Light Amplification

optical feed back and light amplification or oscillation Light amplification in the LASER occurs when a photon colliding with an atom in the excited state, causes the stimulated emission of a second photon and then both of these release two more. This process can effectively creates avalanche multiplication. Coherency is achieved by confiscating the light produced with in the two mirrors acts as the +ve feed back. One mirror is semi-transparent which is used as o/p to be coupled to required devices.
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Fabry perot resonator

Fabry perot resonator

Fabry perot resonator

Light having different frequency cannot gets amplified in the fabry perot resonator. Single frequency of multiple harmonics of fundamental frequency can only exist. The standing wave formation must satisfy the following condition:

Fabry perot resonator

Length defines the number of frequencies which can exist whereas, width defines the density of o/p. The standing wave can only exist at the frequencies for which the distance b/w the mirrors are integer multiple of /2 The expression can be written as:
L= q/2n Where
=wavelength N=refractive index of the medium q=integer
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Discreet which can exist: Frequencies generated as a function of length L are called longitudinal or axial modes In terms of fractional frequency we can write

q c f = 2n L

c ............( 2 ) 2nL In terms of wavelenght c = f wheref = f & f = f 2 = f c from equation 2

f =

c 2nL

2 2 c / = ..... 2nL c 2nl / finally we get : 2 = 2nL

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Modes patterns

TEM00 TEM10 TEM11

Threshold Condition For Laser Oscillation

THE sustained stimulated emission is obtained when the amplifying medium balance the total loss: Loss coefficient per unit length / cm :

fractional loss = r1r2 exp( 2 L ) The gain coefficient : g / cm fractional gain = exp( 2 gL ) Hence for sustained stimulation :

exp( 2 gL ) r1r2 exp( 2 L ) = 1 1 1 g = + ln 2 L r1r2

the threshold per unit length may be obtained :

Optical emission from semiconductor

Protperties of semiconductors: Intrinsic s/c Extrinsic s/c
Intrinsic s/c: a perfect semiconductor material with no impurities or lattice defects are called intrinsic s/c. the intrinsic s/c the energy distribution is as follow:

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 The thermally excited electron in conduction band and holes left in valance band allow conduction through the material. In intrinsic type s/c the energy distribution is fermi-dirac and probability of electron excitation is given as:
P(E)=1/[1+EXP(E-EF )/KT]
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 Extrinsic s/c:
To create the extrinsic type s/c the material is dopped with impurities to create more free electrons (donor impurities) or holes (acceptor impurities). Intension is to provide the capability to produce free electrons or holes in s/c material. The energy distribution is as follow:
The energy distribution near the conduction band in donor type s/c The energy distribution is near the valance band in acceptor type s/c.
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Shift of fermi-D energy

P - type N-type

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Laser through heterojunction type material

LASER generated by using through single p-n junction fabricated from single s/c material are called homojunction. The radiative properties of junction diode can be improved by using hetero-junction.
Heterojunction is an interface between two single adjoining crystal s/c. H/junctions are classified as isotype (n-n,p-p) or anisotype (p-n).
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Laser through hetrojunction type material

The isotype H/junction provide potential barrier within the structure which confines the minority carrier to a small radiative region.
It effectively reduces the carrier diffusion and volume within the structure where carrier recombination may take place. Heterojunction is widly used in injection LASER.
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DH junction LASER
DH junction LASER structure provides the optical confinement in vertical direction through the refractive index step at the Heterojunction interface. LASING takes place across the broad area of the entire surface. Broad emission area creates several problems, difficult heat sinking, unsuitable light geometry, difficult coupling. This requires to develop a suitable geometry.
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Strip geometry
Broad area optical o/p

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Strip geometry
Optical o/p is confined in the horizontal direction. Major current fllows through the device and optical o/p and active region is within the strip. Strip is formed by high resistance material on either side by photon bombardment or oxide isolation. Strip acts as the guiding mechanism which over come the broad area problems The o/p beam divergence is 45 deg perpendicular to the plane and 9 deg h/plane.
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- Broad area injection LASER - Sub peaks due to higher order horizontal transverse lateral modes

- Longitudinal mode obtained by using strip geometry

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Light Emitting Diode

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Spontaneous emission
The increased concentration of minority carriers in opposite type region in the forward biased p-n diodes lead to the recombination of carriers across the band gap.
Normally empty electrons states in conduction band of p-type material. Normally empty hole states in valance band of n-type material.
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Spontaneous emission
Conduction band in p-type material Conduction band in n-type material

Valance band in ptype material

Valance band in ntype material

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Spontaneous emission
Carrier recombination i.e.electron hole recombination.releases the energy (radiative mode). The released energy is equal to band gap energy.
E = hf .=.hc/.. =1.24/Eg Where Eg is in ev,

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Spontaneous emission

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Optical source: LEDs

Characteristics of LEDs:

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 Disadvantages of LEDs:

incoherent light due to which probability of light coupling into the fiber is less.

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Types of LEDs
There are five types of LEDS based on their structure and material used.
Planar type Dome type Surface emitter Edge emitter Super luminescent type

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Types of LEDs
Planar LED;
The planar LED is the simplest of the structure. Fabricated by liquid or vapor-phase epitaxial process over the whole surface of GaAs substrate. P type difusion into n-type substrate to create junction. Forward current give spontaneous emission from all surface.
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Planar LED

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Dome Type LED

A hemisphere of n-type GaAs is formed around a diffused ptype region. Dia of dome is chosen to maximize the amount of internal emission reaching the surface within the critical angle of GaAs-air interface
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Surface emitter LED

Wavelenght is from 0.8-0.9 micro meter o/fiber is etched to reduce the refractive index mismatch and to increase internal power efficiency. Mainly used for graded index fiber.
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Surface emitter LED

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Edge emitter LED

Similar to strip geometry injection LASER It takes advantages of transparent guiding layers with a very thin active layer (50-100m)

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Super luminescent LED

Provides high o/p power Directional o/p power. Narrow spectral o/p.

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Characteristics of LEDS
IDEAL charateristics

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Spectral o/p

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