RESEARCH METHODOLOGY FOR SOCIAL SCIENCES

MERLYN B. EMBAJADOR

What is Science?
According to Manheim, science is objective, accurate, systematic analysis of a determinate body of empirical data, in order to discover recurring relationships among phenomena.
Objective means unbiased, unprejudiced, detached, impersonal. Objectivity carries with it a clear understanding that you do not become egoinvolved in your research activities; that you are not going o modify or even abandon your ideas right away when initial evidence indicating otherwise becomes available.

Accurate means that you strive to be definite, precise and exact. Systematic carries with the implication that science is methodical, thorough and regular in its procedures ; that it involves many kinds of classificatory schemes.
Analysis means that you are concerned with the identification and study of the component parts or elements which make up things which you study.

 Determinate Means that there are relatively agreed upon defined traits or boundaries which specify what kind of things or boundaries you study.

AIMS OF SCIENCE
According to Manheim (1977), there seems to be considerable agreement that there are three aims of science: description, explanation and prediction DESCRIPTION must come first before you can make intelligent statements about anything . You must first know what you are talking about. The first thing that science does it to answer question such as: 1. What are the facts? 2. What is the case? 3. What is out there?

EXPLANATION answers the question WHY? It tells you how things and events come about, what causes them, what are the laws which determine their occurrence. It brings meaning to the description. PREDICTION Means that you can make inferences from facts or laws. When you predict, you say that such and such will happen or if these conditions prevail, then so and so will occur.

In summary, you can say that science deals with: Generalizations that can be verified through actual observation in the real world;

Controlled investigation or inquiry, to demonstrate the relation between the theory and reality; Prediction, to demonstrate conditional relationship that consistently holds within stated limits, and that the propositions take the ifthen form; Causality, that seeks single and multiple causes; and

Naturalism and Determinism

NATURALISM refers to the view that phenomena are aspects of nature and therefore are ordered according to the order of nature. DETERMINISM refers to the condition that phenomena can be determined, and all orders can be accounted for.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Manheim (1977) suggests that the procedure may be viewed simply as the methods of science.

This can be taken to mean that a method that is characterized by objectivity, accuracy, systematization, and so on, according to the definition of science may be considered a scientific method

Five Logical Steps:

IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM DEFINING THE PROBLEM FORMULATING THE HYPOTHESIS DEDUCTIVE REASONING

TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
The term research is taken from the word re which means again and search, meaning to investigate. Literally, research means to investigate again. Research is defined as the careful, diligent, and exhaustive investigation of a specific matter , having as its aim the advancement of mankinds knowledge (Manheim, 1977). Research is an investigation undertaken in order to discover new facts and get additional information (Webster, 1980).

Research is a systematic investigation of something for the purpose of answering questions (Treece, et al. 1977 ).
Scientific research is systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical proposition about the presumed relations among natural phenomena (Kerlinger, 1973).
When you say that scientific research is systematic and controlled, you mean, in effect, that scientific investigations can have critical confidence in research outcomes. This means that research observations are highly disciplined. Scientific investigation is empirical. If you believe that something is so, you must somehow put your belief to a test outside of yourself. You must always subject your notions to empirical inquiry and test.

PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
The primary purpose of research is to seek new knowledge and explore possible solutions to a problem.

It provides very useful information in the form of variable data.

Research could offer solutions to our numerous biological, physical, educational, social, political and behavioral problems.

Improvement in our health, economy, and security depends largely on research.

Research could contribute towards the nations development and progress. The rate of scientific and technological progress is determined in a large extent by research.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
Purposive Nomenclature
Is based on the basic aim of research

There are three Categories:

Fundamental Or Pure Research employs careful sampling procedures in order to extend the findings beyond the group or situation studied.

It has little concern for application of findings to actual problems in areas considered to be the concern of people rather than the investigator.

 is usually carried out in the laboratory, often with animals as subjects. In the social sciences, this type of research has been primarily the activity of clinical psychologists. Applied Research It has most of the characteristics of fundamental research, however, its purpose is to improve a product or a process testing theoretical concepts in actual problem situation. Action Research focused on the immediate application, not on the development theory, not upon general application. Its findings are to be evaluated in terms of universal validity. Its purpose is to improve practices and, at the same time, to improve those who try to improve the practices.

Descriptive Nomenclature
This categorization refers to specific procedures in conducting the research. There are three categories: Historical Research describes what was. The process involves investigating, recording, analyzing and interpreting events of the past for the purpose of discovering generalizations that are helpful in understanding the present, and to a limited extent, in anticipating the future.

Descriptive Research describes what is. It involves describing, analyzing and interpreting the conditions that now exist. It involves some kind of comparison and contrast, and may attempt to discover relationship between existing non-manipulated variables. Experimental Research describes what will be when certain variables are carefully controlled or manipulated. The focus is on the relationship of variables. Deliberate manipulation is always a part of the experimental method.

PARTS OF THE THESIS

A.Title Page B. Approval Sheet C. Biographical Sketch D. Acknowledgment E. Table of Contents

F. List of Tables

G. List of Figures H. List of Appendix Tables

I. Abstract
J. Body of the Thesis Introduction Review of Literature Materials and Methods Results and Discussion Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

K. Literature Cited or Bibliography

L. Appendix

RESEARCH FORMAT OR OUTLINE

I. TITLE OF THE STUDY The title of the research study should be specific and clearly stated. It should include the main concept, the variables and places involved in the research. This title should serve as a frame of reference for the entire study. In cases where there are several variables used in the paper, a word or group of words should be used to summarize these variables.

The use of unnecessary words should be deleted in the title like A Study of or A Comparative Study or A Comparison of . Theses are not needed anymore because these researches are considered already as forms of study or investigation.

Example Title of the Study: Adaptation to Climate Change of Lowland Rice Farmers in Bukidnon, Philippines: A Micro-level Analysis
(Adopted from J.N Prantilla, 2012)

II. INTRODUCTION

A.Background of the Study

It normally contains basic background information and assumptions that show the state of the art of a particular field of endeavor.
This provides the setting of the identified research problem. It may include synopses of related studies and literature which can strengthen the reason for the investigation or research.

B. Statement of the Problem

A problem is a statement that asks what relation exists between two or more variables? (Kerlinger.,1973)
The problem should be stated clearly both in general terms and specific terms. The general statement of the problem is usually a reiteration of the title of the study

Basic Questions About a Research Problem

Is the problem interesting? It is better to work on something that interest you

Is the problem new? Choose a problem that is relatively new and has not been fully studied.
Will the study add to knowledge? You must be convinced that by doing the study, you will contribute new knowledge.

Is the problem feasible? Choose problems that you can manage, those that can be feasibly undertaken.
Has anyone else had a prior claim to it? You may not able to claim problem that has already been studied previously by other researchers, but you may able to arrive at other findings.

Example of the Statement of the Problem: (Taken from J.N Prantilla, 2012 Master thesis entitled: Adaptation to Climate Change of Lowland Rice Farmers in Bukidnon, Philippines: A Micro-level Analysis )

This study in general, analyzed the determinants of farm-level adaptation strategies to changing climate conditions, and assessed productivity gain from such strategies of lowland rice farmers in Bukidnon.
Specifically, this study was conducted to answer the following questions: 1. What is the extent of the awareness and perception of lowland rice farmers on climate change and variability?

2. What are the determinants of perception of lowland rice farmers on climate change and variability? 3. What are the kinds of adaptation strategies in their farming practices have they made in response to these changes? 4. What are the factors for farm-level adaptation strategies in response to climate change in the context of lowland rice farmers? 5. What is the impact of climate change adaptation on lowland rice production at the household-level?

C. Objectives of the Study Must be specific and achievable It is always wise to list them in approximate order of their importance or potential contributions.

Objectives set the stage for showing how one intends to solve or contribute to the solution of a problem.
Must neatly fit into the problem statement.

There are two common errors in writing objectives: 1. They are vaguely stated generalities rather than clearcut criteria. 2.They are not presented according to priority. In Prantillas (2012) study, he formulated his objectives as follows: This study was conducted to analyze the determinants of actual adaptation strategies to climate change and variability made by lowland rice farmers, and the effect of adaptation on their production at the farm-level.

Specifically, it aimed to: 1. assess the extent of awareness and perceptions of lowland rice farmers on climate change and variability;
2. identify the determinants of perception of lowland rice farmers on climate change and variability;

3. analyze the farm-level adaptation strategies to changing climate conditions;

4. determine the factors that significantly affect farm-level adaptation strategies to climate change in the context of lowland rice farmers; and

5. assess the impact of climate change adaptation on lowland rice production at the household-level.

D. Significance of the Study

this is a set of statements about the possible contributions of the study such contributions may be viewed from the point of the target beneficiaries like the researcher himself, the service providers, the planners, decisionmakers, the community leaders, and others.

this portion mal also include their possible contribution to the accumulation of knowledge, solution to a problem which may improve certain conditions, improvement of research instruments and methods, and meeting the priorities of institutions.

Here is how Prantilla (2012) clarified the importance of his study: The information gained from this study will help the community and its leaders to respond to the needs of rice farmers as they adjust to the impacts of climate change. Results of this study will help stakeholders in agricultural sustainability and environmental management to come up with technologies and best practices that will not only increase food productivity of rice farmers, but those that can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and other negative effects from rice fields.

E. Scope and Limitations of the Study Scope : Involves the boundaries or coverage of the study in terms of objectives, time, samples, location, subjects or people involved and other issues to which the research is focused. Limitations: Include the constraints or weaknesses of the study which are beyond the control of the researcher, therefore they are not expected to be covered by the study.

G. Definition of Terms and Variables Before launching an investigation and when writing up a research proposal or report, you must define rigorously the meaning of the terms used in the statement of the problem and in the hypotheses. Some terms used in the research study are given either lexical or operational definition or both. The variables being defined are arranged in alphabetical order.

II. Theoretical Framework

A.Review of Related Literature Includes a synthesis of each selected literature or documented study to summarize and emphasize its relevance to the current research study. Presented in topical form, irrespective of whether it is local or foreign; and not necessarily arranged in chronological or alphabetical order.

Purpose of the Review of Related Literature

The literature review expands the introductory chapter of the thesis. A very fundamental consideration is the question : What is at issue? The literature helps to further define the research problem. Frequently, you may realize that the literature review has partially answered your research problem. The literature provides the theoretical basis for the research question.

The literature review helps the researcher in the interpretation of results or findings. The literature helps the researcher outline the implications of his study.
B. Conceptual Framework Drawn from the review of related literature and studies Clarifies the relationships between and among the major variables of the study ; Illustrates the research study further in conceptual paradigm. EXAMPLE

C. Hypotheses or Assumptions Tentative formulations or explanations about the expected outcomes of the research study.

Hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables.

It is always in declarative sentence form and it relates variables. Criteria for good hypotheses: Hypotheses are statements about the relation between variables. Hypotheses carry clear implications for testing the stated relationships.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESES
Null hypothesis (Ho) Which is a denial of an attribute, an existence, a difference or an effect or relationship expressed in a negative statement. Example (from Prantilla, 2012): There is no relationship between perception of climate change and a. Household and farm characteristics b. Institutional factors and information sources Alternative hypothesis (H1) Which affirms the existence of a phenomenon, acceptance of the attribute of relationship, effects and differences.

III. METHODOLOGY
A.Locale of the Study Brief description of the place or places where the participants or respondents are located or to be obtained B. Research Design Brief description of the research method or methods to be used. Is the plan, structure and strategy of the investigation Includes a brief justification on why it is best method for the present study

C. Samples and Sampling Technique Used Brief description or profile of the population or respondents involved in the research study.

Bradfield et al (1980) define sampling as the process of measuring a small proportion of something followed by a general statement about the whole thing.
A sample is a small group taken from a larger population composed of members being studied.

Sampling Designs
I. Probability Sampling A type of sampling wherein in the selection of samples is done with the members of the population having equal chance to be selected as part of the representative sampling. Simple Random Sampling In this type of sampling, every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen to be included in the sample Easily done by listing numerically all the names of the members of the population from the first to the last member then place these in a box and draw them after shaking the box.

Stratified Sampling This is the selection of samples from the different classes or strata of the population involved in the research. Each class is treated as a different population. A simple random sampling is then used in each class with proportionate and equal percentage of representation from each stratum. Systematic Sampling This technique involves the selection of the desired number size in a list by arranging them systematically or logically in either alphabetical arrangement or any acceptable organization.

Cluster Sampling This sampling technique involves the selection of the samples in a group and is usually applied on a geographical basis in a heterogeneous population. II. Non Probability Sampling This is a type of sampling wherein no system of selection is employed and the samples may not be a proportion of the population and may depend upon the situation, as presented in this portion of the sampling design.

D. Research Instruments
Instrumentation is the process of constructing research instruments that could be used appropriately in gathering data on the study.
The questionnaire, interview and observation are the most commonly used tools in gathering data.

A.The Questionnaire Is a set of orderly arranged questions carefully prepared to answer the specific problems of the study.
It is a list of written questions related to a particular topic, provided with space for respondents to fill up (Good, 1959).

Types of Question a.Open ended Question Are listed in a way that it allows the respondents to freely express himself or herself on the subject or issue. b. Fixed Alternative Question This is otherwise called the closed type of question which provides a list of choices among enumerated alternatives. Hence, the subject responses are limited to a specific alternative.

B. Interview Is a face-to-face verbal and direct interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee.

It is used to supplement the results of the questionnaire.

C. Observation Is the process of watching the situation of the research through the use of the senses such as sight, touch, smell, hearing and taste. Ardoles (1987) identifies observation as the earliest method on the acquisition of knowledge.

E. Statistical Analysis Is the process of numerical presentation and analysis of the data gathered in consonance with the specific problems or hypotheses of the study. Data results should support and be in consonance with the objectives and hypotheses of the study.

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results
Presented according to the objectives of the study; preferably in topical presentation style. The results of the study may be presented using the data gathered in the form of statistical tables called Tabular Presentation, or in the form of graphs called Graphical Presentation, or in the form of sentences or statements called Textual Presentation.

Discussion Topical presentation according to the results earlier presented. Includes analysis and interprets data in a unified or holistic manner.

V. Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

Summary Includes brief and concise statement of the general objective or main purpose as well as the specific problems of the study, the significance of the study, the methods of research used including the respondents involved in the study; as well as the research instruments and sampling design techniques utilized in the whole process of research. It also includes textual and numerical summary of important data and significant results or findings of the study especially upon which the conclusion is based.

Conclusion Includes the general statements, inferences, generalization/s and implications based on the findings or results of the study
It is usually derived from the hypotheses or assumptions of the study. Concluding statement should be expressed in objective, concise, clear and straightforward manner.

Recommendations Includes a detailed description of the suggestions for future action based on the significance of the findings.
Includes also some recommendations for future research

Additional Components of Research Report

BIBLIOGRAPHY OR REFERENCES Is the listing of all references and other materials cited in the research study, arranged in alphabetical order with proper punctuation marks.

APPENDICES A compilation of selected excerpts or entire documents or materials related to the study. ABSTRACT Composed of one or two page synopsis of the study, usually placed at the beginning of the paper. Restate the problem and/or the hypothesis, significance of the study, the research design, number of subjects and how they were selected, the instruments used, the procedures and major findings and conclusions.