:

a. Collector Design
b. The incident solar radiation
c. Entering fluid properties
Performance of a collector is measured by collection efficiency which
is :

It is ratio of useful gain over some specified time period to incident
solar energy over the same time period
53 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR
Figure below shows the schematic of temperature distribution in flat
plat. The energy absorbed by the plate must be conducted along to
the region where tubes are located. Thus the temperature midway
between the tubes will be higher as compared to near vicinity of tubes
54 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


General Assumptions made to develop temperature profile
55 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Collector overall Heat Loss
h
c,p-c1
Convection heat transfer
coefficient between two parallel
plates. For simplicity we can
write:
56 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Collector overall Heat Loss
We can transformed this into a thermal resistance R3
57 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


We can write similar expression for R2, which is resistance
between the two covers.

For resistance from top cover to surrounding is also similar in
expression, but it involve radiation loss to the sky which is
given by h
r,c2-a
2nd component for loss coefficient is due to convection, h
w
,its
values differ depending upon the convection velocities and type of
convection, section 3.15 of the reference carries a discussion
regarding this

Solar Engineering_of_Thermal_Processes_3rd_Edition
58 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


So we can write R1 as :

Considering these three resistance we can write for top losses, a
combined coefficient
This expression presents a tangled situation , therefore need iterative
procedures to solve.
59 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Procedure
1. First guess is made for unknown cover temperature
2. From which we calculate radiation and convection heat transfer
coefficient between the plates.
3. With these estimation we find out U
t
4. The top loss is top heat coefficient times the overall temperature
difference.
5. Since energy exchange between two plates is equal to the over
loss heat loss, from here we calculate new cover temperature.
6. This process continuous unless we find the cover temperature
of two successive calculation nearly equal.

Temperature of two adjacent plates can be related as :
60 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


61 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


62 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


63 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Solve using following empirical relationship
64 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Energy loss from the bottom of collector
We need to calculate R4 and R5.
R4 is resistant through insulation and R5
through convection.

Usually bottom of collector has sufficient
insulation, therefore can effectively be
considered as zero. So U
b
is only
function of R4.

It is approximated as :

K is thermal conductivity of insulation
and L is thickness
65 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Edge Losses
Usually very small in perfect design, it is approximated on
the basis of perimeter area and collector area.

If UA is edge loss-area product than we can write:

( )
edge
e
c
UA
U
A
=
66 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


67 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Overall Lossess
L t b e
U U U U = + +
Overall loss coefficient will be the sum of all coefficients
68 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Temperature Distribution Between tubes
Assumption: temporarily assume there are no temperature gradient in
flow direction.
Looking at figure 2 a below , if we take an incremental width x with unit
length, we write the energy balance as ( S is absorbed energy per unit
area):
Figure 2
Figure 1
( ) 0
L
x x x
dT dT
S x U x T Ta k k
dx dx
o o
+A
| | | |
A A + =
| |
\ . \ .
Divide by x
( ) 0
x x x
L
dT dT
k k
dx dx
S U T Ta
x
o o
+A
| | | |

| |
\ . \ .
+ =
A
x x x L
L
dT dT
k
dx dx
U S
T Ta
x k U
o
o
+A
| | | |
| |
| | \ . \ .
=
|
|
A
\ .
2
2
L
L
d T U S
T Ta
k U
dx
o
| |
=
|
|
\ .
69 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Applying Boundary conditions,
For convenience we can define
Equation becomes
Transformed BCs would be
The general solution can be written as
70 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Constants can be found by inserting the BCs. The result will be as under
We can write T
cosh
( )
cosh
2
b a
L
a
L
S
mx T T
U
S
T T
W D
U
m
| |

|
\ .
= + +
Energy conducted in to the tube region near fin can be written as

1
L
k m
U m
o
=
Here we can say that
71 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


We have similar fin on the other side of the tube so actual energy
conducted will be twice of this:
( ) ( )
2
tanh
2
fin
L b a
W D
q S U T T m
m
| |
' =
|
\ .
( ) ( )
1
tanh
2
fin
L b a
W D
q S U T T m
m
| |
' =
|
\ .
So we can write :
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
tanh
2
2
fin
L b a
W D
m
q W D S U T T
W D
m
| |
|
\ .
' =
| |
|
|
\ .
we can also write
72 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


( ) ( ) ( )
( )
tanh
2
2
fin
L b a
q W D F S U T T
W D
m
F
W D
m
' =
| |
|
\ .
=
| |
|
|
\ .
The function F is standard fin efficiency for straight fins
The area just above the tube will also contribute to the heat gain
to tube
( ) ( ) ( )
useful
L b a
q W D F D S U T T ' ( = +

( ) ( )
tube
L b a
q D S U T T ' =
A..
73 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


The total gain must be transferred to the fluid inside the tube, the
resistance to heat flow will be bond resistance and tube to fluid
resistance, so we can express this useful gain as:

Resistance due to
bond material

Resistance b/w tube wall and fluid
b
b
k b
C
=
Thermal conductivity of bond
bond width
Bond thickness
B..
Solving equation A & B we can eliminate Tb
74 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


F
/
is the collector efficiency factor. We can say that denominator
term is the heat resistance from fluid to ambient temperature, so
we can write it as

1
o
U
We can write then:

1
1
o L
L
o
U U
F
U
U
' = =
75 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


76 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Temperature distribution in flow direction
The useful gain is ultimately transferred to the flowing fluid in tube, if
flow enter at T
f,i
and exits at T
f,o,
We can write an energy balance of
following form
0
f f useful
y y y
m m
CpT CpT yq
n n
+A
' + A =
1
0
1
0
f
f f useful
y y y
f f useful
y y y
dT
mCp
dy
m m
CpT CpT yq
y n n
mCpT mCpT nq
y
+A
+A
| |
| ' + A =
|
A
\ .
| |
' + =
|
A \ .
77 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Inserting the value of q
useful
from equation B
( )
0
f
f a
dT
mCp nWF S UL T T
dy
(
'
=

Solving this equation with a similar procedure as previous with
appropriate BCs (i.e. inlet temperature is T
f,i)
78 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Collector Heat Removal Factor F
R
It is a similar term like effectiveness of heat exchanger which
states that ratio of useful energy gain of a collector to the
useful energy gain if whole collector is maintained at the fluid
inlet temperature .
79 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Collector flow factor can also be define as the
ratio of F
R
and F

80 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


The colector removal factor times maximum possible useful energy
gain is equal to the actual useful energy gain Q
u
This is an extremely useful equation and applies essentially to all flat
plate collector
81 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


82 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Collectors are oriented to track the sun so that the beam
radiation will be directed onto the absorbing surface

Collector: Receiver and the concentrator

Receiver: Radiation is absorbed and converted to some other
energy form (e.g. heat).

Concentrator: Collector that directs radiation onto the receiver.

The aperture of the concentrator is the opening through which
the solar radiation enters the concentrator
Concentrating Collectors
83 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


84 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


a) Tubular absorbers with diffusive back reflector
b) Tubular absorbers with specular cusp reflector
c) Plane receiver with plane reflector;
d) Parabolic concentrator
e) Fresnel reflector f) Array of heliostats with central receiver
85 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Fresnel Lens: An optical device for concentrating light that is made of
concentric rings that are faced at different angles so that light falling on
any ring is focused to the same point.

Parabolic trough collector: A high-temperature (above 360K) solar thermal
concentrator with the capacity for tracking the sun using one axis of
rotation. It uses a trough covered with a highly reflective surface to focus
sunlight onto a linear absorber containing a working fluid that can be used
for medium temperature space or process heat or to operate a steam
turbine for power or electricity generation.

Central Receiver: Also known as a power tower, a solar power facility that
uses a field of two-axis tracking mirrors known as heliostat (A device that
tracks the movement of the sun). Each heliostat is individually positioned
by a computer control system to reflect the sun's rays to a tower-mounted
thermal receiver. The effect of many heliostats reflecting to a common
point creates the combined energy of thousands of suns, which produces
high-temperature thermal energy.

In the receiver, molten nitrate salts absorb the heat energy. The hot salt is
then used to boil water to steam, which is sent to a conventional steam
turbine generator to produce electricity.
86 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Flate type solar collector are planar and non-concentrating type which
provides concentration ratios of up to four.

Concentration ratio can be increased up to ten by Line focusing. This
type of concentration can produce a high density of radiation on a line
at the focus. Example : Cylindrical parabolic concentrators

much higher density of radiation can be achieved by point focusing
type. Example: Paraboloids
87 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Concentration Ratio
The degree of concentration of a system is most commonly stated as a
geometrical concentration ratio (C), defined as
where Aa and Ar are the areas of the collector aperture and receiver,
respectively.
This ratio serves as an approximate factor by which the radiative
flux is increased by the system, although the true concentration ratio
is typically lower, due to non-ideal geometric and optical properties.

Often expressed as a number of suns, the concentration ratio can
vary over several orders of magnitude with the numerous possible
collector configurations.

88 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


89 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Concentration Ratio
According to the second law of thermodynamics i the maximum
achievable radiative flux cannot exceed that which is found at the
source of the radiation, the surface of the sun.
By taking the sun as a spherically symmetric source of radiation,
energy conservation dictates that the radiant flux decrease with
1/R
2
, where R is the distance from the centre of the sun. If we take
r to be the radius of the sun, the flux on the earths surface is
smaller than that on the suns surface by a factor of (r / R)
2
, where
R is the distance from the centre of the sun to the surface of the
earth.

90 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


91 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


With s = 0.27
o
, the maximum possible concentration ratio for circular
concentrators is 45,000 and for linear concentrators, it is 212.
This is also known as sine
law of concentration limit.
an ideal 2D, or linear, concentrator
92 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


93 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


NON-IMAGING OPTICS
IMAGING OPTICS
Types of concentrators
Branch of optics concerned with the optimal transfer of
light radiation between a source and a target. Unlike
traditional imaging optics, the techniques involved do not
attempt to form an image of the source; instead an
optimized optical system for optical radiative transfer from
a source to a target is desired.
The techniques which is used to form image of sun on receiver i.e.
Camera lens
94 7/24/2012

7/24/2012


Sustainable Energy Systems: MS (Mech)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sustainable Energy Systems: MS (Mech)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 7/24/2012

Sustainable Energy Systems

= it is the zenith angle as discussed

Energy conducted in to the tube region near fin can be written as

You might also like