Water Resources

Introduction

Two types of water subject to pollution Surface water rivers, lakes, oceans
Uses: drinking, recreational [fishing, boating, swimming], irrigation.

Groundwater- occurs beneath a water table in soils or rocks; subject to pollution from toxic chemicals.
Uses: drinking, irrigation, etc

Water Resources

Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans. It is important because it is needed for life to exist.

Sources Of Fresh Water

Surface Water Sub-Surface Water Desalination Frozen Water Ground Water

Surface Water
Surface water is water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland. Surface water is naturally replenished by precipitation and naturally lost through discharge to the oceans, evaporation, and sub-surface seepage.

Sub-Surface Water
Sub-Surface water, or groundwater, is fresh water located in the pore space of soil and rocks. It is also water that is flowing within aquifers below the water table. Sometimes it is useful to make a distinction between sub-surface water that is closely associated with surface water and deep sub-surface water in an aquifer (sometimes called "fossil water").

- is water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of lithologic formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become fully saturated with water is called the water table.

Desalination
Desalination is an artificial process by which saline water (generally ocean water) is converted to fresh water. The most common desalination processes are distillation and reverse osmosis. Desalination is currently very expensive compared to most alternative sources of water, and only a very small fraction of total human use is satisfied by desalination.

Frozen Water
Several schemes have been proposed to make use of icebergs as a water source, however to date this has only been done for novelty purposes. Glacier runoff is considered to be surface water.

Uses Of Fresh Water

Uses of fresh water can be categorized as consumptive and non-consumptive (sometimes called "renewable"). A use of water is consumptive if that water is not immediately available for another use. Losses to sub-surface seepage and evaporation are considered consumptive, as is water incorporated into a product (such as farm produce). Water that can be treated and returned as surface water, such as sewage, is generally considered non-consumptive if that water can be put to additional use.

Uses Of Fresh Water

Agricultural Industrial Household Recreational Environmental Activities

Agricultural
It is estimated that 69% of world-wide water use is for irrigation. In some areas of the world irrigation is necessary to grow any crop at all. Irrigation methods such as overhead sprinkler irrigation are usually less expensive but also less efficient, because much of the water evaporates or runs off. More efficient irrigation methods include drip or trickle irrigation, surge irrigation, and some types of sprinkler systems where the sprinklers are operated near ground level. These types of systems, while more expensive, can minimize runoff and evaporation. Any system that is improperly managed can be wasteful.

Agricultural
Aquaculture is a small but growing agricultural use of water. Freshwater commercial fisheries may also be considered as agricultural uses of water, but have generally been assigned a lower priority than irrigation.

Industrial
It is estimated that 15% of world-wide water use is industrial. Major industrial users include power plants, which use water for cooling or as a power source (i.e. hydroelectric plants), ore and oil refineries, which use water in chemical processes, and manufacturing plants, which use water as a solvent. The portion of industrial water usage that is consumptive varies widely, but as a whole is lower than agricultural use.

Household
It is estimated that 15% of world-wide water use is for household purposes. These include drinking water, bathing, cooking, sanitation, and gardening. Most household water is treated and returned to surface water systems, with the exception of water used for landscapes. Household water use is therefore less consumptive than agricultural or industrial uses.

Recreational
Recreational water use is usually a very small but growing percentage of total water use. Recreational water use is mostly tied to reservoirs. If a reservoir is kept fuller than it would otherwise be for recreation, then the water retained could be categorized as recreational usage. Release of water from a few reservoirs is also timed to enhance whitewater boating, which also could be considered a recreational usage. Other examples are anglers, water skiers, nature enthusiasts and swimmers.

Environmental
Explicit environmental water use is also a very small but growing percentage of total water use. Environmental water usage includes artificial wetlands, artificial lakes intended to create wildlife habitat, fish ladders around dams, and water releases from reservoirs timed to help fish spawn. Like recreational usage, environmental usage is nonconsumptive but may reduce the availability of water for other users at specific times and places. For example, water release from a reservoir to help fish spawn may not be available to farms upstream.

Sources of wastewater

Municipal wastewater - includes all waste under the control of local authorities or agents acting on their behalf. Schools Street litter Civic amenity site waste Municipal parks Hotels Garden wastes Council office waste Industrial wastewater Airport glycol deicing Rendering plants Tire fire wastewater Fish culture wastewater Dairies Metal plating industries Oily bilges

Agricultural Animal wastes both liquid and solid, The piggery waste is comparable to other animal wastes except that many piggery wastes contain elevated levels of copper that can be toxic in the natural environment. Ascraid worms and their eggs are also common and can infect humans. Silage liquor Fresh or wilted grass or other crops can be made into the semi fermented product called silage which can be stored and used as winter forage for cattle and sheep. The production of silage often involves the use of a n acid conditioner such as sulfuric acid or formic acid. The process of silage making frequently produces yellow-brown strongly smelling liquid which is very rich in simple sugars, alcohol, short-chain organic acids and silage conditioner. The liquor on it own can cause structural problems in concrete pits because of the acidic nature of silage liquor. Pesticide run off and surpluses Inappropriate use of pesticides so that pesticide-containing wastewaters enter the environment can give rise to severe and long lasting ecological damage.

 Milking parlor wastes Although milk has deserved reputation as an important and valuable food product, its presence in wastewaters is highly polluting because of its organic strength, which can lead to very rapid de-oxygenation of receiving waters. Milking parlor wastes also contain very large volumes of wash-down water, some animal waste together with cleaning and disinfection chemicals. Slaughtering waste wastewater from slaughtering activities is similar to milking parlor waste although considerably stronger in its organic composition and therefore potentially much more polluting. Vegetable washing water washing of vegetables produces large volumes of water contaminated by soil and vegetable pieces. Low levels of pesticides used to treat the vegetables may also be present together with moderate levels of disinfectants such as chlorine. Fire water Few farms plan for fires, fires are nevertheless more common on farms than on many other industrial premises.

Characteristics of wastewater Municipal gray color, musty odor contains organic components Industrial dependent on processes that produce a water based waste water Agricultural Relates to the treatment of wastewaters produced in the course of agricultural activities.

How wastewater affects people The water we use never really goes away. In fact, there never will be any more or any less water on Earth than there is right now, which means that all of the wastewater generated by our communities each day from homes, farms, businesses, and factories eventually returns to the environment to be used again. So, when wastewater receives inadequate treatment, the overall quality of the worlds water supply suffers. Locally, the amount of wastewater homes and communities produce, its characteristics, and how it is handled can greatly impact residents quality of life. Wastewater has the potential to affect public health, the local economy, recreation, residential and business development, utility bills, taxes, and other aspects of everyday life. Because small community residents, in particular, are more likely to be directly responsible for making decisions about their wastewater, it is important that they know something about its characteristics (that is, its components, strength, volume, and flow) and how certain characteristics can affect their lives.

In the study of groundwater contamination, however, toxic chemicals are the principal pollutants of concern. The 25 most frequently detected contaminants found in groundwater at hazardous waste sites are listed in Table 5.14. Nine of these contaminants are inorganic: lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), zinc (Zn), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), barium (Ba), and nickel (Ni).

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Contaminant Trichloroethylene Lead Tetrachloroethylene Benzene Toluene Chromium Methylene Chloride Zinc 1,1,1-Trichloroethane Arsenic Chloroform 1,1-Dichloroethane

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

trans-1,2-Dichloroethene Cadmium Manganese Copper 1,1-Dichloroethene Vinyl chloride Barium 1,2-Dichloroethane Ethylbenzene Nickel Di(2-ethylhexy)phthalate Xylenes Phenol

Water Stagnation
Water stagnation occurs when water stops flowing. Stagnant water can be a major environmental hazard. Classifications of Stagnant Water Water body stagnation: stagnation in lakes, lagoons, rivers etc. Surface and groundwater stagnation Trapped water stagnation: The water may be trapped in human artifacts (discarded cans, pots, tires, dug-outs, roofs, etc.) as well as in natural containers, such as hollow tree trunks, leaf sheaths, etc.

What are the main dangers of stagnant water? Malaria & Dengue
bacteria parasites

What is acid rain?

Acid rain is polluted rain, snow, or fog. The burning of fossil fuels, base metal smelting, and fuel combustion in vehicles emits sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides .These gases enter the atmosphere and transform into sulfuric acid and nitric acid, which then acidify the water vapor. The acidified water vapor will then fall to the earth as acid rain, snow, or fog .

Acidification of lakes
All rainfall is naturally somewhat acidic. Pure water in equilibrium with atmospheric carbon dioxide forms a weak solution of carbonic acid wuth the pH of about 5.6. Acid deposition is the scientific term to describe acid rain.

OUTLINE
Introduction
Water subject to pollution Pollutants

Domestic Policy International Policy

International watercourse Marine Pollution
Development of regime
Land-based Sources Dumping Pollution from Ships

Liability

Conclusion

 Contamination Nature of sources of contamination [point and nonpoint]

Point source: discharge into surface waters at a specific location through a pipe, outfall or ditch.]

 Non-point: Indirect or diffuse effect on water [N/B. more difficult to control] e.g. agricultural activities, urban run-off

 Sources of contamination
For Groundwater
-polluting substances leach into a watersaturated region [e.g. toxic chemicals] -Mainly due to migration of pollutants from sites with high concentrations of chemicals [e.g. industrial waste sites and farms]

 Sources of contamination
For Surface water
Rivers and lakes
Point source: -sewage [municipal or private]

- industrial wastes
Non-point source: Agricultural activity [e.g. pesticides, fertilizers]. urban and highway water runoff.

Ocean [oil spills, dumping, land-based sources]

Oil spills during transportation, either accidentally or intentionally Dumping sewage, chemical disposal, radioactive materials Land-based sources migration of chemical substances.

Types of Pollutants [Fund and accumulating pollutants]

I) Fund pollutants
-Environment has some assimilative capacity. If capacity for absorption higher than rate of injection, they may not accumulate.

a) Degradable
degrades/break into component parts within water. Are normally organic residuals attacked and broken down by bacteria and become less harmful.

b) Thermal pollution
caused by injection of heat into watercourses by an industrial plant or electric utility using surface water as a coolant, and returning the heated water to the watercourse.

 c) Plant nutrients [nitrogen and phosphorus] [eutrophic/ eutrophication =excess supply of nutrients in a lake]
stimulate growth of aquatic plant life, e.g. algae and water weeds. can produce odor if in excess.

d) Infectious organisms [e.g. bacteria and viruses]

carried into both ground and surface water by domestic and animal wastes; industrial wastes e.g. tanning and meat packaging Are live organisms that may thrive and multiply in water or decline.

II) Accumulating/stock pollutants

Environment has little or no absorptive capacity [i.e. no natural process removes/transforms them].
accumulate over time.

Examples: non-biodegradable bottles, heavy metals [e.g. lead, mercury]; persistent synthetic chemicals [e.g. dioxin, and PCBs polychlorinated biphenyls]
not easily broken down; so can remain in water for long. also accumulate in the food chain.

Water Pollution Control Policy: Domestic Dimension [U.S.]

Water Pollution Control Act, 1956
i) Federal financial support for construction of waste treatment plants
focused on a control strategy based on subsidizing construction of waste treatment plants as a particular control activity. Municipalities would receive grant of upto 55% for construction of waste treatment plants.

ii) Enforcement conference mechanism

sought to effect direct federal regulation of waste discharges Federal authority could call for a conference of interstate water pollution problem.

 Clean Water Act, 1972

Two goals
elimination of discharge of pollutants into navigable waters by 1985 achieve water quality for fishing and recreation [swimming].

New procedures for implementing the law introduced

permits for all dischargers [qualification based on meeting certain technology-based effluent standards]. especially sewage treatment plants and factories.
first best practicable control technology currently available [BPT] later, best available technology economically achievable[BAT]

Raised ceiling of subsidizing municipal waste treatment plants to 75%

 Safe Drinking Water Act, 1974, amended 1986

Improvement on 1972 Act to include drinking water. EPA regulations set maximum levels for pollutants for community water systems. All community water systems must prepare and distribute annual reports about the water they provide, including information on detected contaminants, possible health effects, and the water's source.

Domestic policy on international waters: Ocean

I) Oil spills covered under the Clean Water Act:
prohibits discharges of harmful quantities of oil into navigable waters industry assume responsibility for any damage [clean up; compensation for environmental restoration.

II) Dumping
Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act, 1972.
address discharges of waste
within U.S. territorial limits by U.S. vessels or persons in any ocean waters.