Introduction

This edition of the Style Manual, like previous editions, offers rules, recommendations and information for authors, editors, graphic designers and printers. The structure adopted for the fourth edition has been retained, but all the chapters have been revised to take account of new technology or have been otherwise modified. The fourth edition's chapter on non-sexist language has been broadened to include other areas of discrimination and promotes the positive aspects of non-discriminatory language. The chapters on writing, proofreading and indexing have been rewritten to provide different perspectives from those of earlier editions; and chapter 9, 'Notes, references and bibliographies', has been rearranged and also now includes the referencing of film and some electronic media. The glossary has been expanded and updated. This reprint has been published by AusInfo which was formed to fulfil the public interest functions of the former Australian Government Publishing Service. Although AusInfo is the new government authority on Commonwealth style, advice pertaining to style is not new. Every publication is different, and the rules and recommendations set out in this manual may need to be adapted to meet particular requirements. No publication, whatever its nature, should be expected to follow slavishly any set of rules if to do so would have an adverse effect on the text as a whole. What counts above all is consistency of approach and treatment; and for that reason, discretion, sensitivity and sheer commonsense should always prevail in writing and editing. Each edition of the Style Manual has for the most part been written with Commonwealth government publications in mind, but this has not inhibited its extensive use by those working in commercial publishing and other areas of written communication. The publisher hopes that this new edition will continue to make its contribution to the achievement of excellence in Australian publishing, and will be pleased to receive any comments about it that the user may wish to make. Many constructive comments and suggestions followed publication of the fourth edition; all were considered, and many have been acted upon. Correspondence relating to Style Manual matters should be addressed to: The Editor, Style Manual, Information Services, Department of Finance and Administration, GPO Box 1920, Canberra, ACT 2601. The Information Services home page is http:/ / www.finance.gov.au/infoaccess.

Principles of good writing

Responsible writing 1.1 This chapter deals with some of the principles of good functional writing. Whether you are writing something for publication, such as a book or an article, or something for internal use, such as a memorandum, a report, a 'ministerial' or a letter, the principles remain the same. 1.2 The purpose of writing is to convey to another person what is in the writer's mind. 'Good writing', therefore, is writing which does this effectively. Every organisation needs to encourage good writing for at least three reasons. Firstly, it is efficient: if what is in the writer's mind is conveyed effectively, time will not be wasted in sorting out misunderstandings. Secondly, it is economical: efficient communication saves both time and money. Thirdly, good writing gives a favourable impression of the organisation. 1.3 Conversely, bad writing leads to confusion, mistakes and misunderstandings. These can cost time and money; and they convey a bad impression of the organisation's efficiency. 1.4 In organisations, writers may be called upon to express their personal opinions, but what they write is nevertheless intended to serve not their own interests but those of the organisation that employs them. It follows that to write well is to write responsibly: it is an important aspect of your duty towards your colleagues and the organisation as a whole. 1.5 In most organisations, writers do not normally decide what the organisation writes or prints for the public. There is a corporate responsibility, and many people may take part in the drafting of a document. Nowadays, many if not most documents are drafted on personal computers. Drafts of documents may be passed from one person to another electronically, whereas formerly it was usual to send a hand-written text to a typist and then circulate it. If each person involved writes responsibly, everybody's job will be made easier. 1.6 Good writing is based on a number of principles, all of which are important. Three, however, are fundamentalclarity, conciseness and style. Clarity 1.7 It is obvious that the most effective way of conveying one's meaning to someone else is to write clearly; but that is often easier said than done. If you are writing under pressure, for instance to meet a tight deadline, you may feel tempted to write hurriedly with little attention to the way in which you express your thoughts. Clear writing, however, requires both time and care. If what you write is not clear, you will not in the end save time or effort at all. On the contrary, lack of clarity can waste a great deal of your time, as well as that of other people, in redrafting, discussing and clearing up the misunderstandings that have been caused.

FIRST STEPS

1.8 Before you start writing, you should spend some time considering what precisely you want to say. If you are not clear about this in your own mind, you will certainly not be able to write clearly. You may need to discuss the matter with someone else, or to jot down notes to help you think it through. 1.9 It is also important to be quite clear about what sort of document you are preparing. The reply to someone's letter on a particular topic will obviously need to be different from a press release or a pamphlet intended for the general public. Unfortunately, many people have written to seek specific information, only to receive a reply which showed that its writer had not taken the trouble to think about its purpose or the expectations of the original correspondent. For example, if a member of the public writes to a government department asking about eligibility for funding under a particular scheme, he or she expects a clear and direct answer, not a general description of the government's policies and guidelines. 1.10 Similarly, it is important to be sure who your readers are, or are likely to be. The author of the following example presumably had in mind the younger generation of bus passengers; but people of all ages use buses and perhaps the very elderly may also need to be reminded about giving a clear signal to the driver. They are not, however, very likely to want to imitate John Cleese:
Bus drivers, like auctioneers, need good clear signals. When your bus is approaching stand about a metre away from the kerb and signal the driver that you wish to board the bus by raising one arm. This may seem a bit boring but it is the most effective method of catching a bus, even more so than John Cleese impersonations!

1.11 Be clear, too, about who you are and what your role is. Responsibility towards an organisation includes caring about the impression you give to other people. If you talk down to them, attempt to bully them, or try to deceive them with evasions or deliberate ambiguity, that impression will be a bad one. A newly qualified lawyer once started work with a municipal council, so it is said, and was immediately given the unpopular task of trying to recover overdue rates. He had little knowledge of the powers of the council and forgot that he was merely an employee, so he wrote to delinquent ratepayers as follows:
I understand that you owe the Council $xyz in overdue rates. If you do not pay immediately, I shall take measures that will astound you.

The letter was remarkably successful in recovering outstanding rates, but the young man had to be told very firmly by the Town Clerk exactly what his role was in the organisation.
ORGANISING YOUR MATERIAL

1.12 Once you are clear about what you are required to produce, you may find it useful to jot down, perhaps in a random form, the gist of what you want to say. Reducing your thoughts to a few words will help you to clarify them and avoid irrelevancies or diversions. 1.13 If the document is to be relatively lengthy or complex, it is usually a good idea to outline a logical structure which sets out in headings the main points you wish to make and the

subsidiary material. Start from what you are sure (or can safely presume) that your readers already know, and summarise the steps that lead to what you want them to know. Many modern software packages have a facility known as 'outlining' or something similar, which makes it very easy to set out your argument with major headings, subheadings and so on. This is often a very helpful way of seeing at a glance whether you are thinking logically, and the computer automatically labels your various levels of heading. The following example comes from one of the most popular current software packages:
I. POLICY AND PRACTICES A. Introduction B. Policy development C. Training D. Consultation II. PROGRAM ANALYSIS A. Audit methodology B. Country programs 1. Introduction 2. Environmental programs 3. Education and training programs C. Global programs 1. Multilateral activities 2. Non-government organisations

1.14 You can of course create a similar structure even if you do not have the use of a personal computer. When you are satisfied that you have a logical structure it may help to summarise what you want to say at each stage of the discussion, under the headings in that outline.
CHOOSING THE BEST WORDS

1.15 Clear writing has a lot to do with choosing the 'right' words and expressions. The 'right' words convey your meaning directly and unambiguously; the 'wrong' ones leave the reader uncertain or confused. 1.16 Because the English language has such a large vocabulary, it is often possible to choose between alternative words which mean the same, or almost the same, thing. For example:
deep harmful children stop send profound deleterious progeny discontinue transmit

Which word you choose should depend on which is clearer. Generally speaking, the shorter words are clearer, stronger and more concrete; the longer ones vaguer and more abstract. Clearly, there can be contexts, such as in a legal document, in which any of the words listed in the second column above might be the right word; but good writers will avoid the temptation to use the longer word because they think it is more 'dignified' or 'impressive'. There are some such

words, indeed, which might better be removed from the vocabulary altogether. The word 'commence' is one of them. It is hard to imagine any context in which that word would be preferable to 'start' or 'begin'; yet it is very often used because people seem to feel that it is somehow more genteel than the alternatives.
PASSIVE VOICE

1.17 Some books on good writing urge writers to avoid the passive voice and use the active voice whenever possible. It is not hard to show why that is desirable. Consider the following sentence:
You can get a shock from your telephone during a thunderstorm.

It is obviously clearer and more direct than

Persons using telephones during thunderstorms are advised that electrical shocks may be experienced.

Similarly,
The Minister believes that the subsidy should not be restricted to rural areas.

is clearer than the vague statement

It is believed that the subsidy should not be restricted to rural areas.

1.18 On the other hand, there may be times when you cannot avoid the passive. The chapter on non-discriminatory language gives examples of sentences in which use of the passive may be the only way of avoiding tedious repetitions of 'he or she' and the like. Similarly, there may be occasions when, as in the example quoted above, such constructions as 'it is believed that' are appropriate. One such occasion could be when you may not be confident of the Minister's view, or even the department's view, and you simply want to draw attention to a widely held belief without attributing it to any particular individual or body. 1.19 Nevertheless, a good writer will always think carefully about whether it is better to use the passive rather than the active. As we have seen, it is often possible to avoid the passive by using the second person ('you') instead of an impersonal passive. In this respect, there have been great improvements in official notices and information in recent years, thanks in particular to the growing emphasis on plain English. Expressions such as 'Persons desirous of doing A are advised to complete form B' are now much more likely to read 'If you wish to do A, you should fill in form B'. This is all to the good, but it takes care and attention to make sure that you are always so clear and direct.
CHOOSING THE CORRECT WORDS

1.20 Using the right words does not only mean using the clearest ones; it also means using words in their correct sense and form. Recently, for example, many writers and speakers seem to have forgotten the difference between the verbs 'convince' and 'persuade'. Certainly they overlap and occasionally are interchangeable, but basically you convince people that what you

say is true, or that your argument is correct; you persuade them to do something. It makes perfectly good sense to say:
You have convinced me [that you are right], but you have not persuaded me [to do what you want].

If you use 'convince' all the time in preference to 'persuade', you deprive yourself of a useful distinction and so make it more difficult to express your meaning clearly. 1.21 'Imply' and 'infer' are also often confused. To imply something is to suggest it without actually stating it; to infer something is to come to a conclusion from evidence or from what someone else has stated. For example:
His comments implied that they would be dismissed. They inferred from his comments that they would be dismissed.

1.22 The words 'may' and 'might' are closely related; but they often serve quite different purposes and should be used correctly. If you are talking about the past, then what may have happened is a possibility, but you do not know whether it was so or not. What might have happened did not happenbut under other circumstances it could have. At the time of the turmoil in Fiji, a news reader announced:
The Prime Minister of Fiji said this morning that Australia and New Zealand may have saved democracy in his country by invading.

This clearly said to startled listeners that Australia and New Zealand had in fact invaded Fiji, but the outcome was still uncertain. It turned out, however, that what the Prime Minister meant (or perhaps said, but was wrongly reported) was that those countries might have saved democracy had they invadedbut they did not. Obviously, this is an important difference and one that writers should be careful to maintain. 1.23 A less common error, but one which occurs quite often with certain pairs of words, is to use the wrong word altogether: that is, to use it with the wrong meaning. Usually this happens because there are words which look alike but have different meanings. For example:
full averse militate affect alternately disinterested continual forceful compliment licence fulsome adverse mitigate effect alternatively uninterested continuous forcible complement license

1.24 There are words in English which change their form (or spelling), or combine with other words in such a way that they can easily be confused with each other. Writers need to be quite sure that they use the right one; for example:
it's [it is] its [belonging to it]

who's [who is] you're [you are] they're [they are] POSITIVE VERSUS NEGATIVE

whose [belonging to whom] your [belonging to you] their [belonging to them]

1.25 In general, writers should choose positive expressions rather than negative ones, if there is a choice. This is because negative expressions such as 'The Minister is not unaware that . . .' sound both pompous and defensive in comparison with positive statements such as 'The Minister realises that . . .' Moreover, positive statements are more likely to get results than negative ones. The following statement, for example, reads like a complaint about a sad state of affairs rather than the urging of a desirable course of action:
Without a major information initiative directed to specific target groups, misunderstanding of XYZ's intention can occur and impair the effectiveness of the Australian program.

There are other aspects of that sentence that are open to criticism, but if its object is to make sure that money is spent on information, it would have more effect if written positively:
The Australian program will have a much better chance of being effective if major efforts are made to inform those groups which might otherwise misunderstand XYZ's intention. STRINGS OF NOUNS

1.26 One useful characteristic of English is that you can string nouns together to make new phrases: salt water, cloud formations, government spending, traffic laws and so on. However, if this is overdone, the effect can be very clumsy and tedious. Long strings of nouns may be useful as titles for programs and policies (Third World Development Co-operation Program, Defence Force Retirement Benefits Fund), but they should not be used for other purposes. Consider the following sentences, in which the strings of nouns are italicised:
Commonwealth spending in 199091 targeted on language and literacy totalled over $240 million, through 23 specific purpose programs and policy support. State and Territory systems' expenditure on language and literacy programs, particularly at school level, is far greater and they have recently strengthened their language and literacy policy statements.

Writing of that sort, particularly when it occurs throughout a long document, is deadening. The same information could have been given in a less tedious way:
In 199091, the Commonwealth spent more than $240 million in supporting policies for language and literacy and on 23 programs for specific purposes. The States and Territories spend far more on programs for language and literacy through their school systems and have recently strengthened their statements of policy on these matters. STOCK EXPRESSIONS

1.27 In an organisation, it is often convenient to use stock expressions and phrases. Since everyone in the organisation knows what they mean, it would be tedious to spell them out every time they were used. However, writers should realise that people outside the organisation will probably not be familiar with these terms and will often resent them as unpleasant jargon.

1.28 'Aged Persons Units', for example, is a standard term for a range of housing provided for elderly people. It is a convenient term for planners, welfare officers and other officials concerned with providing such accommodation, and it may have to be used to explain what laws and regulations say on the subject. But in general writing on the subject of housing the elderly, it should be used sparingly if at all. To the general public, the term sounds offensively bureaucratic and heartless, especially when it is abbreviated to 'APUs'. When people grow old, they still like to think that they live in their home, not in an 'APU' or a 'dwelling'.
JARGON

1.29 Even worse is the use of other people's technical language. The vocabulary of sociology or computer science has its place within those disciplines, but to use terms such as 'socioeconomic profile', 'interface' or 'parameters' in non-technical documents suggests to readers that the author is trying to impress them with her or his superior knowledge.
CLICHS

1.30 Clichs are trite, overused expressions which have long since lost their freshness and are used to save the trouble of finding straightforward, simple expressions. 'Trials and tribulations' is the clich cited by The Macquarie Dictionary in its definition of the word. Other familiar clichs are:
to explore every avenue conspicuous by his / her absence to damn with faint praise few and far between from time immemorial the powers that be through thick and thin an uphill battle

Most of us could readily quote dozens of similar expressions, all of which should be avoided.
EUPHEMISMS

1.31 Euphemisms, words that make things sound better than they really are, may have their place in rhetoric but should generally be avoided. The following are just a few of the more familiar ones:
senior citizens (= the old, the elderly) to pass away (= to die) rodent operative (= rat-catcher) revenue augmentation (= tax increase) frank discussions (= disagreement) to misspeak oneself (= to lie)

Most euphemisms are harmless enough, but those that hide the truth can be vicious and dangerousfor example, the word 'pacification', used in wars by the military authorities in order to conceal the reality of mass killing. 1.32 Sometimes euphemisms are used in a well-meaning but misguided attempt to avoid giving offence. Thus, 'persons of low economic status' may be mistakenly thought to be a kinder way of referring to the poor; but poverty is a harsh thing which needs to be dealt with resolutely,

and resolute action is less likely to be taken if the poor are described in such bland, impersonal terms.
SLANG AND COLLOQUIALISMS

1.33 Slang and colloquialisms belong to speech or to light literature; they should be avoided in other forms of writing. It may sometimes be tempting to use a slang expression to avoid seeming pompous, but there is usually a better way of doing this. Colloquial forms such as the contractions 'can't' and 'don't' sit awkwardly in formal writing.
FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES

1.34 The use of foreign words and phrases often seems pretentious, especially if there is a ready English equivalent. If you do feel it necessary to use a phrase such as 'ad nauseam', at least make sure that you spell it correctly (it is not 'ad nauseum'). Some commonly used words and phrases are:
de rigueur sine die Weltanschauung la dolce vita VOGUE WORDS AND PHRASES noblesse oblige bte noire mutatis mutandis joie de vivre

1.35 Official writing is often characterised by the use of a special set of words or phrases that happen to be in vogue at a particular time. Usually these do not mean anything very precise. Sometimes writers want to show that they are up to date with the latest fashion, sometimes they wish to impress the reader with high-flown language, or they may simply want to save themselves the trouble of thinking of alternatives. Vogue words and phrases make the sentence in which they occur simply vague or, at the worst, obscure. 1.36 In the two examples below, the vogue words are italicised. The words and phrases in brackets are possible alternatives, although it is sometimes not clear which of these would be accurate, since the vogue words disguise what the writer really means. One commonly used vogue word is the verb 'to address', as in the following example:
The Commonwealth has commissioned an evaluation of these programs and will address issues arising from this evaluation once the study is completed. [consider, discuss, deal with]

To say that the Commonwealth will 'address' something is to say virtually nothing at all; it certainly does not commit the Commonwealth to action of any kind. 1.37 In the next example we see the vogue use of the verb 'to identify':
The Government will continue to pay close attention to needs in these areas in identifying priorities for allocating any additional higher education student places which it funds. [choosing, deciding on, establishing, selecting, determining]

To 'identify' something is to recognise it or put a name to it, as when we identify a flower or a make of car. It presupposes that the thing in question already exists. In this case, the priorities

do not exist until the Government has made its mind up about them. The common use of the verb 'to identify' sometimes suggests that writers wish to imply that the things to be 'identified' are not the result of discussion or invention, but are somehow handed down to us by nature or a higher force. 1.38 Consider the extract below:
The program is targeted at alleviating environmental problems caused by deforestation. The impact of establishing fast growing, highly productive tree plantations can have both short-term and longterm consequences to environmental values.

Here, in addition to the mistake of 'consequences to' instead of 'consequences for', we have three examples of vogue words. 'Target' is not a verb (nor, we may note, is 'impact') and nothing is gained by using it as one. The first sentence says only:
The aim of the program is to alleviate the environmental problems caused by deforestation.

In the second sentence, 'impact' is unnecessary. In any case, trees grow, they do not usually hit anything unless they fall! The expression 'consequences for [to] environmental values' conveys little, and particularly the vogue word 'values'. Are the consequences beneficial or harmful? And what is the difference between 'the environment' and 'environmental values'? Furthermore, it is difficult to see what the connection is between the two sentences. 1.39 The context suggests that this passage might mean:
The aim of the program is to alleviate the environmental problems caused by deforestation. But if denuded areas are replanted with highly productive, fast-growing species, this too can adversely affect the environment in both the short and the long term.

This may or may not be an accurate rewriting of the paragraph: the writer's use of vogue words makes it impossible to be sure. 1.40 Many other examples can be found in official writing and elsewhere. Readers can make their own lists, for the vogues and fads change constantly. The remedy is to be vigilant and to keep a dictionary handy. Certainly words change their meaning, but when they are used vaguely to save the trouble of thinking of a precise alternative, then they do not merely change their meaningthey lose it.
FORMING SENTENCES

1.41 Even if a writer uses clear words and phrases, the meaning of a sentence will not be clear if they are put together in a muddled or confusing way. 1.42 A sentence is clearest when it makes a single statement. If it is necessary to refer to other matters, or to qualify what you are saying, it is best to use either another sentence or a footnote. Where a sentence has to list, for example, a series of options, these can be set out in point form. 1.43 Sentences can easily lose their clarity if they are too long: the writer can lose control of the structure. Fortunately, it is no longer the fashion to write long, involved sentences. The test is

whether you can make a sentence clearer by breaking it up. That can be done both by forming separate sentences and by using colons or semicolons. If you are not sure about punctuation, remember that you need less of it in short sentences. The following sentence is not unduly long:
The Committee recognises that there are good technical arguments for the use of samples in the collection of statistical data, but believes that the practice can only be condoned within the Census context when it has been a consequence of a totally planned operation where Census users at all levels have been consulted on the relative merits of 100 per cent collection as distinct from the use of samples.

Its message would be clearer, however, if it were broken up in the way shown below:
The Committee recognises that there are good technical reasons for the use of samples in the collection of statistical data. It believes, however, that the practice can only be condoned within the Census context when it has been a consequence of a totally planned operation; that is, where Census users at all levels have been consulted on the relative merits of 100 per cent collection as distinct from the use of samples.

1.44 The too frequent appearance of such words as 'when', 'where', 'while', 'although', 'if' and so on is often a signal that the sentence should be broken into smaller units.
SOME POINTS OF GRAMMAR

1.45 Sentences must be grammatically correct. Participles, for instance, are often misused. When a participle is used as an adjective, it refers to the subject of the main verb. If you forget that rule the result can be ludicrous, as in the following example:
Looking over Booker's shoulder, Major Promo's chest swelled with pride at the obvious effect this display of teamwork had on his client.

1.46 Adjectives, too, should be used correctly. They should not be used as adverbs. In such a sentence as 'Consistent with the Government's policy, the committee has decided to . . .', the literal meaning is that it is the committee rather than its decision which is consistent with the policy. 'In accordance with' should be used instead of 'consistent with'. 1.47 Adverbs may easily be used wrongly. The word 'hopefully' strictly means 'in a hopeful manner', as in R. L. Stevenson's adage 'To travel hopefully is a better thing than to arrive'. Its recent use to mean 'we hope that' may be justified by analogy with the long-standing use of words such as 'fortunately' and 'luckily' in a similar way. Nevertheless, care should be taken not to misuse adverbs. 1.48 Unfortunately, many Australians have never been taught grammar, or have been taught it in such a way that they have rebelled against it. Its importance, however, lies in the fact that it is the key to clear rather than muddled writing. Those who feel doubtful about the subject can refer to several books which help to make the problems of grammar clearer. These and other relevant books are listed in the Bibliography.

Conciseness 1.49 Long-windedness tires the reader and makes it more difficult to get your message across. It also wastes the reader's time. It is a fallacy, especially in official writing, to imagine that lengthy sentences and documents are more impressive or profound than short ones. The story has often been told of Winston Churchill's insistence, during the feverish activity of war, that any submission made to him must occupy no more than one side of a sheet of foolscapsized paper. His ministers and subordinates found that the discipline of condensing their thoughts in this way resulted in much more effective submissions. A similar discipline would be welcome today. 1.50 Clarity and conciseness go hand in hand: it will often be found that the clearest words, expressions and sentences prove also to be the shortest. 1.51 In speech, we often repeat ourselves or say the same thing in a different way so as to emphasise important points and make sure our listeners have clearly understood. In writing, this is usually unnecessary. The use of
italics underlining bold type

and setting text out in points, as above, will often serve to draw attention to the most important items. 1.52 The great enemy of conciseness is rambling. Sentences that go on too long and deal with too many points leave the reader wondering what you are really trying to say. A mixture of longer and shorter sentences adds variety and makes your text more readable; but a sentence should never be longer than it needs to be to cover a single point in the discussion. Style 1.53 The word 'style' is commonly used to refer to two different, but overlapping, aspects of writing.
'Style of writing' refers to the words an author chooses and the way in which he or she puts them together in paragraphs or sentences to create a tone or impression. 'Written style' refers to the set of conventions that are used in print to make the meaning clear. These include spelling, punctuation marks, spacing, symbols, underlining and many other conventions that are discussed later in this book. STYLE OF WRITING

1.54 Novelists and other creative writers often have a personal style of writing which is as distinctive as their signature. In organisations, this is generally undesirable; it draws attention to the personality of the author rather than to the organisation's message. This does not imply,

however, that writers in organisations should retreat into a stuffy, official style which is so impersonal that it gives the reader an unfavourable impression of the organisation. 1.55 The question of style will largely solve itself if you are careful about clarity and conciseness, even when the subject matter is complex or technical. It helps to put yourself in the reader's shoes and ask whether what you are writing is the sort of thing you would want to read if the roles were reversed. 1.56 The following paragraphs provide further hints on how to produce a good style of writing. 1.57 Address the reader rather than using impersonal constructions. This can often be achieved by using the word 'if'. 'If you wish to apply for a grant, please complete this form' is obviously less stuffy than 'Persons desirous of obtaining a grant are required to complete the attached form'. 1.58 Use figures of speech sparingly, especially if they border on the clich. Most current fads should be totally shunned. They include:
the bottom line on a learning curve a level playing field a ball-park figure a different ball game to lift one's game the cutting edge fast-tracking the big picture to take on board

However, your style will not suffer from the occasional use of familiar figures of speech if they convey vividly what you want to say:
It is worth noting that in the United States the Supreme Court has taken a dim view of electoral practices which

1.59 Avoid words, phrases and constructions which may make your reader pause to puzzle over your meaning. Here are some of the pitfalls to avoid. Vague statements. In the following statement, 'a number' probably means a number of local governments rather than a number of people, but that is not certain. Vagueness puzzles the reader.
It appears that there is some measure of local government support for staged approvals, though a number would argue that propositions such as 'approvals in principle' will be problematic.

Unnecessary technicalities. Technical expressions should be used only in a technical context, especially if they may be unfamiliar to your reader. The following sentence is taken from a paragraph in which the otherwise puzzling terms are explained; but it would be quite inappropriate to use it on its own in a general letter.
'Signed English' is the principal means of manual supplementation.

Unusual words. Your vocabulary does not need to be deliberately limited, but neither should you compel your readers to reach constantly for the dictionary.

Mixed metaphors. Metaphors and similes can enliven a piece of writing, but if they are used too enthusiastically, the result can be absurd. The following quotation conjures up a hilarious image of elephants sinking ships:
[China and Japan] could become rogue elephants, who could scuttle carefully wrought out international political trading agreements.

(Presumably, also, the writer meant to say either 'carefully thought out' or 'carefully wrought'.) Pompous wording. As well as using jargon, those who wish to impress the reader with their own importance often adopt a pompous style by using high-flown words and expressions when ordinary ones would do perfectly well. For example, advertisements for quite junior clerical positions frequently demand 'communication skills of a high order' when what is meant is simply that applicants should be able to speak and write correctly. Incongruities. Styles should be consistent as far as possible. The effect is incongruous if colloquial expressions which may be quite acceptable in other contexts are suddenly inserted in a text which is otherwise severely factual or technical. Also, what may be acceptable in one context may be ludicrously incongruous in another. The architect who wrote the following sentence apparently forgot that he was writing for a public brochure and not for a professional magazine:
At this point the central turret engages in an amusing conversation with the lift-well.

Tautologies. Tautologies repeat an idea without adding anything new. In the following example, either the word 'repeat' should be changed to 'make' or the word 'again' should be deleted:
The team will not repeat the same mistake again.

Redundancies. Redundancies are words which are not needed by the sense of the sentence. In the following example, such words are italicised:
We offer you good honest value for money. Our large range of door finishes and trims means we can match the existing decor in your home.

1.60 Avoid irritating the reader by constantly repeating the same word. The use of a thesaurus can help you find alternatives, and many software packages now offer a quick way of looking for them, although it is wise to check that you are being offered a genuine synonym. But do not overdo it. Your style will suffer if you use too many variations.
WRITTEN STYLE

1.61 Correct spelling is essential, if only because spelling mistakes give a bad impression of the organisation which produces them:
If you accidently pay too much you will need to have the driver verify that you have paid more than you should have.

That mistake should have been avoided, since the document in which it appeared was almost certainly produced on a personal computer, and modern software packages are nearly always

provided with a spellcheck of some kind. The advantage of a spellcheck is that it will pick up typing errors and words which you may unknowingly have spelt incorrectly. Remember, however, that a spellcheck cannot tell you whether you have used the wrong word. If you have written 'hear' instead of 'here', for example, the computer will not indicate it as a mistake. For that and other reasons (see para. 3.3), it is better to check the spelling of a word in the dictionary. No one should be ashamed of using a dictionary; but everyone should be ashamed if failure to do so results in spelling mistakes. 1.62 Punctuation and the other marks and signs, such as quotation marks, dashes, exclamation marks, and bold or italic type, are conventions which attempt to convey what in speech would be conveyed by emphasis, pauses, intonation and body language. Their correct use is therefore essential if your reader is to understand you correctly. Later chapters in this book provide a guide to their proper use. 1.63 Sometimes the conventions are changed, or different people prefer a particular convention for some reason. For example, it is common now to omit the full stops between initials, as in NSW rather than N.S.W. for New South Wales. There is also much disagreement about the use of hyphens when two words are compounded. Is it best, for instance, to write 'rate payer', 'rate-payer' or 'ratepayer'? Whatever the preferred convention may be in your organisation, what matters is to be consistent and to adhere to the convention wherever possible. 1.64 The conventions recommended by the Australian Government Publishing Service are set out in this book, and a writer who consults and follows these from the first draft of a document will be able to achieve consistency of style. Revising the draft 1.65 Checking what you have written is an important part of responsible writing. Few of us will find nothing that needs correction or improvement. In particular, the revision stage allows you to check for the following faults, which can easily be overlooked while you are writing: lack of logic or continuity; rambling sentences or structure; unduly long paragraphs, sentences or words; a monotonous style resulting from the use of too many sentences of the same length or with the same structure; clichs, jargon, ambiguous or awkward expressions; incorrect grammar or punctuation, and spelling mistakes; unnecessary repetition; tautologies and redundancies.

1.66 It is often a good idea to get someone else to read your draft. What may be clear to you may be unclear to another reader; or your colleague may find phrases and expressions which, while they may be quite correct, nevertheless cause the reader to hesitate and wonder exactly

what you mean to say. This will give you the opportunity to improve your text before it goes any further. Conclusion 1.67 The principles, suggestions and warnings set out here will not automatically make you a good writer, but if you study them and apply them, they will set you on your way to responsible writing, the aim of which is always to communicate clearly, concisely and logically.

Copyediting

2.1 This chapter is addressed primarily to the copyeditor, frequently referred to simply as 'the editor'. It describes the methods and techniques of copyediting (with some reference to substantive editing); in doing so, it inevitably takes up many different matters that are discussed in detail elsewhere in this manual. Although the chapter focuses on the copyediting of books, much of the advice given can be used profitably by those working on other types of publications. Role of the copyeditor 2.2 The main role of the editor is to ensure that the author's book is as readable as possible. In some publishing houses the editor is expected to assume broad responsibility for seeing a manuscript through the press, while in others only the checking of grammar, spelling and punctuation is required. Editors should therefore establish at the outset exactly what is expected of them on each manuscript. 2.3 Even if given only a limited brief, the editor should always be on the lookout for serious problems that may affect the concept or schedule of the book: breach of copyright, structural defects, major inaccuracies or omissions in the text, and so on. The editor is often the only person who carefully reads the whole of the final draft of a manuscript, and must therefore tell the publisher or senior editor if there is some major flaw. Examining the manuscript 2.4 When an editor receives a new manuscript, the first thing to do is to read the fileif the editor has more than a limited briefin order to acquire as much background information as possible. When that has been done, the manuscript should be checked for completeness and to ensure that all pages are numbered. At worst the final chapters will be still to come; even if the text is complete, it may lack one or more of the following: a foreword (by someone other than the author); a preface (by the author); copy for the acknowledgments; illustrations; caption copy; endmatter. If anything is missing, the editor should find out who is supposed to produce the material and remind that person of what is required. By the time a manuscript is being edited it usually has a schedule, and delays will therefore be costly. 2.5 The first time the editor reads the manuscript, he or she should give close attention to one or two chapters and skim through everything else. It is important to study a sample of each part, including references, illustrations and caption copy. The editor should always remember that even impeccably presented and neatly keyboarded work may be repetitive, disorganised and replete with inaccuracies and inconsistencies! 2.6 At this stage the editor should be determining what sort of editorial problems the book presents, and how long it will take to edit. No marks in ink should yet be made on the manuscript. It is easy to change something from habitlower-casing an initial capital, for

examplebut if further reading leads to the decision being reversed, each correction will have to be located and the original form restored. Sometimes a part of a manuscript appears consistent within itself, but other chapters or sections have been keyboarded with different spacing, spelling or capitalisation: this is particularly to be expected in manuscripts with more than one author. By noting on the style sheet (see fig. 2.1) expressions that may present stylistic problems, the editor will be able to decide how to treat them when more is known. 2.7 The editor should check whether the book is coherent, and organised according to some logical principle. If it is not, it will probably require substantive (or structural) editing. For example, a 200-page manuscript divided into fifty-three chapters (each of which would occupy less than two pages in the printed book) would most certainly pose structural problems, as would a whole series of appendixes that shouldquite obviouslybe integrated as part of the text. No editing of this sort, however, should begin before the matter has been discussed with the publisher and the author. 2.8 Editors should also be alert for material that may cause legal problems. They should have some knowledge of the law relating to copyright, defamation, obscenity and contempt (see chapter 12). As in the case of structural problems, the whole concept of the book may be jeopardised; expert advice should therefore be sought as soon as possible.
FIGURE 2.1
A style sheet

2.9 During the first reading of the manuscript, the editor should also assess the author's accuracy. A few of the quotations, dates and bibliographical points should be checked in reference books. Comparing the notes with the bibliography should indicate whether the author and keyboard operator are careful in matters of detail. If the manuscript proves really inaccurate, it should be returned to the author to be put right before editing continues. 2.10 The editor should always try to see whether the text could benefit from improvements of a general nature. For example, if it is very difficult to follow the text without an atlas open on one's desk, maps should be provided in the finished book. Other works might need a glossary to explain technical terms, a list of abbreviations or a genealogical table. In some cases, subheadings may not be necessary and could be removed to improve the flow of the writing; in others, they could be added to make the meaning clearer for the reader.
DECIDING HOW MUCH EDITING TO DO

2.11 The ability to decide just how much editing a manuscript needs is one of the hallmarks of a good editor, and is largely a matter of experience and judgment. Since no two manuscripts are the same, only a few guidelines can be offered here. 2.12 Unless it has been decided that a manuscript needs substantive editing, the editor would be well advised to bear in mind the following precept: if something is bearable, it should be left alone. Unnecessary editing is undesirable because it costs the publisher money and is likely to antagonise the author. Editors should try not to impose their prejudicesor even their tastes on a manuscript. Solecisms should be corrected and ambiguities resolved, but authors otherwise

have a right to be themselves and to project their own personalities in their works, particularly in those works where originality is of considerable importance. In multiauthor works, however, the nature of the subject matter may require that a uniform style be imposed. 2.13 Some books, of course, can stand more editing than others. A reference work or textbook that will be printed in large numbers and studied closely deserves very detailed attention, both in manuscript and in proof. A specialist pamphlet or a topical work, on the other hand, cannot be lingered over. Changes that are unlikely to make any significant difference should be avoided.
SCHEDULES AND DEADLINES

2.14 Since the problems presented by one manuscript are never the same as those presented by another, it is difficult to offer reliable guidelines for estimating the amount of editorial time required. It can be safely said, however, that a work invariably takes longer to edit than one expects. In any estimate, allowance should always be made for the extra work resulting from unforeseen problems. Every manuscript presents such problems, for it is impossible to notice every detail in one quick reading. 2.15 For substantive editing it is unwise to set deadlines. If a manuscript requires this type of work, as much time as necessary should be allocated. A production schedule should not be drawn up until the manuscript is finalised. Editing the text 2.16 Once the preliminary work described above has been completed, the editor is ready to begin the task of copyediting. Usually it is best to deal with the text first. For this purpose the editor should identify all non-text items: quotations, illustrations and captions, endmatter, tables, extracts, case studies, questions, exercises, and so on. These items may each have been prepared in discrete files on disk and presented on separate pages, appropriately placed in the manuscript. These pages can be easily removed from the manuscript after all pages have been numbered consecutively. Alternatively, such items still imbedded in the text can be colourcoded. 2.17 Colour coding is used to indicate passages that are to be typographically distinguished from the text: a block quotation to be 'set down' may be marked in red, tables in green, and so on. (It should be borne in mind that the use of too many colours can be confusing and, therefore, self-defeating.) Usually a coloured line in the margin is sufficient, but horizontal coloured lines are sometimes necessary to mark exactly where the passage begins and ends. The editor should be sure to include headings and notes when colour-coding tables and similar items. When colour coding is used the designer and the typesetter must be briefed, otherwise the marks will be meaningless. 2.18 Colour coding makes it easy to identify each part of the manuscript, so that like parts can be treated consistently. When the editor is reading quickly in order to understand the development of the narrative or argument, colour-coded items may be omitted so that the pace of reading can be maintained.

2.19 The editor's first reading of the whole text should be both slow and careful. It is always a good idea to separate the chapters or other divisions of the text with folders, bulldog clips or coloured paper so as to have a sense of each chapter as a unit and to measure it as part of the whole. Non-text items should be marked progressively according to the colour code that has been decided. As work proceeds, various points of style should be marked consistentlyfor example, -ise /-ize spellings, italics and dates. Inevitably other points will arise: inconsistent positioning of punctuation in relation to quotation marks; inconsistent use of full stops in shortened forms; numbers that should be spelt out. All these and others should be marked lightly in pencil and noted on the style sheet so that they can be dealt with during subsequent readings of the manuscript. 2.20 A well-written, well-presented manuscript may need to be read only twice after initial examination. However, if the work is long and complex, or if the author or the keyboard operator has been careless, it will need to be read with great attention a number of times. If the manuscript needs much editing for language, grammar and sense, it is best to go through the whole of it concentrating only on those aspects. 2.21 Queries regarding the content, accuracy and organisation of the material are bound to arise, as are typographical points. The editor should mark all these in pencil in the left-hand margin. Some of them will be easily resolved after a little thought; others may have to be referred to the author or the designer. 2.22 The editor should keep the style sheet up to date by marking the various decisions and queries on it, and also maintain a running list of jobs still to be done. Such jobs may involve paragraphing that needs attention; enumerations that are sometimes listed with letters and sometimes with figures; and incorrect or inconsistent numbering of tables.
ACCURACY

2.23 It should always be remembered that even authors who are experts on their subject can have extraordinary lapses. If a fact seems at all doubtful, it should be checked in some reputable source or the author should be consulted. However, a great deal of editorial time should not be expended in making the manuscript accurate, for the editor is not a research assistant: factual accuracy is the author's responsibility. No organisation, commercial or government, wants to damage its reputation by publishing shoddy work and is unlikely to do so. 2.24 Some manuscripts contain information that cannot be checked in reference works: for instance, a school history may have been compiled from archival sources and reminiscences. Here the only key to accuracy is internal consistency. If, for example, a head teacher, who was appointed in 1950 and retired in 1960, was presentedaccording to the manuscriptwith a gift to mark twenty years of loyal service, the author should be made aware of the discrepancy. All such discrepancies should be referred to the author for correction or clarification. 2.25 The editor should check alphabetical sequences (glossary, bibliography, index) and numerical sequences (notes, tables, figures) to make sure that nothing is missing, repeated or out of place. If any change has to be made to a sequence, other changes will be necessary throughout the manuscript. If a table is deleted, for example, all subsequent tables in that chapter

must be renumbered, and references to those tables in the text and the notes will have to be found and altered too. Similarly, if the wording of a chapter heading has to be altered, the editor will have to alter the contents page, the running headlines, and the subheadings in the notes.
HOUSE STYLE

2.26 A large part of copyediting is concerned with stylethat is, capitalisation, alternative spellings, abbreviations, treatment of numbers, and so on. Such matters are dealt with in detail in other chapters in this book. Most publishing houses have their own styleknown as 'house style'. An experienced editor knows, however, that any stylistic recommendations should be intelligently followed rather than mechanically imposed. If the author has a reasonable and consistent style, it is generally best to leave it. However, if the author has no system, house style should be imposed. 2.27 The style sheet is particularly important in all matters of style. The editor should include on it everything that is likely to prove troublesome: unusual spellings, inconsistent capitals or hyphens, abbreviations, and so on. The sheet should be divided into roughly alphabetical sections. Until a decision has been made about a point of style, the editor should note the numbers of all the pages on which it occurs. The style sheet is particularly valuable if work on the manuscript is interrupted for any length of time; or if copy for preliminary pages (prelims), captions and the like arrives late; or if another editor takes over the job. It is also of use to the typesetter, and reference to it during proofreading can save a good deal of time.
LANGUAGE AND SENSE

2.28 Editing for grammar and sense is more important than editing for style, and it requires great care. The editor must understand the author's meaning before attempting to alter the words used to express it. If the meaning is not clear, the author should be asked to rephrase the passage; under no circumstances should the editor resort to guesswork. 2.29 A good editor will always work with dictionaries and grammar books to hand. If there is any doubt about the meaning or usage of a word, the appropriate work should be consulted. (A number of reference works are listed in the Bibliography.) 2.30 The editor should also take into account the author's tone, the purpose of the writing, and the level at which the book is written. The vocabulary and syntax need to be appropriate for the intended readers: jargon, for example, should not be used in books for the general reader. When editing a textbook, the editor should ensure that it is logically organised and written in simple, direct language.
HEADINGS

2.31 The editor should consider headings in the context of the whole book. Has the author used too many or too few? Do they tend to guide or confuse the reader? Has the heading structure been followed consistently? For example, in a textbook a scheme of headings that has been properly thought out may be of great assistance to the reader; sometimes, however,

headings are like scaffolding: necessary during construction but distracting on the finished product. 2.32 The editor should grade and edit the headings. When grading them, it is sometimes useful to draw up a guide to headings for all or part of the manuscript. This is done by writing down all the headings in order, using indention to show various grades. The guide is used for substantive editing as well as copyediting. It shows up any serious defects in the organisation of the text, and it also gathers all the headings together so that it is easy to make them consistent with each other and with the text. 2.33 It is also part of the editor's responsibility to provide copy for the running headlines. Copy should be in two columns, the left marked 'verso' and the right marked 'recto'. The wording should be edited for length and to conform with the rest of the book. In copy presented on disk, running headlines are better prepared on a separate file according to the formula above. (The typographical treatment of running headlines is described in paragraphs 14.659.)
PARAGRAPHING

2.34 An important aspect of good writing is paragraphing. A paragraph may be several hundred words in length, but occasional one-sentence paragraphs can be used to great effect. Some authors make their paragraphs far too long. Journalists, on the other hand, tend to write very short paragraphs that suit the narrow measure of newspaper columns, but these are jerky to read in the pages of a book. If the editor decides that the paragraphing of a manuscript needs attention, it is best left till late in the editing process. The editor can then skim through the text in order to get the flow of the argument, without being distracted by such things as odd spellings or stray capitals. 2.35 The editor must ensure that each new paragraph opening is clearly identified. It is better to show the beginning of a paragraph by indenting the first line than to use a one-line space, since the one-line space is ambiguous after an interruption in the text, such as a quotation, a table or the end of a page. In all places where the typesetter might be in doubt, the editor should either write 'run on' or mark the paragraph indent.
PAROCHIALISMS AND JARGON

2.36 An author who writes with a particular group of readers in mind will often assume a certain knowledge on their part. Consequently, editors will alter phrases like 'this country' to 'Australia', 'after the war' to 'after World War II', and 'throughout the world' to 'throughout the Western world' (if these are what is meant) in order to make the work accessible to a wider audience. However, in certain contexts it is quite legitimate to refer to World War I, for instance, as 'the Great War'. 2.37 For phrases such as 'last year' and 'in recent years', it is best to give an actual year or period. Where 'the Government' is mentioned in an Australian context, it is often useful to indicate whether the reference is to the Commonwealth Government or a State Government. Any material that is out of date should be queried, and the author should be asked whether it is possible to obtain more recent facts or figures.

2.38 Since many books on specialist subjects are, as it were, part of a conversation between colleagues, jargon is often appropriate. The vocabulary used in a monograph entitled The Eye Muscles of the Ox will be different from that used in the popular paperback Understanding Cataracts. Any specialist terms in books intended for a general audience should be explained either in the text or in a glossary. 2.39 In editing books on specialist subjects, the editor can be overwhelmed by the technical language used. It is easy to find oneself reading only for grammar and not for sense. This should be avoided and every effort made to understand the meaning. Often the author is merely explaining in complex language a simple idea that can be rendered neatly in ordinary English to enable lay readers to understand it. However, to translate a whole manuscript in this way is tiring and time-consuming, and should not be attempted without the author's and publisher's consent.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS

2.40 In any book on Australia's past, the editor must find an acceptable way of dealing with the use of obsolete terms. To many people yards, miles, shillings and so on are as remote as ells, leagues and groats, and they must not be used without explanation. However, it is often misleading simply to present equivalents: selling land at 1 per acre is not the same as selling 4000 square metres for two dollars. 2.41 In historical works the best solution is to leave the measurements in the old forms, note which units are used, and provide a table of equivalents in the prelims. In books not containing historical material, all measures should be in metric units. (Metric conversion tables will be found in appendix IV.) 2.42 Pounds, shillings and pence may be dealt with in the same manner. If pounds are mindlessly converted to dollars, absurdities like 'The diggers had to pay $3 for a miner's right' will result. Sums of money should be expressed in a consistent form in the text. If different forms are used in quoted matter, they can be explained in a note in the prelims. (Former Australian currency is dealt with in paragraphs 10.7980.) The editor should ensure that the author gives a contemporary equivalent for any specific sum of money mentioned: for example, 'this was three years' wages for a carpenter' or 'equivalent to the price of a loaf of bread'. Otherwise any such sum will have little significance for most readers. 2.43 Passages in a foreign language are a problem for editors unless they have a good knowledge of the language in its written form. The usual requirement of legible copy applies. If unusual letters, special accents or symbols are needed, the designer should be warned so that a typeface including the necessary characters can be chosen, or so that the typesetter can obtain a font with the appropriate range of characters. 2.44 Where special characters or a non-Roman alphabet are used, it may be difficult to show clearly on the typescript what is wanted. An explanatory note to the printer will help: 'cap. C with acute accent', 'Greek letter chi', 'crossed l.c. ell' and so on.

MARK-UP

2.45 If a typesetter must keyboard a manuscript from the hard copy, mark-up is the means by which the editor explains the author's intentions and the designer makes clear the typographic specifications and intended page layout. 2.46 Marking up the manuscript is not the same as correcting proofs, although some of the same marks are used. On a proof, the typesetter is looking only for the mistakes that are to be corrected; but on the manuscript, every word of the text will be read in its proper sequence (although headings, quotations, tables and so on may be set separately). 2.47 The typesetter does not want to look from the word to the margin and back to the word to find out what is to be set. The editor should therefore try to make corrections above the line in the appropriate place. If more than a few words are to be inserted, it is best to prepare them on a new page and key it to its place in the text. Corrections should always be read carefully: it is easy to cross out one word too many or too few, or to forget a full stop. 2.48 In general, the editor should not write anything in the margin except the location of the illustrations, tables and superior figures; grading of headings; colour coding; and, occasionally, a notelegible and unambiguousto the typesetter (or to the imagesetter where total graphics and page composition are involved). 2.49 Queries for the author and designer may be marked in the margin in pencil, but they should all be resolved and the pencil marks rubbed out before the manuscript is sent for setting. In case any slip through, it is wise to write 'author' or 'designer' above each one so as to avoid confusion. 2.50 Most manuscripts today are in the form of print-out from disk and it is the disk that will be corrected and used for the actual typesetting. In such cases the manuscript is a sort of proof, and the editor should make sure that corrections can be clearly seen at a glance, using marginal marks if necessary to draw attention to them. (It should always be remembered that the keyboard operator whose job it is to insert editorial emendations may not be familiar with the traditional proof correction marks.) Hard copy should always accompany the disk sent for typesetting and any special characters that need to be inserted should be clearly indicated in the margin, not above the line in which they occur. Editing other parts of the manuscript 2.51 Once satisfied that the editing of the text is substantially complete, the editor can turn to the other parts of the manuscript. These will typically consist of prelims, permissions, references, quotations, illustrations and tables. It is best to deal with them each in turn, considering them first in the context of the whole manuscript, and then as items in themselves. If the editor brings together items of one kindall the tables, sayand deals with them all at once, it is more likely that they will be marked consistently.

PRELIMINARY PAGES

2.52 Each page to appear in the printed book should be represented by one manuscript page, though a note will suffice for blanks: thus the half-title may be marked 'p. i (ii is blank)'. The editor must ensure that all copy for the prelims is present, and must provide copy for the title and imprint pages. 2.53 The editor should find out whether the author's name is to appear on the title page in full or with initials, and whether title, position or qualifications are to be listed. If there is more than one author, it will be necessary to know whose name should be given first. It should also be ascertained whether the publisher has a colophon that should appear. 2.54 Most publishers have a house style that should be followed in preparing copy for the imprint page. The editor is sometimes responsible for obtaining cataloguing-in-publication (CIP) data from the National Library of Australia, and for allocating the International Standard Book Number (ISBN). Optional information on the imprint page includes the names of the editor, designer and indexer, and statements about the typeface and the text and cover stock. 2.55 The contents list is the reader's key to the book and deserves careful consideration. It should indicate the book's scope and purpose, so that readers can quickly decide whether it has anything to interest them. Page numbers should not be shown on the copy for the contents list; they will be added when the book is paged. 2.56 The editor should prepare an order of book to accompany the prelims (see fig. 2.2). This lists the prelims in order, with their roman page numbers; it shows what the text consists of, and the arrangement of the endmatter. The order of book is of assistance to the designer and the printer, as well as to the editor, in handling both the manuscript and the proofs.
PERMISSIONS

2.57 It is necessary to obtain permission, and sometimes to pay a fee, before reproducing any copyright material, whether prose, poetry, music, tables, photographs, drawings or diagrams. The editor should be familiar with the law relating to copyright (see paragraphs 12.2 23). Usually the contract signed with the publisher specifies that permissions are the authors responsibility, but help may be needed. The editor should make sure that letters requesting permissions are written early, because replies are often slow in coming and may delay the book. Sometimes the owner of the copyright specifies that acknowledgement is to be in particular words, and the editor should ensure that this is done.
REFERENCES

2.58 The editor should ensure that the citation of references is compatible with the purpose and tone of the book. Scholarly apparatus is needed only in scholarly works: some authors construct elaborate references when a short booklist is all that the reader requires. The author date system is widely used, but it should not be slavishly applied. In popular works its use may amount to obfuscation; in such works a short title is to be preferred when books are mentioned in the text. For the reader, a passage that discusses 'Adam-Smith (1978, 1982)' is meaningless

unless the bibliography is consulted, whereas 'Adam-Smith in her books The ANZACs and The Shearers' gives all the necessary information right there on the page. 2.59 Most books of instruction and information are enhanced by a bibliography. It should have a descriptive title: it may be 'Annotated bibliography', 'Select bibliography' or 'Bibliography of works cited'. In a book intended for the general reader, 'Further reading' sounds less intimidating. 2.60 Where footnotes or endnotes are used, their content and numbering must be checked against both the text and the bibliography: often the spelling of names and wording of titles differ. The editor will sometimes find that the text is discussing one source, but all the notes refer to another work. Correcting such discrepancies can be very slow work; it may be necessary to return the notes to the author. 2.61 When checking the superior figures or symbols that key the notes to the text, the editor should mark the location of each one in the left-hand margin in pencil. These pencilled figures are indispensable if the notes have to be renumbered, and may also be useful to check that nothing has been lost during typesetting. 2.62 The marking up of notes and bibliographies can be both time-consuming and tedious; and many readers do not even glance at them. Therefore, if the author has devised a reasonable system of punctuation or capitalisation for such endmatter, the editor should not attempt to impose some other system.
FIGURE 2.2
An order of book

For example, if 'vol.' and 'no.' consistently have initial capitals, it is pointless to change them to lower case throughout. 2.63 The editor should use the customary abbreviations for names of months, names of States, and bibliographical terms such as 'chapter', 'page' and 'volume'. Abbreviations for names of journals, newspapers, organisations and individuals should be explained in a list. Notes should not contain information that is given elsewhere; they are meant to supplement the text, not stand on their own. If, in the case of a bibliographical note, the author and title are mentioned in the text, and the place and date of publication are given in the bibliography, the note may consist of only a page numberand even this could be placed in the text in parentheses. It is often possible to eliminate such notes in this way. It is always preferable to have fewer notes, but the editor should not create a need for extensive renumbering; it is better to allow a few extra notes than to renumber several dozen.
QUOTATIONS

2.64 It is the author's responsibility to check all quotations for accuracy, and to ensure that they appear in the text exactly as in the original. If quotations contain manifest errors, the editor may draw attention to them by inserting sic or editorial comments within square brackets immediately after each error. Even in works where the exact form of the original is not of particular significance or where quotations are taken from different sources, the editor should

not change spelling, capitalisation and italicisation for the sake of consistency with the style used throughout the text. 2.65 As a general rule, quotations of fewer than thirty words should be set in the text within quotation marks (for the position of quotation marks see paragraphs 6.192202). However, if such quotations contain dialogue or enumerations, it is often convenient to treat them as quotations of more than thirty words. Such quotationsknown as block quotationsare set separately (their typographical treatment is dealt with in paragraphs 14.723). They should not be enclosed within quotation marks, and the editor should clearly indicate by means of colour coding (see paragraph 2.17) where each begins and ends. If it is not already clear, the first line of text after the quotation should be marked either 'full out' or 'n.p.' (new paragraph).
ILLUSTRATIONS

2.66 The editor should examine the illustrations (if any) to check whether they are necessary and appropriate, and whether they can be reproduced. Naturally decisions concerning the number and type of illustrations will be made in consultation with the author and those involved in the production of the work. 2.67 Sometimes an author provides only rough sketches, and it is therefore necessary to find an illustrator or cartographer to produce finished artwork. The editor will be responsible for briefing the illustrator, unless such work is under the control of a graphic designer, and will provide typed copy for any labels or legends that are to be typeset. If the author has provided finished artwork, it must conform with any grids or layouts used in the book. 2.68 The editor will number the illustrations and key them to the text if the author has not done so. The typesetter may be instructed to set catchlines (such as 'fig. 6.3 here') to make the placement of illustrations prior to page make-up easier. It is preferable to number the illustrations in the order in which they are to appear, but the editor should not embark on elaborate renumbering simply to achieve the correct sequence. Sometimes it is better to have two or even three sequences of numbers: for instance, in a textbook that has cartoons, graphs and halftones, the three groups may be treated separately. 2.69 The editor should be particularly careful with a book that has only one illustration, as it is easy to forget about it. 2.70 For most illustrated books it is necessary to prepare a guide to figures (see figs 2.34), which shows in a handy form all the information about the illustrations. It should include the number of each illustration, the number of the manuscript page to which it relates, and a brief description of it. The editor may add columns to show whether it is to have a caption, whether permission is required, whether artwork is needed, and so on. It should be possible to use a print-out of the caption copy already on disk to construct a guide to figures (see fig. 2.4). The guide to figures is particularly useful for heavily illustrated works. 2.71 The caption copy must be prepared on disk and keyed to the illustrations by identifying numbers. These numbers need not accompany the captions as they appear in the published work unless the illustrations are referred to by number in the text. It is the author's responsibility

to provide caption copy, but often the editor does it in order to save time. Captions should be edited to conform with the style of the text, and checked to make sure that each relates to its illustration. Where acknowledgments are needed, they may be placed in parentheses at the end of the caption, or listed in the prelims or the endmatter. A print-out of the edited caption copy must accompany the manuscript for mark-up.
TABLES

2.72 It is important to edit all wording in tables, check totals and delete unnecessary rules. Before marking up the tables, the editor would be well advised to remove them from the manuscriptor photocopy them if they are integrated with the textand work on them all together in order to ensure consistency. Tables that show comparable information should be set out identically to facilitate comparison. Any qualifying information following the heading, or notes after a table, should be clearly shown as belonging to the table and not to the text. 2.73 Authors often follow a table with a paragraph of text that repeats all the information given in the table. While it is permissible to draw attention to highlights of the table, duplication is not necessary: either the table or the paragraph should be omitted.
FIGURE 2.3
A guide to figures

FIGURE 2.4
A guide to figures

CROSS-REFERENCES

2.74 If the author has used cross-references, the editor should check them for accuracy; sometimes chapter numbers are changed or a section is deleted during revisions of the manuscript. If there are references to illustrations, it will be necessary to include figure numbers in the caption copy. 2.75 The editor may add cross-references wherever they will help the reader, but should try to refer to chapter or figure numbers (or paragraph numbers, if the book has numbered paragraphs) rather than to page numbers. The use of page numbers is expensive, since they cannot be inserted until the book has been paged. The reference in the manuscript should be changed to 'page 00' or 'pages 000' (an appropriate space should be left if possible) and the manuscript page number should be written in the margin of the manuscript. 2.76 Cross-references must be given in a consistent form: 'chapter 7' in one place should not become 'chapter seven' in another. However, words such as 'figure' and 'chapter' are generally abbreviated in parenthetical references, although they are spelt out in textual references (see paragraphs 7.446). Editor and author 2.77 The editor should establish from the outset a good working relationship with the authorone based on mutual respect and effective communication. If it is made clear that the

editor's aim is to render the author's work more accessible to readers, the author will be more inclined to accept editorial suggestions. It is important that the author know what is happening at each stage, and understand what is expected of her or him. Similarly, the author should be kept informed about the schedule so as to be able to set aside time for proofs and index. 2.78 The editor must interpret the author's needs to the typesetter or imagesetter and the printer, and their limitations to the author. Most authors know little about typography or the production process, and often do not realise that what they are asking for is expensive or will cause problems. If editors explain why requests cannot be met, and suggest some other way of achieving the same result, authors will realise that editors have their best interests at heart. If an author is asking for something that is typographically difficult, the editor should explain the problem involved so that the author can make an informed decision: the editor may suggest that the author's extensive footnotes can be presented more cheaply as endnotes, or that three-line chapter titles will look awkward on the printed page. 2.79 Questions to an author should be both intelligent and tactful. Editors should remember that writing a book is usually an exhausting task, and that what is merely raw material for them is the finished product for the author. When changes are suggested which, in the editor's view, would materially improve the book, the author will generally accept them if they are presented with sufficient cogency. Lengthy explanations of any sort, however, should be avoided at all costs. For example, the editor should not detail the reasons for altering a semicolon on page 194: authors whose English is ungrammatical or clumsy will invariably accept improvements without argument, and will always be grateful for them. 2.80 It is desirable for the author to see the edited manuscript, for if there are any objections, they are better settled before typesetting begins. When the author returns the manuscript, every page of it must be checked to ensure that the changes made are legible for whoever keyboards them, and that new matter is correctly marked up. Editor and designer 2.81 The designer should be consulted as early as possible about a manuscript, preferably at the beginning of the project. Teamwork between author, editor, designer, typesetter or imagesetter, and printer can give each kind of book the appropriate treatment. 2.82 Editors will find their task easier if they have some idea of the format of the book and the layout of the printed page. Consultation with the designer is often of assistance when the manuscript is being marked up. For instance, if the editor knows that the headings are to be in upper case, there is no need to mark them for initial capitals. Often a problem that seems intractable on the editor's desk can be solved by some device of typography or layout that the designer can suggest. 2.83 The designer should be fully briefed. It is probable that the designer will not have time to look at every page of the manuscript, and may therefore not notice, for example, an extra grade of subheadings in chapter 10 or an awkward table. The designer should be consulted early if the editor thinks that the nature of the manuscript may limit the choice of typeface: perhaps special

type characters are required, or there is very frequent use of capitals or acronyms that could look ugly. 2.84 It is often difficult for editors and designers to have contact with each other, since one or both may be freelance, or the designer may not be chosen until after editing is completed. Whatever the case, the editor should write an informative brief so that the designer can quickly see what sort of book it is and what design problems it presents. The brief will explain the colour coding used by the editor, indicate the number of grades of headings and how they are marked, the number of illustrations and what kind, whether caption copy is provided, and so on. 2.85 It would also be preferable for the designer to be involved before copy is prepared on disk for typesetting. The keyboard operator will need to know which headings or words are to be in capitals, which in italics, and so on. Editor and typesetter 2.86 Liaison with typesetters or imagesetters is important. If the editor understands their needs, costly corrections can be avoided. 2.87 These operators set what they are given. English may not be their first language. They work very fast, and if they are keyboarding from the hard copy they do not want to take their hands from the keyboard to lift up slips stapled to the manuscript to see what is underneath, or to turn the page sideways to see what has been written in the margin. They want every letter of every word to be legible. 2.88 If there are unusual spellings or inconsistencies, the typesetter will want to know whether they are mistakes. For instance, a discussion of labour politics might require a note: 'Typesetter: labour, Labour, Laborfollow copy'. If half a page is left blank, the typesetter wants to know whether it represents the end of a section or chapter, or whether it is some accident of keyboarding or revision. The editor should therefore draw a diagonal line across the blank or write 'no extra space'. If the abbreviation 'WA', for example, is marked to be spelt out, the editor should indicate whether 'West' or 'Western', 'Australia' or 'Australian', are required. Ambiguous characters should be identified: en rule, em rule, hyphen and minus; letter 'O' and zero; capital 'I' and arabic figure 'l'. If a hyphen occurs at the end of a line in the manuscript, the editor should mark whether it is to be retained or not. 2.89 It is best not to rely on general instructions, since the manuscript may be set in batches by different operators. Whatever the editor decides to mark must be marked every time it occurs; the tedium of this task is a powerful argument against unnecessary editing. If the editor marks an item only occasionally, as a reminder, the typesetter may think that some subtle distinction is intended, and will follow copy. Superseded page numbers, authorial instructions that have been dealt with and other such material should be clearly deleted. 2.90 Proofreaders who are used to bookwork can be of great assistance to the editor. Often they will detect errors that have been missed, and can produce intelligent solutions to problems such as headings that fall at the bottom of a page and widow lines. To learn what typesetters

require, and to improve their mark-up technique, editors should read the proofs of each manuscript they work on. Proofs 2.91 Editors, like authors, should always be sparing with their corrections to proofs, confining themselves as far as possible to eliminating errors. They should never regard proofs as an opportunity to re-edit or rewrite: alterations are expensive, and may cause further errors to be made. 2.92 When the editor does not do the proofreading, he or she should at least collate the proofs. Collation is the task of transferring all correctionsby the author and proofreader onto a master set of proofs and making a complete, final check of everything, including the placement of illustrations. 2.93 The editor should be familiar with the traditional marks for correcting proofs (these are shown in chapter18, which contains a full description of the proofreading process). When marking proofs, it is necessary to distinguish typesetter's errors from author's and editor's emendations so that costs can be apportioned. Usually typesetter's errors are marked in red and others in blue. 2.94 To save time on a tightly scheduled book, editorial corrections may be added to the disk prior to typesetting. 2.95 Proofs should be checked, not only to ensure that all corrections have been made and all is in order, but also to ensure that the typography is of a high standard. The editor should try to eliminate widow lines by editing to make or save a line, or at least add a few words so that the widow extends over more than half the measure. Similarly, some change should be made in the wording or spacing to prevent a heading from appearing on the last line of a page, or a wordbreak at the end of a page (see paragraphs 14.369). The editor will need to make all such alterations as economically as possible. 2.96 Proofs of prelims, index, cover and dust jacket should also be checked thoroughly. It is very easy to miss an error in displayed matter.

Spelling and usage

3.1 Spellings recommended for use in Commonwealth publications are currently those given in the latest edition of The Macquarie Dictionary, published in 1991, as these reflect common Australian usage. However, this does not preclude the use of any other Australian-produced dictionary which has established Australian-English and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander language databases. The second edition (1992) of The Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary is supported by such a database, and departments wishing to follow the spellings given in that dictionary should advise the Managing Editor, Australian Government Publishing Service, of their preference when submitting copy. The spellings used throughout any one publication must be consistent with one dictionary; where no definite preference has been indicated, or where usage is inconsistent, the editors will follow The Macquarie Dictionary. 3.2 Authors of non-government publications would be well advised to check, before they start writing, whether their publishing house has its own spelling preferences. If they do not check, time will be wasted if the editor has to change all those spellings that do not conform to house style. In any written material, whether or not for publication, it is essential that consistent spelling be used throughout, for it is variation within the same text that distracts the reader. The spelling in quotations, however, should not be changed. The word sic (Latin for 'thus'), enclosed in square brackets, can be inserted after a misspelt word. 3.3 Any writer or editor who has the slightest doubt about the correct spelling of a word should consult the dictionary at once. To do so is in no way demeaning, for it is indisputable that some people are better spellers than others, and even the best spellers have problems from time to time. Failure to check may well cause a text to be marred by spelling mistakes, which will give the reader a bad impression of author, editor and publisher. Many software packages contain a spellcheck facility. However, use of spellchecks alone is not recommended since they have a number of disadvantages. For example, the spellcheck is frequently not based on an Australian dictionary; it does not identify words which, although correctly spelt, are incorrect in the context in which they occur (for example, 'there' instead of 'their'); and it does not distinguish between the author's text and quotationsthat is, it draws attention to variant spellings in quotations, for example American spellings, which should not be changed (see para. 3.2). It is thus simpler and more efficient to look up a word in the dictionary. 3.4 A number of dictionaries are listed in the Bibliography. Quite often one dictionary will elucidate a matter left unclear (or ignored) by another dictionary; indeed, it is unlikely that a single dictionary will meet every need. Editors and writers frequently use a particular dictionary because of a particular feature or featuresclarity of definitions, comprehensive etymological information, wealth of examples, useful appendixes, and so on. Other dictionaries deal with particular aspects of spelling, such as word division.

Particular points of spelling and usage

INDIGENOUS PEOPLES

3.5 The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission recommends that the following forms be used to designate the original inhabitants of Australia and their descendants:
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples Indigenous Australians Indigenous peoples

These terms take account of the fact that there are two groups of indigenous Australians, both racially and culturally different. 3.6 When referring to these races individually or to persons of either race, the following terms are preferred:
Aboriginal (singular noun) Aboriginals Aboriginal Australians Aboriginal peoples Aboriginal (adjective) Torres Strait Islander (singular noun) Torres Strait Islanders Torres Strait Islander Australians Torres Strait Islander people Torres Strait Islander (adjective) (plural nouns) (plural nouns)

3.7 It is important to note that terms such as 'Islander(s)', 'ATSI', 'TSIs' and 'TIs' are not acceptable and therefore should not be used. 3.8 Detailed advice on the use of special terms referring to Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander groups may be obtained from the Human Relations Section, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission, in Canberra.
OFFICIAL BODIES

3.9 The full name of any official body should always be spelt exactly as the body itself spells it. When a name contains the word 'Organization', for instance, the 'z' should not be replaced by 's'. For example:
International Organization for Standardization World Health Organization

3.10 Close attention should also be paid to the use (or non-use) of capitals, hyphens and apostrophes in official names. For example:
Australian Meat and Live-stock Corporation CPS Credit Union Co-operative Limited Land Office Coordination

Committee for Development Cooperation Department of Veterans' Affairs ACT Teachers Union

3.11

The spelling of names of United States organisations should not be changed:

Department of Defense (Defense Department) National Center for Health Statistics

3.12 If the name of an organisation is a translation from a foreign language, it should generally not be regarded as official; therefore, an unidiomatic or incorrect translation may be changed. This is not the case, however, with international organisations that have more than one working language. In those instances the name in each language is the official one. 3.13 Note the official spelling Labor in Australian Labor Party and thus in all expressions referring to that partyLabor, Labor voters, Labor policies and so on. But note Labour Party in New Zealand and Great Britain. Plurals 3.14 If a word used in English has been borrowed from Latin or another language, there is usually a choice between the English and foreign plural. The first spelling given in whichever dictionary is being used (see paragraph 3.1) should generally be preferred, and should be used consistently throughout a document. 3.15 Four common plural formsdata, media, criteria and phenomenaare frequently used as singular nouns. 3.16 Data is the plural of the singular noun datum. However, data is commonly treated as a singular collective noun in data processing. For example:
Ensure that the data entered is rigorously checked.

3.17

Media should always be treated as a plural:

Media for transmission include soil and dust. The media were unanimous in their condemnation of the policy.

3.18

The forms criteria and phenomena should be similarly treated. For example:
The criteria have been established. These scientific phenomena are very interesting.

Specialised subjects 3.19 In any work dealing with a specialised subject, the spellings generally employed in that subject should be used consistently, even when they are different from those normally used. Information about particular spellings and other matters of editorial style will generally be found in the appropriate reference book (or publisher's style guide). A number of reference books are listed in the Bibliography.

Australian geographical names 3.20 The Master Names File, prepared by the Surveying and Land Information Group, Commonwealth Department of the Arts and Administrative Services, lists named features that appear on 1:250 000 and 1:100 000 scale topographic maps of Australia. It is available on magnetic tape, disk and microfiche, and the information is updated as and when required. The postcode listings in each telephone directory provide a convenient guide to the spelling of the names of places in Australia. Bulletins issued by the Australian Bureau of Statistics after each census give the names of rural centres or districts with as few as 200 people, as well as of towns. Other useful guides to the correct spelling of Australian placenames are maps produced by the Surveying and Land Information Group and by the lands departments in the various States. Foreign geographical names 3.21 Accepted English forms should be used for foreign placenames. For example:
Beijing Bucharest Cracow Antwerp Harare Moscow Phnom Penh Copenhagen Vienna Brussels Damascus Florence Lisbon Marseilles Munich Prague Seoul The Hague

3.22 Note that the official spelling of placenames in English-speaking countries should not be changed in any way; for example, Pearl Harbor, not Pearl Harbour. 3.23 For guidance on the spelling of foreign geographical names in general, reference should be made to The Times Atlas of the World or a similar authority. Word division 3.24 The problem of word division occurs not only in text but often also in column heads in tables and in captions to graphs, diagrams and other illustrative material. While wordbreaks can easily be avoided in unjustified wide-column text, they cannot always be avoided in justified narrow-column material. Many keyboard operators do not break words at all in unjustified setting, but this often results in excessive variation in line length, especially in narrow-column setting. Widely varying line lengths, like wide or irregular word spacing, are not conducive to comfortable reading. Other typesetting programs allow words to be broken after any charactereven the first. These principles are not acceptable, however, for the more formal publications and certainly not for literary works (see paragraphs 14.368). 3.25 The division of words should follow certain rules of sound and sense. In general, if the proposed division sounds right when spoken aloud, it is probably acceptable. As far as possible, the part of the word before the hyphen at the end of the line should suggest the remainder of the word so that the reader's thought is carried on logically. 3.26 The following general rules should be observed when dividing words:

Do not break words of one syllable.

 Do not break words of two syllables unless a narrow measure (for example, a marginal note or alongside a cut-in illustration) makes this unavoidable. Do not break words of fewer than six letters. Do not take fewer than three letters over to a new line. Where possible, the part of the word taken over should begin with a consonant rather than a vowel:
fic / tion not fict / ion regu / late not regul / ate

However, this rule should not be applied where its application would mislead the reader:
draw / ings not dra / wings solen / oid not sole / noid

Words with two consonants between vowels are divided after the first consonant:
pic / ture cus / tomer plat / form

When a word has double consonants, make the break between the consonants:
com / ment swim / ming admit / tance

But where the two consonants are part of the same root, make the break after the second consonant:
tell / ing pass / ing kiss / ing

Do not break a word before a vowel that itself forms a syllable. For example:
kero / sene modu / late uni / versal not not not ker / osene mod / ulate un / iversal

Words with two or three vowels in succession should be divided according to sound. Letters indicating different sounds may be separated:
ami / able cre / ator flee / ing

But letters indicating the one sound must not be separated:

beauti / ful crea / ture pneu / monia

Divide a word after a prefix:

proto / type re / write sub / sequent

Divide compound words and hyphenated words only between the component parts:
copy / right self- / made will- / o'- / the- / wisp

Breaking expressions 3.27 The following rules apply to the breaking of expressions rather than words, but are included here since they form part of the same question: Do not break a figure or separate it from its associated word or shortened form when it forms part of a quantity, measurement or the like:
10 000 not 10 / 000 6 km not 6 / km 50 BC not 50 / BC

Do not break abbreviations or contractions:

ACTEW not ACT / EW Dept not Dep / t

It may sometimes be necessary to separate a person's name from a prefixed title or from postnominals, but do not break initials or a postnominal. In the following example, each solidus indicates an acceptable break:
the / Honourable / J. H. / Tomlinson, / QC, / LLM, / MP,

Although a break between initials and surname is acceptable (as in the above example), it is best to avoid it if possible. A date expressed entirely in figures (for example, 10.12.93) should never be broken; a date expressed in words and figures may be broken after the month, but not before it:
6 July / 1994 not 6 / July 1994

Capitals

4.1 Specific and proper names are distinguished from general and common names by the use of capital, or upper-case, letters. Only the first letter of the name, or of each word in the name, is capitalised. Words are also said to be capitalisedor set in full capitalswhen each letter is capitalised. This use is dealt with in paragraph 4.88. 4.2 The tendency in modern English is to reduce the overall number of capitalised words on the page, though this tendency is stronger in some quarters than others. It is generally stronger in the United States than in Britain; and stronger in Australia in the daily press than, for example, in legal writing. While there is broad agreement in Australia about capitalising many items, a number of significant variations exist, and these are noted in this chapter. Personal names 4.3 The names of all individualsreal or fictitiousare always capitalised. For example:
Joan Sutherland Agatha Gudgeon Galarrwuy Yunupingu Lobelia Sackville-Biggins Li Dai Bo Ginger Meggs Willem Jansz Tarzan

4.4 However, when a personal name becomes a general word in the language, it ceases sooner or later to bear an initial capital:
diesel shrapnel wellington furphy boycott

PERSONAL NAMES WITH PARTICLES

Foreign names 4.5 Surnames preceded by particles (that is, prepositions and definite articles belonging to foreign languages) frequently raise questions of capitalisation. Common examples of particles include:
da de della van von

4.6 The treatment of particles in the source language should always be ascertained and should be followed. In general, particles are given lower-case initial letters:
Charles de Gaulle Paul von Hindenburg Alfred de Vigny Luca della Robbia Jan van Eyck Leonardo da Vinci

4.7 Frequently, however, the language in question omits the particle when the person's first name is omitted:
Alfred de Musset Otto von Bismarck but but Musset Bismarck

But this is by no means always the case. For example:

Charles de Gaulle but de Gaulle

Jean d'Alembert

but

d'Alembert

Anglicised names 4.8 Persons living in English-speaking countries frequently prefer to capitalise the initial letters of any particles in their names. Such forms as the following are commonly found:
Da Costa Van Der Meer De Groot De Luca Von Brandenstein

4.9 It is also quite common to find the particle or particles and the final element written as one word. For example:
Vandermeer Dacruz Dicarlo

The form employed by a particular individual should be ascertained and used.

PERSONIFICATION

4.10 An initial capital is used when a specific identity is given to an abstraction, this device being known as personification. It occurs most often in poetry, as in this line from Henry Kendall's 'Orara (The Glen of Arrawatta)':
And Memory wept upon the lonely moors NICKNAMES AND EPITHETS

4.11

It is customary to give initial capitals to nicknames and epithets:

the Little Digger the Young Pretender the Welsh Wizard Alexander the Great the Iron Lady William the Conqueror

Names of nationalities, peoples and the like 4.12 Initial capitals should always be given to those names that identify nationalities, races, tribes, inhabitants of a particular area of a country, adherents of particular religions, languages and language groups:
Altaic Cherokee Muslim American Chinese Pitjantjatjara Austronesian Christian Sanskrit Aztec Koori Spaniard Buddhist Londoner Tartar Caucasian Mongolian Visigoth

4.13 For information on the treatment of terms used to refer to Australia's indigenous peoples, see paragraphs 3.58 and 8.4959. 4.14 When a national (or geographical) name is used in an expression that has a specialised meaning, it should be lower-cased. For example:
french windows venetian blinds chinese lantern

Names of organisations and similar entities 4.15 Whenever the full official names of organisations, institutions and similar entities are cited, all components other than articles, prepositions and conjunctions are given initial capitals. For example:
the Australian Broadcasting Corporation Flinders University the Academy of Science the Department of Foreign Affairs the Royal Australian Air Force the International Monetary Fund the Adelaide Steamship Company the Industrial Staff Union the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals

4.16 A lower-case initial letter should be used when names in this category are referred to only by their generic element. For example:
the Department of Foreign Affairs the Adelaide Steamship Company the Industrial Staff Union the department the company the union

If such use could lead to confusion with similar entities in the text, the full form of the name should always be used. 4.17 In a number of cases, however, generic elements more often than not retain an initial capital. For example:
the House of Representatives (of Australia etc.) the Australian (United States etc.) Senate the House the Senate

Similar examples are set out in greater detail below (paragraphs 4.1820). 4.18 In official publications of all kinds the word governmentwhen referring to a specific entity, and whether or not preceded by a qualifying wordis upper-cased:
the Federal Government the Victorian Government The Government is The Government has

It is upper-cased also in the plural:

the French and Spanish Governments

Note that the following plural form should always be used:

the Commonwealth Government and the State Governments not the Commonwealth and State Governments

There is an increasing tendency, however, in non-official publications to lower-case Government. 4.19 Government should be lower-cased in both official and other publications when it does not refer to a specific entity or is used adjectivally. For example:

local government this system of government a competent government government control Commonwealth government publications

4.20 The word parliamentwhen referring to a specific entity, and whether or not preceded by a qualifying wordis capitalised in official publications:
the Federal Parliament the New Zealand Parliament the State Parliament (the) Parliament (the) Parliament (the) Parliament

Once again, the word is frequently lower-cased in other types of publications, whether or not it is preceded by a qualifying word. (Note that the word federal, other than when used in Federal Government and Federal Parliament as above, should be lower-casedfor example, federal legislation, federal responsibilities.) 4.21 The following words are also invariably upper-cased, particularly in official publications, whether or not they are preceded by a qualifying word:
the Treasury the Bench the Budget the Cabinet the Crown the Chair the Bar the Constitution

4.22 When institutional names are abbreviated to their particular rather than their generic components, initial capitals should always be retained:
the Department of Home Affairs the Department of Defence the House of Commons (United Kingdom, Canada) the House of Lords (United Kingdom) He works in Home Affairs. She was transferred to Defence. We visited the Commons. He took his seat in the Lords.

Names of specific ships, aircraft and other vehicles 4.23 It is customary to capitalise (and italicise) the names of specific ships, aircraft and other vehicles:
Titanic Southern Cross Voyager 1 Flying Scotsman Hindenburg

Names of models, brands and classes of vehicles 4.24 The names of models, brands and classes of vehicles are given initial capitals (but are not italicised). For example:
a Boeing 747 a Ford Fairlane a Spitfire a Kawasaki ZZ-R100

Formal titles and status designations

OFFICIAL TITLES AND OFFICES

4.25 When a person's official title is given in full, whether or not accompanied by his or her name, each element other than an article or a preposition should be given an initial capital. For example:
the Prime Minister of Australia the Archbishop of Brisbane the Chief Justice of the High Court of Australia the Chancellor of Oxford University the President of the United States of America the Managing Director of the Saturn Corporation the Minister for Foreign Affairs

4.26 In general, a lower-case initial letter should be used in abbreviated references to such titles, provided that no confusion is likely to arise:
the Archbishop of Brisbane the Chancellor of Oxford University We saw the archbishop. The chancellor has arrived.

4.27 However, in certain types of publicationsparticularly government publicationsthe upper-case initials are retained:
the Prime Minister of Australia the Minister for Foreign Affairs the President of the United States of America the Prime Minister the Minister the President

Note that forms such as Prime Minister Paias Wingti or Prime Minister Wingti, which are common in journalism, should be avoided in other forms of writing. 4.28 Lower-case initial letters should be used when reference is made solely to a particular office, or to someone who no longer holds that office. For example:
When Chifley became prime minister She wants to be managing director. She served as vice-chancellor from 1980 to 1982. He is supported by the former president.

4.29

Similarly, lower-case should be used in plural references:

the prime ministers of New Zealand the kings of Prussia all the attorneys-general

HONOURS

4.30 The names of all civil and military honours, professional distinctions, academic degrees, awards and prizes should be capitalised whether set out in full or given as abbreviations. Thus:
Dorothy Jones, Order of Australia (AO) John Minsky, Distinguished Service Cross (DSC)

Peter Larsen, Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) Maria Symons, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) the Nobel Peace Prize a Silver Logie MODES OF ADDRESS AND HONORIFICS

4.31

Initial capitals are always used in words that constitute modes of address or honorifics:
Miss Morgan Mr Kozlowski Ms Andersen Mrs Longley-Taylor Colonel Williams Her Majesty the Queen His Excellency the Governor-General His Grace the Archbishop of Canterbury His Holiness Pope John Paul II Sir Cuthbert Troutbridge Lady Troutbridge

4.32

Titles used as a polite form of address are always capitalised:

Good morning, Doctor Good afternoon, Professor Good evening, Major

4.33

Simple kinship titles used in direct address are also capitalised:

Do come, Dad Hello, Mother Goodbye, Uncle

Geographical names and designations

PLACENAMES

4.34 The official names of specific parts of countries, or of cities and towns, are always capitalised:
South Australia Dulwich Hill Auckland Perth Narrabundah Montmartre New Jersey Osaka Viti Levu Lampung

Fictitious placenames are likewise capitalised:

Barchester Eatanswill Snake Gully

NAMES OF COUNTRIES

4.35 The names of countriesthat is, their official names and the names (if any) by which they are commonly knownare always capitalised. Thus:
the Federal Republic of Germany (Germany) the Syrian Arab Republic (Syria)

Japan the People's Republic of China (China) the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (Luxembourg)

The names of fictitious countries are also capitalised:

Ruritania Erewhon Utopia Lilliput

GEOGRAPHICAL AND POLITICAL DESIGNATIONS

4.36 Initial capitals should be used for names that designate a group of nations, whether geographically or politically. For example:
South-East Asia (geographical entity) Western Europe (political entity)

4.37 Lower-case should be used for purely descriptiveand unofficialdesignations of a particular part of the same geographical area:
eastern Australia southern Africa northern France

4.38 The word state is generally capitalised when usedin any contextto mean one of the territorial divisions of Australia. For example:
the Australian States the State of Victoria any State in Australia the States of the Commonwealth the State Governments State legislation

It should not be capitalised, however, when it refers to a nation or to an abstract entity:

the European states state control state-owned enterprises India is an independent state

Note that the second element in the United States retains its initial capital when used alone the States. 4.39 The word territorywhen used in the following specifically Australian contexts always bears an initial capital, whether or not it is preceded by a qualifying word. Thus:
the Australian Capital Territory the Northern Territory the Australian States and Territories AREA NAMES The Territory comprises They visited the Territory

4.40 The conventionalbut unofficialnames of areas of cities or larger units are generally capitalised. For example:
the Adelaide Hills the North Shore (of Sydney) the Western District (of Victoria) the North-Eastern Wheatbelt (of Western Australia)

STREET NAMES

4.41

The names of streets and other thoroughfares are always capitalised:

London Circuit Woden Plaza Victoria Road Watling Street Grosvenor Place Central Avenue Adelaide Crescent Sweetbriar Lane

TOPOGRAPHICAL NAMES

4.42 Names designating particular mountains, rivers, valleys, creeks, bays, islands and so forth always bear initial capitals when they are given in full:
the Blue Mountains the Barossa Valley Norfolk Island Mount Kosciusko Alligator Creek the Windward Islands the Sepik River the Bay of Naples the Yellow Sea

4.43 When a topographical name is abbreviated to its generic element, the latter is lowercased:
the Murray River the Hunter Valley Lord Howe Island the river the valley the island

Initial capitals are retained, however, when abbreviated forms are themselves customarily used to refer to the places they designate. Thus:
the Great Barrier Reef the Persian Gulf the Reef the Gulf

4.44 When two (or more) topographical names with the same generic element are combined in the same expression, the pluralised element is lower-cased:
the Murray and Darling rivers the Barossa and Hunter valleys

But when the generic element comes first, it is capitalised:

Mounts Macedon and Kosciusko NAMES OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS AND PLACES

4.45 The official designations for public buildings and other structures, as well as public places, are capitalised when given in full:
the Queen Victoria Building the Sydney Harbour Bridge Speaker's Corner Hobart Town Hall the Big Pineapple Stonehenge Parliament House the Domain the White House

4.46 Where such designations can be abbreviated to their generic elements, these are always lower-cased:
the Sydney Harbour Bridge the Queen Victoria Building This bridge is We have seen that building.

4.47 When designations of this type are pluralised, their generic components are lowercased:
the Melbourne and Hobart town halls the Golden Gate and Sydney Harbour bridges COMPASS DIRECTIONS

4.48 When abbreviated, the points of the compass are always capitalised (and set without stops). For example:
N NE ENE

When spelt out, they are always lower-cased:

north north-east east-north-east

Historical, chronological and ceremonial designations

HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL EVENTS AND PERIODS

4.49 Standardised expressions designating historical and cultural events and periods are normally capitalised:
the Battle of Kapyong the French Revolution Prohibition the Great Exhibition the Enlightenment the Bronze Age the Eureka Stockade the Children's Crusade the First World War

4.50

Abbreviated references to such events and periods should be lower-cased:

the Battle of Kapyong the Great Exhibition the First World War At the time of the battle During this exhibition This war that claimed so many lives

4.51

Capitals are not used for historical expressions that are merely numerical:
the cinquecento (i.e. the sixteenth century) the eighteenth century the nineteen hundreds

4.52

Similarly, cultural designations of a generic kind are normally lower-cased. Thus:

the baroque period the writers of the colonial era the impressionist painters a surrealist poet

However, if such an expression contains an adjective derived from a personal name, the initial capital is retained:
Dickensian characters Shakespearian verse Dantesque imagery

ACTS, TREATIES AND GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS

4.53 71).

The titles of laws and the like are always given initial capitals (see paragraphs 9.161

4.54 In official publications it is customary to retain the initial capital of the words Act and Bill when they stand alone. For example:
Dairying Industry Levy Act 1970 Health Legislation Amendment Bill The Act provides for She intends to introduce a Bill

There is, however, a growing tendency in other publications to lower-case these words. 4.55 The names of international treaties, conventions, protocols and similar instruments, as well as those of government programs, are always capitalised when given in full:
the ANZUS Treaty the Treaty of Versailles the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons the Universal Declaration of Human Rights the World Food Plan the New Deal

4.56 Incomplete references, as well as generic and plural references, should be lower-cased. For example:
the non-proliferation treaty the Treaty of Waitangi (The treaty provides that ) the treaties of Versailles and Locarno (or the Versailles and Locarno treaties) CONFERENCES AND SIMILAR GATHERINGS

4.57

The titles of conferences and the like are capitalised when given in full. Thus:
the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea the Congress of Vienna the Bretton Woods Conference

4.58

Incomplete references, as well as generic and plural references, should be lower-cased:

the law of the sea conference the congresses of Vienna and Berlin (or the Vienna and Berlin congresses) the Bretton Woods Conference (This conference established )

HOLIDAYS, HOLY DAYS AND CEREMONIES

4.59 The names of all institutional holidays, whether religious or secular in origin, are given initial capitals:
Australia Day Christmas Day Anzac Day Show Day Good Friday the Fourth of July the Queen's Birthday Canada Day

4.60 The names of holy days or periods in religious calendars are also capitalised. For example:

Ash Wednesday

Ramadan

Lent

Yom Kippur

4.61 Initial capitals are normally given to the designations for regular ceremonies and gatherings of various kinds:
the Adelaide Festival the Olympic Games the Blessing of the Fleet the AFL Grand Final the City-to-Surf the Monte Carlo Rally

REGULAR CALENDAR EXPRESSIONS

4.62 The names of the days of the week and the months of the year always bear an initial capital:
Monday Tuesday January February

4.63 The names of the four seasons are normally lower-cased except when personified. For example:
the icy fingers of Winter Summer's smiling face

4.64

Less widely recognised points in the calendar are lower-cased:

the winter solstice the vernal equinox a leap year

TIME ZONES

4.65 Initial capitals should be used for time zones when they are spelt out, and full capitals when they are abbreviated:
Eastern Standard Time (EST) Central Standard Time (CST) Western Standard Time (WST) Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)

Scientific terminology
BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY

4.66 In botany and zoology the names of the basic nomenclatural categories are given an initial capital. Note, however, that only the first word of a species name bears an initial capital. For example:
BOTANY

Division Class Order Family Genus Species Phylum Class

Spermatophyta Dicotyledoneae Myrtales Myrtaceae Eucalyptus Eucalyptus griffithsii Arthropoda Insecta

ZOOLOGY

Order Family Genus Species

Orthoptera Pyrgomorphidae Monistria Monistria concinna

Note also that all names except genus and species names are set in roman. For specialised information on flora and fauna classification systems, see 'An introduction to the system of classification used in Flora of Australia' in volume 1 of Flora of Australia (1981, pp. 77111), and chapter 12A 'Classification and nomenclature' in Fauna of Australia (vol. 1A, 1987, pp. 26686). Refer to the Bibliography for further information on these publications. 4.67 Generic names that have become common names, and English derivatives of generic and other names, are lower-cased (and set in roman type). Thus:
amoeba herbivores camellia mammal pterodactyl

4.68 The common names of plants and animals are not given initial capitals except where they contain proper names:
piping shrike funnel web spider Norfolk Island pine Bathurst burr

4.69 The names of breeds of animals, however, are generally lower-cased even when they contain adjectives referring to geographical areas. For example:
alsatian (dog) GEOLOGICAL TERMS siamese (cat) friesian (cow)

4.70 The particularised components of geological terms are normally capitalised, but not the generic ones:
the Lower Jurassic period the Pliocene epoch the Pre-Cambrian epoch

Note, however, that the term Ice Age is capitalised when used to refer to the Recent or Pleistocene glacial epochs.
ASTRONOMICAL TERMS

4.71 The names of planets, stars, constellations and other astronomical configurations are capitalised. For example:
the Magellanic Clouds Ursa Major the Southern Cross

4.72 The words earth, sun and moon are normally lower-cased but are given initial capitals when mentioned in combination with other planets:
Venus is significantly closer to the Sun than is the Earth.

4.73 When astronomical names consist of both a particular and a generic component, the latter remains lower-cased:

the Crab nebula

Halley's comet

ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA

4.74 Cyclones and similar phenomena are given feminine or masculine names, which are capitalised and set in roman type, while the preceding generic term is lower-cased. For example:
cyclone Tracy hurricane Andrew tropical cyclone Aivu typhoon Ruby

Commercial terms
TRADEMARKS, BRAND NAMES AND PROPRIETARY NAMES

4.75 Many trademarks, brand names and proprietary names have become household words and seem to be generic designations for the things to which they refer. They are often written in lower-case by people who are unaware of their origins. Strictly speaking, however, registered trademarks, brand names and the like should be written with an initial capital; therefore, to print one of them without a capital may be deemed to imply that it is generic, and to be an infringement of its trademark status. In order to avoid the problems of litigation, publishers should take great care not to use trademarks and proprietary names if they can possibly avoid doing so; and they should insist that registered trademarks be printed with an initial capital letter. Such trademarks include the following:
Aertex Airwick Aqualung Aspro Bakelite Bean Bag Band-aid Biro Bowser BriNylon Brylcreem Can-o-Mat Caterpillar COMPUTER TERMS Cellophane Coca-cola/Coke Crimplene Cyclone Decal Dictaphone Doona Duco Elastoplast Esky Fibro Frigidaire Frisbee Glad Hoover Jeep Kleenex Kodak Laminex Land Rover Laundromat Linotype Masonite Mixmaster Moog Orlon Perspex Pita Plasticine Polaroid Primus Pyrex Rollerblade Roneo Rufflette Sellotape Smoothy Spam Technicolor Terylene Thermos Vaseline Velcro Vita-Weat Walkman Weed-Eater Windcheater Xerox

4.76 Both software and hardware names are printed in upper-case, generally with full capitals. The following examples illustrate current usage:
Software languages BASIC COBOL FORTRAN but Pascal WordPerfect

Proprietary programs, packages and systems MS-DOS UNIX but Microsoft Word Hardware: computer brand names

Apple Macintosh LC

but

IBM PC

DEC 20

VAX 750

Titles of formal compositions

BOOKS AND SIMILAR PUBLICATIONS

4.77 There are two main systems for capitalising the titles of books and similar publications. Whichever one is chosen should be used consistently throughout a publication. Maximal capitalisation 4.78 The system of maximal capitalisation requires the capitalisation of the first letter of the first word of the title and of all other words except articles, prepositions and conjunctions. For example:
The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Riders in the Chariot An Introduction to the History of Printing Types

Subtitles are similarly treated:

Man and Landscape in Australia: Towards an Ecological Vision Refractions: Essays in Comparative Literature Women's Worth: Pay Equity and Job Evaluation in Australia

Minimal capitalisation 4.79 The use of minimal capitalisation involves capitalising the first letter of the first word of the title and of those words that normally bear an initial capital. For example:
A short history of Italian literature To the lighthouse The getting of wisdom

Subtitles are similarly treated:

Modern archives: Principles and techniques Speech acts: An essay in the philosophy of language Stay alive: A handbook on survival ARTICLES

4.80 The titles and subtitles of articles are given minimal capitalisation (and are enclosed within single quotation marks). For example:
'Three Australian engineers' 'A medical history of Franz Liszt' 'Close encounters: Notes on alleged Martian landings'

(Minimal capitalisation is also applied to the titles of unpublished material and the titles of chapters in books.)

ELEMENTS OF A BOOK

4.81 Words denoting elements of a book should be lower-cased except where they begin a sentence (see paragraph 7.33):
chapter 2 section 10 figure 33 part one table 6 appendix IV

Note, however, that words such as 'contents', 'glossary' and 'bibliography' should be set with an initial capital when used in cross-references, but with a lower-case initial when used as a general term. Thus:
These terms are explained in the Glossary, page 162. but The book's glossary is barely adequate. BIBLE

4.82 The names of the books of the Bible are always given maximal capitalisation (and set in roman type), as are its various divisions and sections:
the Song of Solomon the Old Testament the Acts of the Apostles the New Testament the Book of Job the Prophets

NEWSPAPERS, JOURNALS AND PERIODICALS

4.83 The titles of newspapers, journals and periodicalsapart from any preceding definite articlesare given maximal capitalisation (and are italicised):
the Bulletin the Financial Review the New Scientist the Sydney Morning Herald the Journal of Microbiology the Queanbeyan Age Esquire Quadrant the Age

Definite articles are not italicised (see paragraph 5.7).

PLAYS, FILMS, VIDEOS AND TELEVISION PROGRAMS

4.84

The titles of plays, films, videos and television programs are given maximal capitalisation:
A Man for All Seasons The Year My Voice Broke Don's Party 'Four Corners' 'The Footy Show' 'Healthy, Wealthy and Wise'

MUSICAL COMPOSITIONS

4.85 The titles of musical compositions such as symphonies, concertos, operas and cantatas are given maximal capitalisation. For example:
Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 2 Elgar's Piano Quintet Tchaikovsky's Fourth Symphony The Daughter of the Regiment

(For matters of italicisation, see paragraphs 5.2 and 5.4.) 4.86 The titles of songs are given maximal capitalisation (but are set in roman within single quotation marks). For example:

'Auld Lang Syne'

'Comes a Time'

'The Road to Gundagai'

PAINTINGS, DRAWINGS AND SCULPTURE

4.87 The titles of paintings, drawings, sculpture and other works of art are given maximal capitalisation (and set in italics). Thus:
The Glenrowan Siege The Thinker Blue Poles Ecce Homo Willy-willy Dreaming The Disasters of War

Typographical uses of capitals 4.88 Initial capitals or occasionally full capitals are given to headings in books and newspapers. If capitals are to be used for complete words or phrases within the main body of the texta practice that is not recommendedsmall capitals should be preferred to full capitals wherever possible. Compare:
Another force which opposes motion or impending motion is called FRICTION. This force is the resistance to motion created by contact between two surfaces. Another force which opposes motion or impending motion is called FRICTION. This force is the resistance to motion created by contact between two surfaces.

However, if a name such as McKenzie has to be capitalised, it should be set in full capitals, but with the 'c' appearing as a small

Italics

5.1 Italic type, in which letters slope to the right, is easily distinguishable from upright (roman) type. There are some well-established conventions for the use of italics, but none that are universally applicable. Authors and editors should therefore use their judgment and commonsense in cases where practice varies, particularly when dealing with foreign words and phrases. Titles 5.2 Italics are used for the titles of books and similar publications; plays; long poems; musical works (those with specific non-musical titles only), musical comedies and operas; films and videos; and paintings, sculpture and the like. Examples of each category are listed below:
Books and similar publications Riders in the Chariot An Introduction to Nuclear Physics Journals of the Senate Commonwealth of Australia Gazette Long poems Convict Once Paradise Lost The Man from Snowy River The Song of Hiawatha Films and videos Strictly Ballroom Star Wars The Jane Fonda Workout Video Barely Managing Plays Macbeth The Rivals Waiting for Godot The Club Musical works, musical comedies and operas Sun Music The Isle of the Dead My Fair Lady The Flying Dutchman Paintings, sculpture and the like Blue Poles The Thinker The Lost Child The Disasters of War

5.3 Italics are not used for the titles of chapters, articles, essays, lectures, short poems, and radio and television programs (see paragraph 6.188). Similarly, the word 'Hansard' is not italicised nor are the titles of series (see paragraphs 9.83 and 9.109). 5.4 The titles of musical compositions other than those belonging to the categories listed in paragraph 5.2 are not generally italicised (see paragraphs 4.86 and 6.188). However, in a publication containing many references to long musical works (italics) and shorter compositions and songs (roman, quoted), it may be easier to italicise all the titles to avoid the trap of arbitrary decision-making on doubtful or borderline cases. 5.5 A definite or indefinite article forming the first word of the title of a work is omitted where its retention would result in an awkward reading. Thus:
Wordsworth's Prelude When Hemingway wrote his Farewell to Arms In her brilliant Mill on the Floss Have you seen the wonderful Laughing Cavalier?

Names of newspapers and periodicals 5.6 The names of newspapers and periodicals are set in italics. For example:
Canberra Times Sydney Morning Herald Examiner New Statesman House and Garden Australian Fisheries Journal of Microbiology Transactions of the Philological Society

5.7 Where the definite article is required in text to precede the name, it should be printed in roman with a lower-case initial letter (unless it begins a sentence). This is because it is often difficult to ascertain whether the name is preceded by the definite article on the masthead of the newspaper or periodical in question. For example:
It will appear in the Financial Review. The Sydney Morning Herald reports that She read it in the Independent Monthly.

5.8

The definite article is omitted where its retention would result in an awkward reading:
Hearst's Daily Bugle. I saw it in yesterday's Sydney Morning Herald (or yesterday's Herald). I borrowed her Spectator.

5.9 The article is also omitted in a list (the one in paragraph 5.6, for example) in a parenthetical reference and in a note citation. 5.10 When a plural 's' is attached to the name of a newspaper or periodical, it should always be set in roman type. For example:
six Heralds a couple of Quadrants

When a possessive 's' is attached to the name of a newspaper or periodical (or, where appropriate, to any other italicised name or title), it and the apostrophe should likewise be set in roman type:
Newsweek's book reviewer the Financial Review's opinion

Names of ships, aircraft and other vehicles 5.11 It is usual to italicise the names of specific ships, aircraft and other vehicles (but not such abbreviations as 'HMAS' preceding them). For example:
Southern Cross HMAS Perth Kookaburra II Flying Scotsman Bluebird Voyager 3

5.12 Where the definite article is required in text to precede the name, it is printed in roman with a lower-case initial letter (unless it begins a sentence). In no case does the article form part of the official name. For example:
The Southern Cross touched down to a tumultuous welcome. We travelled on the Indian-Pacific.

5.13 The definite article does not precede the name of a ship of the Royal Australian Navy. For example:
He was in HMAS Darwin.

Note that 'in', not 'on', should always be used in this context. 5.14 Model, brand and other general names are not italicised, nor are names of buildings. (Similarly, the initial letter of any preceding definite article is not capitalised, unless it begins a sentence.) Thus:
two Qantas Boeings the Oval Office a Holden sedan the Hotel Bristol old Parliament House six Liberty ships

Citation of Acts and other legal documents 5.15 See paragraphs 9.16171.

Scientific names of plants and animals 5.16 The names of genera, species, subspecies and varieties are always italicised, while the abbreviations of 'variety' (var.) and 'species' (sp., plural spp.) are set in roman. For example:
Eucalyptus Monistria Eucalyptus griffithsii Monistria vinosa Monistria vinosa excelsa Eucalyptus griffithsii var. angustiuscula Dosinia sp.

(For matters of capitalisation, see paragraph 4.66.) 5.17 The common or vernacular names of botanical and zoological species are set in roman:
barley grass mountain ash blue gum king prawn funnel web spider laughing jackass

5.18 Generic names that have become common, and English derivatives of generic and other names, are also set in roman. Thus:
asparagus amoeba arachnid annelid camellia sorghum

Words and letters cited as such 5.19 A word (or words) cited as such is frequently italicised, as is a letter cited as a letter:
The word yardstick is of Germanic origin. The term buffer zone is used to describe The letter e occurs frequently. Be careful how you use hopefully.

Single quotation marks may be used instead of italics (examples of both uses will be found in this manual). It may be preferable to use quotation marks in a text that already contains many italicised words. Enemy formations 5.20 It is customary to italicise the names of enemy formations in military histories. For example:
The 2/5th Battalion faced a group of the 41st Japanese Division and its 238th and 239th Regiments.

Prefatory, introductory or subsidiary material 5.21 It is common practice (but by no means obligatory) to put prefatory, introductory or subsidiary material in italics to distinguish it from the main text. The following may be so treated: quotations at the beginning of chapters; dedications; headings and subheadings; short verse quotations; words and phrases such as resolved, determined and provided in official texts; continued, see and see also in cross-references. Emphasis 5.22 Italics are often used in the body of the text to give emphasis to a word or phrase, or to reinforce an important contrast. For example:
They really must show more determination. I don't mean any Mr Smith, I mean the Mr Smith, the one who trains horses. We don't have money, but we do have enthusiasm.

Repeated use of this device, however, can become wearisome and defeat its purpose; it should therefore be avoided as much as possible. The required emphasis or contrast can usually be achieved by rewording the sentence. Words and phrases used in special senses 5.23 When a word or phrase is used in a sense other than its normal one, it may be italicised if that sense is likely to be mistaken or if its tone seems discordant in its context. This is often the case with archaisms, misused words and neologisms, for example:
Wren's cathedral was frequently described as awful by its early admirers. She said he was under the affluence of alcohol.

Mousetraps are required for muricide.

Single quotation marks are sometimes used instead of italics. Foreign words and phrases 5.24 In general, a foreign word or phrase should be used only if it conveys a sense or nuance that cannot be accurately rendered in English. Such a word or phrase is usually set in italics unless it is regarded as anglicised. Opinion inevitably varies, however, and therefore so does practice. 5.25 The problem of italicisation may generally be resolved, or at least clarified, by consulting a dictionary. The Macquarie Dictionary sets all words and phrases in roman, irrespective of their origin; thus any foreign word or phrase not listed there would probably require italics. Most dictionaries, however, indicate whether a particular word or phrase is regarded as anglicised, generally through the use of italics. Once again, any item not listedeither in italics or roman would probably need to be italicised. 5.26 If a word or phrase is italicised, it is both normal and logical to include any diacritical marks (and, in the case of German, to capitalise any nouns) with which the word or phrase is written in the source language. For example:
gemtlich lan vital Schadenfreude Plus a change, plus c'est la mme chose.

5.27 When words or phrases are set in roman, diacritical marks (if any) are frequently omitted. However, if omission would substantially alter pronunciation, they should be retained. For example:
communiqu manqu saut rsum consomm clich

5.28 If the guidance given by dictionaries is disregarded, even partly, the author or editor will need to make sensible and realistic decisions about which words and phrases to italicise and when to use diacritical marks. Considerations of particular relevance will be the nature of the text, the audience for which it is intended, andin the case of diacritical marksthe fonts available to the typesetter.

Punctuation

6.1 This chapter provides a comprehensivebut not exhaustiveguide to the uses of the various punctuation marks. The purpose of punctuation is to make the meaning of a text as clear as possible. Incorrect punctuation, like insufficient punctuation, may cause obscurity and ambiguity; unnecessary punctuation may distract the reader and be unsightly. Some writers use more punctuation marks than others, but the modern tendency is to use them sparingly. Provided that the marks are used correctly, allowance should always be made for an author's preferences. Full stop
SENTENCES

6.2 A full stop is used to mark the end of a sentence that is a statement or a command. For example:
We have decided to go to Sydney. Go to Sydney today. ABBREVIATIONS

6.3 2.

For the use of full stops with abbreviations and initials, see paragraphs 7.48 and 7.70

DECIMAL POINT

6.4

The use of the full stop to mark the decimal point is dealt with in paragraph 10.10.

MEASUREMENT

6.5 A full stop should be used within symbols of units of measurement to indicate the product of two constituent unit symbols. For example:
N.m Pa.s (newton metre) (pascal second)

INCORRECT USES

6.6 (a) (b) (c) (d)

Full stops should not be used in the following instances: at the end of the displayed title of a book, poem, chapter or the like; after headings, display lines and so forth in forms or other printed matter; after subheadings, unless run on, and headings for and within figures and tables; after running headlines;

(e)

(f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k)

after captions that are not complete sentences (but a caption consisting of an incomplete sentence and a complete sentence, for example, will require a full stop after each sentence); at the end of index entries; after dates or signatures; within or after abbreviations consisting of more than one capital letter, or after contractions (see parafraphs 7.46); after the symbols for units of measurement (see paragraphs 7.8 and 11.19); after the symbols for currency (see paragraphs 10.70); before the three full stops that mark an ellipsis even if the end of a sentence has been reached (see paragraph 6.160).

Colon 6.7 The colon generally marks a pause or degree of separation somewhat shorter than that marked by the full stop.
AMPLIFICATION

6.8 A colon is used to introduce a word, phrase or clause that explains, enlarges or summarises. For example:
There was only one word for it: catastrophic. We were perplexed: not only were there no vacancies but also, it seemed, our baggage had not been forwarded. Dear You: A Guide to Forms of Address [book title] LISTS

6.9 A colon is used to introduce a run-in list or one set off from the text when the items in the list are in apposition to an introductory word or are preceded by the following or as follows. For example:
Her book will be of interest to a wide range of people: librarians, journalists, editors, teachers. The necessary ingredients are as follows: milk sugar flour jam eggs butter

6.10 If a run-in list is introduced by for example, including, such as, that is, namely and so on, neither a colon nor any other punctuation mark is required:
We discussed her favourite painters, namely Nolan, Picasso, Ingres, Buvelot and Kandinsky. (not namely: Nolan )

6.11 A colon is required, however, when any of those words and expressions or similar ones introduces a list set off from the text:
A number of diseases had to be eradicated, such as: diphtheria smallpox measles whooping cough chickenpox mumps

6.12 In a run-in list that forms the complement or object of the introductory words, it is not necessary to use a colon or any other punctuation mark. For example:
The causes of accidents are carelessness, lack of courtesy, drunkenness and excessive speed.

A colon is generally used, however, before a list set off from the text. Thus:
You will be required to visit: northern France Poland Slovakia San Marino QUOTATIONS

6.13

A colon is used in formally introducing a quotation or reported speech. For example:

She then quoted Churchill's famous words: 'This was their finest hour' In his address to the nation the President said: 'There must be '

6.14 A comma is sufficient if the introduction is less formal and the quotation consists of a single sentence:
As Lincoln said, 'The ballot is stronger than the bullet'.

6.15 However, if the quotation consists of two or more complete sentences, the colon should always be used. For example:
She said in 1969: 'Reality is not an inspiration for literature. At best, literature is an inspiration for reality'.

6.16 If a quotation is in apposition to an introductory word, no intervening punctuation is needed. For example:
She then quoted that famous insult 'Let them eat cake'.

6.17 Similarly, when a quotation is grammatically related to the sentence in which it appearsfor example, when it is the subject or complementno colon is needed. For example:
'Sit down and shut up' was all he could say. Her question was 'Why should I?'.

6.18 A block quotationthat is, one set off from the rest of the textshould always be introduced by a colon, as in the following example:
As the author explains in the first paragraph: Maps are mainly of two kinds: topographic maps, which depict the terrain and the natural and man-made features on it; and thematic maps, which are designed to illustrate some theme geology, population density or air routes. This theme is often superimposed on a topographic base map printed in subdued colours. Simplified topographic maps at small scales suitable for inclusion in books and other publications are sometimes referred to as locality maps. INTRODUCTIONS

6.19 A colon is used after the introduction in a written speech and after the identifying words or names in dialogue, verbatim court reports, plays and so on. For example:
Your Excellency, Prime Minister, ladies and gentlemen: I am Question: Answer: QUESTIONS What did you think of him? I thought he was hardworking and conscientious.

6.20 A colon is used to introduce a direct question when the question is in apposition to an introductory word or is amplified. For example:
This is the question to be answered: must we go or must we stay? What are the advantages: more money? longer holidays?

6.21 A capital letter is not required after the colon unless two or more complete interrogative sentences follow:
We ask you: Can you support him? Can you persuade others to vote for him? RATIOS

6.22

A colon is used to indicate a ratio:

Topographic survey maps are produced to a ratio of 1:100 000.

Note that no space is inserted before or after the colon.

BIBLICAL REFERENCES

6.23

A colon is used to separate the chapter and verse(s) in references to the Bible:
Deut. 4:26 2 Cor. 6:9

Semicolon 6.24 The semicolon separates parts of a sentence that require a stronger break than that marked by the comma but are too closely related to be broken into separate sentences. For example:

The past is a different country; they do things differently there. PARALLEL CLAUSES

6.25 Semicolons should be used to separate parallel clauses in which the connecting conjunction has been omitted:
To be poor and not complain is difficult; to be rich and not complain is easy. CLAUSES CONTAINING COMMAS

6.26 Semicolons should be used to separate clauses or phrases that already contain commas. For example:
The practice of medicine is an art, not a trade; a calling, not a business; a calling in which your heart will be exercised equally with your head. LISTS

6.27 Semicolons should be used at the end of each item in a run-in list to separate phrases that already contain commas. They should also be used in a list set off from the text unless each item consists of one word or a short phrase (in which case, no end punctuation is requiredsee paragraphs 6.9 and 6.1112), or of a complete sentence (in which case, an initial capital letter and a full stop should of course be used).
On the table there were knives, forks and spoons; cups and saucers; and plates, bowls and glasses of all kinds. The printer must consider the following: (a) the available sheet sizes of the kinds of paper to be used; (b) the number of pages in the job and the length of run; (c) the positions in which illustrations, maps etc. printed on different paper from the text are to appear; (d) the maximum size of sheet which can be printed on the printing machines to be used.

Care should be taken to construct lists based on one pattern only so as to avoid the awkwardness of those containing a mixture of single words, short phrases and complete sentences.
'HOWEVER' ETC.

6.28 Semicolons should be used to precede clauses introduced by words such as however, nevertheless, thus, accordingly, therefore, that is and namely. Thus:
To be poor and not complain is difficult; however, to be rich and not complain is easy. He is a sick man; nevertheless, he remains cheerful.

Comma 6.29 The modern tendency is to use no more commas than are essential for clarity, although some writers use them more freely than others. This section sets out the main uses of commas as well as a number of incorrect uses.
COORDINATE CLAUSES

6.30 A comma is used between coordinate clauses that have different subjects and are linked by conjunctions such as but, and, for, or and nor. For example:
Copper and tin were in the ascendant, but gold too was lively. Let us make the most of today, for tomorrow may never come.

6.31 Where such clauses are short and are linked generally by and, the comma is frequently omitted:
The rain beat down and the wind howled.

6.32 When coordinate clauses have the same subject and are reasonably short the comma may be omitted:
We were unhappy but felt unable to do anything.

6.33

But when such clauses are long, a comma is generally inserted to separate them:
They feel more and more the heavy burden of steadily advancing years, and would like to find a smaller house.

6.34 If such clauses are long and already contain commas, a semicolon should be used to separate them (see paragraph 6.26).
RELATIVE CLAUSES

6.35 Commas should be used to mark off a non-defining (or non-restrictive) relative clausethat is, one that contains information that is not essential to the definition of the subject but comments on it:
Mary Weiss, who will be 65 next month, has been with the firm for thirty years.

6.36 A defining (or restrictive) relative clausethat is, one that contains information essential to the meaning of the sentenceshould not be marked off with commas. For example:
The golden rule that I always follow is Truck drivers who fail to give signals are likely to cause accidents.

In the second example the insertion of a comma after 'drivers' and another after 'signals' would change the meaning of the sentence: it would then mean that all truck drivers fail to give signals. 6.37 Use of the relative pronouns that and which is largely determined by whether the clause is defining or non-defining: that is used only with defining clauses; which may be used with either type of clause. Consequently the question of whether to use the comma is confined to

clauses introduced by which. Note that it is often possible to omit that or which in defining clauses without causing loss of clarity or inelegance:
The illustrated book I sold yesterday cost me very little. The techniques you use are out of date. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

6.38 An introductory adverbial clause is usually marked off from the main clause by a comma. If the clause is very short and no ambiguity could result, the comma may be omitted. For example:
Before you try to develop a completely new process, you should analyse consumer requirements. When we wake up, the birds haven't started singing. If in doubt ask at the post office.

6.39 Clauses introduced by as, since and while may express time, cause or condition. When they express time, a comma should not be used, unless momentary ambiguity could result:
While we were walking in the park the fireworks were exploding over the harbour. While we were walking in the park, exploding fireworks were illuminating the north side of the harbour.

6.40 When an introductory adverbial clause expresses cause or condition, it is followed by a comma:
As it is so long since you visited us, I think you should stay overnight. Since you have become dissatisfied, you should be actively seeking another position.

6.41 When a defining adverbial clause follows the main clause, limiting its meaning, it is not preceded by a comma. When a non-defining adverbial clause follows the main clause, enhancing rather than limiting its meaning, it is preceded by a comma. Thus:
We ordered a taxi, although a horse-drawn vehicle would have been cheaper. [non-defining] We ordered a taxi while the porter brought the suitcases from our rather remote room. [definingtime] We ordered a taxi, while the other members of our group hired several of those colourful horsedrawn vehicles. [non-definingconcession] It was not far to the next town, where, we hoped, a warm bath would be possible. It was not far to the town where, we knew, a warm bath would be possible. [non-defining]

[defining]

The conjunction can be taken as a guide: although and though are always non-defining; if and because, for example, are usually defining.

ADVERBIAL PHRASES

6.42 An introductory adverbial phrase is usually marked off from the rest of the sentence by a comma. The comma is particularly necessary when its omission would cause momentary confusion. For example:
To prepare a paste-up, follow this procedure. When bathing her, her mother had noticed a few red marks.

6.43 A comma is not used after a very short introductory phrase unless it contains figures and is followed by figures, or unless misreading could occur:
By 1980 there were 333 employees. By 1980, 333 employees had registered. In winter few continue to ride bicycles to work. In winter, clothing contributions are even more gratefully received.

6.44 An adverbial phrase that comes between the subject and the verb is usually marked off by commas:
Good students, after studying their standard texts, make use of the library. INTRODUCTORY AND TRANSITIONAL ELEMENTS

6.45 A comma or commas need not always be used after such words and phrases as therefore, meanwhile and no doubt. Compare the following pairs of sentences:
Therefore, it must always be borne in mind that things will not change unless we make them change. He therefore decided to stay. Meanwhile, if no action is taken, a crisis may occur. Meanwhile the situation is deteriorating. There are, no doubt, two sides to the question. No doubt there are two sides to the question.

6.46 When words and phrases such as thus, hence, namely, for example and for instance introduce an amplification, an example or items in a series, they should not be treated as interpolations in their own right and marked off by parenthetical commas. It is the complete element that needs to be treated parenthetically:
Some groups, for example single-income families, would be adversely affected. Some groupsfor example, the unemployed and single-parent familieswould be adversely affected. Some groups would be adversely affected; for example, single-income families would find it even more difficult to pay for housing. but Single-income families, for example, would be adversely affected. [interpolation]

6.47 If an introductory or transitional element would be marked off at the beginning of a sentence or within it, then it is marked off when it occurs at the end of the sentence:

Some groups would be adversely affectedsingle-income families, for example. DEFINING AND NON-DEFINING PHRASES

6.48 Defining phrases, which limit the meaning of a main clause, are not marked off by commas:
Birds such as the swallow and the stork are migratory.

6.49 If a phrase is non-definingthat is, if it enhances rather than limits the meaning of a sentenceit should be marked off by commas:
Many birds, such as the swallow and the stork, are migratory. PARENTHETICAL ELEMENTS

6.50

Pairs of commas are used to set off parenthetical words, phrases and clauses:
It seems to me, children, that you have done more than your share of the work. Exercise, no less than one's diet, should be considered. Meanwhile, since no action is being taken, a crisis is developing.

WORDS IN APPOSITION

6.51 Commas are used to mark off a word or phrase in apposition (known as an appositive) if it is non-defining, that is if the meaning would not change if it were omitted. For example:
Mesopotamia, 'the cradle of civilisation', is the subject of his research. Dyspepsia, or indigestion, is a frequent problem.

Note that parentheses or dashes can also be used to mark off appositives. 6.52 When or introduces an alternative, commas are not used:
Dashes or commas may be used to mark off parenthetical elements.

6.53 Defining words or phrasesthat is, words or phrases that are essential to the meaning of a phrase, clause or sentenceare not marked off by commas:
My daughter Jane attends the local school.

In the above example, the absence of commas before and after 'Jane' indicates that the writer has more than one daughter. (The insertion of commas would mean that the writer has only one daughter.)
BEFORE 'AND', 'OR' OR 'ETC.'

6.54 A comma is used before and, or or etc. in a list when its omission might either give rise to ambiguity or cause the last word or phrase to be construed with a preposition in the preceding phrase:
There were many expeditions, including those of Sturt, Mitchell, Burke and Wills, and Darling.

The long days at work, the nights of intense study, and inadequate food eventually caused them serious health problems. The sea, the perfume of wisteria, or a summer lunch: any of these revived memories of an easier time. We needed to know how to get there, what time to get there, the number of participants, etc.

6.55

Generally, however, a comma is not used before and, or or etc. in a list:

John, Warren and Peter came to dinner. Fruit, vegetables or cereals may be substituted. Why not hire your skis, boots, overpants etc.?

6.56 Note that use of etc. is not generally recommended for running text. If the items in a list or series are preceded by the words such as, it is incorrect to add etc. 6.57 If and or or is repeated throughout a list or series, commas are not required:
Books or magazines or newspapers will be available.

6.58 Semicolons are sometimes required to separate the items in a list or series, and to prevent ambiguity (see paragraph 6.27).
BETWEEN ADJECTIVES

6.59 When a number of adjectives precede the noun they qualify, use of the comma depends on interrelationshipsadjective with adjective, and adjective with noun. A test of whether a comma is required is to try linking the adjectives with and. If this is an easy substitution, and the noun is not affected (sometimes the last adjective is closely related to the noun), then the comma should be used:
a low, gnarled bough placed, productive breeds small, pink and white petals two gentle, unassuming local craftworkers fine old red wines enormous early-nineteenth-century oak bookcases ELEMENTS IN COMMON

6.60 A pair of commas is required with elements that are followed by a shared word or phrase:
The farmers were concerned about, but could not individually deal with, the growing rabbit population. His short, not to say rude, reply astonished us all.

6.61

If the elements are short and misreading could not occur, the commas may be omitted:
They were briefly and badly counselled. They occasionally but very reluctantly attend.

ANTITHETICAL ELEMENTS

6.62 An antithetical phrase or clause is marked off by a comma or commas, unless the phrases are very short and of parallel construction:
We were supposed to be there for edification, not for the entertainment of the so-called facilitator. Not more equipment but better trained workers was what the study recommended. We saw not galleys but dyelines. but We saw dyelines, not galleys.

6.63 When a word relates both to a phrase or clause and to its antithesis, a pair of commas is required:
They put it inside, not alongside, the fence. This will help, not rectify, the situation.

6.64 If a phrase or clause introduced by not is non-definingthat is, if its omission would not alter the meaning of the sentencea pair of commas should be used:
It was Elsa herself, not her pups, who dug up the garden. OMISSIONS

6.65 Commas are used to indicate the omission of one or more words common to two parts of a sentence, particularly where numerical expressions are involved. Note that these constructions necessitate the use of semicolons:
In 1983 there were fourteen applications; in 1984, twenty-seven; and in 1985, ten.

6.66 If groups of figures are involved, this construction is necessary in order to prevent confusion:
In 1983 there were 90 applications; in 1984, 126; and in 1985, 144. AMBIGUITY

6.67

Commas should be used to prevent momentary misunderstanding or ambiguity:

He was not run over, mercifully. You don't really like it; you're only pretending, to please me. For all that, they were given a lot of financial support.

NUMBERS

6.68

Commas should be used to separate numbers that might be momentarily confused:

The board said that in 1986, 800 more vehicles would be produced.

If possible, however, such sentences should be reworded:

The board said that 800 more vehicles would be produced in 1986.

TITLES

6.69

Commas should be used to separate names from titles or degrees:

Captain Hornblower, RN The Honourable William Blank, MP, Speaker of the House of Representatives, attended the function yesterday.

INCORRECT USES

6.70 There are three common errors in the use of commas. The first is to use one comma when there should be two or none:
The architect you met, Marion Talbot, lived in India for some time. not The architect you met, Marion Talbot lived in India for some time. The well-known architect Marion Talbot lived in India for some time. not The well-known architect, Marion Talbot lived in India for some time.

6.71 The second error is to insert a comma between a subject and its verb when the subject is very long:
However, pensioners whose aids require battery types not normally stocked will still have to buy their batteries from commercial outlets. not However, pensioners whose aids require battery types not normally stocked, will still have to buy their batteries from commercial outlets.

6.72 The third error is to confuse a compound predicate with a compound sentence and consequently to misplace the comma. Compare the following:
We ran to the door and, finding that it was locked, began to search frantically for another way of gaining access. [not door, and finding that it was locked, began ] We ran to her aid, but because the door was locked, precious minutes were lost. [not aid but, because the door was locked, precious]

6.73 (a) (b)

Note also that commas should not be used: to mark off a defining relative clause (see paragraph 6.36) after such abbreviations as:
i.e. e.g. viz.

(c)

in addresses:
Ms R. Santos 26/33 Tasman Place Ivanhoe Vic. 3079

(d)

in dates:
4 April 1929 not 4 April, 1929

(e)

before matter marked off by parentheses:

In general (some would dispute this) long-term memory improves with age. [not general, (some)]

(f)

before or after matter marked off by dashes:

Daysdays that were longer, it seemed, than usualwent by without any improvement in their condition. [not Days,daysusual,went by]

Question mark
DIRECT QUESTIONS

6.74 A question mark should always be used at the end of a sentence that asks a direct question (whether or not it is cast in the interrogative form). Thus:
How many pages are affected? Did you actually see it? She really said that?

6.75

Note also the following:

What are the requirements: tents? sleeping bags? food? What if you double the quantities? halve them? add twice as much reagent?

INDIRECT QUESTIONS

6.76

A question mark should not be used with indirect questions:

He asked me whether I really saw it. We asked the secretary how the money for the scheme would be raised. How to raise the moneythat was the first matter to be dealt with.

RHETORICAL OR UNSPOKEN QUESTIONS

6.77 A rhetorical questiona question to which no answer is expectedrequires a question mark, as does an unspoken question. For example:
What do you take me for? And why did Rider Haggard write She? they wondered. REQUESTS AND THE LIKE

6.78 A question mark should not be used after a sentence that is more a request or a command than a question:
Will you let me know how many chairs are needed. Would you please return them as soon as possible.

6.79 Statements of fact containing words cast in an interrogative form do not require a question mark:
'And, do you know, we are going to be in the team that wins', the small boy declared.

DOUBT

6.80

A question mark is used to indicate doubt:

The author was Sir Charles Sedley (1639?1701). Bourne (?1703) indicates that this was not the case.

6.81 A question mark should not be used after single interrogative words in a sentence, which are sometimes distinguished by the use of italics:
They had lost it, and there was no point in asking when. The question was why, not how. USE WITH OTHER PUNCTUATION

6.82 The question mark replaces the full stop at the end of an interrogative sentence. It is retained in parenthetical elements and, if necessary, before points of ellipsis. Its use with quotation marks, and its relation to other marks of punctuation when it is required in direct quotations or direct speech, are discussed in paragraphs 6.193 and 6.1989. Exclamation mark
SURPRISE OR INDIGNATION

6.83 An exclamation mark should be used to indicate a high degree of surprise, incredulity, indignation or strong emotion:
I've won the lottery! I can't believe it! How dare you! INTERJECTION

6.84 An exclamation mark is used to indicate a true exclamation or interjection, even if it does not express a strong emotion:
Good health! God bless you! Hear, hear! APOSTROPHISING

6.85

An exclamation mark is used to apostrophise a person or thing:

You little beauty! You prince among good cooks! Land of my birth, Australia!

COMBINATION OF HUMOUR AND SURPRISE

6.86

An exclamation mark may occasionally be used to combine humour with surprise:

After eating twenty-five watermelons to win the competition, she was presented with the first prizea watermelon! USE WITH OTHER PUNCTUATION

6.87 The exclamation mark replaces the full stop at the end of an exclamatory sentence. It is retained in parenthetical elements and, if necessary, before points of ellipsis. Its use with quotation marks, and its relation to other marks of punctuation or direct speech, are discussed in paragraphs 6.193 and 6.199. Dashes
TYPOGRAPHICAL DISTINCTIONS

6.88 The word dash refers to several different marks and the differences between them must be clearly understood. A brief explanation of their typographical expression is given below; detail on their usage is provided in the sections following (paragraphs 6.90149). Dash, or em rule (). What is generally referred to as the dash is known to typesetters as an 'em rule', so called because it is the width of an em (see Glossary). Two-em rule (). A 2-em rule is composed of two em rules set with no extra space between. En rule (). The en rule is a shorter rule, generally about half an em. Spaced en rule ( ). The spaced en rule is composed of an en rule with a space either side. This may need to be a fixed space when the spaced en rule is used to link numbers of four or more digits which themselves take fixed spaces in place of commas (see paragraph 10.5). Hyphen (-). The hyphen is the shortest of the rules. 6.89 Some typesetters use a spaced en rule to indicate a dash, while others use a spaced em rule. However, the unspaced em rule is recommended. This style allows the spaced en rule to be easily distinguished and used without confusion in its particular contexts (see paragraph 6.107). Dash, or em rule 6.90 The uses of the dash are set out below. The dash should never be used to impose a structure on a poorly thought-out sentence.
PARENTHETICAL ELEMENTS

6.91 A pair of dashes may be used to mark off a parenthetical element. Dashes should be chosen only when the break is more abrupt or when a word or phrase from the preceding clause is taken up and expanded; otherwise commas (paragraph 6.50) or parentheses (paragraph 6.153) should be used. For example:

The eye cannot cope comfortably with lines containing too many wordsten to twelve words per line is idealso that a larger type size is needed for a wide measure than for a narrow one. We went far awayfar away from the cares and demands of city lifeto write up our research. GATHERING UP, AMPLIFYING, EXPLAINING

6.92 A dash is used to gather up the subject or object of a sentence when either consists of a long list:
Curiosity, reverence for nature, pleasure in conversation within a small circle of friends, respect for the privacy of the individualall these qualities could, it was thought, be developed in anyone. What could the message meanthat the bus had broken down? that the dates had been confused? that even more than their meeting was being cancelled? ABRUPT CHANGES

6.93

A dash is used to mark an abrupt change in the structure of a sentence:

I went to Rome to see the churches, to Paris to look at the galleries, to Vienna to hear the opera but I see I am boring you.

USE WITH OTHER PUNCTUATION

6.94 The only punctuation marks that may precede the dash are a closing parenthesis, a question mark or an exclamation mark:
Books (all sizes, all kinds)where had she stored all of them?began to arrive at the central collection point. No oneyou guessed it!stepped forward.

6.95 If a parenthetical element is in apposition to a word or phrase, and the appositive already contains commas, a pair of dashes should be used to prevent ambiguity:
The parts of a publicationhalf-title page, title page, foreword and so onshould be clearly indicated. In those countriesthat is, in India, China and Thailandthe facilities are of a high standard.

6.96 To prevent confusion, no more than one pair of dashes should be used in a sentence; parentheses should be substituted:
The small containers (375 mL) will be more useful than the large (1 L). not The small container375 mLwill be more useful than the large1 L.

6.97 When elements marked off by dashes contain further parenthetical elements, parentheses should be used inside the dashes:
They insisted on knowing everythingeverything, it should be added, that her passport must have already revealed (age, marital status, movements over the past six months, and so on)and then ignored my presence completely.

Two-em rule
BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND INDEXES

6.98 The 2-em rule is used in bibliographies to avoid repeating an author's name when more than one work by the same author is listed (see also paragraph 9.68):
Hare, R.M. 1961, 'Geach: good and evil', Analysis, 18, pp. 10312. 1963, Freedom and Reason, Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1964, 'Pain and evil', Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, supp. 38, pp. 91106.

It is also used in indexes to avoid unnecessary repetition of words (see paragraphs 15.6970).
BREAKING OFF

6.99

A 2-em rule is used to mark a sudden break in direct or reported speech:

I distinctly heard him say 'Go away or I'll '.

OMITTED LETTERS OR WORDS

6.100 The third use of the 2-em rule is to indicate the omission of letters or words. For example:
It was alleged that D had been threatened with blackmail.

Note that the rule is set close up to any letters that are retained. If no letters are retained, word space is required either side of the 2-em rule. En rule 6.101 An en rule (see also paragraphs 10.1214) is used in spans of figures and in expressions relating to time or distance:
pages 3067 198788 financial year SydneyYassMelbourne trains AprilJune 163165 Clarence Street AustraliaIndia air route

6.102 An en rule is also used to express an association between words that retain their separate identity:
a CommonwealthState agreement costbenefit ratios handeye coordination arthritisencephalitis virus

6.103 The en rule cannot be used as a linking device if elements are not parallel or in series. Numbers in figures must be linked with numbers in figures; nouns must be linked with nouns; adjectives must be linked with adjectives; and so on. For example:
AustralianAmerican research teams AustraliaChina trade agreements not not AustraliaAmerican research teams AustralianChina trade agreements

lines 204 [means lines 20, 21, 22, 23 and 24

not

20 and 24] not one or two day-old chicks; note

12-day old chicks [means chicks one or two days old hyphens]

6.104 If the elements being linked include a prefix, a hyphen is used, not an en ruleunless a compound is being developed (see also paragraph 6.120):
Anglo-Australian Telescope the Austro-Hungarian Empire Neo-Gothic windows but compare AustraliaJapan Foundation compare the AustriaHungary border preBronze Age tools

6.105 The en rule should never be used with the words from and between:
the period between 1970 and 1990 not the period between 197090 available in sizes from 9 to 26 not available in sizes from 926

6.106 It is preferable to use an en rule, rather than a hyphen, in a line of even capitals (titles, headings and so on). For example:
THE AUSTROHUNGARIAN EMPIRE (18671918) SPACED EN RULE

6.107 The spaced en rule is essentially a typographical refinement. It is used where the en rule without the space either side may necessitate a rereading to establish the sense of the passage. For example:
It was in this period (52 BC AD 108) that the move towards rather than It was in this period (52 BCAD 108) that the move towards This reading of John 1:1 3:21 gives us a new insight rather than This reading of John 1:13:21 gives us a new insight

6.108 Where one or both of the items linked are comprised of two or more words expressing a single entity, the spaced en rule should be used to prevent possible ambiguity:
Liberal Party National Party coalition rather than Liberal PartyNational Party coalition The famous 'Gentleman Jim' Corbett John L. Sullivan meeting rather than The famous 'Gentleman Jim' CorbettJohn L. Sullivan meeting

Hyphen 6.109 The hyphen is used in complex words and compound words, both of which are discussed here. Its use in word division is dealt with in paragraphs 3.246.

COMPLEX WORDS

6.110 A complex word is one that has two or more components: a single root word to which a prefix or suffix (or both) is attached. When to write such a word with a hyphen is a question that often arises. 6.111 To assist authors and editors in resolving matters of hyphenation, a number of general principles are set out in the following paragraphs. Many of the words discussed will be found in dictionaries, and so it is intended that these principles should serve primarily as a guide to words that are formed according to the same pattern but are not found in the dictionary. Authors and editors will realise, however, that no set of principles can be universally applicable, and should therefore use their judgment and commonsense in making the necessary decisions. Since it is always essential to clarify meaning for the reader, the use or non-use of hyphens may often depend on the immediate context. Prefixes 6.112 Among the most common word-forming prefixes are:
a- (negative) anteantibicocounterdedisenexextrahyperhypoininterintramisneononpostpreproresemisubsupersupraun-

In general, they require a hyphen only in the cases detailed below. 6.113 Doubling of a vowel. It is normal to insert a hyphen when the last vowel of the prefix is the same as the first letter of the root word. For example:
anti-intellectual pre-eminent de-emphasise supra-axillary

Note, however, that when such a word is particularly common, the hyphen is often omitted and the word is written without space (set solid). This is the case, for example, with cooperate (and its derivatives) and coordinate (and its derivatives). 6.114 Prefix plus capital letter. Where the second element of a complex word begins with a capital letter, a hyphen should always be inserted:
pre-Christian un-American anti-Soviet post-Homeric

6.115 Prefix plus date. It is customary to use a hyphen when the element following a prefix is a date:
pre-1914 post-1945

6.116 Presence of italics or quotation marks. When a prefix is attached to an italicised word or one enclosed in quotation marks, it is normal to separate the two elements by a hyphen:

anti-campesino

pro-glasnost

semi-'pickled'

pro-'pacification'

6.117 'Ex' meaning 'former'. When the prefix 'ex' means 'former', it is always followed by a hyphen. For example:
ex- member ex- wife

6.118 Other exceptions. Although the combination of two different vowels does not generally necessitate the use of the hyphenfor example, reallot, prearrange, microeconomics, intrauterinea complex word consisting of a prefix and a short monosyllabic word is hyphenated so that it is not read as a single syllable. For example:
re-ink re-use

6.119 A hyphen is also used to distinguish the separate meanings of root words with the same prefix. For example:
re-form (form again) but reform (remove abuses) re-cover (cover again) but recover (regain) re-bound (bound again) but rebound (recoil) re-creation (creation anew) but recreation (restorative free time)

6.120 En rule instead of a hyphen. Note that an expression such as preWorld War II planes is written with an en rule, not a hyphen. This is because the hyphen cannot perform the function required herethat is, to attach the prefix to the whole of the expression that follows. Suffixes 6.121 Word-forming suffixes are invariably set solid with the root word. Some of the most common are shown below:
-fold (fourfold) -ful (fruitful) -ish (greenish) -ly (costly) -ment (amendment) -ness (kindness) -y (sandy)

6.122 Note that a hyphen is required to precede -fold when the latter is used with a spelt-out numberfor example, 144-fold. Note also that the word -odd, which when used as a suffix is attached to numerical expressions, always requires a hyphen:
forty-odd fifty-five-odd 140-odd

COMPOUND WORDS

6.123 A compound word is one that consists of two or more separate words and has a meaning different from that of its components. Since the question of hyphenation frequently arisesas in the case of complex words, but to a greater extenta number of guidelines are once again offered (see the remarks in paragraphs 6.11314). Adverb compounds 6.124 There are relatively few adverb compounds, and they are almost always set solid:
barefoot downwind overboard upstream

Verb compounds 6.125 Verb compounds may consist of adjective plus noun; noun plus verb; or adverb plus verb. Those in the first two categories are generally hyphenated, while those in the third category are generally set solid:
to cold-shoulder to blue-pencil to gift-wrap to bypass to overreact

Adjective compounds 6.126 Many adjective compounds consist of noun plus adjective; adjective plus adjective; or adverb plus adjective. Those in the first two categories are always written with a hyphen, while those in the third category are generally set solid:
colour-blind disease-free icy-cold red-hot overanxious underproof

6.127 Hyphens are invariably retained in words belonging to the first two categories, whether the words are used attributively or predicatively:
a colour-blind man an icy-cold wind The man is colour-blind. The wind is icy-cold.

6.128 Adjective compounds consisting of a noun preceded by a cardinal or ordinal number (whether expressed as a word or a figure) are always hyphenated:
a four-part series a three-stage operation a 21-gun salute an eleventh-hour reprieve

6.129 An adjective compound containing a fraction (which is itself always hyphenatedsee paragraph 10.32) is invariably hyphenated:
a one-third share a two-thirds majority

6.130 An adjective compound may have a present or past participle as its second component. Many such compounds are written with a hyphen, whether used attributively or predicatively:
face-saving all-embracing government-owned high-flown The solution is face-saving. Our approach is all-embracing. The ship is government-owned. The language was high-flown.

6.131 A few well-established compounds of this type are set as one word. For example:
airborne everlasting forthcoming widespread

6.132 Adjective compounds consisting of a past participle preceded by an adverb ending in ly are unhyphenated, whether used attributively or predicatively. For example:
a frequently used phrase a heavily laden truck The phrase is frequently used. The truck is heavily laden.

6.133 However, when a compound consists of an adverb not ending in -ly and a present or past participle, it is generally hyphenated when used attributively, but unhyphenated when used predicatively:
a well-known book an ill-judged decision a fast-moving film The book is well known. Your decision was ill judged. The film is fast moving.

6.134 If such a compound is modifiedfor example, by the word verya hyphen is not used:
a very well known book a very fast moving film

6.135 A hyphen is not used in a compound consisting of a present or past participle preceded by the comparative or superlative of an adjective or adverb, or in a compound in which more and most are used to form the comparative and superlative respectively. For example:
better known writers the least visited countries the more advanced classes These writers are better known. Albania is the least visited country in Europe. These classes are more advanced.

6.136 A hyphen may occasionally be needed in order to prevent ambiguity. Thus:

We need more-experienced staff (= staff who are more experienced are experienced) not more staff who

6.137 A small number of adjective compounds consist of short phrases:

hand-to-mouth run-of-the-mill surface-to-air

When used attributively, they are always hyphenated in order to prevent possible misreading, but are normally unhyphenated when used predicatively. 6.138 Compound adjectives containing capital letters, italics, quotation marks or numbers are not normally hyphenated:
Supreme Court ruling noblesse oblige attitude 'do or die' approach Year 10 students

6.139 Compound adjectives consisting, for example, of two nouns or an adjective followed by a noun are not generally hyphenated when they form by themselves an institutionalised phrase. For example:
stock exchange report government schools inspector shire council policies equal employment opportunities

6.140 However, when such an expression is modified, a hyphen is generally inserted to prevent possible misreading:

new stock-exchange report ambitious equal-employment opportunities

Noun compounds 6.141 Noun compounds form the largest and most diverse group of compounds, and they continue to be the most common source of new expressions. The most common patterns for such compounds are set out below. 6.142 Adjective plus noun. Compounds consisting of a noun preceded by an adjective are normally written as two words without a hyphen:
black market free will prime mover red tape

6.143 Adverb plus verb or verb plus adverb. Such compounds are generally set solid, particularly if each element is monosyllabic:
bypass downpour input output runaway

6.144 However, they are hyphenated when a distracting sequence of letters would otherwise result. For example:
go-ahead shake-out make-up goings-on summing-up

The use of the hyphen in these cases also ensures that each adverb is construed with its verb in the sentence in which it appears, and not with other adjacent words. 6.145 Verb plus noun or noun plus verb. Compounds of either of these types are usually set solid when the verb is uninflectedthat is, when it does not bear suffixes such as -s, -er, -ing. For example:
pickpocket scarecrow rattlesnake bloodshed roadblock

6.146 Where the verb is inflected, the setting of the compound depends to a large extent on whether the verb comes first or second. If it comes first, the compound is generally written as two words without a hyphen:
flying saucer filing clerk helping hand shredded wheat revolving door fitted sheet

6.147 If the inflected verb is the second component and its root is monosyllabic, the compound is set solid:
bookmaker childminder glassblower stocktaking sightseeing

6.148 If the verb contains more than one syllable, the compound will either be set open or with a hyphen. 6.149 Noun plus noun. Hyphenation in this group of compounds is particularly variable. However, hyphens are regularly used in at least three types of compounds: (i) those containing prepositions; (ii) those in which each element has equal status; and (iii) rhyming compounds. For example:

mother-in-law serjeant-at-arms jack-of-all-trades

city-state fighter-bomber owner-operator

culture-vulture hocus-pocus jiggery-pokery

Parentheses
PARENTHETICAL STATEMENTS

6.150 Parentheses should be used to enclose expressions that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence but that amplify or clarify or may be considered to be an aside:
The proceedings at the trial have been published and, carefully as one may search the record of the case, it is impossible to find anything to show that Smith behaved unfairly or (as some have contended) with prejudice. SERIES ITEMS

6.151 Parentheses are used to enclose letters or numbers designating items in a series either at the beginning of a paragraph or within a sentence:
(a) (b) (i) (ii)

PARENTHESES WITHIN PARENTHESES

6.152 So that parenthetical matter within a parenthetical element does not read as an editorial interpolation (see paragraph 6.156), it is recommended that the use of square brackets for a parenthesis within a parenthesis be avoided. Either two pairs of parentheses or a combination of dashes and parentheses (see paragraph 6.97) should be used:
Professor Whimbrel (on his field trips in Western Australia (the Pilbara Region) and South Australia) found no evidence of the night parrot, Geopsittacus occidentalis, and now believes the species to be extinct. USE WITH OTHER PUNCTUATION

6.153 The punctuation within parentheses is governed solely by the grammatical demands of the enclosed expression. For example:
His theme ('Is town planning necessary?') bored the audience of children.

6.154 Similarly a comma follows the closing parenthesis only if a comma would have been used if there had been no parentheses:
Loud applause greeted the players (all members of the local dramatic society), with the result that they had to take several curtain calls.

6.155 A complete sentence within parentheses has its punctuation mark within the parentheses:
Weatherboard was replaced by brick and, in imitation of city hotels, country hotels were faced with tiles. (It is curious to find the last country hotels being faced with tiles in the present decade just when they are being removed from most city hotels.)

Square brackets
INSERTIONS IN TEXT

6.156 Square brackets should be used to enclose words or phrases inserted in the text by someone other than the author of the text:
He writes in his biography: 'Although I grew up in Sydney, I was born in Wellington [New Zealand], where my father ran a newspaper'. Mary Photiades recently stated [see page 3 of this year's annual report for the full text of her speech] that the company had increased its share of the export market. John Phillips said that he [Phillips] was responsible for the mistake. The child's essay began, 'My family now lives in Canberra but we used to live in Melberne [sic] which is much bigger'. OTHER INTERPOLATIONS

6.157 Square brackets should be used to enclose other interpolations:

[continued overleaf] [Turn to p. 44.] ' acknowledged [italics added] the defects ' USE WITH OTHER PUNCTUATION

6.158 The rules for use of other marks of punctuation with square brackets are the same as those for parentheses (see paragraphs 6.1535) except that points of ellipsis are not used before a square bracket. Points of ellipsis
OMISSIONS

6.159 The principal use of the three points of ellipsis () is to mark the omission of words in quoted matter:
'Every juror must before being empanelled make and subscribe an oath of allegiance '

6.160 Note that three points only are used, even if the mark of ellipsis comes at the end of a sentence, and that no punctuation mark precedes the first point or follows the last point.
INDECISIVENESS, IRONY

6.161 The ellipsis may also be used to indicate faltering speech or to suggest diffidence, reluctance or irony:
But but I'm sure I did! This is the letter I alluded to a few weeks ago

Only some forms of writing lend themselves to this use of the ellipsis.

Apostrophe
POSSESSION

6.162 The principal use of the apostrophe, normally followed or preceded by s, is to indicate possession (also indicated by using the preposition of):
the horse's mouth (= the mouth of the horse) the horses' mouths (= the mouths of the horses)

6.163 The apostrophe is needed to indicate possession with nouns only; the pronouns hers, its, theirs and yours are already possessive and do not need the apostrophe. It's means 'it is', while its means 'belonging to it'. 6.164 When the apostrophe and an s are added to a noun to indicate the possessive, the noun is said to have taken the 'pos s'. If the possessive case is indicated by adding an apostrophe only, the noun is said to take the 's pos'. 6.165 For nouns in the singular or plural that end in any letter other than s, the possessive is formed by adding the pos s:
the doctor's bag the mice's food a child's toy the people's houses

6.166 Some writers make a distinction between animate nouns, with which they use the pos s, and inanimate nouns, with which they use the phrase of the. Thus they write:
the person's legs but the legs of the table

6.167 The s pos should be used for plural nouns that end in s:
the riders' mounts the Smiths' house the machines' components the Joneses' garden

6.168 The pos s is generally used for singular nouns that end in s:
Burns's poems Dickens's novels Leavis's criticism

6.169 In the case of ancient and biblical words, the s pos is conventionally used:
Achilles' heel Jesus' teachings Moses' law

6.170 Some nouns that would normally have the pos s to indicate possession take the apostrophe alone because the s sound is not pronounced:
for convenience' sake for goodness' sake

6.171 For the possessive of a phrase or compound title, the pos s (or s pos if the sense is plural) should be added to the last word only:
wolf in sheep's clothing someone else's job the Governor of Victoria's car the Society of Compositors' rules

6.172 Similarly only the last name has the pos s in statements of joint ownership:
my mother and father's visit Rutherford and Bohr's atom

6.173 If the ownership is not joint, each name has the pos s:
Mozart's and Puccini's operas Madeleine's and Philip's cars ADJECTIVAL POSSESSION

6.174 When the sense of a noun is more adjectival than possessive, the pos s and the s pos are frequently omitted. Thus:
girls high school travellers cheques senior citizens centre teachers training college visitors book workers canteen

If each of the above were rephrased with a preposition, fornot ofwould be used: 'a high school for girls', 'a centre for senior citizens', and so on. 6.175 Elimination of the apostrophe, and emphasis on the adjectival sense of a plural noun, also make standardisation of terminology easier:
war widows pension drivers licence skilled workers diplomas print-handicapped persons program Administrative and Clerical Officers Association National Farmers Federation

6.176 But omission of the apostrophe can be jarring and confusing, as it would be in the following examples:
children's book week wife's pension handicapped child's allowance People's Party

It is important, therefore, to exercise judgment and commonsense in deciding whether to omit the apostrophe; clarity of meaning must be the paramount consideration. 6.177 The apostrophe in expressions of time is increasingly omitted when these contain a plural form, such expressions being regarded as compound nouns with sufficient adjectival force to make an apostrophe superfluous:
in ten years time a five minutes start but a day's labour a month's notice twelve months detention four weeks holiday

6.178 Placenames are also increasingly spelt without the original pos s. For example:
St Leonards St Georges Basin Blackmans Bay

OMISSIONS

6.179 An apostrophe is used to indicate the omission of letters:

don't it's I'll she'd how'd you how d'you PREVENTING CONFUSION do not it is I will she would how would you how do you

6.180 Apostrophes are used to prevent confusion in expressions such as the following:
Dot the i's and cross the t's. Mind your p's and q's. one-idea'd hum'd and ha'd

In the first two examples, however, an alternative is to use italicsis, ts. Solidus 6.181 A solidusalso known as a diagonal, oblique or slashis used: (a) to indicate alternatives:
yes / no male / female audiotapes and / or videotapes

(b)

to form certain standard abbreviations:

a/c c /-

(c)

to denote a fraction in mathematical expressions:

(a + b) 1 / 3 1 / 16 (x + y) / (c + d)

(d)

to express the words per, a or an:

60 km / h (=60 kilometres per hour) 12 mg / d (=12 milligrams a day)

6.182 The solidus should not be used instead of other punctuation marks:
SydneyBrisbane flights not Sydney / Brisbane flights the financial year 199091 not the financial year 1990 / 91 CommonwealthState agreement not Commonwealth / State agreement A'asia not A / asia mechanic (radio) not mechanic / radio

Quotation marks 6.183 The principal use of quotation marks is to enclose the exact words of a writer or speaker, whether or not these form a complete sentence or sentences. Single quotation marks are used in all Commonwealth government publications. Double quotation marks are used only for quotations within quotations. (For the treatment of quotations set separately from the text, see paragraphs 2.65 and 14.704.)
DIRECT SPEECH

6.184 Direct speech is enclosed in single quotation marks:

'Yes, that is the situation', she replied. The ambassador declared, 'Not all that we do is sanctioned'.

6.185 Quotation marks are not required if the name of the speaker is given (in plays and transcripts, for example) or if such words as Question and Answer, or their abbreviations, precede the quotation:
Caesar: The ides of March are come. Soothsayer: Ay, Caesar; but not gone. Q. Did you ever expedite anyone else's application for membership at his request? A. At his request? I do not believe so. QUOTATIONS

6.186 Single quotation marks are used to enclose direct quotations, including incomplete or interrupted quotations:
The glossary defines flyleaf thus: 'A blank leaf at the beginning or end of a book'. He agreed that he was trying to add 'an air of respectability' to the meeting. 'Writing', said Franoise Sagan, 'is just having a sheet of paper, a pen and not the shadow of an idea of what you're going to say'.

6.187 If a quotation consists of consecutive paragraphs and is not treated as a block quotation (see paragraphs 14.704), an opening quotation mark should be used at the beginning of each paragraph, and a closing quotation mark at the end of the last quoted paragraph (see paragraph 6.200).
OTHER USES OF QUOTATION MARKS

6.188 Quotation marks are used for the titles of chapters (referred to elsewhere in a book), articles, essays, lectures, short poems, songs, and radio and television programs. For example:
In the chapter 'The parts of a publication' the normal sequence for the make-up of a book is explained. The program 'Blue Hills' was broadcast for many years. The crowd sang 'Annie Laurie'. Have you read Douglas Stewart's poem 'Sun Orchids'?

6.189 Technical terms in non-technical writing, colloquial words in formal writing, nicknames, slang, and coined or humorous words and phrases are enclosed in quotation marks when first mentioned in a text:
Economists describe this as the 'gross national product'. They called him 'Mad Dog' Morgan.

The quotation marks should be omitted from any subsequent mentions. 6.190 Another use of quotation marks is to enclose matter introduced by such phrases as entitled, marked, endorsed, the term:
The papers were marked 'Top Secret'. The term 'absolutely free' is anything but clear.

In the first example the quotation marks could be removed and the words set in italics, capitals or small capitals (Top Secret, TOP SECRET, TOP SECRET). In the second example the expression 'absolutely free' could be set in italics without quotation marks.
INCORRECT USES OF QUOTATION MARKS

6.191 Quotation marks should not be used: (a) with indirect speech:
Mary said that she thought it would rain. The treaty provides that each party will undertake not to acquire nuclear weapons.

(b)

to enclose familiar expressions:

It rained cats and dogs. He was advised to improve each shining hour.

POSITION OF QUOTATION MARKS

6.192 Rules recommended for the positioning of quotation marks are set out below. Within a sentence 6.193 If a punctuation mark is part of the quotation, it should be placed inside the quotation mark:
He shouted, 'Stop, thief!', but the robber got away. 'Am I my brother's keeper?' he asked.

6.194 If the punctuation mark relates to the sentence rather than to the quotation, it should be placed outside the quotation mark:
The girl said, 'I wish you would keep quiet'. Her brother took no notice.

'Flight 60 is now boarding', 'Flight 19 from Brisbane has just landed' and 'Will Mr Peter Ho please come to the information counter' were the three announcements he heard.

6.195 Where quoted matter is in parentheses or brackets, the quotation marks should be placed inside the parentheses or brackets:
His exact words ('We shall never surrender') emphasised the strength of his feelings.

At the end of a sentence 6.196 If the whole of a printed sentence or sentences is a quotation, the full stop should be placed inside the closing quotation mark:
'The history of printing is in large measure the history of the title page.' 'We are waiting for the long-promised invasion. So are the fishes.'

6.197 If any part of the printed sentence or sentences contains matter not quoted, then the final stop should be placed outside the closing quotation mark. Adherence to this rule avoids the unsightly concluding punctuation that would logically be requiredthat is, two full stops separated by a closing quotation mark. For example:
Stanley Morison says, 'The history of printing is in large measure the history of the title page'. 'The history of printing', says Stanley Morison, 'is in large measure the history of the title page'. Churchill said in a famous broadcast, 'We are waiting for the long-promised invasion'but added 'So are the fishes'. The cigars were labelled 'For export only'.

6.198 The rule illustrated in the preceding paragraph applies also to question marks. Thus:
Did he say 'Am I my brother's keeper'? not Did he say 'Am I my brother's keeper?'?

6.199 However, when two different punctuation marks appear together, one applying to the quotation and the other to the sentence, both should be printed:
Did he hear the Speaker call 'Order!'? He said, 'Do you think I am mad?'.

Consecutive paragraphs 6.200 When for any reason a quotation consisting of several consecutive paragraphs is not treated as a block quotation (see paragraph 14.72), quotation marks should be used at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the last one only:
Sections 3739 of the Constitution read: '37. A member may by writing addressed to the Speaker, or to the Governor-General if there is no Speaker or if the Speaker is absent from the Commonwealth, resign his place, which thereupon shall become vacant. '38. The place of a member shall become vacant if for two consecutive months of any session of the Parliament he, without the permission of the House, fails to attend the House. '39. Until the Parliament otherwise provides, the presence of at least one-third of the whole number of the members of the House of Representatives shall be necessary to constitute a meeting of the House for the exercise of its powers.'

MULTIPLE QUOTATIONS

6.201 For a double quotationthat is, a quotation within a quotationuse double quotation marks inside single quotation marks:
I told the class: 'The first word of Melville's Moby Dick are "Call me Ishmael" and these words are full of significance'.

6.202 If there is a quotation within a quotation within a quotation, use single quotation marks inside double inside single:
Brown's letter breaks off at this sentence: 'I told the class: "The first words of Melville's Moby Dick are 'Call me Ishmael' and these words are full of significance" '.

This alternation of single and double quotation marks can be continued to further stages if necessary, but is not advised. Typography of punctuation 6.203 Punctuation marks are printed in the same style as the preceding word or phrase if they belong to that word or phrase. If they relate to the text as a whole, they are set in the style of the text. Thus:
Recto: A right-hand page Recto: A right-hand page O freedom! O freedom! but but 'Weltschmerz!that was the word!' What is the meaning of syntax?

Can You Forgive Her?

A, B, C and D are related (see 10a).

Shortened forms

7.1 After a general discussion of shortened forms, this chapter deals in alphabetical order with specific aspects of their use. Definitions 7.2 The shortened form of a word or words may be an abbreviation, a contraction, an acronym or a symbol.
ABBREVIATIONS

7.3 An abbreviation is a shortened formof a word or wordsthat consists only of the initial letter or of the initial letter and other letters but not the final letter. 7.4 Abbreviations written with lower-case letters only or with an initial capital are given full stops:
Mon. Jan. vol. p. op. cit. M. i.e. e.g.

7.5 Abbreviations that consist of more than one capital letter or of capital letters only are written without full stops:
ACT RSPCA PhD GPO IBRD USA

CONTRACTIONS

7.6 A contraction is a shortened form that consists of at least the first and last letters of a word. It is written without a full stop:
Dept ACRONYMS vols Pty ht mgr Fr

7.7 An acronym is a shortened form that is always pronounced as a word. It may be formed from the initial letters of other words:
Anzac (from Australian and New Zealand Army Corps)

or from a number of letters belonging to the phrase being shortened:

sonar (sound navigation and ranging)

Acronyms are written without full stops.

SYMBOLS

7.8 A symbol is an internationally recognised representation of a unit of measurement or of a conceptnot an abbreviation. For that reason, it is written without a full stop:

km (kilometre) p (probability)

A (ampere) Hz (hertz)

g (gram) lm (lumen)

cd (candela) K (kelvin)

Use of shortened forms 7.9 Shortened forms are used in order to save space and make reading easier by eliminating needless repetition. They are best used with core words and phrases that become so familiar to the reader from constant repetition that all that is needed is a simple identifying code. (A shortened form should never be given if it is not used subsequently in the text.) Less common or infrequently used names, terms and expressions may remain spelt out. 7.10 The nature of the text largely determines whether shortened forms should be used in a particular work. They are not appropriate in formal prose and most narrative works but are usually suitable for technical, scientific and specialist publications. Many scientific and technical organisations and the Services use shortened forms that have become standard in their particular field; the appropriate list should always be consulted. 7.11 Some contractions and abbreviations are conventionally used without explanation. For example:
Mr MD Messrs MP Mrs a.m. Dr p.m. Jr BC Sr AD Esq.

Symbols for weights, measures and time are similarly treated. For example:
kg mm L h

Notes, references, bibliographies, tables and figures traditionally contain many shortened forms used without explanation, because space considerations are paramount. 7.12 Any other shortened forms should be presented at the first possible point in the text. (It is not sufficient to present shortened forms that will be used in the text only in the preface or other preliminary matter.) The name, term or expression is given in full at first mention, followed by the shortened form in parentheses. For example:
The National Gallery of Australia (NGA) was

Occasionally the shortened form may be used and then spelt out, immediately after, within parentheses. The intended readership and the level of the publication need to be considered before deciding on this treatment:
The Anzac (Australian and New Zealand Army Corps) veterans were RNA (ribonucleic acid) was

7.13 When the names of two or more organisations have the same shortened form, a decision must be made on how to treat references, within the same work, to those organisations. The same shortened form cannot be used in each case. Emphasis and frequency of reference will usually determine which should be shortened and which spelt outor whether a shortened form should be used at all.

7.14 To help the reader, unusual shortened forms should be spelt out in a listconventionally headed 'Abbreviations'and placed as close as possible to the text. Unusual shortened forms that occur only in a list of references or a bibliography should be spelt out immediately before such a listing. If offprints are planned, individual lists of shortened forms will be required for the sections that are to be offprinted. Unusual shortened forms used in tables and figures are best explained as they occur; however, if the work is largely statistical, a general note or list will save space and be equally useful to the reader. Academic, military and civil honours, awards and distinctions 7.15 The use of full stops in the names of academic, military and civil honours, awards and distinctions varies from one institution to another, and editors may sometimes be obliged to follow the style adopted by the institution concerned. However, for the sake of consistency and simplicity, it is recommended that the principle stated in paragraph 7.5 be followed. Thus academic, civil and military honours, for example, should be written without stops (and consequently without any spaces). For example:
AO BA DipEd DLitt DSO GM KCMG LLB or BL OM Officer of the Order of Australia Bachelor of Arts Diploma of Education Doctor of Letters Companion of the Distinguished Service Order George Medal Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George Bachelor of Laws Order of Merit

See also appendix I. Acronyms 7.16 Acronyms formed from phrases written with lower-case letters throughout do not take initial capitals. For example:
radar (radio detection and ranging) laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) sonar (sound navigation and ranging) quasar (quasi-stellar) sitcom (situation comedy)

7.17 Acronyms formed from the names of organisations and other bodies written with initial capitals throughout may retain the first initial capital only:
Nabisco Comalco Anzac Nato Unesco Qantas

7.18 When the use of lower-case letters in acronyms may give rise to confusion or when the acronyms are less well known, capitals should be retained:
WHO IMO

Addresses 7.19 Lists of addresses usually require use of shortened forms because of space limitations. A telephone directory may be used as a guide to abbreviating and contracting such words as Place and Circuit. 7.20 References to post office boxes should be in the form PO Box 1 and GPO Box 1. Directory-style abbreviations and contractions of placenames must not be used, with the exception of St ('Saint'). For the shortened forms of the names of the Australian States and Territories, see paragraph 7.88. 7.21 Abbreviations that appear in addresses tend to be written without stops for ease of reading and for consistency with contractions such as Rd and St. In accordance with the principle set out in paragraph 7.5, Tas. and Vic. do not require stops when they are written with capital letters. 7.22 If it is necessary to run addresses in with text, they are treated as placenames and spelt out. Thus:
Building Street Post Office Box 1 telephone (06) 295 4711

Ampersand (&) 7.23 For the sake of convenience, the ampersand is treated here as a shortened form.

7.24 In text the ampersand is used with the names of joint authors when the reference is parenthetical:
The 1982 studies (Smith & Jones) indicated

7.25 In tables and figures accompanying text, unless space limitations are severe, use of the ampersand should be restricted to corporate and company names and to parenthetical references to joint authors in source lines. 7.26 In bookwork it is conventional to use and in text references to corporate and company names (Angus and Robertson for Angus & Robertson Publishers) even though the groups concerned regularly use the ampersand in their imprints and in letterheads and other documents. It would, however, be incorrect to substitute and for the ampersand in a reference to, say, P & O (the shortened form used by the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company). The ampersand should always be used in notes, references and bibliographies irrespective of the style used by the corporation or company. 7.27 In general printing (stationery, forms and so on) the ampersand is used if that is the style of a registered corporate or company name. The ampersand rather than and is sometimes necessary in display lines when space has to be saved. Apostrophe 7.28 The apostrophe may be used with shortened forms in the normal manner. For example:

ILO's policy

the POWs' concert

Interpol's staff

7.29

The apostrophe is always required in contractions such as don't, won't and can't.

7.30 Contracting or abbreviating a word does not mean that every or any omission needs to be indicated. An apostrophe is not required, for example, in the following:
Govt Cwlth not not Gov't C'wlth Dept Hon. not not Dep't Hon'ble Qld not Q'ld

However, the apostrophe should be used to prevent ambiguity in a contraction such as A'asia for Australasia. 7.31 Commonly used shortened forms are rarely if ever written with an apostrophe these days:
bus plane phone cello flu

Beginning a sentence 7.32 Acronyms, and abbreviations of names of organisations, Services, bureaus and so on, may be used at the beginning of a sentence (provided that the name has been given in full earlier). Thus:
AIDAB developed SBS programs Nato proposals AGPS publications

7.33 In running text and in notes, references, source lines, captions and annotated bibliographies the full forms of ch., fig., app. and so on should always be used at the beginning of a sentence:
Figures 12 and 13 show not Figs 12 and 13 show Volume 3 in the set or The third volume in the set not Vol. 3 in the set

The abbreviations may, however, be usedeach with a lower-case initialat the beginning of notes, references and the like that do not constitute complete sentences:
vol. 3. ch. 6 only. fig. 4, p. 58, and Glossary.

Breaking of shortened forms 7.34 For the breaking of shortened forms, see paragraph 3.27.

Capitals 7.35 An initial capital should always be used for an abbreviation or contraction if the word being shortened normally bears an initial capital:
M. Mon. AGPS ILO Cwlth Qld

7.36 Conversely, a word (or words) that is used only in its shortened form and begins with a lower-case letter does not take an initial capital, even at the beginning of a text, table or figure note. For example:
ibid. See also the discussion in cf. fig. 3.

7.37 Sometimes, however, capitals are required for abbreviations of words that do not ordinarily have an initial capital:
prisoner(s) of war deoxyribonucleic acid television tuberculosis manuscript(s) postscript(s) intelligence quotient POW (POWs) DNA TV TB MS (MSS) PS (PSS) IQ

7.38 Acronyms may need only an initial capital if widely known (Unesco), capitals throughout if less well known or confusing (UNCTAD, WHO) or no capitals at all (quasar) except when used to begin a sentence. Compass points 7.39 Each point of the compass is abbreviated to its first letter or letters. For example:
N E NNE ESE NE SE ENE SSE

7.40 These abbreviations are used in tables and figures, and in the text of specialist work. However, compass points should be spelt out in general text:
At latitude 2215'30" south not lat. 2215'30" S

7.41 Thus text references to standard statistical or geographical areas should be spelt out but may be abbreviated in associated tables and figures:
northern Victoria: N Victoria, N Vic. southern China: S China

Corporate and company names 7.42 In text, corporate and company names are spelt out. Ampersands are replaced by and, and abbreviations such as Bros and Co. are made Brothers and Company respectively. Inc. and Ltd are dropped altogether. In tables where space is limited and in notes, references and bibliographies the shortened forms may be retained. 7.43 In legal work, corporate and company names are as cited in cases; shortened forms are frequently used.

Cross-references 7.44 To save space, abbreviations are used in cross-references given parenthetically in text. Thus:
The representation (fig. 9) was The appendixes (pp. 89103) are

7.45 text:

Abbreviations are not used, however, when a cross-reference is 'written into' running
When examining figure 4 not By referring to appendix J (p. 104) When examining fig. 4 not By referring to app. J (p. 104)

7.46 Likewise, abbreviations are not used in notes, references, source lines, captions and annotations to bibliographies when these comprise complete sentences. Days, months and times 7.47 The names of the days should be abbreviated as follows:
Sun. Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat.

In calendars and diaries the initial letter only may be used, and is invariably written without a full stop. 7.48 The names of the months should be abbreviated as follows:
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

May, June and July should not be shortened. 7.49 Abbreviations of the names of the days and months should not be used in text but may be used in tables and figures, where space is often limited, and in notes, references and bibliographies. 7.50 The forms a.m. and p.m. should be used, not A.M. and P.M. Thus:
The committee will meet at 5.00 p.m. They will leave at 8.30 a.m.

In newspapers, timetables and diaries a.m. and p.m. are often written without full stops and without space between letters. 7.51 Time zones are abbreviated to initial capitals. Those within Australia are as follows:
CST EST WST Central Standard Time Eastern Standard Time Western Standard Time CDT EDT WDT Central Daylight-saving Time Eastern Daylight-saving Time Western Daylight-saving Time

These abbreviations are often preceded by the letter 'A'; thus 'ACST', 'AWDT'. 7.52 The internationally recognised representations of units of time are symbols (see paragraph 7.8), not abbreviations of the unit names:

s min

second(s) minute(s)

h d

hour(s) day(s)

They are not written with a full stop nor do they take an 's' when associated with numbers greater than one. Their use should be confined to scientific, statistical and highly technical work both in text and in tables and figures. In works of a general nature they should be used only in tables and figures. Direct speech 7.53 In transcripts and other forms of printed speech the shortened forms that a speaker uses should be retained:
The Minister said, 'AGPS was established in 1970'. 'They will receive their BAs in 1995.' 'It was identified by Mr J. Smith.'

Geographical terms 7.54 The shortened forms of geographical terms are either abbreviations or contractions; they should be used only in tables, maps and figures. For example:
Cr. I. (plural: Is) L. Mt Pen. R.

Indexing 7.55 Shortened forms are frequently used in indexes as a means of conserving space, for example g to indicate glossary definitions. Full stops are not required, since such abbreviations are treated as 'devices' in this context. A note explaining the system should be given at the head of the index. 7.56 If shortened forms of proper names and the like are used in the work, they may be entered in the index but with a cross-reference to the spelt-out name or term. Journal titles 7.57 The titles of journals and other numbered serials are frequently abbreviated in reference lists in scientific works (see paragraph 9.107). Some abbreviations are usually employed in legal works also (see 'Legal authorities' in ch. 9). The abbreviated style, however, is not recommended for publications intended for a more general readership. Latin abbreviations 7.58 When Latin abbreviations are used, they are set in roman type because they are regarded as being thoroughly anglicised. The most common ones include:
c., circa, about a certain date cf., confer, compare e.g., exempli gratia, for example

et al., et alii, and others etc., et cetera, and so forth et seq., et sequentes, and following ibid., ibidem, in the same work id., idem, the same i.e., id est, that is inf., infra, below loc. cit., loco citato, in the place cited MS (plural: MSS), manuscriptum(a), manuscript(s) NB, nota bene, take careful note non seq., non sequitur, it does not follow op. cit., opere citato, in the work cited PPS, post postscriptum, second postscript PS (plural: PSS), postscriptum(a), postscript(s) q.v. (plural: qq.v.), quod vide, which see sup., supra, above v., versus, against viz., videlicet, namely

7.59 Of these, 'e.g.' and 'i.e.' appear most frequently. They are often used in tables and figures, where space is generally limited; in notes and captions; and in scientific and technical work, where many shortened forms and symbols are usually required. Their use is permissible in a general work if the text contains many shortened forms; otherwise the words for example and that is should be used. 7.60 The use of abbreviations such as 'q.v.' and 'viz.' should be avoided, and 'etc.'in any contextshould be used sparingly (frequent use of 'etc.' suggests a lack of hard facts or an offhand approach). If examples are preceded by the words such as, it is incorrect to add 'etc.' Although some authorities recognise the alternative form '&c.', its use is not recommended. 7.61 Latin abbreviations are frequently used in references to other works presented within footnotes and endnotes. See paragraphs 9.139 and 9.190. Legislation 7.62 The basic unit of division of an Act or Ordinance is the section, while that of a Statutory Rule is the regulation. In text that includes many shortened forms or references to legislation, the abbreviated singular and plural formss. and ss. or r. and rr.may be used in association with a number or numbers (see paragraphs 9.1689). Unless many shortened forms are being used throughout the text, readability may not be enhanced by application of this system. Sentences in text should not begin with the abbreviations. 7.63 The abbreviations may be used in notes:
9

Book Bounty Act 1969, s. 4.

10

ss. 1012.

11

Income Tax Regulations, r. 4.5.

However, they should not be used to begin sentences in notes:

12 13

Section 10(5)(a)(ii) refers to Regulation 151(6)(a) states

Measures 7.64 Unit names, rather than their symbols, should be used in general text when giving quantities, distances and so on. However, in scientific, statistical and technical works and in tables and figures the symbols are invariably used, but only when associated with a number:
Give a millilitre or Give 1 mL not Give a mL

Military ranks and formations 7.65 As indicated in paragraph 7.10, the Services use shortened forms that have become standard in their particular field. Therefore, when dealing with military ranks and formations, an editor or author should always consult the appropriate list. However, if for any reason that is not possible, the principles set out at the beginning of this chapter should be followed. Money 7.66 See paragraphs 10.6981.

Names of countries 7.67 The names of countries, except for the former Soviet Union, which is usually designated USSR, should be spelt out in general text. For example:
The United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, New Zealand and Japan have agreed not The UK, the USA, Australia, NZ and Japan have agreed

For text, this rule should be waived only in heavily statistical or greatly condensed scientific work. 7.68 In text that uses many shortened forms, the standard abbreviations for names of countries may be used adjectivally:
UK tariffs have In her study of NZ foreign policy

7.69 Standard abbreviations for names of countries are used in tables, figures, notes, references and bibliographies, where space considerations are important:
UK USA Statistics Act 1975 (NZ), s. 37

It is not necessary to include the names of countries in any list of abbreviations. Names of people 7.70 Full stops are used with initials, which are separated and followed by a space. For example:
T. L. Smith Mary J. Nagy Ms B. Williams Mr W. M. J. Steinhauser

This applies equally to hyphenated forenames:

J.-P. Sartre (Jean-Paul Sartre)

7.71 However, the unpunctuated writing of initials (with spaces) is the rule in telephone books and is increasingly common in other listings of personal names, in some newspapers and journals and in official correspondence. For example:
L Wilson P S B Todhunter K L Malik F Marinetti

7.72 Initials are closed up, without full stops, only in such 'names' as FDR and JFK, but the use of such forms is frequently inappropriate. Notes, references and bibliographies 7.73 Any shortened forms used in text are also used in notes. Because brevity is important, further abbreviation and contraction of, for example, proper names, dates and measures may be introduced in notes, references and bibliographies. 7.74 In footnotes and endnotes, and notes to tables and figures, shortened forms should be standard ones or readily recognisable from association with the particular text. If not, they should be included in a list of abbreviations or explanatory notes preceding either the text or the notes section. 7.75 When references are written into text, the standard abbreviations and contractions may be used, provided that they are set off by parentheses:
The major improvement concerns the structure of the interview (Ulrich & Trunks 1965, p. 112)

In legal texts this restriction does not apply:

That was the opinion of Latham CJ and McTiernan J in Attorney-General (Vic.) v. Commonwealth (1946) 71 CLR 237 at 2536 and 2734.

Source lines, and references in captions, may also use these shortened forms without parentheses. 7.76 A space is always used between these shortened forms and associated numbers:
no. 5 chs 2, 7 pp. 201 apps I, II

7.77 A full list of the standard shortened forms used in notes, references and bibliographies appears in paragraph 9.190. 'Number' 7.78 The word 'number' is frequently represented by no. (plural: nos)the contraction of its equivalent in Italian (numero). A full stop is used to prevent any confusion with the word 'no'. A capital is not needed unless capitals are being used throughout an expression, for example in the title of a numbered series:
Research Report No. 2

7.79 In text, the wordnot the contractionis used at the beginning of a sentence and in any reference that is not set off by parentheses:
Number 6 in the series The most recent number (no. 4) of the journal

7.80 The contraction may be used in tables, figures, source lines, captions, notes, references and bibliographies. 7.81 A space is always used between no., No., nos, Nos and the numeral or numerals.

Parts of a publication 7.82 The shortened forms of the names of parts or elements of a publication, when used in incomplete sentences in notes, references, bibliographies, source lines, captions and sometimes in indexes, must take a lower-case initial letter (but see also paragraph 7.33). For example:
Note to a table: (a) Includes data from fig. 3, p. 20. Bibliographical reference: Dewhirst, C. 1986, 'Hot air over the Himalayas', World Geographic, vol. 1, no. 4

With only a few exceptions the plurals of these shortened forms are formed by adding 's'. 7.83 These forms should not be used in text unless set off by parentheses (see paragraph 7.44). A full list will be found in paragraph 9.190. Plurals 7.84 Plurals of most shortened forms are formed by adding 's' without an apostrophe:
POWs MPs NGOs IQs VDUs vols figs apps nos

7.85 When plurals are indicated by repeating a letter, a full stop is used after the final letter. Thus:
pp. ll. fnn. ss. ff.

Note, however, that since MSS and PSS (see paragraph 7.37), which are similarly formed, are set in capitals, they are written without a full stop after the final letter in accordance with the principle set out in paragraph 7.5. 7.86 The styles pp. 156 f. (i.e. pages 156 and 157) and pp. 156 ff. (e.g. pages 156 to 159) are not recommended. Wherever possible, precise references should be given:
pp. 1567 pp. 1569

If f. and ff. must be used, pp.not the singular p.should also be used. (This principle should also be applied when using any of the shortened forms referred to in paragraphs 7.823.)

States and Territories of Australia 7.87 The names of the Australian States and Territories occur so often that either the full form or the abbreviated form is acceptable, depending on the nature of the work. 7.88 The shortened forms NSW, Vic., Qld, WA, SA, Tas., NT and ACT are appropriatein particularin tables, figures, notes, references and bibliographies, where space considerations are important. Usually it will be necessary to include the shortened forms in a list of abbreviations accompanying a list of references or a bibliography only when a publication is going to be distributed overseas. Temperature 7.89 See paragraphs 10.658.

Using 'a' or 'an' before a shortened form 7.90 The use of 'a' or 'an' before a shortened form follows the same general principles as their use before wordsthe guide is the spoken sound:
an RAN frigate but a Royal Australian Navy frigate She became an MP but She became a Member of Parliament an HIC report but a Health Insurance Commission report

In these examples, RAN, MP and HIC are abbreviations and as such are read and spoken letter by letter. 7.91 Acronyms are spoken as words and are so treated:
A UNESCO initiative A Qantas flight

'Versus' 7.92 In general text the word 'versus' should not be abbreviated. In notes and captions, and where space is limitedfor example, in tables and figuresthe abbreviation 'v.' (in roman type) may be used. 7.93 For the use of the abbreviation in legal cases, see 'Legal authorities' in chapter 9.

Non-discriminatory language

8.1 Language can act as a powerful vehicle of discrimination. Since we rely so heavily on language to communicate with each other, the way we describe ourselves and others, or the way in which we address one another, can have a profound impact on our self-image and our relations with other people. If individuals or groups are labelled consciously or unconsciously in demeaning, harmful or stereotyped ways, they often experience hurt and pain or develop hatredleading to a negative self-image, feelings of inferiority and possibly expressions of anger. Such sentiments can place a strain on relations between groups and individuals, especially in a multicultural society such as Australia. 8.2 Australia's commitment to eliminating discrimination has been manifested in a number of ways, including legislation at the federal level. For example, the Racial Discrimination Act 1975, the Sex Discrimination Act 1984 and the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Act 1986 make it unlawful to discriminate on the grounds of race, colour, national or ethnic origin, and gender. Most States have an Equal Opportunity Act (or an Anti-Discrimination Act) which covers all or some of the forms of discrimination on the grounds of sex, sexual preference, marital status, race, and physical or mental impairment. 8.3 The verbal harassment and abuse that some people experience in the form of racial vilification and defamation are recognised increasingly as forms of discrimination, and an amendment to the Racial Discrimination Act to cover this is being considered. Some States (New South Wales, for example) have passed Acts or made recommendations to ban the expression of hatred, serious contempt and severe ridicule in a wide range of forms: speech, writing, printing and displaying of posters, radio and television broadcasting, and the distribution of racist materials. 8.4 It is therefore important for authors, editors, professional writers, public speakers and all others using language in a public manner to be aware of how discrimination through language operates intentionally or inadvertently, and how language can also be used to eliminate such discrimination. Indeed language plays a powerful role both in contributing to and in eliminating discrimination. 8.5 Thus the purpose of this chapter is twofold: to expose forms of linguistic discrimination, especially those which contribute to inadvertent discrimination, and to provide some guidelines and strategies to eliminate or to avoid such discrimination in Australia. 8.6 The chapter explains how language can be used to discriminate against individuals and groups on the basis of their sex, ethnicity, their disability and their age. Other areas of discriminationsuch as social class, lifestyle, sexualityhave not been dealt with in this chapter but it is hoped that the information provided will help the user to recognise and avoid discriminatory practices in such cases. 8.7 Non-discriminatory language will not rob the English language in Australia, or any other language, of its capacity to express discrimination. This guide will, however, expose how

language can be used to discriminate and provide strategies which will enable speakers and writers to avoid discriminatory languageif that is their intention. Forms of linguistic discrimination 8.8 Language use is discriminatory when it makes people invisible; when it excludes them or highlights only one characteristic to the exclusion of other, often more relevant ones; when it stereotypes people; treats people asymmetrically; and denigrates or insults people. 8.9 The following examples illustrate these forms of linguistic discrimination: Invisibility/exclusion
To our grandfathers, steam trains were the latest in fast transport. Their grandfathers thought the horse and cart was the best way to travel.

The use of the word 'grandfather' not only obscures the fact that we have grandmothers who would have engaged in these activities but also excludes them. Focusing on one characteristic to the exclusion of others
The fundraiser of the year award went to Mrs Sheila W., who, despite being confined to a wheelchair, managed to raise $5000 for the club.

Stereotyped descriptions of people

Suzy, the glamorous wife of leading lawyer John B., declined to comment on the rumours that

Asymmetrical treatment in language

Five people, including one Aboriginal, were picked up for questioning.

It is not relevant to highlight the background of only one person (the Aboriginal person) in this context.
Three university studentstwo girls and one manwere seriously injured.

Women are often referred to as 'girls' in situations where it would be insulting to refer to men as 'boys'. Women have the same rights as men to be treated with respect. Language that insults or denigrates people This category includes all forms of swearing and derogatory, defamatory words and expressions. Usually they are easily recognised as discriminatory expressions. This category, however, also includes certain words and expressions used to make negative comparisons. For example:
They were playing like a mob of old gins.

This description was used to refer to the poor sporting performance of a group of young male cricketers.
My grandmother can play better!

This expression, again used in reference to men's unsatisfactory sporting performance, denigrates not only women but also older people. 8.10 Discriminatory practices are found not only at word level but also at other levelssuch as in word formation, in grammar, in the organisation of a text or in the structure of discourse. In word formation, the addition of the suffixes -ess or -ette to such words as 'author', 'poet' and 'usher' to indicate that the person concerned is female is seen by many women to be trivialising, and a linguistic expression of the dependence of women on men. But not all forms of discriminatory language can be avoided simply by substituting a 'discriminatory' word with a 'non-discriminatory' word. At the sentence or discourse level, the repeated use of the passive in the description of a particular group may create an image of that group as passive beings unable to initiate action, and with little drive. Such a description may then be seen as evidence why certain groups should not gain independence or power, or have control of their own affairs. How discrimination can be expressed through the organisation of a text or the structure of discourse is a very complex issue; its treatment goes well beyond the aims of this guide. Further resources on non-discriminatory language use are listed in the Bibliography. Avoiding discriminatory language 8.11 Using non-discriminatory language does not involve the conscious learning of a new language in order to communicate, for people continually learn new words, expressions and constructions. It is in the nature of language to be dynamic: language reflects changes in society and contributes to such changes. Using non-discriminatory language is very much part of this dynamic process. 8.12 In most cases, using non-discriminatory language means avoiding certain expressions and selecting others already existing in the language. Sometimes it may involve combining existing words into a new compound word. Only in rare cases does a completely new word or expression have to be 'created'. 8.13 The guidelines set out in the following sections provide language users concerned about linguistic discrimination with strategies and suggestions on how to avoid discriminatory language. They offer non-discriminatory alternatives mainly at the lexical levelthat is, the replacement of a discriminatory term or expression by a non-discriminatory one. This emphasis on words is chiefly due to the fact that it is possible to list words which are seen to be discriminatory in many contexts. It must be clearly understood, however, that the selection of terminology is not the only or most important strategy for dealing with discriminatory language. Such language can be the result of grammatical rather than word choice and should be dealt with accordinglyby rewriting a sentence or passage rather than by replacing words or phrases. 8.14 No amount of guidance of course can cover every possible contingency. Consequently the alternatives and strategies proposed are not equally applicable in every case and the list is not exhaustive. Although the contextual and stylistic restrictions of various strategies and alternative expressions are indicated, it is for the users of the guidelines to decide which expression is most appropriate for their needs and is in accordance with the demands and conventions of their text.

Avoiding discriminatory language in quotations and published works 8.15 Dealing with discriminatory language in existing texts poses more problems than trying to write or speak in a non-discriminatory way. This is because an author composing a text (either written and spoken) is free to choose any strategy which seems acceptable and with which he or she feels comfortable. Meanings (except for those contained in discriminatory expressions) are not altered by being formulated in non-discriminatory language. Some strategies are given below on how to deal with discriminatory language in quotations from published works or in works which are to be published in new or revised editions. More details can be found in Pauwels (1991).
QUOTATIONS

8.16 Since a quotation is obviously the work of another author (because it is set off from the main body of text or is enclosed within quotation marks) the author using the quotation may well decide to leave it unchanged. 8.17 If it is considered essential to use a specific quotation in which a discriminatory expression occurs, the word sic, enclosed in square brackets, can be inserted immediately after the discriminatory expression. This strategy is not recommended, however, when the quoted passage contains numerous discriminatory expressions. 8.18 If the sense of a particular passage containing discriminatory language can be adequately conveyed in different words and if it is not essential to reproduce the original wording, the passage can be paraphrased in such a way that the offending language is avoided.
REVISING PUBLISHED WORKS

8.19 When a new or revised edition of a book or other publication is planned, it is recommended that the author(s), editor(s) and publisher(s) carefully consider the issue of discriminatory language. In many cases it is appropriate to revise the text, or passages in text which contain discriminatory expressions. When one is making revisions, care should be taken that the original meaning is not distorted and that the tenor of the original text is not changed. In cases where revisions of the text are deemed inappropriate but where the reader should be made aware of the discriminatory character of the language, a preliminary note about the language used in the publication could be inserted by the editor or publisher. Alerting the reader to the discriminatory language in books and other publications used for educational purposes is especially recommended. Non-discriminatory portrayal of the sexes 8.20 Sexist language is language that expresses bias in favour of one sex and thus treats the other sex in a discriminatory manner. In most instances the bias is in favour of men and against women. In language, men are considered the norm for the human species: their characteristics, thoughts, beliefs and actions are viewed as fully representing those of all humans, male and female. This practice can make women invisible in language or altogether excludes them. It can also lead to their portrayal as deviations from this 'male = human' norm. Women's linguistic

status is often dependent on or derives from that of men, which is represented as autonomous. By relegating women to a dependent, subordinate position, sexist language prevents the portrayal of women and men as different but equal human beings. 8.21 Common forms of sexism in English include the use of 'man' and 'he / him / his' as genericsthat is, nouns and pronouns referring to both men and womenthe use of suffixes -man, -ette, -ess, -trix in occupational nouns and job titles, asymmetrical naming practices, and stereotyped images of women and men as well as descriptions of (mainly) women which trivialise or denigrate them and their status. 8.22 Consider the following examples (quoted in Miller and Swift 1981), all of which are intended to reflect the experiences of men and women equally well:
Dress: Black Tie Academics have wives and children to support. To survive, man needs food, water and female companionship. As for man, he is no different from the rest. His back aches, he ruptures easily, his women have difficulties in childbirth. ALTERNATIVES FOR 'MAN'

8.23 It is recommended that women are made more visible in language by avoiding the use of 'male-specific' and 'male-identified' words in the generic sense.
Avoid man (generic sense) Alternatives humans, human race, human beings, human species, humanity, humankind or women and men, person(s), man and woman, individual(s), people(s), etc.

8.24 The use of 'man' should also be avoided in idioms and phrases when the author or speaker clearly intends the expression to include both women and men. Expressions such as 'the best man for the job' or 'the man on the land' not only make women's presence and achievements in the workforce invisible but can also lead to discrimination. Alternatives for some common expressions are suggested below:
Avoid the man in the street the best man for the job man to man Alternatives the average citizen, the average person, an ordinary person, ordinary people the best candidate or applicant or person for the job; the best man or woman for the job person to person In gender-specific contexts expressions such as 'man to man', and 'woman to woman' are appropriate one person, one vote the farmer, the person on the land, the rural worker or

one man, one vote the man on the land

one-man show

man of the year

country people, the farming community, the rural community solo show, one-person show In gender-specific contexts the terms 'one- woman show' or 'one-man show' may be appropriate. Today this expression is seldom used in its generic sense and is usually replaced by.phrases such as 'citizen of the year' or 'employee of the year'. In a gender-specific sense the expressions 'man of the year' and 'woman of the year' are appropriate.

ALTERNATIVES FOR 'HE', 'HIM' AND 'HIS'

8.25 English does not possess a third person singular pronoun which is gender-neutral. Instead the 'masculine' pronouns 'he', 'him' and 'his' are generally used to refer to both men and women. This is confusing and inaccurate and, as well, makes women invisible. Consider the following example:
The average Australian employee works from nine to five. He works in an urban environment and commutes to his place of employment. He takes his pay home to wife and children.

The first two references to 'he' are supposedly generic (that is, inclusive of women and men) but the next reference to 'he' and 'his' are clearly masculine. 8.26 There are many ways of replacing the 'he / him / his' pronouns without distorting the message or compromising style or readability. Here are some major strategies: recast the sentence in the plural leave out the pronoun repeat the noun use 'he or she', 'she or he' or in writing 's/he' recast the sentence and use another pronoun, for example, 'you', 'I' or 'we' recast the sentence to avoid pronouns

In speech it is common practice (however, considered ungrammatical) to use the pronoun 'they' as in: 'If a student wants to get a practice test, they should come to my office between 2 and 4 p.m. today'.
OCCUPATIONAL NOUNS AND JOB TITLES

8.27 Occupational nouns and job titles ending in -man obscure the presence of women in such professions and positions. There are various strategies for replacing -man compounds. For example, the use of an existing gender-neutral term (police officer instead of policeman), or of the -person alternative (layperson instead of layman) or the explicit naming of both sexes (sportsmen and women instead of sportsmen) are some of the possibilities. It is, of course, acceptable to use the -man compound to refer to a man occupying the position if a woman in such a position is referred to by a -woman compound (spokeswoman for a woman and spokesman for a man). However, the practice of referring to a man by means of the -man compound and to a woman by means of the -person compound is discriminatory.

8.28 Here is a list of the most frequently used alternatives: the alternatives marked [S] are gender-specific.
Avoid businessman Alternatives business executive, business manager, business owner, business person, entrepreneur, financier, investor, proprietor [S] businesswoman, businessman business community, business people, [S] businessmen and businesswomen cattle breeder, cattle owner, cattle producer, cattle raiser, cattle worker, farmer the chair, chairperson, convener, coordinator, discussion leader, head (of) , leader, moderator, person chairing a meeting, person in the chair, president, presiding officer [S] chairwoman, chairman member of the clergy Depending on the denomination, other terms may include 'priest', 'pastor', 'ecclesiastic' etc. [S] clergyman, clergywoman (a) (inhabitant of a country), citizen, fellow citizen (b) (person living in the country) see 'man on the land' artisan (artist), craftworker, technician [S] craftsman, craftswoman artist, designer, drafter, drafting technician, drawer [S] draftswoman, draftsman (a) firefighter (b) boiler attendant, fire tender, stoker (railways, marine etc.) fisher, fishing licensee (e.g. for legal purposes), angler (a) supervisor, work supervisor, leading hand (b) leader of the jury [S] forewoman, foreman groundsperson (if specific duties, e.g. gardener, landscaper) handyperson, do-it-yourselfer, maintenance worker, repairer [S] handyman, handywoman kin, relation, relative layperson, non-expert (amateur), non-specialist, non-professional [S] layman, laywoman laypeople, laypersons, lay community, laity milkdeliverer, milk supplier, 'milko' (informal) member of the police, police officer (term indicating rank) [S] policewoman, policeman letter carrier, mail carrier, mail deliverer, postal delivery officer, postal worker, 'postie' (informal) [S] postwoman, postman sales agent, sales associate, sales attendant, salesperson, sales representative, salesworker, shop assistant, shop attendant [S] salesman, saleswoman (not saleslady or sales girl) (principal) advocate, offical, representative, (person) speaking on behalf of ,

businessmen cattleman chairman

clergyman

countryman craftsman draftsman fireman fisherman foreman

groundsman handyman kinsman layman

laymen milkman policeman postman

salesman

spokesman

speaker, spokesperson [S] spokesman, spokeswoman sportsman statesman stockman storeman tradesman tradesmen weatherman athlete, player, sports competitor, sportsperson [S] sportswoman, sportsman leader, state leader [S] statesman, stateswoman stockrider, stockworker, station hand, farm hand [S] stockwoman, stockman; jackeroo, jilleroo storeperson, stores officer, storeworker [S] storeman, storewoman tradesperson (trader) [S] tradeswoman, tradesman tradespeople meteorologist, weather presenter, weather reporter (weather forecaster, weather bureau) Do not use weathergirl if the forecaster is a woman. worker, employee, working person

workman

8.29 Other derivatives of -man compounds should also be avoided. Here are some suggestions:
sportsmanlike sportsmanship statesmanlike salesmanship mankind manhood (generic) man-hour(s) manhole manpower manmade machine-made fair, sporting fair play authoritative, diplomatic, experienced in , skilful, tactful sale(s), skill(s), sales technique, vendorship humanity, humankind, human species, human race, people adulthood labour hours, working hours, work hours access hole, sewer hole, utility hole human resources, labour, labour force, personnel, staff, staffing, workforce artificial, constructed, fabricated, handmade, hand crafted manufactured, synthetic

8.30 Occupational nouns and job titles which refer exclusively to women should also be avoided. Often these have been derived from male job titles by adding such suffixes as -ette, -ess and -trix. This practice reinforces the view that women's status is dependent on, or derived from, that of men. Job titles like 'girl friday' and 'salesgirl' trivialise the work women do.
Avoid cleaning lady / woman camera girl career girl girl friday salesgirl tea lady matron (nursing) actress aviatrix comedienne deaconess Alternatives cleaner (house cleaner, office cleaner) camera operator (see also 'cameraman' for other alternatives) professional, executive (or be specific about the profession) assistant sales assistant, shop assistant, saleswoman tea attendant director of nursing actor aviator comedian deacon

executrix heiress hostess

manageress poetess proprietress sculptress usherette (cinema or theatre) waitress

executor heir (a) airflight attendant (b) socialhost (c) hoteldirector / entertainer / host manager poet proprietor sculptor usher waiter

8.31 Women should be shown as participating equally with men. Generic terms, for example 'doctor', 'lawyer' and 'nurse', should be assumed to apply equally to a man and a woman. Expressions such as 'male nurse', 'woman doctor', 'lady lawyer', 'woman reporter' and 'female astronaut' should therefore be avoided in contexts where the reference to a person's sex is irrelevant. If gender specification is necessary, the use of the adjectives 'female' and 'male' before the gender-neutral noun is to be preferred.
TITLES AND OTHER NAMING PRACTICES

8.32 Naming practices for women and men are often asymmetrical. Inequality is implied, for instance, in cases where a woman's title is not mentioned but a man's is; where a woman is addressed simply by her first name but a man is addressed by his title, first name and surname; and in some salutations, directed to a man and a woman, when the woman is not addressed. Other practices also can create the impression that women merit less respect or less serious consideration than men do, such as when endearments are used to address women in situations that do not justify such words. 'Mr', 'Ms', 'Mrs', 'Miss' 8.33 Use of the title 'Mr' before a person's name merely identifies that person as a male adult. The titles 'Mrs' and 'Miss', however, not only identify the person addressed as a woman but also make known her marital status. The title 'Ms' was introduced so that a woman is not required to reveal her marital status and so that people writing to or addressing a woman are not required to guess it by using 'Miss' or 'Mrs'. 'Ms' should be used for a woman whose title preference is unknown. It should be followed by the woman's own name, or if she prefers, her spouse's name. Any given names or initials used in connection with the title 'Ms' are invariably the woman's and not those of her spouse. 'Ms' is the same whether singular or plural. The pronunciation of 'Ms' varies somewhat but The Macquarie Dictionary recommends 'mz'. 8.34 It is important that, where a woman's preferred title is known (whether Ms, Mrs or Miss), her right to be known by that title be respected. Other titles 8.35 Many women have gained professional and academic titles previously associated mainly with men. It is therefore important not to assume that all holders of titles such as Dr, Professor and Captain are men and therefore address them as 'Sir' or refer to them as 'he' or 'him'.

Salutations in correspondence 8.36 Letters, notes, reports and the like are frequently addressed to a person or persons about whose title, surname, first name or sex the writer knows very little. It is no longer acceptable to use the salutation 'Dear Sir' or 'Dear Sirs' in such cases. Here are some alternatives:
Avoid Dear Sir Alternatives Dear Sir / Madam; Dear Sir or Madam Dear Madam / Sir; Dear Madam or Sir Dear Principal Dear Householder Dear Officer Dear Customer Dear Colleague Dear Subscriber Dear Gentlemen and Ladies Dear Ladies and Gentlemen Dear Mackenzie Pty Ltd (in case of a company) Dear People (informal) Dear R. Benetti Dear Mr / Ms Benetti Dear Ms Braun

Dear Sirs

Dear Mr Benetti (sex unknown) Dear Mrs Braun (if title preference unknown)

8.37 It is also acceptable to address reports and references to 'To whom it may concern' if the recipient is unknown to the writer. The use of the person's first name and surname only in salutations, e.g. 'Dear Pat Koutsoukis', has become acceptable in cases where the person's title (and / or sex) is unknown. 8.38 When one is replying to correspondence signed jointly by a man and a woman, both persons should be acknowledged in the salutation in the order and form in which their names appear in the correspondence.
STEREOTYPED IMAGES: DESCRIBING WOMEN AND MEN

8.39 When talking or writing about women and men we should avoid using language that trivialises, denigrates or stereotypes either sex or that portrays one sex as superior to another. Stereotyped images of men and women are based on oversimplified generalisations of what women and men should be and how they should behave. Such images are often not only inaccurate but also severely hamper the representation of the changing roles of the sexes in society. 8.40 Some examples of such language are given below:
a man and his wife man and wife John's widow

In expressions such as these, women are described and defined in terms of their relationship to men. Men, however, are hardly ever described in terms of their relationship to women.

8.41 In the following sentences, women are primarily described in terms of their physical appearance. This concentration on physical attributes to the exclusion of other features seldom occurs in the description of men.
A teacher was brought into the experimental room and watched a videotaped set of instructions read by an attractive young woman. John's pretty widow Mrs M. fled down the road, slashing her own neck and finally flinging herself into a pond, where she drowned. It has been revealed that Mrs M., a slim blonde, recently consulted the local doctor about depression.

8.42 Male and female stereotyping occurs frequently in relation to occupations and gender roles. Women who are employed outside the home are still described in terms of being the 'wife of', 'mother of' or 'daughter of'. Portrayals of men in their professional roles seldom describe them as 'father of', 'husband of' and the like. Portrayals of doctors, lawyers, principals, senior teachers, architects and most professions and trades are usually male.
A Brunswick mother of four has been appointed to the board. A sixty-year-old grandmother became the overall winner of this year's Murray river kayak marathon. Adelaide housewife Alison H. will compete with teammate Anton W. in the small bore rifle.

8.43

Women's role as homemakers is often deprecated in statements such as:

Even a housewife can do that! Her father is a barrister with , her mother does not work.

8.44 Men's role as parent, and sometimes as full-time homemaker, is denied in such phrases as 'mothers' club', 'mothers' room', 'mothers needed to read to children'. 8.45 Here are some strategies for positive portrayal of both women and men:

Use the words 'man', 'woman', 'girl', 'boy', 'gentleman' and 'lady' in a parallel manner. Referring to adult women as 'girls' in a context where male adults are described as 'men' is inappropriate. It implies, among other things, that women are not considered fully grown up. The use of endearments for women and men is acceptable in some situations, usually informal and private. In public situations, however, women are also often addressed by such words as dear(ie), darl', darling, sweetie, love and so on. This treatment is not generally extended to men. The practice of using endearments for women who are unknown to the speaker or in situations that do not call for such intimacy should be avoided as it is condescending and sometimes insulting to women. If women and men have similar characters, parallel language should be used to describe them. Avoid the use of stereotyped generalisations about men's and women's characters and patterns of behaviour. For instance, if a man and woman each have a determined and strong attitude, do not describe him as 'forceful' and her as 'pushy'. Other common sex-stereotype adjectives include:

for men strong assertive expressive angry firm cautious

for women domineering aggressive emotional hysterical stubborn timid

Portray and describe both women and men in a variety of roles and occupations. Take care in the descriptions of people whose main or sole occupation consists in doing unpaid work in the home. They should not be described as a 'woman / man who does not work'. Their work should not be depicted as unimportant or worthless. Terms such as 'working mother' and 'working wife' should be used with care because they may imply that non-wage-earning women do not work. Expressions such as 'the weaker sex', 'the fair sex', 'he acted like an old woman' and 'old wives tales' should be avoided as they are belittling and insulting to women. Sometimes it is implied that women are naturally less competent than men. When describing a couple (man and woman), treat both partners as equals. If mentioning women and men together, do not always list the man first but try to alternate the order in which men and women are described. Racist language 8.46 Racism is the discriminatory treatment of people on the basis of their membership of a particular 'race', their 'ethnicity' or their 'national background'. Racist language is the linguistic expression of racism. It is grounded in the dichotomy of the 'in-group', referred to as us, versus the 'out-group(s)', generally called them. The in-group sets out to establish its cultural and ethnic superiority by describing itself in 'positive' language, while referring to the out-group(s) in 'negative' language. Racist language can be used by any group in societydominant or minorityto denigrate any other group. However, the in-group language of dominant groups is often considered the norm for language use in a multicultural society, against which the language use of other groups is judged. If this in-group language is racist, the societal consequences for minority groups will be more marked than will any such consequences for the dominant group in the converse situation. The main forms of racist language include: The linguistic portrayal of the in-group as the norm and the out-group as the deviation. For example, the ethnic features of the in-group are seldom mentioned whereas those of the outgroups are often stressed, even where the author has no firm information about the ethnicity of the person. This occurs frequently in news headlines and short news reports. For example:
ITALIAN YOUTH AMBUSHED IN BACKYARD TURK, 39, DENIES MURDER CHARGE LEBANESE RAPE GANG ALERT!

Members of the in-group are portrayed as individuals whereas those of the out-groups are often described only in terms of group characteristics. Individual members of the in-group are

described in terms of their occupational status, educational background, political sympathies, age and sex. This conveys an image of diversity which is not regarded as divisive. Despite the fact that a similar diversity exists among members of out-groups, it is seldom reflected in the language used about them. The portrayal of the in-group is usually in positive terms; the actions and members of the outgroup are less likely to be portrayed in positive terms. These portrayals can be achieved by regular combinations of the name of the in-group with adjectives or nouns with positive meaning or connotations. Adjectives and nouns with negative connotations are regularly combined to describe the out-groups. For example:
money-hungry Jews whingeing Pom

The in-group uses euphemisms to express its negative actions with regard to the out-groups. This lessens the harshness of such actions. For example, the word 'Protection' was used in relation to Aboriginal peoples in Australia to obscure the fact that the Australian Government was given legislative powers to send Aboriginal people to reserves and missions. Out-groups are more likely to be described in stereotypical terms. For example, L. Lippmann (in Rasmussen & Rasmussen 1982) quotes an entry in a children's dictionary which described an Arab in the following way:
Arab: he is a smooth shopkeeper who pops out of his booth to persuade a foreigner to pay twice the value for his carpet or leather bag: the bag-trousered workman asleep on the corner of the pavement and not bothered at all whether he finished his work today, tomorrow or never; a peasant who rides his donkey, while his wife, in a long black robe, walks behind carrying bundles.

In a primary school textbook on South-East Asia, the Indo-Chinese are described as a 'pyjama-clad people' (Lippmann, in Rasmussen & Rasmussen 1982). Verbal conflict and aggression between in-groups and out-groups give rise to a whole range of ethnic and racial slurs whose main function is to set the targeted group apart from others by stressing its eccentricity, exoticness or (un)desirability. These include ethnic and racial derogatory terms and nicknames such as 'wog', 'coon', 'nigger', 'convicts', 'slope' and 'nips'. Sometimes names of groups have been changed into derisive and derogatory adjectives and verbs, for example 'Mediterranean back', 'don't be so jewish', 'to go dutch'. Members of out-groups and minorities are also often invisible in language because their experiences and achievements are not mentioned. In illustrative languageused to demonstrate a principle, explain a concept or provide an examplewe tend to represent people as being white, Anglo-Australian, male and middle-class, e.g. Mr John Doe, Mr John Citizen. 8.47 In Australia the conscious or unconscious use of racist language occurs most frequently in relation to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and to many immigrant groups, especially those of nonEnglish-speaking backgrounds. However, as noted in paragraph 8.46, racist language is not directed exclusively at those groups in Australia.

8.48 Paragraphs 8.4959 provide the basic guidelines, recommended by the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission, for the non-discriminatory representation of Aboriginal peoples and of Torres Strait Islander people of Australia. Paragraphs 8.6073 provide guidelines for other ethnolinguistic minorities in Australia. Non-discriminatory portrayal of Australian Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders 8.49 The linguistic portrayal of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians in public and official documents, textbooks and the media is, and has been, mainly negative and stereotypical. The Australian indigenous peoples were and are often portrayed as primitive, ignorant people who 'cling' to ancient traditions and cultural practices which reinforce their inferior status. They are described primarily in racial group terms, for example 'blacks' or 'Aboriginals' or 'Aborigines', and much less as individuals with personal names. 8.50 Some terms denoting the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples of Australia 'Aboriginals', 'Aborigines', 'indigenous people'do not reflect the uniqueness and / or diversity of these groups. Other terms, like 'natives', often evoke an image of primitiveness. Yet other terms are considered blatant forms of racism: 'Abos', 'boongs', 'coons', 'darkies', 'vegemites', 'lubras', 'gins'. 8.51 The terms considered acceptable when referring to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples are given below and in paragraphs 3.58. Like any other group, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have preferences for specific terms which can vary according to region, beliefs, lifestyle and other considerations and influences. Some of these are:
Aboriginal peoples of Australia Torres Strait Islander people Aboriginal person Torres Strait Islander Australian Aboriginal(s)

Indigenous names

Murri Goorie Koorie Nunga Yolngu Anangu Torres Strait Islanders

Because the noun 'aboriginal' can refer to any group of people indigenous to a particular country or region, it is important to speak of Australian Aboriginals. Some indigenous people object to being labelled 'Aboriginals' or 'Aborigines', because they are terms which have been imposed on them by the first British colonisers and because they are the general terms for any indigenous people in the world. They prefer to be known by their specific names, such Koorie, Murri, Goorie, Nunga and so forth. These are terms (whose spelling may vary) used by indigenous peoples in Australia to refer to themselves and others, as follows: used in Queensland, especially in northern Queensland used in south-eastern Queensland used in New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania used in southern Western Australia used in the Northern Territory used in central Australia The indigenous people of the Torres Strait Islands have a linguistic and cultural identity which is different from that of the

indigenous peoples of mainland Australia. It is recommended that this fact be recognised by referring to them as Torres Strait Islanders or that the names of the various groups be used. Personal names

8.52 It is important to be aware that naming procedures in some Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities are different from those used in non-indigenous communities in Australia. In some cases certain names, or the mentioning of one's name, may be taboo. Also, many Aboriginal Australians were given an anglicised name which they may wish to interchange with or exchange for an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander name. It is recommended that when writing to or addressing an Aboriginal person or a Torres Strait Islander, the name or names which are preferred by that person be used. It is also important in media reports to refer to such a person by name, if this is the procedure adopted for non-Aboriginal Australians in descriptions.
TERMS DESCRIBING WAYS OF LIFE, LANGUAGES, CULTURE AND RELIGION

8.53 The cultures, religious activities and ways of life of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and the languages spoken by them have been described and continue to be describedin terms which imply their inherent inferior quality when compared with other (usually white, Western) cultures, religions and ways of life. Care should be taken to describe Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures, languages and religious activities as having qualities similar to those of other cultures, languages and religions. 8.54 The inappropriate use of some terms has caused concern among indigenous in Australians and should therefore be avoided or used with care:
Corroboree. Sometimes 'corroborees' have been described as parties. Corroborees are ceremonies, not parties, and should be treated as such. Dreamtime, myths, legends, superstition, magic, sorcery. These terms have all been used to describe Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander religious practices and activities. Although these terms are also used to describe some religious writings of other societies (for example, Greek myths), they often carry a connotation of exoticness in the context of the practices of Aboriginal peoples. It is recommended that these words be used with care.

Some alternatives are:

creation, creation stories, religious stories, religion instead of myths, legends religion, religious beliefs instead of superstition religious practices, ceremonies instead of magic, sorcery Aboriginal languages and dialects instead of Aboriginal dialects

8.55 In general language use, the term 'dialect' is often used to describe a form of language which is not valued highly. It is inappropriate to label all indigenous language varieties 'dialects'. It is estimated that around the time of British settlement in Australia, 260 Aboriginal languages were spoken. These languages had various dialects, in a manner similar to the English language. Today about 150 Aboriginal languages are still spoken. About one hundred of these languages are in a precarious state and are spoken only by a handful of older people. The remaining

languages are spoken by a few hundred or a few thousand speakers. Pitjantjatjara, Warlpiri and Aranda are the languages with the largest numbers of speakers.
AVOIDING STEREOTYPICAL LANGUAGE

8.56 The stereotypical description of any group of people is probably the most insidious form of linguistic discrimination. Aboriginal Australians have had their fair share of stereotyped descriptions: lazy, primitive, backward, dirty, drunken, diseased, stupid, pitiable and so on. Such descriptions should be avoided at all costs as they are inaccurate and form a massive barrier to linguistic equality, not to mention social equality.
GRATUITOUS SPECIFICATION OF BACKGROUND

8.57 In many descriptions it is totally irrelevant to specify the fact that a person is an Aboriginal or a Torres Strait Islander. Yet this feature is often the only description given of an indigenous person, especially when a crime is alleged to have been committed.
OBSCURING THE PRESENCE OF ABORIGINAL AND TORRES STRAIT ISLANDER PEOPLES

8.58 It is important to avoid using expressions (terms, phrases and sentence constructions) which obscure the presence and the many achievements of indigenous peoples in Australia. For example, it should be clear that such expressions as 'Captain Cook discovered Australia' or the description of Australia as 'terra nullius' before the arrival of the British do not give recognition to the presence of Aboriginal peoples in Australia long before British settlement, and can be quite insulting. Positive portrayal of ethnolinguistic minorities in Australia 8.59 Like the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples of Australia, people of non English-speaking backgrounds and other immigrant minorities (that is, ethnolinguistic minorities) are subjected to racist labels, descriptions and stereotyping on the basis of their ethnic or national background. Also, they are often invisible because they rarely appear in illustrative language use. In descriptions their ethnic characteristicsincluding physical features, linguistic skills, religious beliefs, cultural practices and geographical originsare often emphasised to the exclusion of other, often more relevant, features (occupation, education, skills). Furthermore, such descriptions and ways of talking about immigrant minorities in Australia often stress their deficiences rather than their achievements or assets. For instance:
A Chinese-looking applicant Muslims are fanatical about their religion and threaten to disturb religious tolerance in Australia. TERMS DENOTING ETHNOLINGUISTIC GROUPS IN AUSTRALIA

8.60 Terms such as 'Americans', 'Arabs', 'Cambodians', 'Chilean Australians', 'Finns', 'Frisians', 'Indo-Chinese', 'Italo-Australians', 'Jews', 'Khmer', 'Kurdish people', 'Muslims', 'Slavs', 'Welsh' and many others are frequently used to refer to specific groups living in Australia. Names describing immigrant minorities can be based on their (previous) nationality,

country or region of origin, their religious beliefs, their ethnicity and other features. Sometimes the name preferred by a minority group may be at odds with the name used for them by other groups, often because the latter term is either derogatory or has been imposed on the minority. Owing to changes in political systems, names of countries and nations may change (for example: Ceylon to Sri Lanka; Kampuchea to Cambodia) and this changes the names by which their people are known. Terms to denote immigrant peoples of Australia tend to change over the years because of changes in policies and attitudes towards immigrants, especially those coming from nonEnglish-speaking countries. In the past, terms like 'New Australian' or even 'ethnic' were acceptable but over time they have acquired a denigratory meaning and should now be avoided. 8.61 Although it is not desirable to endorse specific terms with reference to immigrant groups in Australia, the following recommendations are made: Often immigrants and ethnolinguistic minorities in Australia prefer to be called 'Australians'. If it is known or suspected that a term for a particular group is subject to controversy, it may be desirable to explain the choice or use of the term. It is not advisable to use the term 'Australian(s)' and a term designating a specific immigrant group in Australia in opposition to each other. This may be construed as divisive. Wherever possible, terms for religious groups should not be equated with those for linguistic or ethnic groups associated with certain religious beliefs, and vice versa. For instance, not all Lebanese people in Australia are Muslims and not all Muslims are Arabs. If comparisons are drawn between immigrant minorities in Australia, it is preferable to describe them using similar categories (nationality, country of birth, religious beliefs, language). For example, Italo-Australians versus Anglo-Australians not Italo-Australians versus Australians. Acceptable terms to refer to migrants who have come to Australia from nonEnglishspeaking countries are: 'People from Other Language Backgrounds' or 'People from Non English-Speaking Backgrounds' (sometimes abbreviated as NESB). 8.62 The following terms should be used with care:
migrant, immigrant (as nouns) A person who has (e)migrated to Australia is generally labelled a 'migrant' or 'immigrant'. If someone has been in Australia for a considerable period of time, it is preferable to avoid using the terms 'migrant' and 'immigrant' as a description. Such practice reinforces the belief 'once an immigrant, always an immigrant'. Although the word 'ethnic', derived from the Greek word ethnos meaning people, nation, race, is applicable to all groups living in Australia everybody has an ethnicity and belongs to an ethnic groupit is mainly used to describe nonAnglo-Celtic or non Anglo-Saxon people in Australia. It is important to avoid using such terms in divisive or pejorative ways.

ethnicAustralian

NAMING SYSTEMS

8.63 There are many naming systems in the world which differ quite markedly from the system adopted in English-speaking countries. For example, some Asian groups such as the Chinese, Vietnamese and Japanese have a 'surname first' system in their own environment. However, they may reverse this system in an English-speaking environment and have their surname last. Naming systems in a multicultural country may cause confusion. It is therefore important to be alert and to check, if possible, with the person what part of the name is the surname, first name and middle name (or given names). It is also recommended that the term Christian name be replaced in official documents by given name or personal name. The term first name is not suitable to the naming procedures adopted by various cultural and ethnic groups living in Australia (for example, immigrants from Asia). 8.64 It is also important to use names appropriately and make every attempt to pronounce them correctly.
STEREOTYPING

8.65 Although the stereotyped portrayal of ethnolinguistic or cultural groups in Australia may often be unconscious, it is damaging to the status of such groups in society. Sometimes the stereotyping is very blatant (for example, describing all Italo-Australians as members of the Mafia) and in other instances it is much more refined or covert (for example, describing a minority group member only in group terms and not as an individual with a name and a separate identity). Such stereotyping should be avoided. Non-discriminatory portrayal of people with disabilities 8.66 The portrayal of people with disabilities has been fraught with contradictions because of people's ambivalent attitudes towards disability. Disabled people were often described as helpless people to be pitied and to be taken care of. In other cases, feelings of horror, disgust and fear influenced the language used to describe thempeople with a disability, especially those with mental or intellectual disabilities, were portrayed as dangerous, untidy and erratic. The taboo nature of disability has also led to the creation of many euphemisms to describe disability and disabled people, but attitudes towards disability have changed considerably over the past ten to fifteen years. It is also important to realise that it is mainly the environment of people with a disability which highlights their disability. 8.67 Discriminatory language in relation to the portrayal of disabled people is characterised by depersonalisingthey are treated as a disability, rather than as a person with a disability, by highlighting the disability as the only characteristic of the person and by stereotyping. 8.68 The use of derogatory language reflected in such terms as 'retard', 'spastic', 'imbecile', 'cripple', 'psycho', 'blind Freddie' and suchlike to refer to people, whether or not they have a disability, is also discriminatory.
Avoid the disabled the blind Alternatives persons with a disability, disabled persons, disabled people blind people, visually impaired people, people with a visual

the handicapped the physically handicapped a paraplegic, paraplegics a quadriplegic, quadriplegics an epileptic, epileptics a 'retard', 'retards' 'downsy', 'downsies' 'the deaf'

impairment (depending on the gravity of the disability) people with a disability, people with a handicap people with physical disabilities, physically disabled people a paraplegic person, paraplegic persons a quadriplegic person, quadriplegic persons a person, persons with epilepsy a person, persons with an intellectual disability a person, persons with Down syndrome deaf people / persons, hearing-impaired people People who are profoundly deaf often have their own language (Auslan, for example) and consider themselves a separate group from hearing people. Using terms such as 'hearing- impaired people' is not appropriate for this group.

STEREOTYPING

8.69 People with a disability should be portrayed in a positive manner. It is discriminatory to describe them only or merely in terms of their disability. Positive portrayal of people with disabilities is mainly a matter of presenting them as individuals with qualities. It does not mean that a person's disability should be hidden or seen as irrelevant; however, it should not be the focus of the description except where the focus is on the disability. Non-discriminatory portrayal of people in relation to age 8.70 Societies and cultures vary in how they perceive and value different stages in the life cycle. In some societies, old age is highly valued because it brings maturity, wisdom and experience; in other societies, youth is revered because of its exuberance, aesthetic appeal and activity. In Australia, as a consequence of its cultural diversity, both views are present, although the media predominantly projects an image that being, looking and acting young is most valued. 8.71 age: Inappropriate language relating to age can contribute to discrimination on the basis of

Avoid labels such as 'the old', 'the aged', 'inexperienced youth', 'juveniles'. Instead use descriptions such as older people, senior(s), senior citizen(s), a young person, young people. Avoid stereotyping older people as frail, incapable of independence, a burden on society, no longer productive or active. Similarly young people can be stereotyped as inexperienced, rebellious, immature or always vibrant. In some contexts reference to age is not only gratuitous but also contributes to discrimination and detracts from more relevant matters. Descriptions of women especially contain often gratuitous specification of age. Avoid such expressions as:
Young, vibrant and assertive person sought for the position of Mrs G., whose much younger husband is a senior executive of the company producing X, will launch the new product of company x at a reception in

General recommendations 8.72 As mentioned before, no guidance can cover every possible contingency. The guidelines provided in this chapter should therefore be seen as an aid in achieving the production of nondiscriminatory language rather than as the ultimate answer. Many aspects of linguistic discrimination and of avoiding such discrimination could not be covered here. The reader is therefore referred to other descriptions of linguistic discrimination and to other guidelines listed in the Bibliography. 8.73 use: The following points will help readers apply the principle of non-discriminatory language

1. Always consider the context. Not all alternatives work in all contexts. 2. The list of alternatives is not exhaustive. If you cannot find a suitable alternative in this guide, be creative and select your own alternative following the strategies proposed here or consult other guidelines, listed in the Bibliography. 3. Commonsense about style needs to prevail. Sometimes re-writing or re-casting a sentence or a passage may be a better solution than substituting words to avoid discriminatory expressions.

9
9.1

Notes, references and bibliographies

This chapter deals with methods of identification.

9.2 Notes, references and bibliographies are ways an author deals with identifying important elements of the work which do not fit strictly within the flow of the text. Notes are a device to handle information that is extraexplanatory, peripheral, interestingbut not intrinsic to the argument or story. References deal with the identification of material in the work which is not necessarily of the author's own making. Bibliographies identify sources, quoted or unquoted, relevant to the material within the text. 9.3 The chapter shows how to identify some less common or specialised sources and how to identify publications for cataloguing purposes. A section on abbreviations used in notes, references and bibliographies is also included. Notes 9.4 Sometimes the author wishes to impart information to the reader that does not fit comfortably into the flow of narrative of the work. The information may be peripheral to the argument being made; it may be explanatory or background material which, if introduced within the text, would interfere with the reader's understanding of the text but may still be useful or interesting for the reader. It may also be information acknowledging the source material within the text (see paragraphs 9.1339). 9.5 This information can be included in the work, but outside the body of the text, by means of notes. Within the text the author uses an identifier to tell the reader that extra information is available. The identifier directs the reader either to footnotes (notes at the bottom of the page containing the identifier) or to endnotes (notes placed at the end of the chapter, article or book).
NOTE IDENTIFIERS

9.6 Notes can be identified by superior figures (small figures placed above the line of type) or by the symbols: asterisk (*), dagger (), double dagger (), section mark (), parallel mark (|| ), and paragraph mark or blind P ().
The excerpt comes from The Count of Monte Cristo* and reveals the difference between that tale and many of the other works of Dumas.

9.7 Symbols should always be used in the order given above. If more than six notes are to appear, the symbols should be doubled; if there are to be more than twelve notes, the symbols should be trebled. Trebled symbols, however, look clumsy, and it is therefore better to use superior figures throughout. 9.8 When footnotes are indicated by superior figures, the numbering may begin afresh on each pagethough this is not recommendedor in each chapter, or it may run consecutively

through the whole publication. Numbers indicating endnotes must appear consecutively through each chapter or through the whole publication, depending on where the endnotes are placed. 9.9 Numbers appearing in front of footnotes and endnotes may be typeset either as superior figures or normal size figures, whichever is the more legible in the size and style of the typeface being used. 9.10 Symbols should always be preferred in mathematical works in order to avoid possible confusion between superior numbers and indices. In tabular matter lower-case letters of the alphabet may be used in order to avoid confusion with the figures being presented; notes to tables are placed immediately at the foot of the table, not at the foot of the page or at the end of the chapter, article or book (see Table 11.4 in chapter 11). 9.11 If a publication has both footnotes and endnotes (something to be avoided) both symbols and superior figures are necessary, preferably symbols for footnotes and superior figures for endnotes. 9.12 Note identifiers should be placed at the end of a sentence or clause, rather than immediately after the words or phrases to which they relate, and follow any punctuation marks (but precede a dash). In the case of a lengthy quotation set off from the main body of the text, the identifier should be placed at the end of the quotationnot at the point of introduction. For example:
The following passage from a recent history makes this point: For several hundred years, Aborigines sanctioned the annual harvest of sea slugs or bche-de-mer by the hundreds of Macassan fishermen who arrived in great fleets of their traditional wooden praus, and who accepted trade goods in return. They allowed the entry into their society of goods such as axes and alcohol, and even adopted the technology for making dugout canoes, but rejected the importation of the Macassans' Muslim religion.1
1

David Day, Smugglers and Sailors: The Customs History of Australia 17881901, AGPS Press for Australian Customs Service, Canberra, 1992.

FOOTNOTES OR ENDNOTES?

9.13 The decision about whether to use footnotes or endnotes is a matter of judgment, depending on the size of the document, the number of notes and the convenience of the intended readership. 9.14 One aspect to keep in mind in planning a publication is that appropriate placement of footnotes can pose problems in page make-up. For this reason, in works containing more than a few notes, the use of endnotes is recommended. (The typographical treatment of footnotes and endnotes is dealt with in paragraphs 14.10816.)
PLACEMENT OF ENDNOTES

9.15 Endnotes may be placed at the end of the chapter or at the end of the complete work (but before the index). If the author decides to number notes consecutively throughout the work it is important to remember that if a note is added or deleted at a later stage, all subsequent notes will need to be renumbered. For example, if at proof stage it is decided to

add (rather than alter the text) a note between notes 1 and 2 to a report containing sixty endnotes (numbered consecutively through the text), then fifty-nine lines of textthose containing the superior figureswill have to be altered. In such a case, notes at the end of each chapter would have been preferable. 9.16 For a new work in preparation this renumbering may be simplified if the work is being prepared on a word processor. Many word processing packages which have a footnote / endnote facility automatically renumber note identifiers following an addition or deletion. 9.17 If a work is reprinted and new notes have to be added, the author or editor may be able to insert a new sentence into an existing note or to combine two notes to avoid renumbering. However, if the addition of a new note is unavoidable, it is permissible to use a superior figure accompanied by a letterfor instance 10a between 10 and 11. In new works, however, insertions of this kind should not be made; they signal poor preparation. References 9.18 When an author uses information which originally appeared in another work, she or he should acknowledge that source, giving as much detail as is necessary for the reader to locate the source if required. Such acknowledgments are called 'references'. 9.19 Every reference must be meticulously prepared and consistently presented. The method of presentation will be determined to a large extent by the nature of the work and the system of referencing chosen. 9.20 The most commonly used system of referencing, and the system used in this manual, is the authordate system (also known as the Harvard system). This system, described in paragraphs 9.22132 makes use of textual referencesshort references which cite the author and date of publication of the sourceand a list at the end of the work of all the references given, with the additional details that enable the reader to locate the source. 9.21 The other system described in this chapter, often referred to as the 'note system', places full acknowledgment of sources within footnotes or endnotes (see paragraphs 9.1339). As with other uses of notes, the reader is directed to each reference by means of a note identifier within the text. In works dealing with the humanities, whether of a general or specialised nature, this has been the traditional method of referencing. For scientific (particularly medical) works a variation of this method, the Vancouver system, is commonly used; it is described in paragraphs 9.1402.
THE AUTHORDATE SYSTEM

9.22 The authordate system is widely accepted in scholarly and scientific circles. It is straightforward and relatively easy to useentries can be added or deleted, generally with minimal disturbance to the textand it enables the reader to make an immediate association between an idea or fact and its authority and time of publication. One drawback occurs when an author cites multiple sources at a single reference pointinevitably there is some disruption to the flow of text in such cases.

9.23 When an author makes textual reference to an authority, he or she identifies it instantly by giving, in parentheses, the authority's name and the year of publication of the work to which reference has been made (sometimes it is also necessary to provide page or volume numbers, or both). Once in possession of this information, the reader can turn to the alphabetical list of works citedthe list of referencesfor full publication details. Textual references 9.24 Textual references should be presented consistently throughout the document. Authors and editors should ensure that each citation agrees in every detail with the information presented in the list of references (and vice versa). 9.25 Generally, a textual citation requires only the name of the author (or authors) and the year of publication (with no punctuation between the two items). These should be placed at the end of a sentence (before the concluding punctuation) whenever possible. For example:
The theory was first propounded in 1970 (Larsen 1971).

Alternatively, the author's surname may be integrated into the text, followed immediately by the year of publication, in parentheses:
Larsen (1971) was the first to propound the theory.

However, if the sentence is long and the citation refers to only a portion of it, the citation should be placed at the end of the relevant clause. 9.26 Relevant page numbers may be included in the textual reference, with a comma between the year and 'p.' or 'pp.', thus:
The theory was first propounded in 1970 (Larsen 1971, p. 245). Larsen (1971, pp. 2457) was the first to propound the theory.

9.27 If volume, section, equation or other elements of a cited work have to be specified, they should be abbreviated. For example:
(Larsen 1971, vol. 2) (Larsen 1971, sec. 2) (Larsen 1971, eq. 2)

9.28 When both volume and page references are necessary, they should be presented as follows:
(Larsen 1971, vol. 2, p. 23) (Larsen 1971, vol. 2, p. 23; vol. 3, pp. 1736)

Note that a semicolon is needed in the second example. 9.29 If more than one work is cited, the citation should be presented thus:
(Larsen 1971; Haddon 1969) Larsen (1971) and Haddon (1969) demonstrated that (Larsen 1971, p. 11; Haddon 1969, vol. 3, p. 734)

The semicolon is needed in the first and third examples to separate one citation from another. 9.30 When a work by two or three authors is cited in parentheses, the textual reference should be presented thus:
(Larsen & Greene 1987) (Larsen, Greene & Withers 1987)

When the authors' names are incorporated in the text, the ampersand is replaced by 'and':
Larsen and Greene (1987) were unable Larsen, Greene and Withers (1987) disagreed with

9.31 For a work that has more than three authors, only the surname of the first-listed author is used, followed by the expression 'et al.' (or 'and others'). For example, a work by Larsen, Greene, Withers and Gonzalez becomes:
Larsen et al. (1987) have found (Larsen et al. 1987)

9.32 However, if there is subsequently a textual reference to a work by Larsen, Smith, Murphy and Barlen, for example, the names of all the authors should be given in both cases to avoid confusion. 9.33 It should be noted that the names of all the authors must be used in the citation that appears in the list of references (see paragraph 9.61) 9.34 An author's initials or given name should be included in a textual citation when a distinction is drawn between works written by authors of the same surname, or when reference is made to information gained by means of personal communication. For example:
The theory was first propounded in 1970 (Larsen, A. E. 1971), but since then many of its elements have been refuted (see, for example, Larsen, M. K. 1983, vol. 2, pp. 15793). I understand that certain aspects of the theory remain the subject of investigation (Lethbridge, J. A. 1987, pers. comm., 2 May).

9.35 It will be noted from the preceding example that when the author's name and initials (or given name, where necessary) appear within parentheses, the initials follow the surname. However, if the author's surname and initials (or given name) are incorporated in the text, the initials should precede the surname:
The theory was first propounded in 1970 (Larsen, A. E. 1971), but since then many of its elements have been refuted; M. K. Larsen (1983) is among those most energetic in their opposition.

9.36

Personal communications are not included in the list of references.

9.37 When reference is made to more than one work by the same author, the citation should be arranged in chronological order by date of publication:
(Larsen 1979, 1985) Larsen (1979, 1985) found that (Collins 1979, vol. 3, p. 731; 1985, p. 72)

9.38 References to several works published in the same year by the same author should be distinguished one from the other by using lower-case letters of the alphabet attached to the publication date. The order of the letters is established on the basis of the letter-by-letter alphabetical order of the titles (disregarding any initial articles). Thus two 1981 works by James BellThe Bears of Alaska and Chimpanzees of Africawill be cited as 1981a and 1981b respectively. 9.39 If such works are cited at the same time, they will appear as follows:
Bell (1981a, 1981b) (Bell 1981a, 1981b) Bell (1981a, p. 327; 1981b, p. 72) was unable (Bell 1981a, 1981b; Malinowski 1979) (Bell 1981a, p. 327; 1981b, p. 72; Malinowski 1979, pp. 8999)

A semicolon is used to separate one citation from another. 9.40 As the same method is followed for both textual citation and list of references, the author or editor must ensure that the order of the titles, and the lower-case letter attached to the publication date of each title, are the same in both places. 9.41 thus: Textual references to works in which the role of an editor is paramount are presented
(ed. Crowley 1974) edited by Crowley (1974)

9.42 Textual references to new editions of published works need contain only the publication date of the edition being cited. 9.43 Works for which no publication date can be reliably established are cited thus:
Carruthers (n.d.) has suggested (Carruthers n.d.)

However, if the publication date can be established approximately, the abbreviation 'c.', denoting circa (about), should be used:
Harris (c. 1751) reveals (Harris c. 1751)

If the publication date is dubious, a question mark is used:

(Quirk ?1751) Quirk (?1751) criticised

9.44

A work not yet in the process of publication may be cited thus:

(Daly, forthcoming) Daly (forthcoming) shows that

9.45 A work which is in the process of publication but for which the publication date is uncertain may be cited thus:

(Weinberg, in press) Weinberg (in press) shows that

9.46

An unpublished work may be cited as follows:

(Crowley, unpub.) Crowley (unpub.) argues that

9.47 Anonymous works, and works which do not bear the name of a specific author or sponsoring organisation, should be cited in the following manner:
This was apparently not the case in seventeenth-century England (On Travelling to London 1683). On Travelling to London (1683) reveals that this was not true.

The expressions 'Anonymous' or 'Anon.' are unnecessary and should not be used. 9.48 If a work has been 'sponsored' by an agency, association, corporation or some other organisation and bears no specific author's name on the title page, the name of the sponsoring organisation is cited:
(CSIRO 1982) A publication of the Centre for Independent Studies (1986) is

9.49 Well-known abbreviations (CSIRO in the previous paragraph, for example), contractions and acronyms may be used freely in textual references, even if they have not previously been spelt out in the text. But they must be included in an alphabetical list of abbreviations, located either at the end of the preliminary pages ('prelims') or at the beginning of the list of references. The question of whether to abbreviate involves judgment: it is largely a matter of frequency of use and the ease of the reader. Authors and editors must ensure that all abbreviations used in textual citations correspond exactly to those used in the list of references. 9.50 The reports of commissions of inquiry and other bodies often pose problems because of the complexity and length of their titles or because they are better known by a brief title containing the name of the commissioner, chairperson or other principal office-bearer. The short title may be used in the text provided that the list of references contains a clear crossreference to the official title. 9.51 Textual references to articles in newspapers are straightforward. If the author of the article is named, the principles already set out should be applied, but if not the textual citation should appear as follows:
(Canberra Times 24 Jan. 1987, p. B6) The Weekend Australian (2425 Jan. 1987, p. 19) reported (Financial Review 23 Jan. 1987, editorial)

9.52 If a work contains frequent references to newspaper material it may be best to abbreviate the newspaper titles: SMH, for example, could replace the Sydney Morning Herald. The abbreviation, like the full title, is italicised. If abbreviations are used, they will have to be explained in a list of abbreviations.

List of references 9.53 A list of references contains details only of those works cited in the text, with the exception of personal communications. It is the author's responsibility to provide such a listing for any work in which the authordate system has been used to make reference to other published or unpublished sources. 9.54 If the author includes sources that are not cited in the text but are relevant to the subject, the list is called a bibliography (see paragraph 9.143). The same method of presentation is used for both a list of references and a bibliography. 9.55 The following are examples of entries in a list of references. Some unusual features of the examples are further explained in the text following. Other examples may be found in the Bibliography at the end of this manual. Note that the second line of an entry (if any) is indented to highlight the alphabetical order.
Adam-Smith, Patsy 1978, The ANZACS, Thomas Nelson, Melbourne. Adams, Phillip 1987, 'Black and white and read no more?', Weekend Australian Magazine, 78 Feb., p. 2. Ansett Transport Industries Ltd 1984, Annual Report 198384, ATI, Melbourne. The Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary 1992, 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Blaxter, M. 1976, 'Social class and health inequalities', in Equalities and Inequalities in Health, eds C. Carter & J. Peel, Academic Press, London. Bligh, Beatrice 1980, Cherish the Earth, David Ell Press, Sydney, in assoc. with the National Trust of Australia (NSW). Bowd, D. G. 1957, Richard Fitzgerald, 17721840, paper presented to Hawkesbury Historical Society, NSW. Butler, J. D. & Walbert, D. F. (eds) 1986, Abortion, Medicine and the Law, Facts on File Publications, New York. Cocteau, J. 1961, Les Enfants terribles, trans. R. Lehmann, Penguin, Harmondsworth. Crowley, F. K. 1949, Working class conditions in Australia, 17881851, PhD thesis, University of Melbourne. Dahl, Roald 1986, Two Fables, ill. G. Dean, Viking (Penguin), Harmondsworth. Egerton, M. C. 1986, The Australian Film Industry: An Overview, Dominion Press, Adelaide, & Cinnamon Publishing, St Lucia, Qld. Evans, R. 1973, 'Labor market information in Japanese labor markets', in Industrialization and Manpower Policy in Asian Countries: Proceedings of the Asian Regional Conference on Industrial Relations, Tokyo, Japan, 1973, Japan Institute of Labour, Tokyo, pp. 15772. Gillespie, N. C., Lewis, R. J., Pearn, J. H., Bourke, A. T. C., Holmes, M. J., Bourke, J. B. & Shields, W. J. 1986, 'Ciguatera in Australia: Occurrence, clinical features, pathophysiology and management', Medical Journal of Australia, vol. 145, no. 1112, pp. 58490. Herbert, W. G. 1987, The Australian Beef Industry: An Overview, Australian Livestock Council, Canberra, microfiche. Jung, C. G. 1964, Der Mensch und seine Symbole (Man and His Symbols), Aldus Books, London.

Lalumire, P. 1975, 'Note sur une exprience de financement priv des investissements publiques', Revue de Science financire, vol. 67, pp. 61747. Nethercote, J. R., Kouzmin, A. & Wettenhall, R. 1986, Australian Commonwealth Administration 1984: Essays in Review, School of Administrative Studies, Canberra College of Advanced Education, in assoc. with ACT Division, Royal Institute of Public Administration. Office of the Status of Women 1981, Fair Exposure, AGPS, Canberra. Proust, M. 1970, Jean Santeuil, trans. G. Hopkins, Simon & Schuster, New York (with preface by Andr Maurois). Raymond, R. & Watson-Munro, C. 1980, The Energy Crisis of 1985, Castle Books n.p. (dist. in Australia by Horwitz-Grahame, Sydney). Russell, B. 1967, The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, vol. 1, 18721914, George Allen & Unwin, London. Sand, George (pseud. of A. L. O. Dupin) 1856, The Story of My Life (in French), 20 vols, Lecou & Cadot, Paris.

9.56 In general, works included in the list of references are listed in alphabetical order of their authors' names or source names (for the two systems of alphabetising, see paragraphs 19.25 8). This is a suitable arrangement for short lists and those that are unified in theme. If, however, an extensive work deals with a number of distinct subjects or themes, or if its sources fall into a number of broad categories (for example, published books and journals, manuscripts, theses, newspaper articles and legal authorities), it may be preferable to list the works alphabetically according to theme or category (see also paragraphs 9.1503). Legislation cited can also be included if it is significant to an understanding of the work; it should be listed separately under the subheading 'Legislation'.
BOOKS

9.57

For books, the information required is presented in the following order:

author's surname and initials or given name year of publication title of publication title of series, if applicable volume number or number of volumes, if applicable edition, if applicable editor, reviser, compiler or translator, if other than the author elements of a book, if applicable publisher place of publication page number or numbers, if applicable

All elements of the citation following the year of publication are separated by commas, and the citation concludes with a full stop. There is no comma between the author's initial(s) or given name and the year of publication. 9.58 Author's surname and initials or given name. The author's surname appears first, separated from the initials or given name by a comma. As a general rule, only the author's initials

should be used, regardless of the manner of presentation on the title page of the source. It is, however, useful to spell out the given name if this will enable the reader to recognise the author more readily. 9.59 Full stops are used after each initial. Degrees and affiliations are not included; honorifics may be included as an aid to recognition, but are irrelevant to the alphabetical order. For example:
Dinesen, Isak Forbes, W. H. Gowers, Sir Ernest Gowers, General Maurice

9.60 If a book has two authors, their names should be cited in the order in which they appear on the title page, linked by an ampersand:
Raymond, R. & Watson-Munro, C.

9.61 Similarly, if a book has three or more authors, their names should be cited in the order in which they appear on the title page, separated by commas and linked by a final ampersand:
Leeder, S. R., Dobson, A. J., Gibberd, R. W. & Patel, N. K.

9.62

If co-authors have the same surname, it should be repeated:

Larsen, A. E. & Larsen, M. K.

9.63 Anonymous works, and works which do not bear the author's name, are listed by title. Definite or indefinite articles are retained but are disregarded in the alphabetical order. Use of the words 'Anonymous' or 'Anon.' is not recommended.
Bringing Up Parents A Child's View of the World Into the Light Microscope on a Beehive

9.64 Pseudonymous works should be listed under the pseudonym used. The author's real name may, if desired, be placed in parentheses after the pseudonym; various methods may be used to inform the reader that a pseudonym has been used:
Saki (H. H. Munro) Eliot, George (pseud. of Mary A. Evans) Sand, George (pseud.)

9.65 Books sponsored by an institution, corporation or other organisation and bearing no author's name on the title page are listed under the name of the sponsoring body. Abbreviations may be used, depending on the decision made for the corresponding textual citation (see paragraph 9.49). 9.66 A book sponsored by an institution, corporation or other organisation and bearing on its title page the name of an author is listed under the name of the sponsoring body, with the author being acknowledged in the following manner:

Centre for Continuing Studies 1987, Methods of Learning, by E. M. Flynn.

9.67 Works in which the role of an editor, compiler, reviser or translator is paramount are listed under the name of that person (but see also paragraph 9.88). The abbreviations 'ed.', 'eds', 'comp.', 'comps', 'rev.' or 'trans.' should be used as appropriate:
Crowley, F. K. (ed.) Holfstadter, D. (ed. & trans.)

9.68 If there are several works by the same author they should be listed in chronological order by date of publication. The author's name may be replaced by a 2-em rule in a second or successive citations. If two or more works have been published in the same year, they are arranged alphabetically by title, with lower-case letters of the alphabet attached to the publication date to match the references given in the text. For example:
Milner, J. K. 1980, Henry Lawson, 1984a, Early Australian Literature, 1984b, Poets and Poetry in New Zealand,

Alternatively, the author's name may be repeated for each citation. 9.69 Particular care should be taken in the arrangement of non-English names, as their treatment may vary from nation to nation. The practice of the nation to which the author belongs should be followed as closely as possible. Thus:
Beauvoir, Simone de (French) Bonin, Theda von (German) De La Mare, Walter (English) Deng Xiaoping (Chinese) De Sica, Vittorio (Italian) La Fontaine, Jean de (French) Mai Van Bo (Vietnamese) Ramon y Cajal, Santiago (Spanish)

9.70 Year of publication. In the authordate system the year of publication (that is, the edition year) appears immediately after the details of authorship:
Snow, C. P. 1979,

9.71 If the work cited is other than a first edition, it is necessary to give the publication date of the edition being used and to provide the edition number after the title of the work:
Strunk, W. Jr & White, E. B. 1979, The Elements of Style, 3rd edn,

9.72 If a book contains no publication date, the expression 'n.d.' (no date) should be used after the authorship details:
Carruthers, E. B. A. n.d.,

9.73 If the publication date can be established approximately, the abbreviation 'c.' (circa) should be used:
Harris, J. G. c. 1751,

9.74

If the publication date is dubious, a question mark is required:

Quirk, M. C. ?1751,

9.75 A work for which a publisher has been secured but which is not yet in the process of publication may be listed thus:
Daly, Xavier (forthcoming),

9.76 A work which is in the process of publication but for which the publication date is uncertain may be listed thus:
Weinberg, M. M. (in press),

9.77

An unpublished work may be listed as follows:

Crowley, F. K. (unpub.),

9.78 In the case of anonymous works, the publication datewith no intervening punctuationfollows the title:
Bringing Up Parents 1953,

9.79 Title of publication. The title of the book is always italicised; it follows the year of publication, separated from it by a comma:
Clark, R. 1979, The Japanese Company,

The title cited is as it appears on the title page rather than on the spine or cover, where it may have been changed slightly for design reasons. 9.80 The capitalisation systems for book titles, set out in paragraphs 4.778, are applicable to the authordate system. (In this chapter and throughout the manual, maximal capitalisation is used for all book titles.) 9.81 Titles within titles are distinguished by means of single quotation marks:
The Annotated 'Jane Eyre'

9.82 When a foreign-language title is cited, the capitalisation conventions of the language concerned should be followed. A translation may be given in parentheses immediately after the original title:
Jung, C. G. 1964, Der Mensch und seine Symbole (Man and His Symbols),

If only a translated title is given, its origins should be acknowledged:

Sand, George (pseud. of A. L. O. Dupin) 1856, The Story of My Life (in French),

9.83 Title of series. If the work to be listed forms part of a series, the name of the series should be provided after the title of the work. It should be set in roman type and without quotation marks; all words other than articles, prepositions and conjunctions should be capitalised:

Wilson, Charles 1984, England's Apprenticeship 16031763, Social and Economic History of England,

If the series is not a first edition, that information should be inserted after the series title (followed by the name of the editor, if applicable):
Wilson, Charles 1984, England's Apprenticeship 16031763, Social and Economic History of England, 2nd edn, ed. Asa Briggs,

9.84 Volume number or number of volumes. If only one volume of a multivolume work is to be listed, the volume number (and its title if it has one) should be inserted after the title of the complete work:
Russell, B. 1967, The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, vol. 1, 18721914,

If two or more volumes of a multivolume work are to be listed, the information should be presented as follows:
Russell, B. 1967, The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, vols 2 & 3,

If a multivolume work is to be listed in its entirety, the number of volumes should be inserted after the title:
Russell, B. 1967, The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, 3 vols,

9.85 Edition. Any edition other than a first edition should be indicated either after the title of the work or after the volume information:
Holliday, I. & Hill, R. 1983, A Field Guide to Australian Trees, 2nd edn,

9.86 If the revision or expansion of an edition is important, the fact should be indicated as follows:
Gowers, Sir Ernest 1973, The Complete Plain Words, 2nd edn, rev. Sir Bruce Fraser,

9.87 Where a work is reprinted in a different form or a classic is republished in a modern version, the original date of publication is generally placed in parentheses after the publication date of the reprint:
Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases 1977 (1852),

A simple reprint, or a reprint with corrections, does not warrant separate mention. 9.88 Editor, translator, reviser or compiler. If a work has been edited, translated, revised or compiled but the author's role remains of prime importance, it is necessary to list the work under the author's name and to acknowledge the role of the editor, translator, reviser or compiler after the title (or edition or volume, if appropriate). For instance:
Proust, M. 1970, Jean Santeuil, trans. G. Hopkins, Simon & Schuster, New York (with preface by Andr Maurois). Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases 1977 (1852), rev. R. A. Dutch, Penguin, Harmondsworth.

The first example contains information about the preface: such information is necessary only if a preface (or introduction or foreword) is of particular note. 9.89 Elements of a book. If a work cited forms part of a book to which a number of authors have contributed, it may be listed thus:
Shaw, A. G. L. 1974, '17881810', in A New History of Australia, ed. F. K. Crowley, Blaxter, M. 1976, 'Social class and health inequalities', in Equalities and Inequalities in Health, eds C. Carter & J. Peel,

Note that the titles of chapters in books are set in roman within quotation marks, and that only the first word and any words that normally bear capitals are capitalised. 9.90 Publisher. The publisher's name follows the title of the work, or the volume, edition or series information if applicable:
Blanch, Lesley 1984, The Wilder Shores of Love, Sphere Books, Russell, B. 1967, The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, vol. 1, 18721914, George Allen & Unwin, London.

9.91 The publisher's name should normally be cited in full. However, an abbreviated form will sometimes suffice: for example, Reader's Digest for Reader's Digest Services Pty Limited. 9.92 The names of well-known publishing houses may be abbreviated if they are used frequently. Abbreviations should be used consistently, and an explanation of them should be included in an alphabetical list of abbreviations, generally located at the beginning of the list of references. The names of foreign publishers should not be anglicised or translated. 9.93 If the word 'and' is included in the name of the publisher, it should be replaced by an ampersand:
Routledge & Kegan Paul Weidenfeld & Nicolson

9.94

If a book has been co-published, both publishers' names and locations should be given:
Egerton, M. C. 1986, The Australian Film Industry: An Overview, Dominion Press, Adelaide, & Cinnamon Publishing, St Lucia, Qld.

The following variant should also be noted:

Bligh, Beatrice 1980, Cherish the Earth, David Ell Press, Sydney, in assoc. with the National Trust of Australia (NSW).

9.95 Place of publication. The place of publication is the site of the publisher's main editorial offices. If two or more places are listed on the title page or its reverse, only the firstlisted place should be cited. This information follows the publisher's name in the citation. 9.96 The place of publication may need explanation if there is another place of the same name or if it is little known (here the nature of the intended readership must be taken into

account). Cambridge, Mass., will not be confused with Cambridge, UK; St Lucia, Qld, will be more useful than simply St Lucia. 9.97 The anglicised spelling of foreign cities of publication should always be used: Rome, not Roma; Warsaw, not Warszawa; Algiers, not Alger. 9.98 If no place of publication appears on the title page or its reverse, the expression 'n.p.' (no place) should be used:
Raymond, R. & Watson-Munro, C. 1980, The Energy Crisis of 1985, Castle Books, n.p. (dist. in Australia by Horwitz-Grahame, Sydney),

The information about distribution will help a reader to locate a copy of the book. 9.99 Page number or numbers. If it is appropriate to cite page numbers in the list of references, the numbers should be presented as the final item of the citation, separated from the preceding item by a comma. (For information about the presentation of spans of figures, see paragraphs 10.1213.)
JOURNALS AND PERIODICALS

9.100 For references to articles in journals and periodicals, the following information is required, in the following order: author's name year of publication title of article title of journal or periodical title of series, if applicable place of publication, if applicable volume number, if applicable issue number or other identifier, if applicable page number or numbers

9.101 Author's name and year of publication. The surname and initials or given name of the author, and the year of publication, are treated in the manner described for books. For example:
Armstrong, B. K. 1985,

9.102 If an author has written two or more articles in the same year, the citations are arranged in the manner described for books in paragraph 9.68. 9.103 Title of article. The treatment of the titles of articles is dealt with in paragraph 4.80. 9.104 Titles within titles are distinguished by means of double quotation marks:
'The Annotated "Jane Eyre" ',

9.105 When an article written in a foreign language is cited, the procedure described for books should be followed:
Lalumire, P. 1975, 'Note sur une exprience de financement priv des investissements publiques' (An experiment involving private financing of public investments),

or Lalumire, P. 1975, 'An experiment involving private financing of public investments' (in French),

9.106 Title of journal or periodical. The title of a journal or periodical is italicised, and is separated from the title of the article by a comma; each word, other than an article, preposition or conjunction, is always capitalised. For example:
Armstrong, B. K. 1985, 'Epidemiology of cancer in Australia', Medical Journal of Australia,

9.107 In scientific works the titles of journals are often abbreviated. If this is doneand it is recommended only for those occasions on which the titles are cited very frequently, and only for the appropriate readershipthe abbreviations used should be those published in the most recent edition of the World List of Scientific Periodicals or the Index Medicus. Thus:
Armstrong, B. K. 1985, 'The epidemiology of cancer in Australia', Med J Aust,

Note that the abbreviations are set without full stops, as presented in the publications mentioned above, and this style must be followed. This is contrary to the principle set out in paragraph 7.4. 9.108 The title of a foreign-language journal or periodical should be cited in the original language (but without a translation), for this will enable the reader to locate it with greater ease. It is preferable to follow the capitalisation of the original when this can be ascertained. For example:
Lalumire, P. 1975, 'Note sur une exprience de financement priv des investissements publiques' (An experiment involving private financing of public investments), Revue de Science financire, Lalumire, P. 1975, 'An experiment involving private financing of public investments' (in French),

9.109 Title of series. If a journal or periodical forms part of a series, the series title should be placed after the journal title, separated from it by a comma. The series title is set in roman without quotation marks, and all words other than articles, conjunctions and prepositions are capitalised:
Pilli, L. 1981, 'The life of George Bernard Shaw', Bibliographical Essays, British History Series,

9.110 Place of publication. Usually journal citations do not include place of publication. However, if there are two or more different journals or periodicals with the same title or a similar onefor example, two periodicals entitled World Geographic, one published in Australia and one in the United States, and another entitled World Geographer, published in the United Kingdomthe city of publication, as set out in the publisher's imprint, should be indicated. Thus:
Bell, J. 1986, 'Flying high in the Andes', World Geographic (Sydney), Cronin, A. P. 1973, 'The Scottish coastline: Waves at work', World Geographer (London), Dewhirst, C., 'Hot air over the Himalayas', World Geographic (Washington),

9.111 Volume number. Arabic numerals should be used for the volume number regardless of the convention of the source:

Dewhirst, C., 'Hot air over the Himalayas', World Geographic, vol. 1,

Note that the volume number follows the title of the journal or periodical (or the series title or the place of publication if appropriate) and is separated from it by a comma. 9.112 Issue number or other identifier. If each issue of a journal or periodical is paginated separately rather than consecutively, the issue number or other identifier must be provided. If the issue has both number and identifier, one should be chosen and used consistently. For example:
Dewhirst, C. 1986, 'Hot air over the Himalayas', World Geographic, vol. 1, no. 4, or Dewhirst, C. 1986, 'Hot air over the Himalayas', World Geographic, vol. 1, Oct.Dec.,

Sometimes a journal or periodical will bear only an issue number or identifier, and no volume number. In this case, the issue number or identifier should be placed immediately after the title of the journal or periodical, separated from it by a comma. 9.113 Page number or numbers. It is important to provide inclusive page numbers and to present them as the final item of the citation, separated from the preceding item by a comma:
Dewhirst, C. 1986, 'Hot air over the Himalayas', World Geographic, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 4455. NEWSPAPERS

9.114 If a newspaper article has an obvious author, the procedure described for journals should be followed, volume and series information being replaced by the day and month:
Brandis, G. 1987, 'The Liberals: Just who is forgetting whom?', Weekend Australian, 2425 Jan., p. 19. Legge, Kate 1987, 'Labor to cost the "Keating factor" ', Times on Sunday, 1 Feb., p. 2.

9.115 If the article has no obvious author, full details should be provided in the textual citation:
(Financial Review 23 Jan. 1987, editorial) (Canberra Times 24 Jan. 1987, p. B6)

Such a citation should be included in the list of references. Note that the definite article in the title of the journal is omitted in textual citations and in the list of references. 9.116 If a work contains numerous references to newspaper material, the newspaper titles may be abbreviated, both in the text and in the list of references. The abbreviated titles should be italicisedSMH for the Sydney Morning Herald for exampleand should be used consistently.
PUBLISHED PROCEEDINGS

9.117 Papers presented at conferences, seminars and meetings are often collected and published as proceedings. They are cited in the same manner as contributions to multiauthor books:
DuPont, B. 1974, 'Bone marrow transplantation in severe combined immuno-deficiency with an unrelated MLC compatible donor', Proceedings of the Third Annual Meeting of the International

Society for Experimental Hematology, International Society for Experimental Hematology, Houston, Texas, pp. 446. UNPUBLISHED MATERIAL

9.118 Unpublished material includes theses, papers presented at conferences, seminars and meetings (but which remain unpublished), manuscripts, and personal communications such as letters, conversations and interviews. 9.119 When unpublished material is cited, the author's name and the year of preparation of the document should be presented in the manner described for articles in journals and periodicals. The title should also be presented in the same mannerbut without quotation marks. Other details should be provided with a view to guiding the reader as efficiently as possible. These details will vary according to the nature of the document; in many cases their presentation is a matter for the author or editor, the major considerations being consistency, logical order, and minimal but sufficient detail. The examples in paragraphs 9.1202 are provided as a guide. 9.120 When a thesis is cited, it is necessary to acknowledge the university under whose auspices the study was undertaken:
Crowley, F. K. 1949, Working class conditions in Australia, 17881851, PhD thesis, University of Melbourne. Lachmann, H. 1978, Metaphors in Wordsworth's later poetry, MA thesis, University of New England.

9.121 Papers presented at conferences, seminars and meetings may be treated in the following manner:
Bowd, D. G. 1957, Richard Fitzgerald, 17721840, paper presented to Hawkesbury Historical Society, NSW. Suzuki, R. 1982, Workers' attitudes toward computer innovation and organizational culture: The case in Japan, paper presented to 10th World Congress of Sociology, Mexico City, 1621 Aug.

9.122 Manuscripts are treated in the same manner as theses. If it is difficult to provide details about the location of a manuscript, be methodical, uncomplicated and consistent. The following examples are given as a guide:
Hudson, D. E. 1917, My journey to Khartoum, in possession of M. A. Hudson, Sydney. Hudson, D. E. 1917, My journey to Khartoum, in possession of Mitchell Library, Sydney. Hudson, D. E. 190917, Diary, Hudson Papers, Fisher Library, University of Sydney. Thompson, B. E. 1987, Recollections of the Raj, in possession of the author, Melbourne.

Some manuscript collections have a file number or other similar identifier that may be included with the citation, after the date. In general, however, the author, date, title and location are sufficient. 9.123 Details of personal communications do not need to be included in a list of references. If it is necessary to cite them parenthetically in the text, they should be presented as described in paragraph 9.34. It is preferable, however, to incorporate the information in the text:

In an interview I conducted on 27 April 1987, Mr J. A. Chang said In a telephone conversation on 27 April 1987, Mr J. A. Chang revealed that Mr J. A. Chang's letter dated 27 April 1987 contained the revelation that INDIRECT QUOTATIONS

9.124 If an author cites material not taken direct from the original but obtained through an intermediate source, the reference may quote both sources:
Lewis, C. S. 1959, 'Letter to the Times Educational Supplement', quoted in Cooper, B. 1964, Writing Technical Reports, Penguin, Harmondsworth, p. 72. GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS

9.125 When one is citing government publications, the procedure described for books should generally be followed. Such citations often appear complexfor example, some publications have no obvious author, some have both a sponsoring organisation and an author, some are the work of a committee. The Australian Government Publishing Service publishes most Commonwealth government publications but not all: sometimes a sponsoring body publishes in its own right, sometimes the Australian Government Publishing Service publishes jointly. The following examples are provided as a guide:
Australian Archives 1988, Relations in Record: A Guide to Family History Sources in the Australian Archives, AGPS Press, Canberra. Australian Bureau of Statistics 1985a, Domestic Travel and Tourism Survey, Australia, 1973, Cat. no. 92169.0, ABS, Canberra. Australian Bureau of Statistics 1985b, Projections of the Population of Australia, States and Territories, 1984 to 2021, Cat. no. 3222.0, ABS, Canberra. Bureau of Transport Economics 1985, Economic Regulations of Aviation in Australia, Seminar Papers and Proceedings, AGPS, Canberra. Bureau of Transport Economics 1986, Demand for Australian Domestic Aviation Services, Occasional Paper no. 79, AGPS, Canberra. Callaghan, Sir A. R. 1972, The wheat industry and stabilization, Report to the Minister for Primary Industry, Canberra, unpub. Commission of Inquiry into Poverty 1975a, Law and Poverty in Australia, Second Main Report (Prof. R. Sackville, Commissioner), AGPS, Canberra. Commission of Inquiry into Poverty 1975b, Legal Aid in Australia, Research Report, Law and Poverty Series, AGPS, Canberra. Commission of Inquiry into Poverty 1975c, Poverty in Australia, First Main Report (Prof. R. F. Henderson, Chairman), AGPS, Canberra. Commonwealth of Australia Gazette 1993, No. PS24, Canberra, 24 June. Department of Employment and Industrial Relations 1984, Annual Report 198384, AGPS, Canberra. Department of Employment and Industrial Relations, Working Environment Branch 1984, Japanese Employment and Employee Relations: An Annotated Bibliography, by B. Ford, M. Easther & A. Brewer, AGPS, Canberra.

Ergas, H. 1986, Telecommunications and the Australian Economy, Report to the Department of Communications, AGPS, Canberra. Henderson Report. See Commission of Inquiry into Poverty 1975c. Industries Assistance Commission 1978, Wheat Stabilization, Report no. 175, AGPS, Canberra. Independent Review of Economic Regulation of Domestic Aviation 1986, Report (Thomas E. May, Chairman), 2 vols, AGPS, Canberra. Inter-State Commission 1985, An Investigation of the Tasmanian Freight Equalisation Scheme, vol. 2, The Shipment of Wheat to Tasmania, AGPS, Canberra. Wallace, R. L. 1976, The Australians at the Boer War, Australian War Memorial & AGPS, Canberra.

9.126 As will be seen from the preceding examples, cross-referencing is used for reports that have well-recognised short titlesthe Henderson Report, in this case. Many names of sponsoring organisations can be abbreviatedABS, BTCE and so on. If they are, the abbreviations used should be explained in the alphabetical list of abbreviations. 9.127 A difficulty that sometimes arises in the referencing of government material is that the names of some organisations change over time. When this happens, the title of the organisation as it appears on the source document should be cited; if it is important to provide also the current title, it should be placed in parentheses after the original name, like a pseudonym. 9.128 In the case of commissions of inquiry, committees of review and the like, there may be a change of commissioner or chairperson during the period of the inquiry or review. This hypothetical example provides a solution:
Commission of Inquiry into National Bushfire Prevention 1976, Report (Chairpersons: I. C. Ashe, April 1974 May 1975; N. E. Raynes, June 1975 March 1976), AGPS, Canberra. PARLIAMENTARY PUBLICATIONS

9.129 Parliamentary publications are either those produced by the parliamentary departments and their committees or publications which are produced by government departments and subsequently published in the Parliamentary Papers series. 9.130 The Parliamentary Papers series comprises documents tabled in the Commonwealth Parliament that have been ordered to be printed by either House. Such documents include departmental reports, the reports of commissions of inquiry, committees of review and so on, and the work of standing and select committees of the Parliament itself. The papers are cited in the following manner:
Australia, Parliament 1976, Department of Foreign Affairs Annual Report 1975, Parl. Paper 142, Canberra. Australia, Parliament 1964, Parliamentary and Government Publications: Report from the Joint Select Committee (G. D. Erwin, Chairman), Parl. Paper 32, Canberra.

9.131 Many titles published as Parliamentary Papers are first publishedeither by the author agency or by the Australian Government Publishing Servicein what is popularly known as a plain-cover or departmental edition. The following method of citation should be used for plaincover editions:

Department of Foreign Affairs 1975, Annual Report 1975, AGPS, Canberra. Joint Select Committee on Parliamentary and Government Publications 1964, Report (G. D. Erwin, Chairman), AGPS, Canberra. SSCFGO 1981, The Australian Dairy Corporation and Its Asian Subsidiaries, AGPS, Canberra. HRSCE 1984, Ringing in the Changes: Telecom's Zonal Charging Policies, AGPS, Canberra.

The list of abbreviations that appears after the prelims will explain SSCFGO and HRSCE: Senate Standing Committee on Finance and Government Operations, and House of Representatives Standing Committee on Expenditure. 9.132 References to Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), which are verbatim records of what was said in Parliament, and references to the Journals of the Senate and the Votes and Proceedings of the House of Representatives, the official record of proceedings in each House, are cited in the following manner:
Australia, Senate 197071, Journals, no. 123, p. 718. Australia, House of Representatives 196263, Votes and Proceedings, vol. 1, p. 631. Australia, Senate 1964, Debates, vol. S25, p. 65. Australia, House of Representatives 1977, Debates, vol. HR103, pp. 29. REFERENCES WITHIN NOTES

9.133 The main distinction between the system which employs references within notes, in the style described below, and the authordate system, is that all the reader sees within the text is a superior figure or symbol rather than a direct textual reference (author and date). The author who refers to the same source seven times in the chapter or article has seven different note identifiers in the text which relate to that source, and is obliged to give details of the source seven different times within the footnotes or endnotes. The practice is simplified somewhat by using a full reference on the first occasion the source is described but a shorter reference on the second and subsequent occasions. First references 9.134 The first reference to a work must provide all the information necessary to enable a reader to locate the work. The information required is the same as that required for the author date system, but it is presented in a different order: the author's initials or given name precede her or his surname; the year of publication follows the place of publication rather than the details of authorship. The method of punctuationusing commas to separate each item of the citationremains the same; the capitalisation practices described in paragraphs 4.779 are also applicable. The following are typical first references:
1

R. Raymond & C. Watson-Munro, The Energy Crisis of 1985, Castle Books, n.p. (dist. in Australia by Horwitz-Grahame, Sydney), 1980. B. Russell, The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, vol. 1, 18721914, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1967, p. 78. Phillip Adams, 'Black and white and read no more?', Weekend Australian Magazine, 78 Feb. 1986, p. 2.

M. Blaxter, 'Social class and health inequalities', in Equalities and Inequalities in Health, eds C. Carter & J. Peel, Academic Press, London, 1976. Beatrice Bligh, Cherish the Earth, David Ell Press, Sydney, in assoc. with the National Trust of Australia (NSW), 1980. M. C. Egerton, The Australian Film Industry: An Overview, Dominion Press, Adelaide, & Cinnamon Publishing, St Lucia, Qld, 1986, p. 32. J. Cocteau, Les Enfants terribles, trans. R. Lehmann, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1961, p. 14. Roald Dahl, Two Fables, ill. G. Dean, Viking (Penguin), Harmondsworth, 1986, pp. 941. F. K. Crowley, Working class conditions in Australia, 17881851, PhD thesis, University of Melbourne, 1949, p. 64. D. G. Bowd, Richard Fitzgerald, 17721840, paper presented to the Hawkesbury Historical Society, NSW, 1957, p. 3. J. D. Butler & D. F. Walbert (eds), Abortion, Medicine and the Law, Facts on File Publications, New York, 1986, pp. 234. W. G. Herbert, The Australian Beef Industry: An Overview, Australian Livestock Council, Canberra, 1987, microfiche. George Sand (pseud.), The Story of My Life (in French), 20 vols, Lecou & Cadot, Paris, 1856.

7 8 9

10

11

12

13

Second and subsequent references 9.135 Second and subsequent references to a source need not be as elaborate as the first reference: the purpose is to provide the reader with an unambiguous indication of the place where the fact, opinion or quoted words are to be found. 9.136 The simplest method of giving a second or subsequent reference to a work is to abbreviate the first citation:
1 2 3 4

Elizabeth Gaskell, North and South, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1970, pp. 22841. Gaskell, p. 255.

9.137 But if two or more works by the same author are referred to in a single publication, it will be necessary to differentiate further:
1

Robert Hyslop, Aye Aye, Minister: Australian Naval Administration 193959, AGPS Press, Canberra, 1990, p. 89. Robert Hyslop, Australian Mandarins: Perceptions of the Role of Departmental Secretaries, AGPS Press, Canberra, 1993, p. 45. Hyslop, Aye Aye, Minister: Australian Naval Administration 193959, p. 25.

9.138 Recurrent references to articles may be abbreviated in similar fashion:

1 2 3

Gail Holst, 'Awake to the lute', Hemisphere, vol. 21, no. 4, 1976, pp. 2638. Holst, Hemisphere, p. 28.

9.139 Second or subsequent references are sometimes introduced by particular abbreviations. These abbreviations and their meanings are listed in paragraph 9.190.
THE VANCOUVER SYSTEM

9.140 The Vancouver system of referencing is commonly used in medical literature. It may also be the preferred referencing system in non-medical literature where the problem of multiple references at a single point in the text occurs frequently. In this system an arabic number, which appears as a superior figure in the text, is allocated to each source as it is referred to for the first time. This number becomes the unique identifier of that source and if the source is referred to again the identifying number is repeated. In addition, more than one identifier can be used at a single reference point to indicate multiple sources, for example:
Information has been published on international trends in the treatment of cardiovascular disease; 1,5 while of particular interest is an Australian study on hypertension.2

Note that the identifiers (which refer to the works listed below) are placed outside the text punctuation to avoid disruption. Note also that commas used to separate identifiers at the same reference point are also set as superior characters. 9.141 The presentation of the source citation in the Vancouver system differs from other referencing systems already described in the following respects: The titles of books and articles are always given minimal capitalisation. Journal articles are not placed within quotation marks. Neither book titles nor journal titles are italicised. Journal titles are abbreviated and abbreviations used should be those listed in the most recent issue of the Index Medicus. All authors should be listed when there are six or fewer; when there are more than six, only the first three are listed and the expression 'et al.' is added. Authors' initials follow the surnames and are set without full stops or space. 9.142 The following list exemplifies the style of Vancouver citations and the points made in paragraph 9.141:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Rose G. International trends in cardiovascular disease: implications for prevention and treatment. Aust NZ J Med 1984;14:37580. Australian National Blood Pressure Study Management Committee. The Australian therapeutic trail in mild hypertension. Lancet 1980;1:12617. Henderson S, Byrne DG, Duncan-Jones P. Neurosis and the social environment. Sydney: Academic Press, 1981. Van Vliet G, Styne DM, Kaplan SL, et al. Growth hormone treatment for short stature. N Engl J Med 1983;309(17):101622. Piza J, Uemura K. Trends in mortality from ischaemic heart and other cardiovascular diseases in 27 countries, 196877. World Health Stat Q 1982; 35:1147.

6.

World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific. Report of the working group on public health aspects of marine food fish poisoning, Suva, Fiji, February 2325, 1981. Manila: WHO, 1981. Dausser J, Colombani J, eds. Histocompatibility testing 1972. Copenhagen: Munskgaard, 1973:128. Weinstein L, Swartz MN. Pathogenic properties of invading microorganisms. In: Sodeman WA Jr, Sodeman WA, eds. Pathologic physiology: mechanisms of disease. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1974:45772. Cairns RB. Infrared spectroscopic studies of solid oxygen. Berkeley, California: University of California, 1965. Thesis. Raphael B. The psychiatry of disaster. Paper presented at the American Psychiatric Association's 138th Annual Meeting, Dallas, Texas, May 1824, 1985.

7. 8.

9. 10.

Bibliographies 9.143 Originally a bibliography was a list of all sources relating to a particular subject; such bibliographies are still produced although in practical terms a complete listing is rarely possible and most such works acknowledge some limitation such as 'Select bibliography' or 'Bibliography of works published 19831993'. 9.144 Over the years, however, the term 'bibliography' has been used in a variety of ways: it may be a list of those works or sources cited by the author in the publication (that is, the references); it may be a list of works relating to the subject but not actually cited by the author (that is, a further reading list); most commonly it is a list containing sources used in the publication and other sources the author considers useful or interesting to the reader. 9.145 This last use of the word 'bibliography' is followed in this manual.
AUTHORDATE REFERENCES ACCOMPANIED BY A BIBLIOGRAPHY

9.146 The use of authordate citations in a work makes necessary the preparation of a consolidated list of references, as already described in paragraph 9.53. If the author wishes to include in this list sources not directly cited in the work, the consolidated list is called a 'bibliography'. The same method of presentation is used in both cases.
REFERENCES WITHIN NOTES ACCOMPANIED BY A BIBLIOGRAPHY

9.147 If acknowledgment of sources is made within footnotes or endnotes the author may not see the need for a consolidated list at the end of the work. However, if the author chooses to include a list or bibliography the principal considerations are the same as those applying in the authordate system: the needs of the reader, simplicity, efficiency and consistency. The amount of information necessary is a matter of judgment, according to the type of work. 9.148 Traditionally, the main difference between the presentation of an entry in a bibliography and a reference appearing in a note is that in the former the author's surname is placed first. It is also customary to separate certain elements within an entry with full stops instead of commas and to place the date of publication at the end of the entry. However, while the placement of the

author's surname first is necessary to facilitate the alphabetical sequence of the bibliography, use of the other conventions is at the discretion of the author or editor. The following examples illustrate the difference:
Note:
1

Patsy Adam-Smith, The ANZACS, Thomas Nelson, Melbourne, 1978.

Bibliography: Adam-Smith, Patsy. The ANZACS. Thomas Nelson, Melbourne, 1978. or Note:
1

Patsy Adam-Smith 1978, The ANZACS, Thomas Nelson, Melbourne.

Bibliography: Adam-Smith, Patsy 1978, The ANZACS, Thomas Nelson, Melbourne. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES

9.149 An author who wishes to give the reader more information than is necessary to locate each source may produce an 'annotated bibliography'. For each entry in the bibliography the author writes a brief description of the sourceits content, its relevance to the author's own publication, its usefulness or otherwise to the reader for interest or further researchwhatever the author considers appropriate.
ORGANISING BIBLIOGRAPHIES

9.150 Most bibliographies follow the principle that the references are most accessible to the reader if they are listed together in strict alphabetical order. This is particularly so when most entries are books. 9.151 However, where the bibliography contains a number of different types of sources books, journal articles, newspapers, academic theses, ephemera, legislation, parliamentary papers, unpublished works and so onthe author may decide that the bibliography may be more manageable if split into sections, according to the type of source. 9.152 Moreover sometimes an author is dealing with a variety of subjects and will prefer to split the bibliography by subject. Another variation is to list sources by the physical place in which they can be found. An example would be a bibliography for a history which uses a lot of archival material: the bibliography may be in sections according to the archives in which the material can be found, such as Australian Archives, State Archives of New South Wales, State Records of South Australia and so on. 9.153 The important principle to keep in mind is how to present the bibliography in the most accessible form for the reader.

Identification of specialised sources

COMMONWEALTH RECORDS

9.154 The Australian Archives recommends that a citation of records held in its custody contain the following basic features: the name of the institution in whose custody the record series is held the originator of the series (a government body or, in the case of personal archives, a person) the record series (including identifying number, title and date range) the record item (if possible with identifying number, title and date range) 9.155 The following are examples of citation of Commonwealth records: CRS system 9.156 The Commonwealth Record Series (CRS) system is the main system used to identify, locate, document and make available records produced by the Commonwealth Government. 9.157 Examples of full citation and abbreviated citation follow:
Full citation: Australian Archives (ACT): Department of External Territories [I]; CRS A518, Correspondence files, multiple number series, 192856; CK822/1, Immigration policyNew Guineareturn of Chinese evacuees to the Territory, 1949. Abbreviated citation: Australian Archives (ACT): CRS A518; CK822/1. Full citation: Australian Archives (ACT): Department of External Affairs; CRS A981, Correspondence files, alphabetical series, 192742; Burma 3 pt 1, Burma defence, 1942. Abbreviated citation: Australian Archives (ACT): CRS A981; Burma 3 pt 1.

Accession system 9.158 An accession is a consignment of records transferred by an agency to the Australian Archives at one time. The Accession system is designed to document such consignments.
Full citation: Australian Archives (Qld): Bureau of Meteorology, Regional Office, Queensland; BP 360/1 Flood warning files, F series, 190863. Abbreviated citation: Australian Archives (Qld): BP 360/1.

9.159 The following examples illustrate the citation of personal archives:

Full citation:

Australian Archives (ACT): Joseph Benedict Chifley, CRS M1458, General correspondence from special organisations and persons, 194649. Abbreviated citation: Australian Archives (ACT): CRS M1458. Full citation: Australian Archives (Vic): R. J. Attkins; MP 257/1, Miscellaneous papers of Mr R. J. Attkins, Assistant Director, (Administration), Department of War Organization of Industry, 194244. Abbreviated citation: Australian Archives (Vic): MP 257/1.

9.160 Further advice about citation of references can be obtained from the regional offices of the Australian Archives.
LEGISLATION

9.161 The titles of Commonwealth Acts, Ordinances and Regulations should be cited exactly: neither spelling nor capitalisation conventions should be altered in the interest of stylistic conformity. 9.162 Modern legislation is generally drafted in such a way as to include a short title by means of which the Act or Ordinance may be cited (see paragraph 9.166 for Regulations). First references to legislation should always cite this short titlein italicsexactly and in full; in subsequent references a descriptive title, presented in roman type and with the date omitted, may be used:
Interstate Road Transport Act 1985 (Cwlth) Interstate Road Transport Act Lakes (Amendment) Ordinance 1992 (ACT) Lakes (Amendment) Ordinance

9.163 As a means of identification, legislation is usually numbered by calendar year or continuously, or both. When both are cited, the number follows the date:
Air Navigation Act 1920 (No. 50) (Cwlth)

9.164 In citing Australian State legislation it is necessary to indicate the jurisdiction. In the past the use of italics and punctuation varied according to the particular jurisdiction. Now, however, in order to avoid the appearance of inconsistency and to reduce the number of keystrokes required, the Australian Government Publishing Service italicises all elements of all Acts, with the jurisdiction (abbreviated), in roman type and in parentheses, immediately following the title and year. Note that no comma is used before the year:
Copyright Act 1968 (Cwlth) Judiciary Amendment Act 1976 (Cwlth) Conveyancing (Amendment) Act 1977 (NSW) Statute Law Revision Act 1937 (Vic.) Mining Act 1968 (Qld) Loan Act 1936 (WA)

Sale of Human Blood Act 1962 (SA) Launceston Corporation Act 1937 (Tas.)

9.165 It is unnecessary to cite the jurisdiction if it is obvious from the context, as in the following example:
As for New South Wales, the Conveyancing Amendment Act 1977 requires that

9.166 Regulations and other forms of delegated legislation are presented in roman type:
Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations Regulation 14 of the Air Navigation Regulations

9.167 The titles of Acts of the Parliaments of the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Canada and the United States are presented in roman type, with the jurisdiction following in parentheses if it is not obvious from the context:
Badgers Act 1974 (UK)

9.168 References to legislation often specify portions of the legislation. The basic units of division are the section and the regulation (note lower case), which may be abbreviated as 's.' and 'r.', or 'ss.' and 'rr.' in the plural. While 'ss.' is a contraction of 'sections' rather than an abbreviation it still carries a full stop. This is a convention peculiar to legal documents and an exception to the guideline given in paragraph 7.6. 'Section' and 'regulation' should never be abbreviated if either begins a sentence (see paragraph 7.63). The following examples illustrate usage:
Section 4 of the Book Bounty Act 1969 (Cwlth) The Book Bounty Act 1969 (Cwlth), s. 4, In s. 4 of the Book Bounty Act The Book Bounty Act, ss. 47, In ss. 47 of the Book Bounty Act 1969 (Cwlth) Regulation 18 of the Copyright Regulations (Cwlth) The Copyright Regulations (Cwlth), r. 18 In r. 4 of the Copyright Regulations The Copyright Regulations, rr. 1819

9.169 Sections and regulations may be subdivided into subsections and subregulations, paragraphs and subparagraphs in the following manner:
Airlines Equipment Amendment Act 1981 (Cwlth), s. 19(1)(a)(ii) Public Service Regulations (Cwlth), r. 83(2)(a)(ii)

where (1) refers to the subsection or (2) to the subregulation, (a) refers to the paragraph and (ii) refers to the subparagraph. A reference to paragraph (1)(a) may be written as s. 19(1)(a). The reference to s. 19(1)(a)(ii) above is to the subparagraph and demonstrates that all divisions must be citedany shortened form (such as s. 19(ii)) would not identify the relevant part of the legislation. 9.170 Bills before the Parliament are presented in roman type. For example:

Book Bounty Bill 1969

9.171 Legislation is not generally listed in a list of references. However, if it is significant to an understanding of the work it may be set apart from the main body of the reference list and listed alphabetically under the subheading 'Legislation'.
LEGAL AUTHORITIES

9.172 The details necessary for the full citation of legal authorities are: name of case (date) or volume number, or both abbreviated name of report series beginning page of reference

For example:
The State of New South Wales v. The Commonwealth (1915) 20 CLR 54 Greutner v. Everard (1960) 103 CLR 177

Sometimes a specific page reference is also necessary:

Greutner v. Everard (1960) 103 CLR 177 at 181

9.173 In general, a citation includes only the name of the first-mentioned party on each side; other parties are sometimes indicated as appropriate by the phrase 'and others' (or '& ors'), or 'and another' (or '& anor'). In most instances it is sufficient to provide only the surname of a person; however corporation names are usually given in full, although abbreviations may be used:
James v. Cowan (1932) 47 CLR 386 Clark King & Co. Pty Ltd v. Australian Wheat Board (1978) 140 CLR 120 re Smith re Smith & ors ex parte Smith & anor

'Re' means 'in the matter of'; 'ex parte' means 'emanating from one party [Smith & anor] without notice to the other party'. 9.174 In the citation of criminal cases, in which the Crown is the prosecutor, the form R (standing for Rex or Regina) is used in order to avoid the ambiguity of King and Queen. For example:
R v. Haddock

But if the Crown is the respondent in a criminal appeal, the citation is:
Haddock v. The Queen

9.175 Upon first reference in the text, an authority must be cited in full. An abbreviated form or the name by which the case is commonly known may be given in parentheses following the formal citation. Thereafter the abbreviated or common form may be used alone:

The State of New South Wales v. The Commonwealth (1915) 20 CLR 54 (the Wheat Case)

9.176 Reference to an authority sometimes includes the name of the presiding judge or judges. This is indicated by adding to the end of the citation the expression 'per Smith J', Smith being the surname of the judge ('J' denotes 'Justice'; 'JJ' denotes 'Justices'; 'CJ' denotes 'Chief Justice'). For example:
That was the opinion of Latham CJ and McTiernan J in Attorney-General (Vic.) v. The Commonwealth (1946) 71 CLR 237 at 2536 and 2734. A somewhat more restricted view was taken by Starke J (at 266), Dixon and Rich JJ (at 2712), and Williams J (at 2813).

9.177 Case citations give the year, the relevant volume number (if there is more than one for the year), the report series and the page number. In general, square brackets are used where there is no volume number and the year is an integral part of the title, and the date must be used to identify the particular volume. The mode of citation is given in most volumes of reportson the half-title page, at the head of the table of cases, or as part of the running headline. Examples of the modes of citation for reports published within Australia are as follows:
Australian Argus Law Reports Australian Company Law Reports Australian Law Journal Reports Australian Law Reports Australian Tax Reports Commonwealth Arbitration Reports Commonwealth Law Reports Family Law Reports Federal Law Reports New South Wales Law Reports New South Wales Reports Queensland Reports Queensland Weekly Notes South Australian State Reports State Reports (New South Wales) Tasmanian State Reports Trade Practices Cases Victorian Reports Weekly Notes (New South Wales) Western Australian Reports [1970] ALR 000 (1974) 1 ACLR 000 (1970) 44 ALJR 000 (1976) 10 ALR 000 (1970) 2 ATR 000 (1967) 121 CAR 000 (1970) 120 CLR 000 (1976) 1 Fam LR 000 (1975) 25 FLR 000 [1985] 3 NSWLR 000 [1970] 3 NSWR 000 [1975] Qd R 000 [1970] QWN 000 (1973) 5 SASR 000 (1970) 70 SR (NSW) 000 [1970] Tas SR 000 (1976) 1 TPC 000 [1976] VR 000 (1970) 92 WN (NSW) 000 [1970] WAR 000

9.178 Since a decision at law can appear in more than one report series, more than one reference may be given. Thus a case reported in the Commonwealth Law Reports, the Australian Argus Law Reports and the Australian Law Journal Reports may be cited as follows:
Commonwealth v. Anderson (1960) 105 CLR 303; [1961] ALR 354; (1960) 34 ALJR 323.

9.179 Like legislation (see paragraph 9.171), legal authorities do not generally appear in a list of references. However, if they are significant to an understanding of the work they may be set apart from the body of the reference list and listed alphabetically under the subheading 'Legal authorities'.

PLAYS AND POETRY

9.180 References to works such as plays and poetry are often more precise if given in terms of acts, scenes, lines, verses, and so on. The following forms are recommended:
Noyes, Alfred, The Highwayman, verse 2, lines 47. Shakespeare, William, Romeo and Juliet, act 3, scene 2, line 74. THE BIBLE

9.181 References to the Bible should take the following form:

Psalm 23:68 1 Cor. 13:9; 15:1 MOTION PICTURES, VIDEOS AND TELEVISION

9.182 References to motion picture and video recordings should contain the title and date of production, and an indication of the format.
Strictly Ballroom (motion picture) 1992 Understanding the GNP (video recording) 1982

9.183 Details provided in a bibliography should include title, format, date of recording, place of recording, publisher and any special credits.
The Comedic Fall (motion picture) 1981, Englewood, New Jersey, Pratfall Releases. Learning to Live (motion picture) 1964, London, Fine Films Inc., Producer Martin Freeth.

9.184 Television productions are identified as video recordings, with details of television transmission given.
What Are We Going to Do With the Money? (video recording) 8 August 1982, ABC Television. MICROFORM AND DUPLICATION

9.185 Microform documents, and documents that have been photocopied or duplicated in some way, are treated in the same manner as books, the form of publication being indicated at the end of the entry, preceded by a comma:
Herbert, W. G. 1987, The Australian Beef Industry: An Overview, Australian Livestock Council, Canberra, microfiche. DATABASES

9.186 Databases are identified by the title of the database and the producer. The producer is defined as the organisation with financial and administrative responsibility for deciding what will be included in the database.
Australian Architecture Database, Stanton Library,

9.187 Where the title of the database does not indicate the format the term 'database' should be included in the reference.
AGRIS (database), United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation,

9.188 Details included in a bibliographic entry are the title, the producer, the vendor and the frequency of updating.
AGRIS (database), United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, Vendor: SilverPlatter, annual updating.

9.189 In a specialised computer publication other information which may be included in a bibliographic entry are the time span covered by the database, equipment and software requirements, and corresponding print or microform products. Commonly used abbreviations 9.190 The abbreviations listed below may appear in bibliographies, lists of references, and notes. The Latin ones among them are used far less often than in the past and should generally be usedif at allonly in scholarly works dealing with the humanities.
app. art. bk c. cf. ch., c. col., cols comp., comps div. ed., eds edn, edns eq., eqs et al. et seq. ex., exx. f., ff. fig., figs fn., fnn. ibid. id. ill., ills inf. l., ll. loc. cit. MS, MSS n., nn. n.d. no., nos n.p. op. cit. p., pp. appendix article book approximately, about (Latin circa); for example, c. 1835 compare (Latin confer) chapter (c. for legislation) column(s) compiler(s) division editor(s) edition(s) equation(s) and others (Latin et alii) and following (Latin et sequentes) example(s) following figure(s) footnote(s) in the same work (Latin ibidem) the same (Latin idem) illustrator(s) below (Latin infra) line(s) in the place cited (Latin loco citato) manuscript(s) (Latin manuscriptum(a)) note(s) no date number(s) no place in the work cited (Latin opere citato) page(s)

para., paras passim pl. (plural: plates) pt, pts q.v., qq.v. r., rr. rev. sc. sec., s., ss. ser. st. sup. supp. trans. v., vv. vide vol., vols

paragraph(s) here and there, throughout (a word, not an abbreviation) plate part(s) which see (Latin quod vide, quae vide) regulation(s) revised, reviser scene section (s. and ss. for legislation) series stanza above (Latin supra) supplement translator(s) verse(s) see (a word, not an abbreviation) volume(s)

9.191 All such abbreviations, including Latin terms, are presented in roman type and always start with a lower-case letter, even when they appear at the beginning of a note. The following examples illustrate the use of a number of abbreviations commonly found in footnotes and endnotes:
1

Elizabeth Gaskell, North and South, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1970, pp. 22841. ibid., p. 251. ibid., p. 260.

2 3

In the above example, 'ibid.' signifies the same work as the one cited immediately before, but a different page.
1

Robert Hyslop, Aye Aye, Minister: Australian Naval Administration 193959, AGPS Press, Canberra, 1990, p. 89. id., Australian Mandarins: Perceptions of the Role of Departmental Secretaries, AGPS Press, Canberra, 1993, p. 45.

In the above example, 'id.' indicates that the work in the second note is by the same author as the work in the first note.
1 2 3

Elizabeth Gaskell, North and South, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1970, p. 228. Norman Lindsay, Redheap, Ure Smith, Sydney, 1966, p. 7. Gaskell, op. cit., p. 245.

In the above example, 'op. cit.' refers the reader back to Elizabeth Gaskell's work, but to a different page.
1 2 3

Elizabeth Gaskell, North and South, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1970, p. 228. Norman Lindsay, Redheap, Ure Smith, Sydney, 1966, p. 7. Gaskell, loc. cit.

In the above example, 'loc. cit.' refers the reader back to page 228 of Elizabeth Gaskell's work as cited in the first note. Identifying and cataloguing publications 9.192 There are international standards for identifying and cataloguing publications. Those widely used in Australia are described below.
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BOOK AND SERIAL NUMBERS

9.193 The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) and the International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) are unique numbers given to monographs and serials, respectively. The ISBN system was introduced in 1967 and the ISSN system followed in 1972. These numbers enable any title, in any language, to be identified anywhere in the world. They provide an efficient and economical means of communication between publishers and booksellers, and simplify library cataloguing and lending systems. 9.194 ISSNs consist of eight digits, always in the configuration 00000000. ISBNs consist of ten digits in four groups (identifying country, publisher, book and a check digit) but the configuration varies. Information about the construction and use of ISBNs and ISSNs is available from the National Library of Australia, Canberra ACT 2600. 9.195 ISBN and ISSN information usually appears with the copyright information on the imprint page. It is incorporated in the Cataloguing-in-Publication (CIP) entry if the publication has one. CIP data is provided on request by the National Library of Australia.
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLIOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTIONS

9.196 There are two international systems for standard bibliographical descriptionISBD(M) for monographs and ISBD(S) for serial publications. These systems provide a framework within which to present descriptive information in bibliographical records. They have three major features: records produced in one language can be readily understood by users of another language; records produced in different countries or languages can be integrated; and written or printed records can easily be converted into machine-readable form. 9.197 A set method of punctuation is used to separate and identify each element. The following extract from Australian National Bibliography (National Library of Australia 1993) shows how entries of various kinds appear in that publication and similar publications issued by publishers and libraries. The Classified Sequence entry follows ISBD(M). The style of entries for the other three sections is the style chosen for the Australian National Bibliography, with the exception of the Subject entries in the Subject Index that follow Library of Congress style.
Classified Sequence The Classified Sequence contains the full bibliographic entries for all items listed. The example shows the elements and style of an entry in the Classified Sequence:
664 FOOD TECHNOLOGY Dewey Decimal Classification 664.84 Banner heading

Author Title Place of publication Physical description of item

Notes

International Standard Book Number

Mollah, Mahabubur Rahman, 1957. Full drawing of an improved wetting machine and spray tank for trellis drying sultanas / M.R. Mollah & B. G. Morey. [East Melbourne]: Dept. of Food and Agriculture, [1992]. 32 p., [25] leaves of plates: ill., plans; 30 x 44 cm. (Technical report series / Department of Agriculture, 10381392; no. 207) Bibliography: p. 25. Available from Dept. of Food and Agriculture, PO Box 500, Melbourne Vic 3002. ISBN 0730615839: $12.00 (est.) 1. Grapes Drying. 2. Spray drying. 3. Viticulture Equipment and supplies. I. Morey, B. G. (Barry G.), 1956. II. Victoria. Dept. of Food and Agriculture. III. Title. (Series: Technical report series (Victoria. Dept. of Food and Agriculture); no. 207)

Publisher Date of publication Series entry

Price Tracing notes

Author, Title and Series Index

This index provides a means of finding information about a document if one significant feature such as author, editor, compiler, translator, title or series is known. The index entries for the above example are shown below. Title entry Full drawing of an improved wetting machine and spray tank for trellis drying sultanas. Full drawing of an improved wetting machine and spray tank for trellis drying sultanas. (Mollah, Mahabubur Rahman, 1957). [East Melbourne]: Dept. of Food and Agriculture, [1992]. 664.84 Mollah, Mahabubur Rahman, 1957. Full drawing of an improved wetting machine and spray tank for trellis drying sultanas. (Mollah, Mahabubur Rahman, 1957). [East Melbourne]: Dept. of Food and Agriculture, [1992] 664.84 Morey, B. G. (Barry G.), 1956. Full drawing of an improved wetting machine and spray tank for trellis drying sultanas. (Mollah, Mahabubur Rahman, 1957). [East Melbourne]: Dept. of Food and Agriculture, [1992]. 664.84 Victoria. Dept. of Food and Agriculture. Full drawing of an improved wetting machine and spray tank for trellis drying sultanas. (Mollah, Mahabubur Rahman, 1957). [East Melboure]: Dept. of Food and Agriculture, [1992]. 664.84 Technical report series (Victoria. Dept. of Food and Agriculture). Full drawing of an improved wetting machine and spray tank for trellis drying sultanas. (Mollah, Mahabubur Rahman, 1957). [East Melbourne]: Dept. of Food and Agriculture, [1992]. 664.84

Authors entries

Series entry

Periodicals List
The entries in this index are listed by main entry, which could be Author, Title or Uniform title. Technical report series (Victoria. Dept. of Food and Agriculture). Technical report series. 1992 . [Melbourne]: Dept. of Food and Agriculture, 1992 . 630.5

ISSN10381392

Subject Index
The entries in this index are arranged under the Library of Congress Subject headings assigned to describe the content of the items listed. Subject index entries for the above example are shown.

Subject entries

GrapesDrying Mollah, Mahabubur Rahman, 1957. Full drawing of an improved wetting machine and spray tank for trellis drying sultanas 664.84 Spray drying Mollah, Mahabubur Rahman, 1957. Full drawing of an improved wetting machine and spray tank for trellis drying sultanas 664.84 ViticultureEquipment and supplies Mollah, Mahabubur Rahman, 1957. Full drawing of an improved wetting machine and spray tank for trellis drying sultanas 664.84

Note: Apart from the subject headings list, which follows Library of Congress style, no set spelling conventions apply, as the entries conform to the style used in the item catalogued. 9.198 Further information about identifying and cataloguing publications is available from the National Library of Australia.

10 Numbers
10.1 Numbers can be expressed in figures or in words. Figures are preferred in works of a mathematical, scientific, technical or statistical nature where figuresymbol expressions occur with reasonable regularity, or in other works where figures can provide information more quickly, clearly and emphatically than words. Words are preferred, on the other hand, in descriptive or narrative works, where figures would be unduly prominent and generally unsympathetic to the flow and appearance of the text. 10.2 However, there can be no set of absolute rules to cover every possible contingency. In the absence of specific instructions, the decision whether to use figures or words in particular instances must be made by the editorand naturally enough, different editors will make different decisions. The chief guide in this matter, as in most editorial matters, must always be context, common sense and consistency. Numbers expressed in figures 10.3 Figures should be used to express numbers when they accompany a symbol or a unit of measurement, and in tabulations. sums of money time $5.08 10.30 a.m. 10 o'clock 1800 EST 250 t 57 L an angle of 45 degrees or 45 4552'S 17030'E 23c 10.30 p.m. 0830 hours 1730 CST 120 kg 26 km 50 min 2359 hours 1600 WDT 50 g 16 mm

mass measures degrees of inclination latitude and longitude percentages ages

9 per cent or 9% not percent or p.c., but per centum may be used in legal work their average age was 16 years He claimed to be 18 when he enlisted in 1940.

10.4 When a related series of numbers occurs in descriptive or narrative text, figures should always be preferred (but see also paragraph 10.26):

The anthology, published about 1913, presented works by 87 Australasian poets. Twenty-two of these were women, of whom 14 were born in Australia, 4 in New Zealand, 3 in England and 1 in Austria.
PUNCTUATION AND SETTING STYLES

Commas and spaces in numbers 10.5 The general rule given in the first and second editions of this manual was to place a comma before each group of three figures in numbers greater than 999. The use of spaces instead of commas to separate groups of digits was promoted in the third edition following a recommendation by the Metric Conversion Board in 1974. The purpose was to avoid confusion with the European practice of using the comma as a decimal marker in the expression of metric quantities. The recommendation was accepted as the general standard for use in Commonwealth government publications. The use of spaces instead of commas is endorsed by the Standards Association of Australia (see AS10001979). 10.6 In this system a space instead of a comma is inserted between each group of three digits:
5 000 0.005 50 000 0.000 5 500 000 0.000 05 5 000 000 0.000 005

10.7 Four-figure numbers may be set without space markersespecially in tabulation, where the alignment of vertical digits is important for the purpose of comparison or computation:
A total of 1258 were sold during the day. 114 1021 530

However, in tabulations where four-figure numbers must align with numbers of five or more digits, the space marker must be used:
14 832 10 211 11 499 2.010 523 10.785 117 9.100 650 4 318.4 10 100.5 3 826.8

10.8 The system applies equally to the expression of sums of money unless there is a possibility of additions to or falsification of a number expressing a sum of money, in which case all figures are set without space. Alternatively, the comma may be retained (but only to avoid the possibility of falsification). For example:
$10 250.75 or $10250.75 or $10,250.75

10.9 A uniform space, equivalent to a thin space (i.e. the space occupied by a comma), should be used in the typeset expression of numbers with spaces as markers. In less sophisticated systems, a normal one-unit hard (fixed) space should be used.

Decimal point 10.10 In preparing copy for publication, the full stopnot a raised (or true decimal) point should be used to represent the decimal point. When decimal numbers are less than unity, a zero should be placed before the decimal point. For example:
0.25 not .25

10.11 The comma is used extensively overseas as a decimal marker (particularly in Europe) but is not favoured in English-speaking countries. Spans of figures 10.12 An en rule, not a hyphen, should be used to link spans of figures (see paragraphs 6.1017). References to spans should use as few figures as possible:
pp. 4025, 41016, 42139, 440553

An exception is made for numbers between 10 and 19 in each hundred:

1011 1314 11516 not not not 101 134 1156

The use of as few figures as possible applies to references to pages, plates, appendixes and so on, but not to spans of years (see paragraph 10.54) or certain spans of dates (see paragraph 10.55), where the smaller number of figures could be misleading. 10.13 For street numbers in addresses, the figures should be shown in full. For example:
135139 George Street

The aim should always be to avoid ambiguity. Linking figures 10.14 An en rule should also be used to link figures, except where from or between precedes the first figure:
available in sizes 610 or available in sizes from 6 to 10 not available in sizes from 610 open 68 p.m. or open between 6 p.m. and 8 p.m. not open between 68 p.m.

Spacing in figure symbol expressions 10.15 No space is needed between the figure and the symbol (or letter), or between the symbol and the letter, in expressions such as:
9% 15C $10m 5c 2nd

10.16 However, a space should follow the figure in expressions such as:
10.30 a.m. 550 tonnes 0935 WST 9 per cent 10 L 8 mm 12 ha 100 km

Roman numerals 10.17 Roman numerals and their arabic equivalents are as follows:
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X i ii iii iv v vi vii viii ix x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 XI XII XIX XX XL XLIV XLIX L LX LXIV xi xii xix xx xl xliv xlix l lx lxiv 11 12 19 20 40 44 49 50 60 64 XCIX C CXCII CD D DC M MCML MCMXC MM xcix c cxcii cd d dc m mcml mcmxc mm 99 100 192 400 500 600 1000 1950 1990 2000

Roman numerals in columns should always be aligned on the right-hand side. 10.18 The use of roman numerals is increasingly avoided, for they are cumbersome and difficult to read after twenty (XX). They can confuse readers who are learning to cope with metric measurements and international units (where 1000 is k, not M, and M is also the symbol for 'mega'a million). Also, errors occur when keyboard operators mistake roman numerals in handwritten copy for arabic figures and use the figure '1' or lower-case 'l' (ell): thus II (two), for example, becomes 11 (eleven). 10.19 Lower-case roman numerals are used for numbering preliminary pages of books (see paragraph 14.46) and subordinate classifications and subparagraphs, while upper-case roman numerals are often used for numbering parts in a book. Capital roman numerals are also used in the titles of monarchs and popes. Under no circumstances should th, st, nd or rd be added to roman numerals:
George V not George Vth Appendix IV not IVth appendix

10.20 Capital roman numerals should accompany display lines set in capitals or in capitals and small capitals. In lines set in even small capitals, the roman numerals should also be set in small capitals. 10.21 The en rule, not the hyphen, is used in spans of roman numerals. No numerals are omitted in the second part of the span:
xxiiixxix not xxiiiix

This contrasts with the treatment of arabic figures (see paragraph 10.12). Numbers expressed in words 10.22 Numbers under 100 are generally expressed in words in descriptive or narrative texts (see paragraph 10.1):
This was one party she would prefer to forget. He used the same phrase at least twenty times in his speech. We met just after half past ten.

There were forty-four people at the ceremony, which began at 10.30 a.m. and dragged on for three hours. She felt all her eighty years.

10.23 When considered appropriate, numbers over nine may be shown in figures rather than words. It has long been common practice to treat single-digit numbers as words (in cases where paragraph 10.3 does not apply), as they are more readable in this form. 10.24 Numbers over ninety-nine may be shown in words when the numerical expressions are used to convey an approximation, or are used in a casual or conversational way:
A few hundred men, ten million sheep and a thousand dogs. I don't know how manyperhaps two hundred or more.

10.25 In no case should a hyphenated number be combined with other hyphenated words:
She had a 95-year-old dining suite of which she was very proud. not ninety-five-year-old

10.26 Numbers that open a sentence should be expressed in words. This applies even when other numbers in the same passage are expressed in figures:
Five hundred people were assembled in the park. Twenty-three cars and 192 bikes were supposed to have taken part in the rally.

10.27 If a number opening a sentence is accompanied by a symbol (for example, a dollar sign) and therefore cannot be expressed in words, the sentence should be recast:
$12 684 was collected in one suburb alone

could be rewritten as:

In one suburb alone, $12 684 A total of $12 684

10.28 If large amounts must be expressed in words, commas should be placed where spaces would occur in the figure. For example:
one million, three hundred and three thousand, four hundred and seventy-two

10.29 Numbers that close a sentence should generally be expressed in words. Figures may be used, however, if other related numbers in the sentence are in figures:
The number of sheep in the colony increased to seventy-six. The number of sheep in the colony increased from 24 to 76.

10.30 When two series of numbers are given in a passage, one series should be expressed in words and the other in figures for the sake of clarity:
Of the mothers of 31 sets of triplets and 2 sets of quadruplets registered during the year, 8 had no previous children, 8 had one child, 7 had two, 5 had three, 1 had four, and 4 had five previous children.

10.31 When two sets of figures follow each other in text matter, they should be separated by a comma and a space:
In 1979, 987 more men will be needed.

It would be preferable, however, to recast the sentence. Fractions 10.32 Hyphens are used when fractions are expressed in words:
one-third two-fifths one and three-quarters

10.33 In expressing fractions in figures, care must be taken to set them out clearly. If this cannot be done in typescript, the figures should be written by hand. Ordinals 10.34 Words should be used in the text for ordinal numbers up to and including ninety-nine, and figures thereafter. Words are preferred for round numbers, and figures in lists and abbreviated matter. Examples are:
the twenty-fifth student to enrol the 210th race the 573rd immigrant to arrive in that week REFERENCES, NOTES AND LISTS

10.35 In references, notes and lists, where space is a consideration, figures should be used:
5th edn 6th and 7th edns MILITARY FORCES an 8th century BC vase a sword from the 3rd century AD

10.36 Military formations are customarily described in the following way:

the First Australian Destroyer Squadron the 2nd Armoured Regiment the XI Corps the Eighth Army No. 77 Squadron the 35th Fighter Wing

Where units take abbreviated ordinal numbers, corps are always designated with roman numerals and armies with ordinal numbers written in full. It may be necessary in some cases to specify nationality. The names of enemy formations should be italicised. The terms 'billion', 'trillion' and 'quadrillion' 10.37 The following table is taken from Australian Standard 10001979 (The International System of Units (SI) and Its Application):
Term Significance Corresponding decimal factor

million billion trillion quadrillion

thousand thousand million million million billion million trillion

106 1012 1018 1024

10.38 However, the United States and French conventions of using.

'billion' to signify a thousand times a million (109) 'trillion' to signify a million times a million (1012) 'quadrillion' to signify a million times a US billion (1015)

are becoming increasingly common throughout the world, especially in the media and in the fields of economics and demography. Because these conventions ignore the fundamental meanings of the prefixes 'bi', 'tri' and 'quad', confusion and misinterpretation can often arise unless one knows the origin of the document or the policy of the publisher. 10.39 Many sciences avoid this confusion by using the prefix 'mega' (megawatt, megajoule) to indicate a million, and 'giga' (gigawatt, gigajoule) to indicate a thousand million. These prefixes are also used in the computer sciences but are applied to base 2, not 10; thus a megabyte is 230 or 1 048 576 bytes. 10.40 The other words for a 'thousand million'gillion and milliardare not widely known, and the adoption of either might only cause further confusion. 10.41 It is best to avoid the words billion, trillion and quadrillion where the expression of such amounts is critical. Either use the relevant power (109, 1012, 1015, 1018 or 1024) or write the amount in full (see paragraph 10.42). Alternatively, their intended meaning should be clearly definedin a footnote to the first mention in the text, in the introduction or in a list of technical words.
LARGE NUMBERS

10.42 The use of figures for large numbers is acceptable, but it may be cumbersome or could result in errors. In some circumstances words can be used, or a combination of words and figures can be adopted:
one thousand million 1000 million two million million 2 000 000 million

An alternative (although of only limited application) is to use decimal factors:

4 000 000 = 4 x 106 2 000 000 000 = 2 x 109

Dates 10.43 When a date is given in full, the following form should be used:
10 September 1987

This form is completely unambiguous, requires no punctuation and is logical (proceeding from day to month to year). It is typographically superior to such forms as September 10, 1987 and

10th September 1987 because it avoids the confusion of adjacent numbers (as in the first example) and requires fewer keystrokes. 10.44 When the name of the day is followed by the date, the two elements should be separated by a comma:
The appointment was for Thursday, 21 June.

10.45 The recommended form can also be used for dates that are incomplete:
The memorandum of 15 December was answered immediately. A report of June 1932 is very revealing.

But words are preferred where figures might otherwise start a sentence:
The first of January 2001 will be the first day of the new century.

10.46 When a sentence ends with the day of the month, the day may be spelt out or used in the th form:
Students were told that tutorials would be held on 2, 9 and 16 June, that lectures were on 4, 11 and 18, and that an exam would be held on the thirtieth [or on the 30th]. DATES IN FIGURES

10.47 The recommended form for dates expressed entirely in figures is:
28.10.1987 or 28.10.87

Note that a full stop between each group of figures is preferred to a solidus (28/10/87) for the sake of clarity. 10.48 A variant form with a lower-case roman numeral to indicate the month sometimes occurs in personal correspondence, but seldom elsewhere:
10.ii.87

10.49 In publications circulated overseas, dates set entirely in figures may be ambiguous. For instance, we understand 10.8.1987 to mean 10 August 1987, but to North Americans it means 8 October 1987. 10.50 To facilitate international communication, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) prepared a standard for the writing of calendar dates in all-numeric form (ISO 20141976). The standard, also set out in Australian Standard 11201978, specifies a descending order of year (four digits), month and day. For example:
19870810

A hyphen or space may be used between year and month, and between month and day:
1987-08-10 1987 08 10

DATES IN DATA SYSTEMS

Ordinal dates 10.51 The system of representing ordinal datesdescribed belowis used to facilitate the interchange of data among data systems. 10.52 The year is given as either four or two digits, the two-digit form being allowed in situations where the century is implied and only the years need be identified. The day of the year is identified by a three-digit number, from 001 (for 1 January) to 365 (for 31 December)or 366 in leap years. The year and day of year may be used together or independently. If used together in electronic data transfer, numbers are not separated:
1987337 (1987 December 3) or 87337 (in the two-digit form)

10.53 If numbers are used in situations where this information has to be read, a hyphen or space may be inserted between the year and day elements:
1987-337 (87-337 or 1987 337 87 337 in the two-digit form)

This system is described in ISO 2711 and in AS 22971979.

PERIODS OF TIME

10.54 Years and spans of years should be expressed in the following forms:
50 BC but AD 1978 the 1960s (not the 'sixties or the 1960's or the '60s or the nineteen-sixties) the eighteenth century or the 18th century (not the XVIII century, the XVIIIth century, 18C or C18) 5655 BC (not 565 BC, which means 56 BC to 5 BC) 184546 or 18451846 (not 18456 or 1845 / 6 or 1845 / 46 or 1845 / 1846) 18981902 (not 1898902 or 1898 / 902 or 1898 / 1902) 190002 or 19001902 (not 19002 or 1900902 or 1900 / 02 or 1900 / 1902) Unfinished span: 1930 (1930)

For the use of the en rule to link spans of figures, see paragraph 10.12. 10.55 The spaced en rule (see paragraphs 6.1078) is used for spans of dates when one or both parts of the expression contain one ormorewords,suchas:
12 June 1988 9 April 1989 11 October 1 November [but note 2226 October not 226 October]

10.56 The words 'biweekly' and 'bimonthly' each have two meanings. For that reason, it is better to use as appropriate:
twice weekly two-monthly or or fortnightly twice monthly

10.57 'Biannual' and 'biennial', on the other hand, each have only one meaning. However, since they are frequently confused, they should be used with care or replaced as appropriate by:
twice yearly or two-yearly

Time of day 10.58 Two systems of expressing time are in common usethe 12-hour system and the 24hour system.
TWELVE-HOUR SYSTEM

10.59 The abbreviations a.m. (ante meridiem, before noon) and p.m. (post meridiem, after noon) are generally written with full stops and are always in lower case (except in a line of capitals or small capitals). For example:
9.15 a.m. 4.35 p.m. but [REF. AA:A

746, 21.6.1960 9.22. A.M.]

10.60 Figures are always used with these abbreviations, and a full stop is used to separate the hours from the minutes. (A colon instead of a full stop is sometimes used, but this style is not recommended.) Two zeros are used to indicate even hours9.00 a.m. to 5.00 p.m.
TWENTY-FOUR-HOUR SYSTEM

10.61 In the 24-hour system, the hours are numbered consecutively from 1 to 24, beginning at midnight (0000). Four digits are always usedthe first two indicating the hours and the last two, the minutes. Zeros are used to indicate no hours as well as even or half hours (0050, 1200, 1830). Neither punctuation nor space is used between the hours and the minutes:
0045 (= 0.45 a.m.) 0715 (= 7.15 a.m.) 1130 (= 11.30 a.m.) 1245 (= 12.45 p.m.) 1915 (= 7.15 p.m.) 2330 (= 11.30 p.m.)

10.62 This system is preferred for scientific texts, as it is more precise. The notations are always expressed in figures.
WORDS OR FIGURES

10.63 Times may be spelt out in narrative and descriptive work if this suits the context. Quarter, half and even hours in particular may be treated in this way:
They arranged to meet at quarter to eleven. They catch the eight-thirty bus to work each morning, and return by the five-forty. She had to leave at ten o'clock. His train was due to leave at ten to six.

10.64 Time expressed in words, however, is often imprecise. When the exact time is required, it is better to use figures:
The bus leaves the city terminal at 8.22 a.m. and arrives here at 2.08 p.m. The witness said that she left the house at 9.30 a.m. and did not get back until 11.10 a.m. Army exercises were scheduled for 0800 hours.

Temperature
IN NARRATIVE OR DESCRIPTIVE WORK

10.65 Temperatures are usually expressed in words according to the general rules governing spelt-out numbers:
Late in the evening the temperature dropped another eight degrees. He didn't even know that the freezing point of water was zero degrees Celsius. IN SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND STATISTICAL WORK

10.66 In scientific, technical and statistical writing, as well as in tables and lists, temperature readings in Celsius and Fahrenheit scalesprecise or approximateare always expressed in figures with the degree symbol ().The name of the system or scale is also abbreviated. Note that for Celsius and Fahrenheit readings no stop is used after the C or F, and no space is left between the figure, the symbol and the letter. Kelvin is treated as other SI units and takes a space between the figure and the letter.
65C 110F 15.6C 86.4F 6C 10F 5200 K 273.15 K

10.67 For temperatures of less than one degree a zero should always be used before the decimal point:
0.0099C 0.05C

10.68 When the words from and between are used, or when the abbreviated form is used, ranges of temperature are expressed as follows:
from 0.4 to 50C or between 32 and 212F 0.450C or 32212F

Australian currency
SYMBOLS

10.69 The following symbols are used for Australian decimal currency: The dollar. The half-stroke, single-stroke and double-stroke signs are all acceptable. Most type fonts have the half-stroke or the single-stroke designs, as these obviate some of the reproduction problems caused by the double stroke, such as filling in between the strokes. Very

seldom is there any choice of character within any one particular font. The designer must be told when there is a special requirement for a particular form so that the relevant typefaceor character mixcan be specified. The cent. The lower-case 'c' should be set close up to the figure. It should not have a stroke through it or, unless it comes at the end of a sentence, a full stop after it.
DECIMAL POINT

10.70 The decimal point in amounts of currency is normally the full stop. The decimal point must be preceded by the $ symbol and a figure (if the amount is less than one dollar, the figure will be 0). For example:
$2.25 $0.04 not $.04 $0.26 not $.26

It must be followed by at least two figures:

$0.08 (8 cents) $0.80 (80 cents) not $0.8 (which could be mistaken for 8 cents)

10.71 Sometimes cents may be expressed as decimals of a dollar, for instance in statistical or other special works such as tariff proposals. In these cases, there may be more than two figures after the decimal point:
$0.01 $0.432 $0.5786 $5.009 $5.525

EXPRESSION OF AMOUNTS IN FIGURES

10.72 The following forms should be used:

Amounts in exact dollars $1 or $1.00 $10 $1000 or $1000.00 Amounts in cents only 1c 5c 10c 99c Amounts in dollars and cents $1.01 $1.10 $10 234.09 EXPRESSION OF AMOUNTS IN WORDS or $10.00

10.73 When words rather than symbols are considered to be appropriate, the following forms should be used:
10 cents or ten cents 99 dollars or ninety-nine dollars 99 dollars and 10 cents or ninety-nine dollars and ten cents 1000 dollars or one thousand dollars MILLIONS OF DOLLARS

10.74 Millions may be expressed in three ways.

(a) They may be expressed in full:

$1 000 000 $2 750 000 $303 000 000 $2 345 000 $2 000 000 000

(b) They may be expressed by means of the symbol 'm' (without a full stop) set close up to the figure:
$1m $303m $2000m $2.75m $2.345m

(c) They may be expressed by the use of the word 'million':

$1 million $2.75 million $303 million $2.345 million $2000 million

10.75 If more than three figures follow the decimal point, the amount should be expressed in full, as this is easier to read:
$2 345 600 not $2 3456m or $2.3456 million

10.76 See also paragraphs 10.3742 for discussion of the words billion, trillion and quadrillion.
TABLES

10.77 As a general rule, styles that separate the dollars from the cents, either by a space or by a vertical column rule, should be avoided. However, separate columns may be used for account books, receipt pads and the like where the entries are normally handwritten. 10.78 The normal style for setting decimal currency in tables is:
Amounts in dollars and cents $ 20.05 123.45 2 305.10 1 000.00 Amounts in exact dollars $ 5 000 39 12 345 6

Columns are headed $, not $.c or $ c. In tables containing both dollars and cents, all amounts should be expressed in decimal form, as in the left-hand column above.
FORMER AUSTRALIAN CURRENCY

10.79 Before 14 February 1966, Australian currency was expressed in pounds, shillings and pence ( s d). The examples given below illustrate the style to be used for this currency:
9 8s 7d (no full stops) 345 11s 3d 5s 6d not 5/6 or 0 5s 6d

10.80 To avoid confusion with the pound used as a monetary unit in other countries, the Australian pound can be distinguished by using the symbol A.

OTHER CURRENCIES

10.81 When a text contains, for example, sums of money expressed in Australian and other dollars, each currency should be differentiated by placing the appropriate letter or letters before the dollar sign in the following manner:
A$10 000 NZ$5000 US$25.90

For non-dollar currencies, place the appropriate abbreviation before the sum of money in the following manner:
DM 20 000 15 000

11 Measurement
SI units 11.1 In accordance with the Weights and Measures (National Standards) Amendment Act 1984 (No. 77), most units of measurement used in Australia are those of the International System of Units (Systme international d'units, abbreviated 'SI').
BASE AND SUPPLEMENTARY UNITS

11.2 The seven base and two supplementary units upon which the system is founded are listed in table 11.1.
DERIVED UNITS

11.3 All the other necessary units can be derived from the base units. Tables 11.2 and 11.3 list some of these derived units. Decimal multiples and submultiples of SI units 11.4 Units of measurement of larger and smaller magnitude than the SI units listed in tables 11.1, 11.2 and 11.3 are frequently needed. The SI makes provision for such units in an orderly manner by means of a consistent arrangement of multiples and submultiples. 11.5 Multiples and submultiples are decimally related to the parent unit; decimal relationships are indicated by the attachment of prefixes to the parent unit; and each prefix has a standard value regardless of the unit to which it is attached. In general, prefixes for multiples and submultiples involving powers of 1000 (103) are preferred. This means that 'hecto', 'deka', 'deci' and 'centi' have only limited applications. 11.6 The final vowel of a prefix ending in 'a' or 'o' is dropped when added to 'ohm'for example, megohm not megaohm.
Table 11.1 Base and supplementary SI units Quantity SI base units length mass time electric current thermodynamic temperature luminous intensity amount of substance SI supplementary units metre kilogram second ampere kelvin candela mole m kg s A K cd mol Name of unit Symbol

plane angle solid angle

radian steradian

rad sr

Definitions of these units can be found in Australian Standard 10001979 (The International System of Units (SI) and Its Application)

Table 11.2 Derived SI units with special names Physical quantity energy force pressure power electric charge electric potential electric resistance electric conductance electric capacitance magnetic flux inductance magnetic flux density luminous flux illuminance frequency activity (radioactive) absorbed dose (radiation) Name of unit joule newton pascal watt coulomb volt ohm siemens farad weber henry tesla lumen lux hertz becquerel gray Symbol J N Pa W C V S F Wb H T lm lx Hz Bq Gy Derivation 1 kg.m2 / s 2 1 kg.m / s 2 1 kg / m.s 2 1 kg.m2 / s 3 1 kg.m2 / A.s 3 1 kg.m2 / A 2.s 3 1 A 2.s 3 / kg.m2 1 A 2.s 4 / kg.m2 1 kg.m2 / A.s 2 1 kg.m2 / A 2.s 2 1 kg / A.s 2 1 cd.sr / m2 1 s -1

Table 11.3 Other derived SI units Physical quantity area volume density velocity angular velocity acceleration kinematic viscosity dynamic viscosity electric field strength magnetic field strength luminance heat capacity thermal conductivity surface tension Name of unit square metre cubic metre kilogram per cubic metre metre per second radian per second metre per second squared square metre per second pascal second volt per metre ampere per metre candela per square metre joule per kelvin watt per metre kelvin newton per metre Symbol m2 m3 kg / m3 m/s rad / s m / s2 m2 / s Pa.s V/m A/m cd / m2 J/K W / m.K N/m

11.7 SI prefixes are given in table 11.4 together with the symbols for use with parent unit symbols.

11.8 There are also a number of familiar units that differ from the corresponding SI units only by powers of ten. They are not part of the SI but will probably continue to be used for some time. Some of these units are listed in table 11.5.
Table 11.4 Prefixes for SI units Prefix exa peta tera giga mega kilo hecto deka (a) deci centi milli micro nano pico femto atto Symbol E P T G M k h da d c m m n p f a Value 1018 1015 1012 109 106 103 102 101 101 102 103 106 109 1012 1015 1018 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 1 000 000 000 000 000 1 000 000 000 000 1 000 000 000 1 000 000 1 000 100 10 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.000 001 0.000 000 001 0.000 000 000 001 0.000 000 000 000 001 0.000 000 000 000 000 001

(a) Sometimes spelt 'deca'. This prefix is rarely used.

Other units (non-SI) within Australia's metric system 11.9 Some units outside the SI have been authorised for use within Australia's metric system. There are units that may be used only for specified purposes (table 11.6) and units that may be used without restriction for the measurement of a particular physical quantity (table 11.7).
Table 11.5 Non-SI units that are decimal fractions or multiples of SI units Definition in terms of other metric units 1010 m 104 m2 103 m3 103 kg 105 N 105 Pa 107 J 104 m2 / s 104 Pa.s 108 Wb 104 T 102 Gy

Physical quantity length area volume mass force pressure energy kinematic viscosity dynamic viscosity magnetic flux magnetic flux density (magnetic induction) absorbed dose (radiation)

Name of unit angstrom hectare litre tonne dyne bar erg stokes poise maxwell gauss rad

Symbol A or ha L t dyn bar, b erg St P Mx G, Gs rad, rd

Table 11.6 Declared units having restricted application Definition in terms of other metric units

Name of unit international nautical mile

Symbol

Physical quantity

Purpose or purposes

n mile

1852 m

length

knot

kn

(1852 / 3600) m / s

speed

kilotex tex decitex kilogram per hectolitre millibar kilowatt hour

ktex tex dtex

103 kg / m 106 kg / m 0.1 106 kg / m

mass per unit length (linear density) density pressure energy

marine navigation aerial navigation meteorology marine navigation aerial navigation meteorology measurement of filaments, fibres, yarns, cords and cordages measurement of grains and seeds meteorology measurement of electric energy

kg/hL mb kW.h

10 kg / m3 100 Pa 3.6 106 J

Table 11.7 Declared units having general application Definition in terms of other metric units (/ 180) rad (/ 10.8) 103 rad (/ 648) 103 rad 104 m2 106 m3 103 m3 1 m3 103 m3 106 m3 109 m3 86.4 103 s 3.6 103 s 60 s (1 / 3.6) m / s 109 kg 106 kg 103 kg 103 kg / m3 103 kg / m3 The Celsius temperature, C, is given by the relationship t C = t K 273.15 where tK is the thermodynamic temperature expressed in kelvins. plane angle plane angle plane angle area volume volume volume volume volume volume time interval time interval time interval velocity, speed mass mass mass density density temperature

Name of unit degree minute second hectare gigalitre megalitre kilolitre litre millilitre microlitre day hour minute kilometre per hour megatonne kilotonne tonne tonne per cubic metre kilogram per litre degree Celsius

Symbol ' " ha GL ML kL L mL L d h min km / h Mt kt t t / m3 kg / L C

degree Celsius

1K

temperature interval

11.10 Some multiples and submultiples of non-SI units are also included in these tables. They have been formed in the standard manner using SI prefixes, but only those that have been authorised should be used. Expression of metric units
LOWER CASE

11.11 Names of units and prefixes, when spelt out in full, are expressed in lower-case letters (except at the beginning of a sentence). The only exception is the capital 'C' in degree Celsius (C). 11.12 Unit symbols are expressed in lower-case letters except the symbol for 'litre', the symbols for units named after people and the symbols for units containing one of the first five prefixes in table 11.4 (exa, peta, tera, giga and mega). Thus:
litre L hertz Hz millilitre mL megajoule MJ pascal Pa gigawatt GW newton N ampere A

11.13 The use of the capital 'L' as the symbol for 'litre' is a change from earlier practice, which was to use the lower-case 'l' or script ' '.
PLURALS

11.14 Unit names take a plural 's' only when associated with numbers greater than unity. For example:
0.5 metre 1.5 metres 1 kilogram 25 kilograms

11.15 The hertz, the lux and the siemens, however, are not changed in the plural:
10 kilohertz 3 lux 1.5 siemens

11.16 When a measurement is used in an adjectival sense, unit names remain in the singular:
a 50-hectare block of land a 2-tonne truck CONSISTENCY

11.17 Unit names and symbols should not be mixed in the same context. If a symbol is used for one unit, symbols should be used for all units. For example:
km / h not km / hour

PER

11.18 The term 'per' should be used only with words, whereas the solidus denoting 'per' should be used only with symbols:
kilometres per hour or km / h not kilometres per h or km / hour SYMBOLS

11.19 Since symbols are internationally recognised representations of unitsnot abbreviations of the unit namesthey do not take full stops nor do they change when associated with numbers greater than unity. For example:
km not km. 2 kg not 2 kgs

11.20 Symbols of units should be set in roman type (that is, upright type as distinct from italic) irrespective of the type used in the rest of the text. The only exceptions are the symbol for 'ohm', represented by the upper-case Greek letter omega (), and the prefix 'micro', represented by the lower-case Greek letter mu ().
Is measured 2.8 m overall

But note that symbols of quantities are printed in italics:

In this case, the value of H would be 0.56 m So due to the velocity of 0.5c, the mass m of the object will increase by 15 per cent. PREFIXES

11.21 All prefixes except those representing a million or morethat is, exa (E), peta (P), tera (T), giga (G) and mega (M)have lower-case symbols.
LESS THAN UNITY

11.22 In the case of measurements less than unity, a nought is placed before the decimal point. For example:
0.25 metre USE OF SPACE or 0.25 m not 25 metre or .25 m

11.23 Unit names and symbols should be separated from any associated numerical value by a thin space:
27 m not 27m 27 metres not 27metres

11.24 Exceptions to this rule are the symbols for degree (), minute ('), second (") and degree Celsius (C). For example:

180

125'

15"

27C

CHOICE OF UNITS

11.25 Only one unit name (or symbol) should be included in a statement of measurement:
1.234 m or 1234 mm not 1 m 234 mm or 1 m 2 dm 3 cm 4 mm

11.26 The unit should be so chosen that the numerical value of the statement of measurement lies between 0.1 and 1000. For example:
47.32 m 500 kPa COMPARISONS not or 0.047 32 km 0.5 Mpa not 500 000 Pa

11.27 When comparisons of measurements are made or measurements are tabulated or included in a drawing, only one unit for any physical quantity should normally be used; the most appropriate should be selected. Imperial and other non-metric units 11.28 All references to physical quantities and measurements in Commonwealth government publications should be in terms of the metric system as defined above. Only in special circumstances (for example, quotations from historical documents) should other units be used, with or without their metric equivalents printed alongside in square brackets. For conversions from imperial to metric units, see appendix IV.

12 The law relating to publication

12.1 This chapter provides a brief outline of the law relating to publication. It deals mainly with the law of copyright, since this is the most important legislation for those concerned with Commonwealth government publications. It also touches on defamation, contempt, and obscenity and indecency. When specific legal problems arise, it is essential that authors, editors and printers of government publications seek advice from the Attorney-General's Department. Copyright 12.2 The law of copyright in Australia is set out in the Copyright Act 1968 (as amended), which operates throughout the Commonwealth to the exclusion of all State legislation. 12.3 Copyright confers a number of exclusive rights on authors of original material. The Copyright Act divides material into two categories'works' (literary, dramatic, musical and artistic) and 'other subject matter' (films, records, television and sound broadcasts and published editions). 12.4 A 1984 amendment to the Copyright Act included in the definition of the term 'literary work' a table, or compilation, expressed in words, figures or symbols (whether or not in a visible form), and a computer program or compilation of computer programs. This amendment thus ensures that data stored in a computer as well as programs and compilations of programs are literary works, although they may not be visible, and enjoy the same level and type of protection as literary works in general. 12.5 Only 'works' will be dealt with here.

12.6 Under rights conferred by the Copyright Act, copyright owners can prevent unauthorised use of their works, principally copying. A work is protected if it is first published in Australia or in a country that is a member of one or both of the international copyright conventions (see paragraphs 12.223), or if the author is a citizen of Australia or of one of the 'convention' countries. The term 'author' is used in the Act to describe any creator of a work. 12.7 The Copyright Act also requires that the work be original. If it is the result of the author's skill and labour, it will be considered original; the question of merit or quality does not arise. The author of a table of figures, for example, can be protected by copyright. A compilation of non-original material may qualify for protection if the compilation is sufficiently distinctive. It is the compilation that attracts the copyright. 12.8 Copyright protects the work of an author, not the author's information or ideas.

EXCLUSIVE RIGHTS

12.9 The owners of copyright have certain exclusive rights. These include the right to reproduce the work in a material form, to publish it, to adapt it (this includes the right to translate) and to broadcast it.

12.10 The rights of copyright owners arise as soon as the work is created. There is no registration of copyright material. 12.11 'Material form' is defined in the 1984 amendment to include any form (whether visible or not) of storage from which the work can be reproduced. This means that storage of a work in a computer database will infringe copyright unless done with the author's licence.
OWNERSHIP

12.12 The main problem facing publishers is to ascertain the owner of the copyright in a work. The first owner is usually the author. However, the Copyright Act provides that where a work is created by an employee under the terms of a contract of service or apprenticeship, the copyright is owned by the employer unless there is an agreement to the contrary. An independent contractor is not regarded as being under a contract of service. The Copyright Act also sets out two other exceptions to the primary rule that the author is the owner: (a) A newspaper, magazine or similar periodical owns the copyright in works produced by its employees for publication in newspapers, magazines and similar periodicals, but not for other purposes. Thus a journalist who writes an article under a contract of service with a newspaper has the right to republish that article in a book. (b) A person who makes an agreement with a photographer for the taking of a photograph, or with an artist or an engraver for a similar purpose, will own the copyright in the resulting work. 12.13 The owner of the copyright in a work may not be the owner of the material in which the work is embodied. For example, an artist retains the copyright in a portrait after it has been sold unless there is an agreement to the contrary. The owner of the portrait will not be entitled to copy it unless he or she also owns the copyright by agreement. 12.14 A copyright owner can assign the whole of the copyright to another person or can divide it up. The owner can, for instance, assign the right to adapt or translate the work to one person and the right to dramatise it to another. She or he can license a publisher to publish the work once, retaining the remaining copyright. A licence may be exclusive, in which case it precludes other people from securing the right concurrently with the licensee, or it may be nonexclusive. Copyright is property that descends, on death, by will or intestacy.
DURATION

12.15 Copyright continues to exist in a published work (other than a photograph) for fifty years after the author's death, so long as publication took place before the author died. If first publication occurred after the author's death, copyright exists for fifty years after publication. Copyright in a photograph exists for fifty years after publication. Periods of time are calculated from the end of the calendar year in which the relevant event took place. 12.16 Publication of a work takes place when reproductions have been supplied to the public, whether by sale or otherwise, with the intention of meeting the reasonable requirements of the public.

INFRINGEMENT

12.17 Infringement of copyright occurs when a person does or authorises another person to do any of the acts that are included in the copyright, so long as the person does not own the copyright or have the authority of the copyright owner. Copying a work (or authorising somebody to copy it) constitutes the most common type of infringement. An institution or person may authorise an infringement by supplying a photocopying machine and knowingly allowing it to be used for copying copyright material. 12.18 Copyright is infringed when a 'substantial' part of the work is copied. What constitutes a 'substantial' part is difficult to determine, and will depend entirely on the circumstances. It is therefore prudent to avoid copying unless it is for research or study purposes, or for the reporting of news. Recent amendments to the Act lay down strict requirements relating to the copyright of works in educational institutions for the purpose of a course of education.
CROWN RIGHTS

12.19 The Copyright Act gives the Commonwealth Government and the State and the Territory Governments copyright in works made by or under the direction or control of the respective governments or which were first published by them. The Crown (which for the purposes of this chapter comprises the executive arm of the Commonwealth Government and of the State and the Territory Governments) has copyright in works, published or unpublished, written by its employees in the course of their employment. It can, however, enter into an agreement vesting copyright in the author. The copyright in an unpublished Crown work exists so long as the work remains unpublished; once published, it continues to subsist for a period of fifty years. 12.20 The Crown is entitled under the Copyright Act to use any copyright work without infringement so long as the work is used for the services of the Crown. The Crown does not have to obtain the consent of the copyright owner, but it is required to notify the owner of the use of the material and to pay compensation as agreed upon by the Crown and the owner, or as fixed by the Copyright Tribunal. The Commonwealth has recently reached agreement with Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) on rates of payment for the photocopying of newspapers, magazines, journals and books under this provision. 12.21 Inquiries concerning the administration of Crown copyright should be directed to the Australian Government Publishing Service. Matters requiring legal or policy advice should be directed to the Attorney-General's Department.
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS

12.22 Australia is a party to two international copyright conventionsthe Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works and the Universal Copyright Convention. Membership of those conventions provides reciprocal protection for the countries that belong to them (at present nearly one hundred countries are members). Thus overseas works are protected in Australia under Australian copyright laws and Australian works receive like

protection in overseas countries in accordance with their laws. The countries are set out in the Copyright (International Protection) Regulations. 12.23 To be assured of protection in all countries that are members of the Universal Copyright Convention, published works must display in a prominent position the symbol with the name of the copyright owner and the year of first publication. For example, for an individual owner the form ' John Smith 1993' may be used, and for Commonwealth government publications ' Commonwealth of Australia 1993'. The duration of copyright varies from country to country. Defamation 12.24 Defamation is regulated by State and Territory laws. These laws vary considerably. Despite numerous attempts, the State Attorneys-General have been unable to agree on uniform legislation. 12.25 Defamation can arise from both spoken matter (slander) and written matter (libel). However, in legal effect there is now little or no difference between the two. 12.26 Despite the differences between the State laws relating to defamation, certain basic principles are common to all jurisdictions. 12.27 Any statement that tends to lower a person or corporation in the estimation of ordinary reasonable people is defamatory of that person or corporation. The statement must be published to a third person, and liability for the defamation falls on the author, the publisher and the printer. 12.28 It is no defence to claim that there was no intent to defame or that a reasonable mistake was made. A person need not be identified by name in the material published; it is sufficient that a reader read the material as referring to the person. A class of people cannot be defamed; however, if the class is small enough and the material is held to refer to every member of that class, then each member has the right to sue. 12.29 There are four main defences that allow the publication of defamatory material. 12.30 Absolute privilege. Absolute privilege protects statements made in the course of parliamentary proceedings, statements made in judicial proceedings, and the printing and publication of papers under the authority of Parliament (for example, Hansard and reports tabled and ordered to be printed). These cannot be made the subject of legal action, irrespective of the truth or otherwise of the statements made or the motives of the people making them. 12.31 Qualified privilege. Qualified privilege allows the publication of information under certain circumstances, where publication is not made with any improper motive or in bad faith. Examples of qualified privilege include fair reports of parliamentary and judicial proceedings. In some States the proceedings protected are laid down by statute. Broadly speaking, if the material is published in furtherance of a legal, social or moral duty to a person who has a corresponding duty of interest to receive the information, it will be protected by qualified privilege.

12.32 Truth of the imputations held to arise from the published material. In certain States the imputations must also be published in the public interest or for the public benefit. 12.33 Comment on matters of public interest. The comment does not have to be reasonable. It can be vigorous or outlandish so long as it is honestly held and is based on facts that are true and are stated in the material containing the comment, or that are so well known as to be accepted by the general public. 12.34 The defences set out above vary in technical detail and in application from State to State, and should never be relied upon as the basis for publication of defamatory material without legal advice. Contempt of court 12.35 Contempt of court consists of two distinct elements. The first, which is now rarely applied, is the offence of 'scandalising'that is, intemperately or unreasonably criticising courts or judges. The second, and more important, is known as the 'sub judice' rule. This concerns the publication of words that are likely to interfere seriously with the administration of justice. It is commonly invoked by the State Attorneys-General or the Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions to punish the publishers of material that is likely to interfere with the fair trial of a person charged with a criminal offence. Contempt of Parliament 12.36 Contempts of Parliament are acts that tend to obstruct or interfere with the Houses of Parliament, their committees or members. Each House of the Federal Parliament and some State Houses have the power to judge and punish such acts. Contempts that may be constituted by publication include the following: (a) attempted improper influence of a member or a parliamentary witness; (b) unauthorised publication of evidence taken by a parliamentary committee in camera or of a confidential document of a committee; (c) wilful misrepresentation of the proceedings of a house or a committee. Obscenity and indecency 12.37 Publication of obscene or indecent material is dealt with by various State and Territory legislation. Under a cooperative scheme between the Commonwealth, States and Territories, publications may be classified as suitable for unrestricted release, restricted to people over eighteen years of age with appropriate conditions of sale or refused classification. Tasmania and Western Australia do not participate in the cooperative scheme but have similar State-based arrangements. State and Territory legislation provides for offences for distributing indecent or objectionable publications. In most jurisdictions classification and compliance with the prescribed conditions is a defence to those offences. 12.38 The classification legislation provides that material that is offensive to the reasonable adult person or is unsuitable for minors be restricted. Extreme material (child pornography and

sexual violence, for instance) is refused classification and cannot be sold or hired. It also cannot be imported.

13 Aspects of copy preparation

13.1 This chapter outlines some of the things that must be understood, or borne in mind, when one is preparing copy for publication. The design of publications should be left to those best qualified in that field. 13.2 The first stage in copy preparation is the keyboarding of the manuscript. Editing, design, typographical or image composition, and proof correction then follow, and the process ends when the pages are ready for imposition. As a result of developments in word processing and typesetting software (which make it possible to provide either formatted or unformatted copy from desktop computers), more of the responsibility for copy preparation now rests with the author, editor, designer and keyboard operator than with the printer. 13.3 With the advances in laser printers and the improvement in the range and quality of typefaces available, the differences in output quality between the larger and smaller systems used to produce typeset material are becoming less obvious. Many publications are printed direct from the printer output of desktop computers. 13.4 If properly prepared, electronically generated copy can obviate extra keyboarding time and reduce preparation costs; if badly prepared, however, it can wreck schedules and budgets. Preparation methods
COPY TO BE KEYBOARDED BY THE TYPESETTER

13.5 Original copy may be typewritten or produced on a word processor. Handwritten copy may be accepted by a typesetter, provided that the writing is clear and of reasonable size, but it will incur extra charges. If prepared on a manual or electric typewriter, manuscripts must be typed in 10 or 12 pitch to a line width of about 150 mm. This allows for easy calculation of the number of printed pages. Word processor output should be in equivalent sizes. Lines must be double-spaced (to allow room for editing and mark-up), on one side only of A4 paper. Pages should be numbered consecutively, and all sheets, attachments and illustrations must be keyed to their place in the manuscript or otherwise accounted for. Publishers normally require two copies of the manuscript, and a further copy must be retained by the author. 13.6 Minor amendments should be made, in ink, neatly and legibly between the lines, not in the margins if it can be avoided. Pages that have been extensively corrected should be retyped. All editorial and typesetting instructions must be unambiguous and clearly written so that time is not wasted in trying to decipher them.
CAMERA-READY COPY

13.7 All camera-ready copy must be correct and complete. In addition, all pages must be correctly folioed (see paragraphs 14.469) or otherwise accounted for, all line illustrations and fold-ins fitted in or accompanied by an indication of their correct position, and all halftone material scaled, with size and position indicated. The image density of the copy should be even

throughout, with consistency of typeface for text and headings, and consistent paragraph and line spacing. Consistent spacing should also be maintained for captions, illustrations and tables. The dimensions of the text area must be appropriate to the printed page, avoiding narrow margins in bookwork. Pages must be folioed and running headlines (if used) in place. 13.8 Any supplementary material, such as documents included as appendixes, should be supplied either as original copy or as clear, sharp photocopies of the originals. If good copies are not available, the printer should be informed that the copy supplied is the 'best available' and that the best result possible will be accepted. Documents of more doubtful reproducibility must be redrawn or keyboarded afresh. If a document has been produced in a colourthat is, other than blackthe printer should be asked whether it will reproduce satisfactorily. 13.9 The presentation of tables, footnotes, references, quotations and other matter should be consistent throughout. Authors would be well advised to consult an editor early in the drafting process to ensure editorial quality and stylistic consistency.
COPY TO BE TYPESET FROM ELECTRONIC MEDIA

13.10 Copy to be typeset from electronic media must be supplied in its electronic form (or through a modem directly into a typesetter's database) together with a hard-copy print-out. The latter must be taken from the actual medium provided to the typesetter. The typesetter will want to know the processor system and model, and the type of disks used; if tapes are to be used, the tape specification should be obtained from the typesetter before work commences. The layout should be discussed at an early draft stage with a graphic designer, who can provide the design specifications. Because typesetting software can convert word processor commands into typesetting commands, the command structures should be discussed with the typesetter before the final draft is prepared (see also paragraphs 13.1518).
FIGURE 13.1 Principles of copy preparation

13.11 Editing should be completed before the final draft is corrected for typesetting. A list of any special or uncommon characters in the draft manuscript should be supplied to the typesetter as early as possible in case they need to be acquired. Copy for typesetting from electronic media requires the same care with manuscript preparation and keyboarding as copy for photographic reproduction, and editors should therefore be involved as early as practicable. 13.12 Although correction at proof stage is possible, as with any typeset material, it is very costly and defeats the whole point of this method of typesetting. Similarly, amendments made on the hard copy but not on the disk will prove expensive and time-consuming, as the typesetter has to interrupt the setting in order to make the necessary corrections, which are then charged at author correction rates. It is therefore well worth taking the extra trouble to ensure that the final copy is free from error before giving it to the typesetter. The time thus spent will be more than made up later if proofs can be returned without corrections. The natural impulse to 'improve' the text at proof stage must be firmly resisted.

13.13 The hard copy must be supplied together with the disk or tape; if copy is transmitted through a modem, the hard copy should be sent to the typesetter beforehand. A copy of the final manuscript should be held on hard disk or on a duplicate disk or tape at least until the work has been published, or indefinitely if future editions are contemplated. The magnetic medium and the hard copy must be correctly and similarly identified in order to avoid possible confusion with other work. 13.14 Disks and tapes must be properly stored, in industry-approved containers, and looked after. Touching the surface of a disk, bending it, throwing it down, writing on the label with a hard-pointed implement, attaching documents to it by means of paperclips, or leaving it in the sun or near a magnetic field, or where dust, smoke and other pollutants can affect itany of these may cause data to be lost. If disks are damaged, typesetters may not be able to process them. Electronically stored material that may have to be updated or otherwise amended for a future edition should be checked through the processor for data loss at least every eight to twelve months. Generic encoding 13.15 Generic encoding means that a keyboard operator, using a personal computer, has embedded typographic instructions (commands) with the copy so that it can be read by a computerised typesetter to produce typeset pages. 13.16 This innovation in typesetting, which became popular in the mid 1980s, provided authors and keyboard operators with the ability to bypass the conventional stages of copy preparation. The codes allowed the automatic generation of typeset material, keyboarded via a range of software packages, by compatible typesetting systems. 13.17 Although generic encoding reduced costs and gave the author / keyboard operator the ability to choose a typographic style and page format rather than having to rely on the expertise of a graphic designer or typesetter, it had the handicap of requiring constant and consistent application of the codes. Each change of style (such as changing from roman to italic, or from chapter head to text) required a change of code, and the author had to have an understanding of typography and printer's terminology in order to use the codes correctly. 13.18 Generic coding worked best for textual matter, but became quite complex and difficult for tabular and scientific copy. It has now been superseded by desktop computer software and by Standard Generalised Markup Language. Standard Generalised Markup Language (SGML) 13.19 The Standard Generalised Markup Language standardises the application of generic codes to a document's content or structure. The standard provides a coherent and unambiguous syntax for describing the elements within a document. It allows extensive tailoring to accommodate user preferences in text entry conventions and can be customised to suit the specific requirements of different keyboards and displays.

13.20 Generalised mark-up is not a form of typographical instruction; it does not define, for example, a typeface, size or measure. It defines the element that is to be computer processed and thus provides a basis for the generic encoding of text files for computer storage and retrieval. SGML can be used for documents that are processed by any text processing or word processing system. It is particularly useful and applicable to: documents that are interchanged amongst systems with differing text processing languages; documents that are processed in more than one way, even when the procedures use the same text processing language. Documents that exist solely in final formatted form are not within the field of application of this standard. 13.21 The advantage of this system is that it allows a document to be interchanged among a wide variety of computer systems and software without loss of the defining codesmore usually, in this context, called 'tags'. This is because the tags themselves are acceptable to a range of output media, unlike those used in the typographic generic coding described in paragraphs 13.1518. 13.22 This recognition of discrete elements allows access to similar elements in other SGMLdefined documents, providing the means to consolidate or compare information from different databases, or to open into subsets of elements to aquire or act upon related information. 13.23 The significance of SGML is far reaching. It is both an international standard (ISO 88791986) and an Australian standard (AS 35141987), and is being actively implemented by commercial organisations in Australia, as well as by the Commonwealth Government as part of Government Open Systems Inter-connection Profile (GOSIP). It has important ramifications for the publishing industry. The Australian Government Publishing Service, responsible for Commonwealth Government publishing standards, is able to provide detailed information. Desktop production 13.24 'Desktop production' (or 'desktop publishing') is a term used to describe a widely used, office-style computer system able to produce typesetting and image composition at a professional level. It is a way of producing typeset pagesincorporating illustrations if necessaryin a variety of formats, suitable for high-quality reproduction. The look of the finished page, however, will be affected, not only by the software being used and the ability of the operator to exploit it, but also by the typographical knowledge and skill of the operator, and by the quality of the printer and its output. 13.25 A wide variety of typefaces is available in 0.01 pt increments. Although typefaces can be modified in many different ways, including outline, shadow and reverse, such devices can appear merely gimmicky in bookwork, and their proposed use should be considered carefully. 13.26 Text setting is usually combined with any one of a number of graphics programs, and this enables complete artwork to be prepared on screen, all elementseven trim marksbeing included. The image can be manipulated until the designer/operator is satisfied, and then proofs

are obtained on a laser printer at either 300 or 600 dots per inch (dpi). Printing at 300 dpi is satisfactory only for proofs and the more ephemeral work, as imperfections at this low resolution can easily be seen with the naked eye. 13.27 The images are saved in the computer's memory until the proofs are returned, whereupon they are recalled to the screen and corrected, and then sent electronically through a high resolution imagesetter which produces finished artwork on bromide paper or film.
FIGURE 13.2 Sample screen displays and print-outs

13.28 Desktop production represents a further development in office typesetting, in the generation of reproducible line art and in page make-up. Although it is relatively easy to use this system, training in typography or graphic design is desirable if the best results are to be obtained. The alternative is to employ a designer to mark up the copy and produce layouts for the keyboard operator to work from. Format 13.29 The word 'format' refers to the external physical size and shape of a book or other publication and its internal layout and appearance. Decisions affecting format are the first and the most important design decisions to be made in any printed publication. 13.30 The external format is not simply decided on the whim of the designer or publisher but is based on the actual or anticipated needs of the reader, on production methods, and on marketingand sometimes on distributionconsiderations. Generally speaking, formats derive from printing paper sizes and may on occasion be influenced by machine sizes and established methods of manufacture. 13.31 Standard sizes should generally be preferred, as the selection of an unusual or unsuitable format may cause unnecessary difficulties in production and increase costs, particularly through wastage. The choice of such a format, however, may sometimes be justifiedfor example, if the quantity to be printed is large enough to cover the additional productions costs. Odd sizes may also be acceptable for ephemeral work, such as publicity pamphlets, where a special size or shape may attract interest. If the printer has received sufficient notification, a non-standard size can be specially cut from reel paper ('sheeted') at a realistic cost. 13.32 The ultimate thickness of the book must be considered when format is being decided. A wrong choice may result in a floppy, outsize book or in one so thick that it must be split into two or more volumes. The bulk of a book is governed by the thickness of the paper stock used and by the number of pages. Since printing papers vary from very thin Bible papers to thick antiques, the choice of paper has a considerable effect both on the handling and the weight of a book. 13.33 Books are normally printed in sections of 16, 32 or 64 pages on large sheets; printing in smaller sections can slow down production and increase the cost of printing and binding.

13.34 All sizes should be indicated with the depth (usually the length of the spine) first so that it is clear whether the publication is portrait or landscape (see appendix II).
TYPE AREA

13.35 The number of words on a page, and therefore the number of pages in a book, varies according to the typeface and point size or pitch selected, the amount of space between the lines and the type area of the page. If the number of words per page has to be increased in order to reduce the number of pages, care should be taken to maintain a good relationship between the size of type and the length of line (see paragraph 14.9). A page set to a wide measure in small type is tiring to read, while a line containing too few characters cannot be justifiedthat is, set so that all lines are of equal lengthwithout wide variations in word spacing and frequent division of words. To increase the number of words per page, it may be sufficient to enlarge the type area and retain the type size, or to retain the type area and reduce the type size. However, if the number of words on a typeset page can be increased only by both enlarging the type area and reducing the type size, it may be necessary to set in two or more columns. Double-column or multiple-column setting is most useful when the page is large. 13.36 Two or more columns can create difficulties in page make-up when wide tables or illustrations have to be accommodated. The problem is best resolved by placing such material at either the top or the bottom of a page, rather than in the middle with text above and below.
MARGINS

13.37 The spaces round the printed page in a book are known as back, head, foredge and foot, or tail, margins (figure 13.3).
FIGURE 13.3 Book margins

13.38 Since an open book presents two pages at a time to the reader, a pair of facing pages should be regarded as a unit when page dimensions and margins are being determined. Wellproportioned margins contribute to the pleasant appearance of the pages when the book is opened. Many formulas have been advanced for producing balanced page margins, but formulas can be restrictive. The main aims in constructing margins are to provide a comfortable or interesting relationship between the margins and page elements, and between the margins themselves, and to ensure that the margins are practical. 13.39 In a book with conventional margins the type area is correctly positioned if it is placed towards the centre of the book and towards the top of the page, the margins increasing in size in the order of back, head, foredge and tail. 13.40 In high-quality typeset publications the margins may be more generous: in classic bookwork, for instance, the two back margins combined are approximately equal to a single foredge margin, and the tail margin is double the head margin. In low-priced work and in periodical and newspaper printing, however, the type area occupies most of the page and there is little variation between the margins. For general work, including most government

publications, the proportions of the margins are between these two extremes. In all cases, narrow back margins should be avoided, as the words on the margin may disappear into the binding when the book is bound. Narrow foredges will accentuate the skew of even slightly outof-square pages.
FIGURE 13.4 Normal margins Luxury margins: text area occupies approximately 40 per cent of the page and the margins are in the proportion of back 3, head 4, foredge 6, tail 8. Page margins suitable for most classes of work: text area occupies about 50 per cent of the page. Narrow margins: these are used in low-priced work and pocket editions. The text area occupies about 60 per cent of the page. Slightly reduced margins: these are used where work is set in two columns. GRID TYPOGRAPHY

13.41 In many publications, there are usually a number of different elements: text, display headings, illustrations, tables, footnotes and the like. In designing these publications, it is useful to organise the page dimensions into grids. The designer is responsible for deciding how the gridalso known as the 'template' in desktop productionis to be constructed.
FIGURE 13.5

Grid typography A grid sheet or template divided into modules and an example showing various elements related to them.

13.42 The grid is always designed as a two-page spread showing the position of all the elements that will be featured, however infrequently, in the publication. The page elements are arranged to conform to divisions of the grid, and a balanced and harmonious relationship is thus produced not only within individual pages but also throughout the work. 13.43 Grids, however, do not have to remain identical from page to page; some variety, for example, can prevent a magazine from becoming monotonous. But it is not a principle of good design to make changes for the sake of change, and it is important to preserve a relationship between the different grids. Careful planning is always necessary when pages are to be constructed, whether manually or electronically. 13.44 The margins in figure 13.6 (a), for example, are so arranged that the type areas on the front and back of the leaf back up exactly. On the other hand, the pages shown in figure 13.6 (b) do not have matching side margins and thus will not back up. This kind of layout can cause unpleasant show-through of type and halftones from the backing pages, and should therefore be used only with opaque papers.
FIGURE 13.6 (a) Two-column grid: backing FIGURE 13.6 (b)

Two-column grid: not backing

13.45 The grid is divided both vertically and horizontally. A multiple-column grid increases the layout possibilities. 13.46 In desktop production, the grid (template) is automatically repeated on each page during the design process and during formatting. 13.47 In manual page make-up the grid should be drawn with great accuracy on smooth board and, after being checked, photographed onto line film. Care should be taken that the dimensions do not alter in the process. This film can later be positioned over proofs to verify the make-up and size. The grid can also be printed on strong paper for use in paste-ups; in that case, the lines should be printed in non-reproducible pale blue. A quicker and cheaper alternative method is to draw the grid in black on a sheet of strong paper or board; the paste-up is then made on sheets of bank paper fixed in register over the grid.
EFFECTS OF BINDING AND TRIMMING

13.48 As mentioned in paragraph 13.33, books are printed in multiple-page sections. When these sections have been printed, folded and bound together, strips of at least 3 mm will be trimmed from the top, foredge and bottom to give the book its final size and shape. The effect of this trim and the form of binding can influence page dimensions and margins. 13.49 In thicker saddle-stitched books (see paragraph 23.35), the back margin should be decreased progressively from the outer pages so that the foredge margins remain relatively constant through the trimmed book. In rounded casebound books, some of the back margin is lost from the inner pages of each section, so an extra 3 pts (1 mm) in these pages is needed to compensate. Back margins must also be increased if the work is to be perfect bound (by 6 pts), side-stitched (by 15 pts) or produced for insertion in loose-leaf binders (by 1218 pts). 13.50 Head margins in books with running headlines should be about 6 pts less than head margins without running headlines to avoid imbalance between the margins. Conversely, foot margins may need to be increased when running footlines occur. 13.51 The table in appendix III recommends standard page dimensions and margins for government publications. These will not be applicable, however, when a different design approach is appropriate or when a particular problem can be solved by using unconventional margins. Publication typography
THE DEFINITION AND PURPOSE OF TYPOGRAPHY

13.52 Typography is the art and technique of using type and graphics in the composition of printed matter. The typographic designer today has an almost infinite range of typefaces to choose from, many of which are adaptationsnot all goodof the earlier hot-metal classics, such as Baskerville, Bembo and Times Roman. There are also many new type designs, of varying qualities and degrees of eccentricity. The designer must therefore exercise restraint and

discipline in order to prevent a design from becoming an end in itself, to the detriment of the message that is to be conveyed. Type is, after all, intended to be read; it is not just the grey element to be used as a convenient means of balancing or enhancing illustrations and headings. 13.53 Printing conveys an author's words and ideas to a potentially large number of readers. It is the task of the designer to help make that work as attractive and readable as possible. To do that, the designer must choose a type style, type size and page layout that is in harmony with the subject. 13.54 Legibility and readability are fundamental to good typography. They may seem the same, but there is an important difference. Briefly, legibility relates to the clarity of the image when reproduced in printed matter, while readability relates to the ease and comfort with which the matter can be read. Where readability is concerned, it is not only the type that must be considered. The spacing used to separate words is essential for the rapid identification of each word and group of words. Because this space is related to reading speed, wide and very close spacings should be avoided. In normal text composition, word space occupies about the width of the letter 'i', but of course this varies when lines must be justified. Leading (line spacing), relative to line length, can also make reading easier and should be considered when readability is a greater consideration than economy. (There is a tendency to be economical with line spacing in too many publications, including books.)
TYPE

13.55 There are two distinct groups of typefaces: those with serifs (roman typefaces) and those without (sanserif, or sans, typefaces). Serifs have been an integral part of European letter forms since Roman times. They appear in inscriptional letters, in quill and pen letters, and in the earliest printing typefaces. Serif typefaces are still the predominant choice for bookwork. Sanserif typefaces have been available, at least in countries using the Roman alphabet, since the middle of the nineteenth century. This style was then known as 'grotesque'. They are used extensively for signage, as their simplicity makes them very legible against confusing or moving backgrounds. They are arguably less suitable for setting large amounts of text, as in a magazine or book.
CHOOSING A TYPEFACE

13.56 It must always be remembered that type is intended to be readand read comfortably without effort or strain. Thus a typeface should not be judged simply on an alphabetic specimen, but on the way it appears as a page. Sample settings will quickly establish the appropriateness of an unfamiliar typeface. The main points to look for in a setting are the overall lightness or boldness, the way the letters fit together and the effect of its design mannerisms on its readability. In desktop computer typesetting, it is important to choose a typeface after viewing a print-out of it in a sample setting, and not on the basis of its appearance on the screen, where distortions can occur. 13.57 Type size and, to some extent, the typeface will depend on the subject, the age and reading competence of the reader, the conditions under which the words will be read and the

format of the publication. For example, the type in a small child's picture book will be set in a larger and perhaps bolder face than that of a novel. 13.58 As text typefaces are used in relatively small sizes, the selection of an appropriate typeface is most important. Although there are many different typefaces, the actual number will be limited to those available from the typesetter or desktop computer. All typesetters have fonts of such basic designs as Baskerville, Bembo, Century, Plantin, Times, Univers and Helvetica. These typefaces are carried because they are popular, and they are popular because they are readable and legible when set correctly. Baskerville, for example, originally cut by John Baskerville in 1750, is still one of the most popular typefaces for book composition, although (as with all such typefaces) the technical limitations of the various typesetting systems, as well as copyright considerations, have brought about changes to the original design.
SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT

13.59 In Australia, typesetting and desktop production systems use the Anglo-American point system, which was originally based on a point value of 0.0138 inchesapproximately 72 points (pts) to the inch. There are 12 points to the pica and approximately 6 picas to the inch. In metric terms, 1 pt approximates to 0.35 mm. The measure (or width) of setting is expressed in picas. 13.60 The size of type and spacing is always expressed in points. Text type sizes range from 6 to 12 pt, generally in 0.1 or 0.01 pt increments, the most common sizes being 9, 10 and 11 pt. Sizes 6 to 8 pt are used for captions, footnotes, references, tables and other subsidiary matter. Sizes 14 pt and over are used for displayheadings, titling and so on. The sizes used for the setting must be used also for the corrections, so it is essential that a record be kept of the exact sizes used throughout the publication.
FIGURE 13.7 Variations within typefaces FIGURE 13.8 Specimen setting: 10 / 12 pt Times Roman FIGURE 13.9 Specimen setting: 10 / 12 pt Plantin FIGURE 13.10 Specimen setting: 10 / 12 pt Univers FIGURE 13.11 Specimen setting: 10 / 12 pt Helvetica FIGURE 13.12 Specimen setting: 10 / 12 pt Gill Sans FIGURE 13.13 Specimen setting: 10 / 12 pt Stymie

13.61 The Anglo-American system is still the most common in the English-speaking world. The Didot system, adopted earlier in France and widely used in continental Europe, is based on

a slightly larger point, with 12 Didot points to a cicero. Neither system is consistent with decimalisation. 13.62 Each type size has a proportional range of spaces. The largest space is the square of the size and is called an 'em'. Half an em is called an 'en' (the width used for numerals). The finer the unit, the greater the control over character width, word spacing, kerning and other design details.
SAMPLE SETTINGS

13.63 If a manuscript requires a substantial amount of setting, it is always advisable to obtain a sample setting of at least a representative two-page spread, containing examples of all variables: headings, captions, footnotes and the like. This is the best way of ascertaining whether the typeface and type size, as well as the quality of the typesetting, are satisfactory, and whether the design solutions will work. The sample setting will also help to ensure that the typesetter has understood all the instructions. It is important to examine the sample setting proofs carefully, checking that the typefaces, type sizes, spacing and measures are as specified (and suitable); that typographical and editorial styles are consistent; and that there are no damaged characters or badly fitting letter combinations. If there are any problems, they must be resolved at once, for it will be too late once the complete job has been set.
FIGURE 13.14 Type sizes

14 Typographical style
14.1 Typographical style is the way that typefaces, type sizes and spacing are used to promote and improve the look and readability of printed material. The achievement of a successful typographical style in a publication depends on how well the functions of the various componentsfrom parts and chapters to footnotes and imprintsare understood. While the relative importance of each component, within the context of the work, largely determines its typographical treatment, the success of the overall style depends on more than just this. This chapter discusses a number of these other factors. Textual divisions
PARTS

14.2 Text material may be divided into parts, for instance when it contains clear-cut divisions or when it is lengthy or complex. Each part is given a number and a title. These appear on the part-title page for each part, which is always a right-hand page immediately preceding the part; the reverse, or verso, of that page may be left blank or may carry a summary or a list of topics covered in the part. Alternatively, such material may be placed on the front of the half-title page. Parts are usually numbered with words (for example, 'Part Two') or capital roman numerals (for example, 'Part II'). Note that in text references, lower-case letters are used'part two', 'part II'. The text for the part should always begin on the next right-hand page.
CHAPTERS

14.3 Text is commonly divided into chapters, which may be identified by a number, a title or both. Chapters are normally numbered with arabic figures, and chapters within parts are numbered consecutively throughout the book. Chapters may start on a left-hand or right-hand page, or may run on. Usually the first page of a new chapter has a drop folio (that is, the page number is printed in the margin at the foot of the page) and no running head. 14.4 Only the number and title need appear above the text on the first page of a new chapter. In a multiauthor work the author's name is shown below the title. Footnote reference numbers or symbols, author affiliations and source references are usually not part of the chapter head.
SECTIONS WITHIN CHAPTERS

14.5 Within chapters, text material may be further divided into sections, each new section being given a heading. The heading, like all titles, should be short and precise and placed on a line separate from its text. Sections may be further divided into subsections and subsubsections, which give rise to subheads and sub-subheads. The author should establish a hierarchy of headings and identify the status of each on the final manuscript.

14.6 The first sentence after a subhead should not contain a pronoun referring back to the content of the subhead; where necessary, the word or words comprising the subhead should be repeated. For example:
Making a copy Making a copy means not Making a copy This means PARAGRAPHS

14.7 One of the hallmarks of well-constructed prose is the judicious use of paragraphs. The modern tendency is to use short paragraphs, each one embodying a separate thought. Paragraphs are indicated by indenting the first line or by setting it full out and putting space between the paragraphs. 14.8 In reference books and other works in which many cross-references occur, it may be appropriate to number paragraphs. Paragraphs may be numbered in one or more of the following ways: (a) chapter number, decimal point, paragraph number (for example, 9.62 would refer to the sixty-second paragraph of chapter 9); (b) chapter number, decimal point, section number, decimal point, paragraph number (for example, 5.6.12 would refer to the twelfth paragraph of the sixth section of chapter 5). Further subdivision can become confusing and should be avoided wherever possible. Text typography 14.9 There is a relationship between the size of the text type and the measure (that is, the column width). A line length of about 72 characters (about 11 or 12 words) has proved to be comfortable for reading and provides enough word spaces in the line for justification if even line length is required. The ideal word spacing, just sufficient to separate the words, is not more than 25 per cent of the type size; for example, 12 pt type with 3 pt word spacing. 14.10 There is no need to increase the amount of spacing after a punctuation mark or at the end of a sentence; a normal word space between the full stop and the following capital is sufficient to advise the reader of the new sentence. Close, even spacing helps to keep the lines compact. 14.11 It is relatively easy to keep word spacing reasonably uniform from line to line over wide measures, but long lines are tiring to read in large blocks; they are also difficult to read without frequently missing a line or inadvertently reading the same line twice. The way to prevent this, if a wide measure is really necessary, is to add space generously between the lines. 14.12 As a general rule, the smaller the type size, the narrower the measure to which it should be set. Thus in magazines, and in newspapers and other large-format publications, the type area

is broken into two or more columns. Narrow measures result in fewer words, and therefore fewer places where space can be inserted between words if justification is required. For that reason, when columns are very narrow and contain only a few words per line, it is best to leave the setting unjustified. The lines will then range left only, and the word spacing will be uniform. There is little difference between the readability of justified and unjustified text.
FIGURE 14.1 Justified and unjustified setting

14.13 It is worth noting that currently there is no completely satisfactory typesetting program in desktop production which can produce a justified line with even word spacing. The problem of excessive, unsightly and uneven word spacingthe worst enemy of good readabilityhas not yet been mastered. In order to achieve even word spacing in desktop computer typesetting, therefore, type should be set unjustifiedthat is, flush left, ragged right. 14.14 Unjustified lines may now only be set: (a) with no word breaks at the ends of lines and therefore no hyphens; or (b) with the surplus space left at the end of the line and words hyphenated as if the line were to be justified. Method (a) will result in a wider variation of line length than method (b), and therefore visually the settings will look quite different. Display typography 14.15 The secret of display typography lies in the exploitation of contrasts. Almost automatically, different type sizes are chosen to achieve contrast between important and less important lines. However, contrast can be further accentuated. For example:
FIGURE 14.2 Contrasts in type styles

14.16 In display typography the use of white space is as important, from a design point of view, as lines of type. Space can be used to isolate or link elementssuch as titles and subsidiary matter, or headings and textso as to give emphasis, order or balance to words or graphics. Headings 14.17 In bookwork the principal headingschapter titles and the titles of preliminary and end matterare usually treated in a similar style. The type, which may be a larger size of the text face or a suitable contrasting display face, must be chosen in relation to other elements of the work, particularly the subsidiary headings in the text. Whether capitals or lower case are used will depend on the copy; long headings, for instance, are generally best set in upper and lower case. Initial capitals should be used sparingly when headings are set this way (or when set in capitals and small capitals).

14.18 Within the text, as few headings and subheading sizes as possible should be used, for excessive variation upsets the balance and appearance of the pages. Figure 14.3 shows a variety of headingsfour centred and five side headings (either in separate lines or run on) which can be produced from one size of type.
FIGURE 14.3 Type styles for headings using one type size

14.19 The colon or full stop should be used to separate elements of a heading, except when they are on separate lines (figure 14.4).
FIGURE 14.4 Punctuating headings

14.20 Figure 14.5 describes and exemplifies the various kinds of headings. When side headings occupy more than one line, the line lengths should be balanced. For example, the heading:
Classified account of stingings by jellyfish in Australian and surrounding waters

is better set as:

Classified account of stingings by jellyfish in Australian and surrounding waters FIGURE 14.5 Kinds of headings SPACING OF HEADINGS

14.21 The principal headings in the prelims, text and endmatter should all be placed the same distance from the top of the page. In textual headings there should always be less space below a heading than above it, and headings of the same degree of importance should be spaced as consistently as possible. 14.22 The space above a textual heading should vary with its importance. Thus more space is required above a centred main heading than above a side heading, which in turn requires more space than a run-on heading. 14.23 In general bookwork the following guidelines may be applied for headings set in the same size of type as the text: Main headings. The space above main headings should be about one and a half times the body size of the type, and the space below should be half the body size. Main headings are usually centred or set flush left. The first line after a centred heading should not be indented. Subheadings. The space above subheadings should be about three-quarters of the body size of the type, and the space below should be no more than a quarter of the body size. If paragraphs are spaced out ('leaded'), the space below a heading should not be less than the space between the paragraphs.

Run-on headings. The space above run-on headings should not be greater than the body size of the type. If there are many paragraphs with run-on headings, 3 pts is sufficient. If paragraphs are leaded, however, more space should appear above run-on headings than between normal paragraphs. 14.24 Lines set in capitals, particularly in the larger sizes, must be treated with care and attention. Most importantly, and especially in display sizes, the spacing between letters must be adjusted in order to compensate for what are the often awkward shapes of the negative space round some combinations of capitalssuch as RA and LAwhen compared with the closefitting verticals of H, I, E and so on. 14.25 Lines of capitals need more leading because capital letters occupy a large area on the body of the type. The norm is for the space between the lines to be the same as (or slightly less than) the printed height of the capitals. Less space is needed between lines of capitals and small capitals.
FIGURE 14.6 Line spacingcapitals, and capitals and small capitals

14.26 Space can be inserted between letters and words to an almost infinite degreecertainly the choice is far wider than one would normally require. Adding space is useful, and in many cases necessary, when words are set in all caps, small caps or a combination of both. Spacing will be reduced when tight setting is required and when letters are kerned. In lines of letterspaced words the word space should be increased by an amount of space similar to that inserted between the letters. Decorative initials 14.27 To look effective, large initial letters need to be carefully positioned. Raised or dropped initials can add distinction to a page, although they tend to look pretentious if used too freely. Care must be taken to ensure that they fit in properly with, and close to, the following text (figure 14.7). The rest of the first word should be set in capitals or even small capitals.
FIGURE 14.7 Raised and dropped initials

14.28 Alternatively, the first word may be set in capitals and small capitals. Line spacing 14.29 Types with large x-heights and correspondingly short ascenders and descenders need line spacing'leading' (figure 14.8).
FIGURE 14.8 Specimen settings demonstrating the effect of line spacing

14.30 Obviously, increasing the spacing will increase the total depth of the setting. This is particularly critical in book production, where a 1 pt increase in line spacing throughout could result in an extra 16-page section in the book, with corresponding increases in the cost of

printing, paper and binding. All design decisions must take into account economic as well as aesthetic factors. 14.31 Spacing must be carefully controlled. Space between paragraphs with indented first lines is neither necessary nor desirable in uninterrupted narrative matter, but when the first lines of paragraphs are set without indention, the paragraphs should be spaced apart for clarity. The amount of space in such cases should not exceed the body size of the typeface (one line space). 14.32 Similarly, the space between the text and folios not included in a running headline should not exceed the body size used for the main text. Tables, lists and quoted matter should always be so spaced that their relationship to the relevant text is clearly established. 14.33 When space between lines of text is increased from the minimum, it must be constant not varied from page to page. In designs where the text depth is justified, pages that fall a line or two short are justified by giving the facing page the same depth as the short page, rather than by adding to or reducing the line spacing. In designs where the text depth is unjustified, such adjustments are unnecessary. Breaks in narrative 14.34 When the author wishes to introduce a change of thought, action or time without using a heading, the narrative may be broken by a space, which can either be left blank or include a typographical device. If the space is left blank, it should equal two or three lines of text. If a device is included, the space may need to be greater. A satisfactory device consists of three asterisks spaced about 4 ems apart:
* * *

This device may be placed at the end of a page, but never at the top. The first line of the paragraph following the break should not be indented. 14.35 In general bookwork typographical devices should not be used to mark the break at the ends of chapters, appendixes or any other part of the work where a blank space already occurs. Wordbreaks, page endings and beginnings 14.36 Consecutive lines ending with a hyphen look clumsy and should be avoided by means of respacing or word substitution. They will always occur when the measure is short, such as in brief captions or when matter is set in two or three columns. 14.37 Pages should not end with a divided word; this may sometimes be acceptable on a lefthand page, but never on a right-hand page. Nor should they end with a heading or with the first line of a new paragraph following a heading or a space ('orphan')at least two lines of a new paragraph should appear (it is better to let the page fall short and start the new heading on the following page). However, the first line of a new paragraph may end a page when there is no leading between paragraphs.

14.38 Short lines at the top of a page ('widows') and broken words at the ends of pages can be avoided through adjustment of the word spacing in adjacent paragraphs, which gains an extra line or saves one. Other adjustments can also be made. If the publication contains tables, illustrations or subheadings, space can be gained or lost by adjusting the leading. If pages are made up to a set number of lines with no space between paragraphs, the gain or loss of a line can be achieved by adjusting a preceding page. A line can be gained by respacing the last few lines of a paragraph in order to remove a short turnover. If the page make-up cannot be adjusted satisfactorily by any of these methods, it may be necessary for the author or editor to substitute, add or delete words. 14.39 Chapters and appendixes start on a fresh page. However, if they are short or if there is a need to save space, they may run on. The space between chapters and appendixes that run on should be generous, usually not less than 6 picas. At least five lines (excluding the heading) of the text of a new chapter should appear on the page. If there is insufficient space at the end of a chapter to allow this, the new chapter must start on a fresh page and the page containing the end of the previous chapter must be left short. When this occurs, the new chapter heading may be lowered by several lines as if each chapter in the work started on a new page. Indention 14.40 Paragraph indention varies with the measure. A satisfactory scheme is as follows: 1 em for measures up to 26 picas, 1 ems for measures between 27 and 35 picas, and 2 ems for measures of 36 picas and over. Very wide indentions are neither economical nor conducive to comfortable reading, and can look particularly awkward when used with short paragraphs. 14.41 The first lines of chapters or of a section following a centred heading or major subheadings should be set without indention, as should the first lines of marginal notes and captions. Footnotes follow the style of paragraph indention used for the text. 14.42 Subsections or lists are sometimes conveniently set with hanging indentions, that is with the second and subsequent lines indented further than the first. These indentions are usually preceded by a figure or a letter (1, (i), (a)). Turnover lines are then indented to align with the beginning of the first word of each item. The amount of each indention depends on the width of the widest figure or letter in the list. Arabic figures or letters are preferable to roman numerals for long lists of this kind, as more than three roman numerals causes undue indention. 14.43 The letters or figures, or their parentheses, if any, should be aligned to the right. Progressive indentions follow the principles outlined above. For example:
A manuscript that is to be produced for publication may be: (a) typeset (i) by conversion from word processor or computer magnetic output, or (ii) by rekeying typewritten copy; or (b) reproduced directly from camera-ready copy.

14.44 Alternatively, each item in a list may be preceded by a bullet () or an en rule (). For example:

Before dispatching the disk or hard copy, check that: all data have been copied correctly from the original to the duplicate disk; the print-out has been taken from the duplicate disk; and all corrections have been made.

14.45 Long passages of indented matter spoil the appearance of the printed page, especially when two or more degrees of indention are used. Long indentions can be avoided by rephrasing the passages. Page numbering (folioing) 14.46 Folios bearing arabic numerals are counted from the first page of chapter 1 or from the first part-title page if there is one. The prelims are counted from the half-title, but foliosprinted in lower-case roman numeralsdo not appear on the half-title or its verso, on the title page or its verso, or on blank pages. The prelims are numbered separately from the text in order to allow material in that part of the book to be inserted, deleted, expanded or contracted without affecting the text pagination. 14.47 Every page, printed or blank, must be allowed for in the sequence of page numbers, although a frontispiece should not be included in the sequence if it is a separate, tipped-in leaf. Full-page illustrations included as plates do not have page numbers printed on them, nor do half-title or part-title pages, even though these may carry the title or number of the part. 14.48 Right-hand pages take odd numbers and left-hand pages take even numbers. In looseleaf publications printed on one side only of the leaf, pages are folioed sequentially even though they are all, in effect, right-hand pages. 14.49 Folios for appendixes and other endmatter run on sequentially from the text. Where appendixes are facsimiles of documents already bearing their own folios, the original folios should be removed unless there is a particular need to retain them: when, for example, the documents contain internal cross-references to their page numbers. In any case, the publication's folios should appear at the foot of the facsimile and should be either typed on the original or (if material has to be reduced to fit the new page size) spaced out in lines on a separate sheet, ready for stripping in by the designer or printer.
FOLD-OUTS

14.50 Fold-out pages, which are used when material such as maps and diagrams cannot be accommodated on the regular page size, are not given page numbers. Simple fold-outs should bear the wording 'Facing page . . .' in the bottom left-hand corner of the opening sheet so as to establish their position in the publication, and should be shown in the list of contents with the words 'facing page' preceding the page number. They are tipped in to face the left-hand page. 14.51 Complex fold-outsthat is, those carrying material on both sides of the leafneed not carry any indication of position. They are described in the list of contents as 'following page ', as are two or more fold-outs that occur in sequence.

14.52 The presence of a series of fold-outs tipped in at the back of a book or contained in a pocket is indicated in the list of contents by the phrase 'at back of book' or 'in pocket'. This wording need appear opposite the first entry only.
SUPPLEMENTARY SECTIONS

14.53 Supplementary (or inserted) sections generally contain material which, although related to the main text, is independent of it. Such sections are often printed on coloured stock and may be inserted in the centre of saddle-stitched publications or placed at a convenient point in sewn or perfect-bound publications. 14.54 In saddle-stitched work an inserted section should not be folioed and, because it is interruptive material, should be limited in lengthperhaps to no more than one 16-page section.It is shown, at the end of the contents list, as 'between pages and ' If it runs to more than 16 pages, it should be placed at the end of the document and the style of binding changed as appropriate. Because there is then no interruption to the main text, folioing can be run on from the preceding sectionunless it is included as a reprinting of a complete document, in which case it should retain its original folios. 14.55 When supplementary material occupies less than a full section comprising 4, 8 or 16 pages, it may be appropriate to print pages in an overall tint instead of using distinctive stock. Tinting can also serve to highlight material that is sequential within the text, or a section of endmatter that may be referred to frequently.
LOOSE-LEAF DOCUMENTS

14.56 Sections are generally folioed independently in loose-leaf manuals and the like by using section number plus page number (1.1, 1.2; 2.1, 2.2 etc.); letter plus page number (A1, A2; B1, B2 etc.); or coded section title plus page number (e.g. Ord1, Ord2, for 'Ordering procedures'; Acc1, Acc2 for 'Accounting procedures').
VOLUMES

14.57 When there is sufficient text to warrant it, a publication may be split into two or more volumes. This may be done at a suitable point in the text; alternatively, a new volume may start with appendixes, or other matter, forming separate works that may be sold or distributed independently. 14.58 In the first of those instances, the folioing is continuous through all volumes. For example, in a two-volume work, volume 1 may be folioed ix, 1422 and volume 2, iviii (comprising half-title page, verso, title page, verso containing a summary of contents for volume 1, and contents list for volume 2), 423830. The index is included at the end of volume 2. References are to page numbers, not volume numbers. 14.59 However, volumes may be folioed separately if their nature is distinctly different, or when it is more convenient to index them separately (for instance, when there are very many pages). In some multivolume works the index may comprise a separate volume; in that case, references will be to volumes and pages. Each volume will be folioed separately. All preliminary

matter should appear in volume 1, but subsequent volumes need include only the essential prelims, such as title page, verso title page and contents list. All volumes should carry a reference to the other volumes, including an indication of their contents. 14.60 Publications in series may be sequentially folioed and the issues given volume numbers. It is usual to publish an annual index as a separate issue.
MICROFICHE DOCUMENTS

14.61 Documents that are to be included in a publication as microfiche should be folioed, or refolioed, as an individual entity. This avoids complications if the page numbers of either the text or the microfiche pages have to be changed in future reprints or editions. 14.62 Microfiche pages are usually inserted in an envelope fixed to the inside back cover, or packeted separately. A reference to the microfiche section should appear in the contents list and at the foot of the last printed page ('Microfiche pages 1 to are enclosed on inside back cover' or ' are available separately from '). If printed pages are to follow a section that is to be microfiched, their folios must run on sequentially from the last page of the printed section preceding the microfiche section. Reference to the microfiche section should be made at that point. 14.63 If a section of a publication comprises original documents, from various sources, that are to be included separately as microfiche, it may be impractical (for reasons of time, complexity or space) to renumber them sequentially. Existing folios may therefore be left intact so as to identify page sequence within each document and to maintain any internal referencing. The titles of the documents in the section may be given at the end of the contents list together with information about where they are to be found. 14.64 A document or documents may be reproduced on microfiche as a complete volume in a multivolume set. Such a volume should show an arrangement of preliminary pages similar to that of the printed volumes; in addition, it should be folioed from page i, with the text beginning at page 1, and should be indexed separately. Running headlines and footlines 14.65 Running headlines (also known as 'running heads' or 'headers') are a location aid for the reader, of particular value in reference and complex works. They appear at the head of each printed page of a book, separated from the text by a space or rule. Usually they are set in the same typeface and size as the main text of the book but in italic upper and lower case, in small capitals, or in capitals and small capitals (full capitals of text size are generally too overpowering). If for some reason full capitals are required (for instance, with lining figures, which look unpleasant next to even small capitals), the running headline must be set in a size of type smaller than that used for the text. The setting style for the running headline must not be the same as that for headings in the text because this could cause confusion when a heading falls directly below a running headline.

14.66 Running headlines should be omitted from the first page of a chapter which begins on a new page, from blank pages, from half-title and part-title pages, and from single-page entries. The space between a running headline and the text should not be too great, and normally not more than the body size of the text. Additional space should be inserted under the running headline if the first line on a page is a main heading. 14.67 The preferred arrangement in most publications is for the part or chapter title to be shown on left-hand pages and the chapter or section title to be shown on right-hand pages. However, prelims and endmatter (except for appendixes) of more than one page take only the title of the section'Contents', for exampleon both left-hand and right-hand pages. Running headlines in appendixes follow the same style as the text. 14.68 Care should be taken that the running headlines do not contain too many characters to fit on a single line (when this is the design style). Unwieldy lines may be shortened; for example, in a book on fish a chapter title such as 'The handling and distribution of fish on land' could be abbreviated to 'Handling and distribution on land' to fit more comfortably into a single-line running headline. 14.69 Running footlines (footers), often used in periodicals, comprise the title and date or month of issue. They should be placed in the same line as the folio, at least one line space below the bottom of the text. Quotations 14.70 As a general rule, short quotations should be contained within the text, while long quotationsthose exceeding about thirty wordsshould be set separately. 14.71 Quotations set within the text should be enclosed within single quotation marks, with double quotation marks for quotations within quotations. The position of quotation marks in relation to other punctuation marks is treated in chapter 6. 14.72 Quotations set as separate passagesknown as block quotationsshould be set in a size smaller than that used for the text (usually 1 pt smaller) and indented by at least as much as the normal paragraph indention of the text. The first line is not normally further indented, even though it starts a paragraph and later paragraphs are indented. Thus:
As a general rule, a statement of scale should be given with all maps. This may be expressed either by a simple drawn scale or a ratio (representative fraction), or both. It is important that the scale be correct when the map is finally printed. If the map has to be reduced in size, a scale stated in words will be incorrect if the reduction has not been allowed for.

14.73 Quoted matter indented in this way should not be enclosed within quotation marks. A space should be inserted above and below matter set separately from the text. 14.74 Generally, quoted matter should be reproduced exactly, even if it contains errors. The editor may have drawn attention to each error by inserting immediately after itin square bracketseither the word sic or an appropriate comment. If there are many errors, however, repeated use of sic is unsightly and tiresome and it is usually better to correct them silently. The

typesetter must never correct apparent errors in quotations but should note them on the proof in case they were not present in the quotation as originally written or printed. Tables 14.75 A table is a systematic, typographical arrangement of statistical or other information in columns and rows. Tables are used when data would become too complicated if presented in textual form. 14.76 Tables should be set out as clearly and simply as possible. Although some may be complicated, it is usually evidentafter careful consideration of the datawhich information is best arranged in columns and which in rows. Column headings should be appropriate and figures should tally. 14.77 If they are few, tables to be typeset may be included in the copy exactly where they occur. However, it is usually more convenient if they are extracted at the final draft copy stage and submitted as a separate batch of hard copy. This makes it easier for typesetters to process the tables. 14.78 Copy should not be prepared or proofs corrected in small or cramped handwriting; figures and words can too easily be misread. 14.79 Tables should always be numbered, for this is by far the best method of keying them to their textual references. References to 'the table above' or 'the table below' will incur author correction costs if they have to be changed to suit the relocation of a table in the page make-up.
TYPE SIZES

14.80 The typographical treatment of tables should be consistent throughout a work. As a rule of thumb, tables are usually set two sizes smaller than the text they accompany. However, if that means that they cannot be set without exceeding the maximum type area on the page, the type size may be further reduced. Tables should never be less than 6 on 7 pt. 14.81 Table headings must be set in the same style and size throughout, generally a size larger than the body of the table. 14.82 Column headings should be set in the same size type as the body of the table. The size may be reduced if headings are extensive or congested, and this option should be given in the instructions to the typesetter when appropriate.
ACCOMMODATING TABULAR INFORMATION

14.83 Tables should be set to their natural width, and not spaced out to fill the text measure when this would result in columns that are too widely spaced or have long strings of leaders. If a table makes less than page or column width, it should be centred on the type width unless an asymmetrical layout has been adopted. In such cases, the horizontal rules should not extend beyond the normal limit of the table (figure 14.9).
FIGURE 14.9 A table set to full type width and reset to natural measure

14.84 Column headings may be centred, ranged left or ranged right; they may be set vertically (reading upwards) when the columns are very narrow. 14.85 Tables are normally set across the same measure as the text, but it is acceptable to run very wide tablesthose that will not fit even in 6 ptup the page (landscapethat is, from foot to head). A table may thus occupy several pages, with the column headings repeated on verso pages only. 14.86 In exceptional cases a large table may have to be fitted across a two-page spread; if so, great care must be taken to allow sufficient space between the columns at the spine. The printer and binder must also ensure that the alignment across the two pages is maintained. However, a line-number column added to the extreme left and right sides of such a table (space permitting) will help the reader if the pages are not aligned when the book is bound. Some adjustment of the make-up of pages preceding a read-across table may need to be made in order to ensure that the table falls correctly on facing pages. For example, a blank or half-title page introduced at a convenient point will sometimes allow the table to appear on facing pages without its having to be moved from the correct position in the text. 14.87 Solutions such as these, or even rearrangement of the table (figure 14.10), are much less time consuming and costly than printing a table on a separate sheet to be folded and tipped in.
FIGURE 14.10 A complicated tabular setting and its rearrangement PLACEMENT OF TABLES

14.88 The placement of tables set in double or triple column presents a special problem if they cannot be accommodated within the column width. The tables should not bisect the text, because this interrupts the flow of narrative and may confuse or mislead the reader. It should be placed at either the head or the foot of the page.
RULES AND SPACING

14.89 A fine horizontal rule is often necessary to separate the column headings from the body of the table, and a heavier rule at the top and bottom of the table will help to make it selfcontained. 14.90 A table may have horizontal rules through the body, but an excess of these is distracting and does not help the reader. A better effect is often obtained by substituting white space. In densely set tables of statistics a horizontal white space placed at regular intervals makes the table much easier to read. Figure 14.11, for example, shows a table set without horizontal rules but with a white space after each six entries. Hanging figures are sometimes used in tables of this kind (see figure 14.12).
FIGURE 14.11 A table with separated entries FIGURE 14.12 A table with separated entries

14.91 Column down rules are a distraction (since tables are often intended to be read horizontally as well as vertically) and should not be used except to separate close, cramped columns. 14.92 As much space as possible should be allowed for columns containing descriptive matter in order to avoid the excessive and uneven word spacing and bad wordbreaks inevitable in narrow-column setting. Type should be set with even word spacing, unjustified and ranged left, as in figure 14.13.
FIGURE 14.13 A table with unjustified narrative columns

14.93 A space must always be inserted above and below a table incorporated in the text, and an adequate space must be inserted between tables when one follows another. In pages containing nothing but tables, it is better to keep the space between tables uniformand if necessary let the page fall shortrather than to vary the space in an effort to make up each page to its full depth. The tables on such pages should align at their heads.
TABLE FOOTNOTES

14.94 Table footnotes should be set immediately below the table to which they refer, as in figure 14.14. To avoid the possibility of confusion with reference marks for page footnotes and for endnotes, the marks (a), (b), (c) and so on are preferred for table footnotes.
FIGURE 14.14 Table and text footnotes

14.95 If there are only a few short notes, they may be set in type of the same size as the table; if extensive, they should be set 1 or 2 pts smaller. For ease of reading across wide measures, notes may be set in two or three columns. Mathematics 14.96 Clarity and freedom from ambiguity are of paramount importance in the setting of mathematics. Specifically, the primary requirements are use of the correct type style and accurate positioning and spacing of type. If these are not given due attention, the meaning of an expression may be altered or even destroyed.
FONTS

14.97 Letters used as symbols are printed in light italics (A, B, C, x, y, z) unless they represent vector quantities, in which case the typeface should be bold (A or A, x or x). 14.98 The abbreviations for mathematical functions are all set in roman type (cos, sin, exp). Similarly, numerals should be in a roman face. 14.99 When the Greek alphabet is used, an inclined face is preferred to an upright one.

14.100 It is essential that the same typeface be used for a particular symbol wherever it occurs (unless the author implies a change of meaning, which should be explained in the text or in a glossary). 14.101 When, as often happens, several different typefaces are required in setting a single work, they should match in size and horizontal alignment. This is particularly important in the case of subscripts and superscripts.
SPACING

14.102 Special attention should be given to spacings between letters in order to achieve a good appearance based on meaning. For example: a cos x not 14.103 acosx or a cosx

Some correctly set examples illustrating these principles are: curl curl A = (B a) "= (1 / c 2)( 2A / t 2) dAi(3) = dx i0c0 3 d ijk Aj(1)Ak(2) exp { i (k 3 k 1 k 2)x} 2n0

z = x + iy = r (cos + i sin ) = rei 14.104 To improve the appearance of an expression or to simplify the setting, it may be possible to alter its notation without changing the meaning. Two-line expressions, for example, interrupt the regular line spacing of the text. Use of a solidus or an index (instead of a horizontal rule) allows an expression such as x+y xy to be set within the text as (x + y) / (x y) or (x + y) (x y)-1. The same principle applies to more complex expressions.

BRACKETS

14.105 The hierarchy of brackets is normally parentheses within square brackets within braces: {[()]}. This is stylistic rather than obligatory. Brackets sometimes have special significance; for example, [ijk] may have a meaning different from (ijk).
ALIGNMENT OF SYMBOLS

14.106 Between the terms of an expression or an equation the equals, plus, minus and similar signs should align with the main horizontal fraction bar so that the whole sequence is visually centred:

2 (x 2 + 3x +1) (x 1) (x 2 + 1) p = a p0 a0
CENTRING
2y/(y1)

5 A1x + A0 + (x 1) x2 + 1 = 1 + (y 1) /2 sin20 1 + (y 1) /2 sin2

y/(y 1)

14.107 Expressions should normally be centred on the page width, but connected sequences of equations should be aligned vertically (as far as possible) on the equals signs so that the whole sequence is visually centred. For example: x / a = log tan ( /4 + / 2) = log(sec = tan)' whence sec + tan = ex/a sec tan = ex/a Footnotes 14.108 Footnotes are always set smaller than the text. They are usually set in 8 pt, but this can be varied to stay in proportion to the text size; 14 pt text, for instance, could have 9 or 10 pt footnotes, depending on the x-height. 14.109 In books set in single column, footnotes are normally set to the full measure of the text. Various schemes are illustrated in figure 14.15. When they are long and the line measure is wide, footnotes may be more readable if set in two columns (fig. 14.15 (a)). If a page contains a number of short footnotes, such as abbreviated bibliographical references, space may be saved and the appearance of the page improved by including more than one footnote in the same line, with a reasonable spacesay 3 emsbetween the notes (fig. 14.15 (b)). In books set in two or three columns, footnotes should be grouped together at the bottom of the last column on each page, for ease of reference, irrespective of the column in which the references occur (figure 14.15 (c)).
FIGURE 14.15 Three methods of setting footnotes (a) Footnotes set in two columns, to text set in single column (b) Short footnotes set in the same line (c) Footnotes grouped at the foot of the second column in double-column setting

14.110 The various systems of reference marks for footnotes and endnotes are described in chapter 9. The system adopted should be followed throughout the book. Note that only reference marks in table footnotes should be enclosed in parentheses. Numbers used as reference marks may be superiors (as in the text) or normal font size, whichever is the most legible in the type size used. 14.111 Footnotes can be separated from the text in different ways. The simplest is to leave a white space, which should never be less than one line space. A more positive break with the

text can be achieved by means of a fine rule extending the full width of the page, or a rule at least 3 picas (13 mm) long at the left. The second and third methods are preferable where there is likely to be confusion with captions to illustrations, notes to tables, the ends of quoted matter and so on, all of which may be set in small type, possibly in the same size as the footnote. 14.112 A footnote should begin on the same page as the reference in the text and, if possible, end on the same page. Sometimes the position of the reference as it falls during page make-up is such that this is difficult or even impossible to achieve. A very long footnote may have to be continued at the bottom of the next page unless the author can move the footnote reference or rearrange the text. When a footnote is continued on the next page, it is not necessary to repeat the reference number or to insert a continuation line, such as 'continued from page 27'. 14.113 When a footnote appears at the end of a chapter that finishes as a short page (or when for any other reason a page is short), it should be placed at the foot of the page and not immediately below the last line of the text. 14.114 The setting style for references appearing as footnotes is exemplified in chapter 9.

Endnotes 14.115 Endnotesthat is, references and other notes placed at the end of a book, or at the end of chapters or partsshould be set in the same style as footnotes (see above). They are normally set smaller than the text, but not as small as footnotes. 14.116 When endnotes appear at the end of chapters or parts, they should run on and not begin a fresh page. However, if they appear at the back of a book, they should begin a fresh page and be clearly grouped under headings corresponding to the chapter titles of the book. In such cases, if the book carries running headlines it is helpful to indicate in the headline the chapter to which the page of notes refers, for example 'Notes to chapter 4'. Captions 14.117 Captions to illustrations are usually set in a type size smaller than the text and frequently in italic or bold. They are better set in roman, however, if they contain words that are traditionally set in italic, such as botanical names or names of ships. A completely different face may be used; for example, when wording appears extensively within diagrams, it is sometimes more appropriate to relate the type for the captions to that used in the diagrams rather than to the text type. 14.118 A caption consisting of a complete sentence requires a full stop (as in text), as does an incomplete sentence followed by a complete sentence within the same caption. A caption consisting only of an incomplete sentence does not carry a full stop. 14.119 It is important to position a caption closer to the illustration than to the text.

Imprints 14.120 Every publication should bear an indication of its source (generally the publisher) and printer. A printer's imprint is no longer a legal requirement in some States, but all Commonwealth government publications are required by Parliament to carry it. 14.121 In formal publications, the publisher's imprintthe name of the publisher and the place of publicationappears at the foot of the title page. The printer's imprint, that is the name and address of the printer, appears on the reverse of the title page. For the typographical treatment of these, see paragraphs 15.19 and 15.23. 14.122 It is a common practice to include the name and address of the typesetter, above the printer's imprint, when the printer has not been involved in the typesetting. 14.123 In publications that do not have a title page, publisher's and printer's imprints may be combined and placed wherever convenient, generally on the last page. In magazines the publisher's imprint may appear on the title/contents page; the printer's imprint may also be placed there or on the last page of text. 14.124 The placing of imprints and emblems on Commonwealth government publications and the form of wording for imprints are matters for the publishers, not the author or the originating department. Inquiries should be addressed to the Australian Government Publishing Service.

15 The parts of a publication

Order of book 15.1 There are no specific rules about which parts a publication should contain or the order in which they should appear. However, conventionally, the text is preceded by the preliminary pages ('prelims') and is followed by the endmatter. The prelims include information needed by buyers, libraries, researchers and other users (title page and reverse of title page); a list of contents; and other matter that helps the reader understand the publication's purpose and textual content (foreword, preface, list of abbreviations and so on). The endmatter may consist of appendixes, glossary, bibliography, index and other material relevant to the text but not suitable for inclusion in it (perhaps because of length or peripheral importance). 15.2 The order preferred by the Australian Government Publishing Service is:
half-title page frontispiece or list of previous titles by the same author (on the reverse of the half-title page) title page reverse of title page (bibliographical details, copyright notice, ISBN / ISSN, CIP, printer's imprint) foreword list of contents list of illustrations (plates, figures, diagrams, tables, maps) preface introduction text appendixes glossary bibliography index

Other material which relates directly to the text, such as a list of abbreviations or a chronology, may be placed in the prelims or endmatter (see paragraphs 15.414). 15.3 The normal sequence for reports and other major official publications is:
title page reverse of title page (copyright notice, ISBN / ISSN, CIP, disclaimer (if any), printer's imprint) letter of transmittal / Secretary's statement terms of reference membership of reporting body list of contents summary of conclusions and recommendations / executive summary introduction report or text conclusions and recommendations in full appendixes references glossary bibliography index

Other material which relates directly to the text, such as a list of abbreviations or a chronology, may be placed in the prelims or endmatter (see paragraphs 15.414). 15.4 Not all items in the above lists will appear in every publication.

15.5 The purpose and general typographical treatment of the various parts of a publication are dealt within the following paragraphs. Covers
SOFT COVERS

15.6 Covers must be resilient enough to protect the pages they enclose, and attractive to potential buyers. The front cover shows the title of the book, which should be succinct and accurately describe the subject matter. It should also include the name of the author or editor, the edition number (if important or relevant) and, particularly for Commonwealth government publications, the name of the sponsor or the source. The outside back cover can be blank or carry a blurb, extracts from reviews or information about the author. It may also carry the recommended retail price, the ISBN / ISSN and the publisher's identification code (bar code).
CASES (HARD COVERS)

15.7 The front and back covers of a casebound book need not carry information or decoration (but see SPINES below). For publications such as textbooks and instruction manuals, however, it is sometimes more practical to dispense with a jacket and print the cover design directly on the binding material.
DUST JACKETS

15.8 The dust jacket serves two functions: to advertise the book and to protect its case. The title appears on the front cover, and the front and back flaps carry blurbs about the purpose of the book and about the author. The recommended retail price, if it appears at all, is printed at the foot of the front flap and the ISBN appears at the foot of the back flap. The back of the jacket carries the bar code and sometimes a list of other works issued by the publishers on the same or similar subjects, or comments made by reviewers.
SPINES

15.9 The spine of a casebound or a softcover book should bear the main title and, where appropriate, the name of the author or sponsor, running across the spine or from left to right down the spine. The name of the publisher or the publisher's device should appear at the foot of the spine. The same information should appear on the spine of the dust jacket. 15.10 It is difficult to place spine titles with sufficient and consistent accuracy on spines less than 6 mm across and the advice of the binder should be sought in such cases before work begins on the cover artwork. Books with narrow spines can be treated in the same way as saddle-stitched books, which may carry a spine title that runs downwards on the back cover

close to the spine fold. (For further information on paperback books and booklets, see paragraphs 15.714.) 15.11 If the title of a publication is too long to fit on to a spine in a readable type size, even when positioned across or down the spine, a shortened form of the title may be used. Preliminary pages
HALF-TITLE PAGE

15.12 The half-title page is sometimes included as the first page of a book, its purpose being to protect the title page. It serves also to carry and protect any frontispiece in the book. Only the main title of the book is printed on it, not the subtitle (if any). The title shown on the half-title page should be identical to that shown on the title page. 15.13 Typography. The typography of half-title pages should be restrained. Because of the proximity of the title page, there is no need for any special display of the title. It should be set in the same typeface and type size as the text.
REVERSE OF HALF-TITLE PAGE

15.14 The frontispiece may be printed on the reverse of the half-title page when text and illustrations are all printed on the same paper or, if printed separately, may be tipped in. Either way, the frontispiece should face the title page. 15.15 Alternatively, the reverse of the half-title page may be used to accommodate a list of other works by the same author, details of a series or a dedication. Occasionally a title page may be designed so that it spills over to the reverse of the half-title page (see figure 15.1).
FIGURE 15.1 Various kinds of title pages

15.16 Typography. The text typeface and type size, or smaller, should be used for copy on the reverse of the half-title page.
TITLE PAGE

15.17 The title page must bear the full title of the work and identify its authorship or source (in Commonwealth government publications the source will generally be the department or authority concerned). It should also include the publisher's imprint, which consists of the name of the publisher and the place of publication. 15.18 The title page may therefore comprise the title, subtitle (if there is one), the name of the author or editor (if appropriate), the name of the sponsoring body (if appropriate) and the publisher's imprint. Other matter may appear, such as the name of the translator or illustrator, and the publisher's device. 15.19 Typography. The title page cannot be designed in isolation; it should reflect the typographical style of the book as a whole. Accordingly, the title page (especially its smaller lines, such as the publisher's imprint) should be set in the same typeface as the text.

15.20 Unless the design is asymmetrical, the type on the title page should always be centred on the width of the text, with no extra space in the back margin. The title page need not be set to the full depth of the type measure of the text pages, nor aligned with the head margin of the text, although this is normal practice. 15.21 Two frequent faults in title-page design are the use of overlarge titles and the use of too many typefaces in different sizes. Title pages should present a simple, clean and uncluttered appearance. To achieve effect, good design also makes subtle use of white space and avoids gimmickry. Illustrative or decorative title pages can be quite attractive, but are rarely justified and require careful and skilful design.
REVERSE OF TITLE PAGE (IMPRINT PAGE)

15.22 The reverse of the title pagealso known as the imprint page or verso titleis used for statements by the publisher and for details that do not appear on the title page. Most commonly these items are the following: lists of editions and reprints; copyright line and statement; library classification information, including the ISBN and ISSN codes and CIP (cataloguing-inpublication) data; and the printer's imprint. The name of the designer, editor and typesetter, and a colophon containing information on the typefaces and paper stock used, may be included by the publisher. This information should precede the printer's imprint. 15.23 Typography. The information carried on this page should be set in the same typeface as the text, in either roman or italic, but 2 or 3 pts smaller. The setting should never be obtrusive, and should harmonise with the general design of the book.
FOREWORD

15.24 The foreword is different from the preface and the introduction in that it is outside the text and generally is written by someone other than the author of the book. Its purpose is to support the work and briefly explain its purpose and direction. 15.25 Typography. The foreword should be set in the same style as the text, but if very short it may be set to a narrower measure. It is not good typographical practice to set it in a different style from the text for the sake of effect. The name of the writer should be printed in capitals or small capitals below the foreword. It may stand alone or be preceded by a facsimile signature. Where appropriate, the author's title, designation and honorifics may be added. 15.26 The foreword should always begin on a right-hand page.
CONTENTS

15.27 The table, or list, of contents should be headed with the word 'Contents' and should set out the main divisions of the book, including any that appear before the table itself. It is intended as a general guide to the reader and should not carry comprehensive lists of subdivisions. These are properly referred to in an index, which appears at the back of the book. However, subdivisions in the form of synopses are sometimes acceptable, as in the second example in figure 15.2

FIGURE 15.2 Examples of contents tables

15.28 References in a contents table normally relate to pages. However, in a publication with paragraph numbers as well as page numbers, textual references will be to paragraphs, but references to tables and illustrations may be either to the paragraphs in which they appear or to page numbers. 15.29 If a work consists of more than one volume, a summary of the contents of the other volumes may be included in each volume, preferably adjacent to the contents table, or a list of the volumes in the series may be printed on the page facing the title page (see also paragraphs 14.589). 15.30 Typography. If a contents table is comprised of short entries, it may be set to a narrower measure than the text in order to bring the page references nearer the entries. Leaders may be used when there is a wide variation in line length, but this may place the page numbers some distance from the shorter entries. A preferred alternative is to set the lines (including the page numbers) unjustified, with the numbers 1 or 2 ems from the end of each entry. 15.31 A long contents table may be set in a type size smaller than the text and sometimes in two columns.
LISTS

15.32 The way in which illustrations and other non-textual material are listed in the prelims depends on their extent. If there are only a few such items, they may be placed at the end of the contents table under appropriate subheadings. If they are extensive, however, each list of items may start on a separate page; or the first may start on the next right-hand page after the contents, any other lists being run on. The correct order is Plates, Figures, Diagrams, Tables and Maps. 15.33 References to illustrations should be by page or plate numbers; references to unpaginated matterfor example, plates or folded mapsshould be to facing or following pages. Maps and diagrams used as endpapers, placed in a pocket at the back of the book or supplied in a separate container, should also be listed. 15.34 Typography. The typeface and type sizes should be the same as for the contents table. If lists are included in the contents table, the typeface for the headings should be the same as that for the main contents title, but the size should be smaller.
PREFACE

15.35 The preface should contain any information about the preparation of the book that the author considers necessary, including acknowledgments when these are not set out separately. A note should always be added to the preface or introduction of a new edition to indicate that changes have been made in the book since the previous edition. A similar note should be added to a reprint with corrections if these are significant. In that case, sufficient information should be provided to enable the owner of an earlier edition to decide whether it should be replaced.

15.36 The preface opens on a right-hand page. The author's initials sometimes appear below it. 15.37 Typography. The preface should be set in the same typeface and type size as the text, and to the same measure.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

15.38 The author's acknowledgment of help received in the preparation of the work is usually contained in the preface unless the number of people involved is extensive enough to warrant a special acknowledgments section. Such a section will begin on a new page following the preface. 15.39 Acknowledgment by the author of the use of material from an outside source or sources is a condition of such use, as well as a courtesy. It should be made not only in the preface or an acknowledgments section but also at the place or places in the text where the material is included. 15.40 Typography. The acknowledgments section should be set in the same typeface and type size as the text, and to the same measure.
ABBREVIATIONS

15.41 A short list explaining the abbreviations used in the work, generally arranged in alphabetical form, may be included on a separate page immediately before the introduction (if there is one) or the text. Lists of two or more pages may be better placed at the beginning of the endmatter. 15.42 In complex technical reference works, it may be more convenient to begin each part or chapter with a list of the abbreviations or terms to be found there. 15.43 Other text-supporting material, such as a chronology of events or a short glossary, may also be placed in the prelims close to the text. 15.44 Typography. The abbreviations list should be set in the same typeface and type size as the text, and to the same measure. Long lists may be set in a smaller type size, and in two columns if that is convenient.
INTRODUCTION

15.45 If the introduction relates to the purpose and production of the book, it should be numbered with lower-case roman numerals like the other preliminary pages. If, however, it relates directly and entirely to the subject matter of the book, it forms part of the text and is therefore numbered with arabic figures. 15.46 Typography. The introduction is treated in the same way as the text.

OTHER PRELIMINARY MATTER

Letter of transmittal or Secretary's statement 15.47 A letter of transmittal is included in all reports of committees, departments and other bodies. It is the covering letter, sent with the report, by the principal of the reporting body to the responsible minister or other authority. Thus in the printed report it should follow the title page and reverse title page but precede everything else that was included in the submitted report. Since 1991 the letter of transmittal in departmental annual reports has been known as the 'Secretary's statement'. 15.48 It is important that the letter or statement be dated with the day, month and year of submission. 15.49 Typography. Letters of transmittal or statements are usually supplied as cameraready copy on letterhead and are printed in black only. Laser-printed text must be sharp and black. 15.50 If the letter or statement is typeset, the typographical treatment should be as for a foreword (see paragraph 15.25). Summary of conclusions and recommendations, and executive summary 15.51 An investigating committee or other body, acting under the terms of reference laid down by a commissioning authority, will include in its report a summation of its findings. This may be called a list of conclusions and recommendations, or an executive summary. 15.52 Typography. Summaries should be set in the same typeface and type size as the text of the report, but bold or italic variants may be preferred as an aid to rapid location of the relevant pages if this is considered helpful to the user. The summary should come immediately before the text. Sometimes this will be in a condensed form, with the full summary appearing at the end of the report. Text 15.53 The text forms the key part of the book. It should have a proper structure and follow a logical pattern so that the reader is not confused or distracted. These features should be adequately reflected in the typographical treatment. 15.54 The organisation of text material depends on the nature of the book. In a government report with recommendations, for example, the main point may well be built up towards the end of the publication. However, in a sales-oriented book with wide appeal, the main point may be made at the beginning of the text in order to attract the reader's attention. 15.55 The main divisions of the text are parts, chapters, sections within chapters, and paragraphs. These, and text typography generally, are discussed in chapter 14.

Endmatter
APPENDIXES

15.56 Appendixes usually consist of material supplementary to the text of a book. They may also include matter which is too long to be conveniently set as footnotes, or lists and tables which, if placed in the text, would interrupt its flow. 15.57 Typography. As a general rule, appendixes should have the same page dimensions as the text and be set in the same typeface, but one size smaller. However, where they constitute a major part of the work, as in annual reports, they should be set in the same type size as the text. 15.58 The first appendix should begin on a new, preferably right-hand, page; other appendixes may also begin on new pages or, if only short, may be run on. In that case, they should be separated by at least three line spaces. 15.59 The typographical style and conventions adopted for the appendixes should normally be those used for the text. The headings to appendixes should be in the same style as the chapter headings. Their size may be reduced proportionally if the text size used for the appendixes is smaller than that used for the text, if the headings are long or if the appendixes are short.
GLOSSARY

15.60 A glossary lists and explains technical or unfamiliar words used in a work. The amount of information contained in a glossary should be generous, even to the point of including illustrations, rather than stinted. A glossary that occupies no more than one page may, if more convenient, be placed in the prelims close to the text. 15.61 Typography. Glossaries should be treated in the same manner as appendixes except for the running headline, which should be 'Glossary' on both left-hand and right-hand pages (see paragraph 14.67). 15.62 The headwords in glossaries should be set in lower-case italics or bold (with initial capitals where appropriate), or in small capitals. The definition of each headword may be set in a separate line or may run on, in which case turnover lines should be indented.
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND LIST OF REFERENCES

15.63 The purpose and construction of a bibliography or list of references are fully explained in chapter 9. 15.64 The material may be presented as a continuous list or be broken up into subject or other groupings. 15.65 Typography. Bibliographies and lists of references should be treated in the same manner as appendixes except for the running headlines, which should carry the relevant title on both left-hand and right-hand pages. 15.66 The typographic arrangement of the entries is described in chapter 9.

INDEX

15.67 An index is an alphabetical listing of subjects, names, events and other key items contained in the text of a book. These may appear in one consolidated index or in separate indexes (of names and subjects, for example). For further information, see chapter 19. 15.68 Typography. An index is usually set in 7 or 8 pt andbecause the entries are short in two, three or more columns, depending on the format of the book. The total width of the columns plus the space between columns should be the same as the measure of the text so that the margins are constant throughout the book. Subentries are usually indented 1 em and turnover lines 2 ems to enable the major entry, set full out, to be clearly identified:
major entry: set full out, with turnover lines indented 2 ems subentry: indented 1 em, with turnover lines indented 2 ems sub-subentry: indented 2 ems, with turnover lines indented 3 ems minor entry: set full out

15.69 To avoid repeating words, a 2-em rule may be substituted for the first part of a major entry or a subentry. As this represents everything before the first comma, only one rulenot threeis needed to represent Australian Capital Territory in the following example:
Australian Capital Territory , planning, 58 , population, 11134 , , natural increase, 1204 , , predictions, 11215, 130

15.70 All commas other than those separating reference numbers may be omitted:
Australian Capital Territory planning 58 population 11134 natural increase 1204 predictions 11215, 130

Paperback books and booklets 15.71 Paperback books and booklets, as well as self-covered brochures and pamphlets, do not require the full treatment described for books. For example, they do not always need a halftitle, title page, separate contents table and so on. They should, however, always include enough information to enable the reader to identify their source, date and place of publication. Government publications in particular should be readily identifiable and not mistakable for works produced by non-government bodies. 15.72 The back of the cover, and the insides of the front and back covers, may carry printing such as a blurb or a listing of other titles in the series. 15.73 In booklets with separate coversthat is, with covers printed on a stock different to that used for the textpagination in arabic figures should begin with the first page of the text. If there are few or no prelims, it will begin with an arabic '1' on the first right-hand page of the work (the opening page). Where there are prelims, the title page must always appear on a right-

hand page, but other elements can appear as left-hand or right-hand pages. The pagination, whether in roman numerals or arabic figures, must follow the standard practicethat is, odd numbers on right-hand pages and even numbers on left-hand pages. 15.74 Self-covered publications begin with the outside front cover as page 1. This page does not show the page number. Periodicals 15.75 The make-up of periodicals presents different problems from those presented by the make-up of books. Although each issue is complete in itself, it is also part of a series that may eventually be bound into volumes. Each issue must contain sufficient information to identify its origin, publisher and / or distributor, date of publication, place in the series (the number of the volume or part, or both) and ISSN. The position of this information varies according to whether the periodical has a separate cover. No essential particulars should be printed on any of the four sides of a cover that may have to be removed for consolidated binding.
PERIODICALS WITH SEPARATE COVERS

15.76 Periodicals with separate covers should carry on the front cover the title and the month and year of issue, as well as the ISSN. The front cover should also indicate the source of the periodical. The first page of the text proper should contain the full title and, if they exist, the volume and part number of the series, the date, the source, and the name of the publisher and (if relevant) distributor. Other information, such as the availability of copyright or any restriction on circulation, should also be included. 15.77 If a periodical is divided into volumes, a separate title page, contents table and index should be issued for each volume. The pagination of the text pages should continue from one issue to the next throughout the volume, beginning anew with page 1 for each new volume. 15.78 The first page of each issue of a periodical may contain, in addition to the information mentioned above, a list of the contents. If there is enough space, the rest of the first page can be used for the beginning of the first article. 15.79 When advertisements are included, they may be so placed that they can be discarded to reduce bulk when the parts are bound into volumes. Thus they may be placed on the cover or included as separate removable sections.
PERIODICALS WITHOUT SEPARATE COVERS

15.80 Periodicals without separate covers are usually in magazine or newspaper format. When they are bound into volumes, no pages are discarded and the necessary information identifying each issuetitle, date, ISSN, sponsor (if appropriate), and volume and part number (if any) appears on the front page. Information such as the name of the printer, publisher, distributor or agent, the editorial address and subscription rates may appear elsewhere, usually at the foot of the back page or front page. Alternatively, when the first page is used for articles, this

information may be incorporated in a column listing the contents on the left side of the second page. 15.81 The pagination of periodicals of this kind is usually separate for each issue. As they are often not stitched, they should have on every page a catchline giving the title, date and page number so that pages that may become detached can be readily identified. 15.82 Advertisements in these periodicals cannot usually be separated from the text and are therefore included in the bound volumes.

16 Illustrations
16.1 Illustrators and artists preparing material for print reproduction need, at the very least, a basic understanding of the reproduction processes involved. If their work has not been prepared correctly, it may be rejected or, if it is printed, may not reproduce in the way envisaged. This chapter provides basic information on the preparation of illustrations for reproduction, and shows how to avoid many of the mistakes that all too frequently spoil the appearance of the printed work and add so unexpectedly to its cost. 16.2 Illustrations must be supplied in the form most suited to the publication, and advice on this must be provided by the designer or editor before any work on the illustrations is started. For example, the illustrator will need to know the type of paper on which the work will be printed, the finished size of the illustrations and the number of colours (black only, one or more colours, or full colour). This information will help the illustrator to decide the best approach. Line drawings
HAND DRAWING

16.3 Line drawings should be used wherever suitable, because they are less costly to reproduce than tone drawings. The most familiar example of a line drawing is the characteristic pen and ink drawing, on good-quality drawing board or paper with a smooth surface, in which the outlines and all other details are represented in black ink. Although this is the simplest of all artwork to reproduce, it can cause difficulties if the artist is not experienced in drawing for reproduction. 16.4 All lines should be solid and the ink must remain a true black throughout. Lines fading away, or shading off into grey because the artist has allowed the pen to run dry, will not reproduce well, if at all. If the artwork is to be reduced from its original size for reproduction, lines must not be too close together or too thin (figure 16.1).
FIGURE 16.1 Line drawing showing reproduced effect of weak lines and congested shading

16.5 Line drawings can be made using ink, paint, crayon or any other medium that produces a firm, black impression. These media should be used with care so as to ensure that every mark made on the paper, however small, is a solid black. Scraperboard is another popular medium for the preparation of line drawings. Its specially prepared black surface, when scraped away, reveals a white substrate that forms the white lines and areas of the picture. A significant feature of scraperboard is its ability to provide very fine lines, but note should be taken of the warning in paragraph 16.4 regarding thickness and proximity of the lines. Four different kinds of line drawings are illustrated in figure 16.2.
FIGURE 16.2 Line drawing techniques

16.6 Providing the basic rules are observed (i.e. uniformly solid black lines, stipples or patterns which are neither too thin nor too close together) original line drawings presented on clean paper or illustration boardor similar surfaces which provide a sharp contrastcan be reproduced successfully in black or colour. Simple line drawings are best drawn 50 per cent oversize (see paragraphs 16.2 and 16.15 (d)). Line drawings can be reproduced on almost any kind of paperand many other surfacesalthough printing that involves very fine detail, such as reproductions of engraved maps, requires very smooth or coated paper. 16.7 Colour illustrations may be converted to transparency for electronic colour scanning or provided as keyline artwork. When simple colour printing is involved, the best method is to produce a keyline original, with the areas of colour outlined and the relevant colours and screens indicated on a paper overlay. The printer then strips in the required screens and makes a negative for each colour from the original, painting out the lines not required on each. 16.8 Alternatively, the artwork can be supplied as an outline drawing, attached to which, in register, are separate overlays of stable transparent material carrying the image to be reproduced in each colour. Each overlay must have a clear identification of the required colour. It is essential also that register marks are included on each overlay (figure 16.3); if this is not done accurately the colours may be printed out of register. Completed artwork should be protected always by a securely attached paper overlay, which may contain a brief, composite sketch of the artworkincluding the correct colour areasand any instructions concerning the artwork for the platemaker and printer.
FIGURE 16.3 Overlays showing register marks

16.9 If the method in paragraph 16.8 is applied, the correct drawing material must be used. Ordinary tracing paper is not good enough: it creases, crumples and tears easily, and contracts and expands according to treatment and climate, making perfect register impossible. Dimensionally stable transparent sheets are essential, and can be used for the base drawings as well as for the overlays.
MECHANICAL TINTS

16.10 It is not always necessary to use colour in line drawings in order to distinguish detail or provide contrast: information can often be made more legible, or significant detail emphasised, through the use of shading or stippling. These may be applied by hand or by means of mechanical tints, and can be printed in the one colour (usually black). 16.11 Mechanical tints are preprinted patterns of dots or lines. They may be on film and stripped in by the lithographer when processing film for platemaking; or they may be on thin, adhesive-backed plastic sheets for use on hand-drawn artwork (available under various trade names). The use of manually applied mechanical tints is being overtaken by more sophisticated methods contained within computer graphics programs. The problems associated with manually applied mechanical tints, such as dirt or air bubbles, are thus eliminated.

16.12 Adhesive-backed mechanical tints should not be used on artwork that is likely to be stored more than a few weeks before it is photographed. Because mechanical tint film and artwork base material react differently to changes in temperature and humidity, these two substances can move out of register. Air bubbles may form, leading to cast shadows and a general blurring of the photographic image. Thus it is always preferable, in the case of handdrawn artwork, to have the lithographer strip in any screen tints that may be required. 16.13 Three kinds of mechanical tints are used: dot patterns (either regular or irregular), line patterns and miscellaneous symbol patterns. All three are obtainable in various weights and intensities. The elements forming the pattern may be light or heavy and may be closely or widely spaced. The kind of pattern required will depend on the nature of the information to be presented. The desired effect can be achieved by tonal or pattern variation, or by a combination of the two. Patterns should avoid close combinations of lines and dots that create similar tonal effects. 16.14 Boundary lines may be used between the various patterns but are not always needed; for instance, they may be omitted in order to indicate gradual transition from one condition to another. If many patterns are needed, tone screens may be used in combination with patterns overprinted in a different colour. 16.15 The following points should be noted: (a) The smaller the area, the denser the pattern should be.

(b) The pattern must be carefully oriented. Line patterns should normally be laid at 45 degrees to the sides of the drawing; where irregular areas are involved, the line patterns should preferably be at right angles to the long axis of the area. The angle at which the pattern is laid must be identical whenever the pattern is used with the same significance in different parts of a drawing. Some mechanical patterns in juxtaposition create optical illusions; such arrangements should be avoided. (c) All patterns must be subordinate to the main feature of the drawing so that the basic information or lettering is not obscured. (d) As some screens will not stand reduction, it is better for drawings that include mechanical patterns to be made to the same size as the reproduction. 16.16 Drawings which contain adhesive mechanical patterns should be checked carefully so as to ensure that no pencil construction lines, air bubbles, white-out, dust or other substances are under the film, and that the patterns are in register.
GRAPHS

16.17 A graph is a systematical device for presenting statistical or other information in pictorial form. Since its primary purpose is not to illustrate but to illuminate, it should be clear, simple, uncluttered and efficiently proportioned, with all superfluous space omitted. 16.18 There are at least seven basic types of graphsarea, bar, column, line, pie, hi-lo and scatter (see figure 16.4) and many possible variations.

FIGURE 16.4 Types of graphs

16.19 All graphs should be identifiable by title and, if more than a few, by number. So that the whole graph is fully comprehensible, both axes should be adequately captioned and (if necessary) further explanation may be included in a legend. 16.20 The range of the axes, and the unit values into which they are divided, should allow the data to be presented in a way that is visually effective and contextually correct. In figure 16.5, for example, the two graphs are constructed from identical information, but the results are visually quite different because of the different unit values of the axes. Which approach is more suitable depends on what the author wishes to show.
FIGURE 16.5 Comparisons of axes in graphs

16.21 Occasionally it can be appropriate to substitute symbols for lines, bars or columns. For example, drill shafts or petrol bowsers may indicate units of oil production (see figure 16.6). Elaborate 'illustrated' graphs, however, are often obtrusive, as they tend to be ends in themselves rather than the means of expressing information in a simple manner. Also, it is sometimes difficult to be certain, in an illustrated graph, which is the correct level of the significant data; in figure 16.6, for example, can the reader be sure that the production figure corresponds to the very top of an oil rig and not to the highest bold horizontal line in the framework? Needless to say, hand-drawn graphs add greatly to production time and costs.
FIGURE 16.6 An illustrated graph

16.22 Artwork for graphs may be drawn to the reproduction size but is more usually drawn larger than required and reduced for reproduction. To obtain a satisfactory result in those cases where the artwork is to be reduced, lines should be of an appropriate strength, typefaces of sufficient size and weight, and patterned screens strong but not too dense. 16.23 Computers can providequickly and easilycomplex graphs in all the basic types. Specialised graph software simply accepts the values of the x and y axes and the program creates the graph automatically, complete with patterns. Often these patterns can be coarse, distracting and generally unsuitable, in which case they should be deleted and the graph supplied as keyline artwork, with an instruction to the printer to strip in the required patterns. The most important advantage of electronic graph generation over hand-drawn work is that corrections are much easier to make and can be made much later in the production schedule. For instance, complicated graphs can be quite easily updated without the need for painstaking and timeconsuming redrawing.
ILLUSTRATING VIA THE COMPUTER

16.24 Computers have considerably broadened the choices for designers and illustrators. Any kind of illustration or graphic devicebe it line drawing, full-colour illustration, logo, graph, monochrome or colour photographcan now be digitised by means of the electronic scanner.

Illustrations can also, of course, be created within the software. Once digitised, the illustration can be changed or manipulated to an almost infinite degree as regards size, format, shape, weight and colour, as well as being combined with elements such as type or other illustrations. A reminder here, however, that this is specialist work and depends for its success on many factors: the capacity of the software, the user's knowledge and skill, as well as the power of the computera great deal of memory can be quickly used up. Many different drawing, painting and photo-manipulation programs are available, their application being limited only by the imagination of the designerand the amount of memory available. 16.25 In many cases, however, it will remain more convenient for the artist to draw freehand line illustrations in the traditional waythe effectiveness of a pen and ink sketch, caricature or cartoon is often due to the spontaneous reaction of the artist to a particular scene or situation. But even these illustrations can be scanned into the computer for later manipulation if necessary. 16.26 Attempting to reproduce on the computer the appearance of an illustrative technique which is normally done by hand can be time-consuming and will inevitably change the nature of the illustration. However, when an illustration must be duplicated or elements of it changed, the computer can be very useful. 16.27 Many of today's artists and illustrators will choose to stay with the more familiar pens, pencils and brushes they have always used; but the mouse, light-pen and graphics tablet, as well as the computer itself, are merely sophisticated extensions of these traditional tools and the number of specialist illustrators trained solely in the generation of graphics and illustrations on the computer will continue to grow. Designers and other computer operators can quickly learn the basics of any of the drawing programs currently available. Even the beginner can produce simple graphics with just a little perseverance. Of course, none of these programs can convert anyone into a skilled illustratorthat will always require talent, application and experience. 16.28 Before producing illustrations for a publication, it must be established which production methodmanual or computeris the most suitable and efficient. When considering computer illustration, the available software, the amount of computer memory needed and, of course, the skill of the operator must all be taken into account. The reproduction quality of the computer output is also relevantif resolution is low (72 dots per inch (dpi)), the illustrations would have a jagged, pixelised appearance. 16.29 Computer software of pre-drawn artwork, in many different subject classifications, is available to those with less confidence or whose requirements are met by instant, 'off the shelf' illustrations. Halftones 16.30 Continuous tone material, such as photographs, pencil or crayon drawings and paintings, is reproduced by the halftone process, in which the continuous tone is broken down into a series of dots separated by white space. The erstwhile physical, fine-line screen within a camera, used to produce this effect, has been superseded by the electronic screensimply another function of the computerwhich enables the choices of screen density (from 60 to 150

lines per inch (lpi)2460 lines per centimetre) and screen angle (necessary for colour reproduction) to be made by the designer. A choice of dot shape is also availablesquare, round, eliptical or custom. The final resolution is dependent upon the output devicethe average laser printer prints at 60 lpi, an imagesetter at 121 lpi for bromide quality, while it is possible to print direct to negative film at up to 150 lpi. 16.31 The average screen produced on a plain paper laser printer is very coarse compared to the film stipple available to a printer60 lpi compared to 150 lpi. Even when the screen is produced on bromide through an imagesetter at 121 lpi, quality will be lost when the printer photographs this to film. If there is any doubt about the reproduction quality, the matter should be discussed with the printer. 16.32 The screen density selected will depend on the surface of the paper on which the halftone is to be printed. Generally, the smoother the surface, the finer the screen that can be printed; and the finer the screen, the more closely the reproduction will simulate the original continuous tone image. Plate II illustrates the point and shows some of the more commonly used screens. 16.33 Photographs for a publication may be obtained from a number of different sources. Variations in quality, kind (transparencies, negatives, prints) and size can involve the designer and printer in extra work; for example, each print may have to be separately scaled, or retouched to improve reproduction quality. However, photographs commissioned from a professional photographer will usually be of consistently high quality and quite suitable for reproduction. Black-and-white photographs should be on good-quality photographic paper, glossy, unglazed and preferably of uniform size. As a general rule, they should be the same size as the reproduction size or a little larger. If necessary, each image area can be cropped (that is, defined) by the designer on a semi-transparent overlay or mount. 16.34 A chinagraph or soft-lead pencil may be used (lightly) if it is necessary to write instructions on the back, or even on the overlay, of a photographic print. Sharp pencils or ballpoint pens must never be used, as the indentation they cause will damage the surface and could be reproduced in the printing. For the same reason, paperclips, pins or staples should never be used to attach captions to prints, or even to hold prints together for mailing or other purposes. 16.35 The arbitrary cropping of prints simply to fit a required space, and without consideration for the effect on the composition of the photograph, should be avoided. Many prints, however, can be improved by judicious cropping; the degree of cropping is a matter of taste and experience (see also paragraphs 16.425). 16.36 Colour as well as black-and-white originals are digitised by means of an electronic scanner. Digitising enables the colours, tints, tones and components of the original to be altered and manipulated to an almost infinite degree or combined with type and other illustrations. For example, within one image it is possible to change the colour of a person's hair, include a car from another source and delete an unwanted fence. Such adjustments are undetectable in the proof and final printing. But the questions of cost (most of these sophisticated operations are

expensive) and the most appropriate person to make the changes (the designer or the colour separator) must be kept in mind. 16.37 Authors often prefer to use colour prints when colour matching is critical, because they are better able to compare the colour proof with a print rather than with a transparency. However, for technical reasons, transparencies are preferred for colour scanning (see paragraph 16.38). In any case, methods relying on purely visual interpretations of colour are subject to each viewer's optical deficiences and should therefore be used with caution. 16.38 Transparencies are preferred for colour reproduction because they have a better quality image, since there is no negative stage, and because the mechanics of electronic scanning demand a flexible medium of qualified size. Inflexible materialsuch as a colour print mounted on board, or a framed canvas in the case of an original paintingsimply cannot be wrapped around the scanning drum, and original works may be too large to fit its circumference; so, inevitably, transparencies must be obtained. 16.39 Because colour matching to an original is almost always critical, it is advisable for authors themselves to provide transparencies of any colour work to be produced. This not only saves time but also ensures the author is satisfied that the transparency is an accurate match of the original. When it is left to the colour separating contractor to obtain transparencies, accurate colour matching to the original cannot be guaranteed. Authors should be aware also that printing in four-colour process inks cannot reproduce the full colour spectrum, so colour matching should always be discussed with the printer.
PLATE I Line illustration in colour

PLATE II Halftone screens PLATE III(a) Photo quality PLATE III(b) Line screens PLATE IV Principles of the four-colour process PLATE V Detail from a four-colour halftone

PLATE VI Duotones PLATE VII Computer graphics PLATE VIII Image manipulation and combination

16.40 Duplicate transparencies should be supplied wherever possible, especially when the original photograph cannot be repeated or when the original work is inaccessible. The colour separator must always be advised, when there is some doubt, which is the top or which is the right or left side (as viewed). 16.41 Photographs can be printed in two colours as a duotone. In this process, two halftone plates made from the same subject are used, one printing over the other in a different colour or shade. A similar but less satisfactory effect can be achieved by printing the halftone in one colour (black) over a flat tint of a second colour. Examples of different types of duotones are shown in plate VI. Scaling, cropping and masking 16.42 Scaling is the means of calculating the reduction or enlargement an illustration needs to bring it to its reproduction size. The finished size of the illustration, both in depth and width, is indicated by giving the measure or percentage to which the print is to be modifiedfor example, 'reduce 100 mm to 50 mm', 'enlarge by 50 per cent'. This is called the 'reduction scale', or the 'scaling' (see figure 16.7). Because prints of the same reduction or enlargement factor, and prints of similar density, can be processed together, it is economical to use as few modification factors as possible.
FIGURE 16.7 Scaling and cropping an illustration

16.43 Cropping refers to the delimitation of the image area of an illustration. The unwanted parts of the illustration at the head, sides or foot are said to be 'cropped', leaving the area that is to be reproduced. Manually, this area may be indicated, or masked, simply by outlining it in chinagraph pencil on the surface of the print or alternatively, and preferably, drawing the outline on an overlay. Masking may also be done by framing the reproduction area with white paper or board. It should not be necessary to physically cut the print. When memory capacity is available on imagesetters, the scaling and cropping of halftones is done at the time the image is scanned. 16.44 Transparencies, especially the smaller sizes, should be scaled and cropped carefully, for inaccuracies will be accentuated as the image is enlarged to the required size. It should be borne in mind that slide transparencies will be removed from their mounts by the colour separator, and that the image area is slightly larger than the frame. If an enlargement factor based on, say, the width of the frame is indicated, the final halftone will be too large. Both dimensions of the final halftone should be given and should be keyed to the relevant transparency. Inaccuracies may also be avoided by making inexpensive black-and-white prints to the correct size, as a guide for the colour separator. Cropping can be indicated on the print. 16.45 Where necessary, allowance must be made for halftones 'bleeding' off the edge of the page. The illustration should extend 3 mm (9 pts) over the trimmed edge, and this amount which allows for variations in folding and trimmingmust be added to the dimension that is to be bled.

Placement of illustrations 16.46 The positioning of line or halftone illustrations is vital to the good appearance of illustrated works. If illustrations occupy most of the page, it is best to omit textual matter unless at least three lines of text can be accommodated. A page that is taken up entirely by an illustration need not carry a running headline or a page number. The position of illustrations, particularly bled halftones intended to align across two pages of a book when printed, should be checked at the dyeline stage to ensure that their alignment is accurate. 16.47 Captions throughout a publication should be placed at a constant distance from the edge of the illustration to which they refer. 16.48 Until the advent of imagesetters, cut-in illustrations were discouraged because of the difficulties they presented when making up pages. These difficulties were obviated with the introduction of software which provided automatic text-wrapping facilities. The designer's main consideration is now simply one of aestheticswhether it is better to cut-in an illustration or centre it on a wide measure. 16.49 The space between a cut-in illustration and the surrounding text should be kept as even as possible, while retaining a consistent space between the illustration and the caption. 16.50 If an illustration is wider than the column measure of a page set in two or three columns, it should not be allowed to bisect the text but should be placed at the head or foot of the page. In such cases, the text reference to the illustration may need to be amended. 16.51 An illustration that has to be placed sideways on a page (landscape) must read from the foot of the page to the head. The caption should be placed at the foot of the illustration, not at the foot of the page (see figure 16.8).
FIGURE 16.8 Landscape illustrations and captions

17 Heraldic and other devices

17.1 In heraldry generally, artistic licence is permissible provided that each version of a design conforms to the heraldic description. Most armorial devices need some modification when adapted for printing in only one colour, in small sizes, in reverse or by different processes. The Commonwealth Arms 17.2 The first official Coat of Arms was granted to the Commonwealth of Australia in 1908. By Royal Warrant dated 19 September 1912, King George V granted a new design to be borne and used 'upon Seals, Shields, Banners or otherwise according to the Laws of Arms'. The warrant describes it as follows:
'Quarterly of six, the first quarter Argent a Cross Gules charged with a Lion passant guardant between on each limb a Mullet of eight points Or; the second, Azure five Mullets, one of eight, two of seven, one of six and one of five points of the first (representing the Constellation of the Southern Cross) ensigned with an Imperial Crown proper; the third of the first, a Maltese Cross of the fourth, surmounted by a like Imperial Crown; the fourth of the third, on a Perch wreathed Vert and Gules an Australian Piping Shrike displayed also proper; the fifth also Or a Swan naiant to the sinister Sable; the last of the first, a Lion passant of the second, the whole within a Bordure Ermine'; for the Crest On a Wreath Or and Azure 'A Seven pointed Star Or', and for Supporters 'dexter A Kangaroo, sinister An Emu, both proper'.

17.3 The Commonwealth Arms are commonly, but incorrectly, referred to as the Commonwealth Crest. In the language of heraldry a crest is 'a device above the shield and helmet of a coat of arms' (The Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary 1992). In the Commonwealth Arms this is the wreath and seven-pointed star. 17.4 The six quarters in the shield represent the badges of the six States as they were in 1912. New South Wales is represented by a cross containing four eight-pointed stars and a lion; Victoria by the constellation of the Southern Cross and a crown; Queensland by a Maltese cross surmounted by a crown; South Australia by a piping shrike; Western Australia by a black swan; and Tasmania by a lion passant. The seven-pointed star in the crest represents the six States and the Australian Territories. 17.5 The early badge of South Australia was an Australian piping shrike (with its back to the viewer), and this was incorporated into the 1912 Commonwealth Arms. Although Arms depicting the rising sun were granted to the State in 1936, no action to change the Commonwealth Arms was taken. In 1984 a Royal Warrant granted South Australia new Arms depicting the piping shrike similar to its badge on the Commonwealth Arms. 17.6 The branches of wattle used as an ornamental accessory to the shield are not part of the armorial ensigns and supporters and are therefore not mentioned in the Royal Warrant, nor are the rests for the kangaroo and the emu and other ornamentations. However, it has been the convention to ornament the Arms with sprays of wattle and the word AUSTRALIA.

17.7 The Commonwealth Arms are used to identify Commonwealth authority and property, and are generally reserved for that purpose alone. Use of the Arms by private persons or organisations is seldom permitted, since it is contrary to their essential meaning, may constitute a possible debasement of them and may give rise to indiscriminate use. Inquiries concerning the use of the Arms should be directed to the Awards and National Symbols Branch, Department of Administrative Services. 17.8 The versions of the Arms in figure 17.1 are all heraldically correct and may be used as indicated. In general, the conventional versions are appropriate in formal printing while the stylised versions have much wider application and are more suitable for printing in small sizes.
FIGURE 17.1 Commonwealth Arms Conventional version no. 1 (outline) This design is suitable for printing on smooth-surfaced papers. It is not suitable for diestamping, and should not be used for reverse (black to white) printing or for blocking on covers in sizes less than 50 mm wide. Conventional version no. 2 (shaded) This design may be used for general work but is not suitable for reverse (black to white) printing, diestamping or blocking on covers. Conventional version no. 3 (solid) This design is appropriate when a solid conventional design is required with more embellishment than appears in version no. 3A. Conventional version no. 3A (solid) This is the standard design for documents published in the Parliamentary Papers series. It is for general use and is suitable for all processes and for printing in reverse (black to white). Stylised version no. 1 (outline) This stylised version is for general use but should not be used less than 20 mm wide. It should not be used for diestamping. Stylised version no. 2 (solid) This version is for general use when a solid design is required. It is suitable for diestamping and blocking on covers. Note: For reverse (black to white) printing, version no. 2R should be used. Stylised version no. 3 (solid shield, open supporters) This version is for general use. It is suitable for die-stamping and blocking on covers. Note: For reverse (black to white) printing, version no. 3R should be used. Stylised version no. 2R This design is a reversed and thickened version of no. 2. Stylised version no. 3R This design is a reverse and thickened version of no. 3.

17.9 The established practice is to place the Commonwealth Arms at the head of any printed matter (not necessarily centred), with no wording or illustration above them. The Arms may be placed in other positions, provided that their juxtaposition with other printed matter does not detract from their dignity.

17.10 The Commonwealth Arms should not appear more than once in the same printed document. An exception to this rule may be made with fully bound books published by the Commonwealth; in these the Arms may appear on the case and the dust jacket as well as on the title page. In paperbound publications the Arms should be displayed on the cover rather than on the title page. 17.11 The name of a Commonwealth department may appear below or alongside the Arms (see paragraphs 17.1214). A stylised version of the Arms should be chosen when a small size is required. 17.12 Representations of the Commonwealth Arms must be heraldically correct. New versions of the Arms must be submitted to the Department of Administrative Services for approval. 17.13 Advice on the printing and positioning of the Arms in publications can be obtained from the Australian Government Publishing Service. Use of the Arms in Commonwealth publications is described in the Guide to Commonwealth Printing and Publishing (AGPS). Departmental emblems 17.14 The design of departmental emblems is the responsibility of the department concerned. All departments are required to reflect clearly, in any self-identification, their status as departments of the Commonwealth Government. If a representation of the Royal Crown is included in the design, it should be the St Edward's Crown (see paragraph 17.16). Permission to use the Royal Crown should be sought from the Official Secretary to the Governor-General. 17.15 The departmental emblem becomes the focus of a department's corporate image. The use of the Commonwealth Arms in emblems is encouraged in order to demonstrate the link between the emblem representing the department and the Arms representing the Commonwealth. If a department wishes to change its emblem, consideration should be given to testing potential designs for acceptable reproduction in a range of applications. The Arms should always be placed in a position which reflects the significance of their relationship to a department's name or emblem. New departmental emblems featuring the Arms should be submitted to the Awards and National Symbols Branch, Department of Administrative Services, for consideration and advice. 17.16 The use of the Commonwealth Arms and departmental emblems is described in the Guide to Commonwealth Printing and Publishing (AGPS). Flags 17.17 Guidelines on the flying and use of the Australian national flag are contained in the booklet The Australian National Flag (AGPS). Inquiries concerning the protocol surrounding the use of the national flag should be directed to the Awards and National Symbols Branch, Department of Administrative Services. Inquiries about obtaining reproduction material for printing the flag should be directed to the Australian Government Publishing Service.

The Royal Arms 17.18 There are well-established rules and conventions for the use of the Royal Arms. The full Royal Arms should appear only once in a publication, should appear only at the head of the page or other printing, should not be used in an undignified way and should not appear subsidiary to the other devices in the same work. In the present reign the crowns in the Royal Arms should be representations of the St Edward's Crown (figure 17.2).
FIGURE 17.2 Three acceptable versions of the St Edward's Crown

17.19 Different versions of the Royal Arms have been approved for different purposes, and no other version should be used. Applications for permission to use the Royal Arms should be made to the Official Secretary to the Governor-General. The Australian Government Publishing Service will give technical advice and provide the required artwork. The Royal Cipher 17.20 The Royal Cipher is personal to the Queen. The Royal Crown 17.21 The Queen has requested that the St Edward's Crown, rather than the Tudor Crown, should appear in all official designs (whether used with the Royal Cipher or not), this being the Crown used at her coronation. Applications for permission to use the Crown in designs should be made to the Official Secretary to the Governor-General.

18 Proofreading
Introduction 18.1 Proof is a generic term used to describe the various forms in which type and graphic material are presented for checking and correcting. Proofreading is the means by which these processes are carried out. The responsibilities of proofreading 18.2 The proofreader reads, word for word, the proof against the original copy, or the latest proof against the previous proof. This is an immensely important aspect of the publishing process but tends to be underrated. The proofreader helps to determine the ultimate credibility of a document in that, if it is printed with spelling mistakes and editorial and design inconsistencies, its authority willto some extentbe undermined. (The reader may well wonder if the author has been equally negligent or indifferent in preparing the subject matter.) For this reason at least, proper proofreading procedures should be instituted for all documents that are to be published. 18.3 It is important to establish at the outset exactly who will bear the responsibility for correcting the proofs and how the charges are to be split. Basically, correction costs are charged to whoever is responsible for the errorauthor, publisher or typesetterbut other arrangements may be made. In government publishing, author departments generally pay for the entire publishing process including authors corrections at proof stage. In commercial publishing, the publisher is liable for costs, but may pass on the costs of authors corrections if the amount of correction is considered excessive. In this situation the publisher has the final say. Proofs are read by both author and publisher (editor or proofreader) but not necessarily by the typesetter. Proof marks are made in different colours to identify who is to be charged for each correction (see paragraph 18.18). 18.4 Responsibility for the accuracy of the content does not rest with the proofreader unless that person is also the author. Strictly speaking, a proofreaders task is to check that the original document and the proofs match. However, a careful proofreader will notice mistakes overlooked at earlier stages. Authors and editors should always respond seriously to a proofreaders queries as this is another stage in ensuring the quality of the text. Many a printing disaster has been averted by an alert proofreader. 18.5 Proofreading is seldom performed today as meticulously as it was when a trained proofreader examined and marked the proofs while a copyholder read the manuscript aloud. The modern tendency is for proofs to be checked by the person who also wrote, edited and keyboarded the copy. Proofreading in this way is often faulty, as he or she is generally too familiar with the material to be able to identify errors. However, if such a situation is unavoidable then each rolewriting, editing and keyboardingshould be treated entirely separately and an interval allowed (as long as possible) between each particular process.

The proofreading process 18.6 With the introduction of computer technology, the proofreading process is sometimes reduced to little more than running a spellcheck. This is not proofreading, and it is far from adequate. Spellchecks have their limitations; for instance, they cannot differentiate between words such as there, their, theyre; its, its; four, for, fore; hear, here; principle and principal (see also paragraph 3.3). 18.7 Proofreaders must be able to find and correct errors, understand copy editors markings and indicate corrections in the proper way. They must have good concentration and an eye for detail because they will be looking for errors and inconsistencies that may have eluded the author or the copyeditor. Good proofreading demands an attentive, thoughtful approach and the same principles apply to checking novels or poetry as they do to legislation or catalogues. Authors reading proofs of their work should never see it as an opportunity to rewrite the text. 18.8 The best way to catch errors is to have one person (the copyholder) read the manuscript aloud while another person simultaneously follows the reading and marks the proofs. The copyholder should speak clearly and fairly slowly. As well as reading the text, the copyholder must announce the beginning of paragraphs, all punctuation marks, and any change in type font. Figures in text, tables and scientific copy always need special care. The reader following the proof and marking the corrections also needs to be an exceptional speller. Notwithstanding intelligence and education, a poor speller makes a poor proofreader and many people maintain that the only foolproof way to proofread for literals is to read backwards! 18.9 Reading in pairs is generally regarded as being more expensive than having one person read alone, so the practice is becoming rare. One person can proofread alone quite successfully once the standard proofreading marks are known and understood (see paragraphs 18.4863 and figures 18.2 and 18.3). For publications containing large numbers of proper names, figures, technical terms or foreign words, however, it is actually slower and more expensive to check the proofs alone than to employ the services of a copyholder. Proofing stages 18.10 Proofs are usually generated by a plain-paper laser printer from typesetting or imagesetting equipment. These are galley or page proofs and are read by the proofreader to check the accuracy of the typesetting and the consistency of the editorial and typographical styles. 18.11 If the proofs are found to contain a number of errors, or if the addition or deletion of significant material is unavoidable, a revise proof may be ordered. Revise proofs should not be necessary if corrections are few or minor. The typesetter should be asked to ensure that the corrections are made, and the editor or author can use the bromides to check that this has been done. 18.12 The need for further proofs depends on the nature of the publication. If it contains illustrations, or if it is to be printed in colours additional to black, imposed dyeline proofs may

be ordered to verify that all elements of the copy, including illustrations, are correct and in the right position. At this stage, the tops and bottoms of pages should be checked to see that nothing has dropped off, but textual corrections and trivial alterations should be avoided because of the expense involved in processing them. 18.13 Colour proofs (chemical proofs) are necessary for full-colour work. These allow colour to be checked for accuracy, illustration positions and sizes to be verified and, if necessary, a final check to be made on changes requested earlier. When colour proofreading, the proofs should always be checked against the original artwork or photographs (see also paragraphs 16.379), and the relevant colour system. 18.14 Colour proofs are expensive; nevertheless, a revise colour proof should be ordered if changes are so complex as to make further checking essential. 18.15 A machine proof, or press proof, is the initial print of a work taken from the actual printing press assigned to print it. A press proof is ordered mainly for the verification of matching colours to the originals or to the latest approved chemical proof, where precise colours are critical to the quality of the job, and for matching colours across folds. They may also be required to ensure that important last-minute corrections have been made. Proofreading techniques 18.16 When errors are detected, standard proofreading marks should be used to indicate the nature of each correction. Some of the standard marks and their functions are discussed in paragraphs 18.4863. 18.17 Reading, as well as error detection, can be made easier by moving a piece of card down both proof and copy simultaneously, isolating each line as it is read from those that follow. 18.18 Corrections must be made in inkone colour for author or editors corrections (traditionally blue) and another (traditionally red) for typesetters errors. Alternatively, mistakes may be marked AE (author or editors error) or PE (printers error). Corrections to cameraready copy should never be necessary, but if unavoidable they should be made on a photocopy of the artwork rather than on the original material (the correction may be able to be made without the need to remake the artwork); if corrections do have to be noted on the artwork itself, they must be made in non-reproducing pencil. 18.19 Corrections need to be legible. Printers making corrections cannot be expected to decipher unclear writing or follow unnecessarily complicated instructions. Both practices are unacceptablethey increase the possibility of further errors and they cause expensive delays. 18.20 Unlike editorial markings made on the hard copy, corrections on proofs must be placed in the left-hand or right-hand margin adjacent to the line containing the error. Marks must be small so as not to run into another linewhich may also require a correction. Additions or corrections should never be written between lines of type because the person setting the corrections may not pick them up.

18.21 If more than one alteration is necessary in a line, the corrections should be marked in the margin (the one nearer the point of correction) from left to right in the order they are to be made. Every mark in the margin requires a mark in the line, and vice versa. A vertical line or slash separates one marginal correction from the next. 18.22 Guidelineslines drawn from the point in the text where the correction is to be made to the explanation of it in the marginare undesirable unless it is impossible for the correction to be placed next to the line. If guidelines have to be used, they should not cross each other; if they do (as in transposing several items in an index, for example) a different colour should be used for each. But not red or blue (see paragraph 18.18), as one of these has to be used for the marginal correction mark. 18.23 If a number of errors occur in the same section, the whole section should be crossed out and rewritten, since less time will be spent reading a rewritten passage than in working out where each individual correction should be made. A short correction can be written in the margin, but a longer one, or an addition, should be typed on separate paper and attached to the proof. Circle a note in the margin, reading insert attached, and mark a caret in the line to show where it goes. 18.24 Changes made in proofs often result in the introduction of new errors so proof corrections of any kind should be kept to a minimum. Sometimes, a late alteration to the text is unavoidable and this can cause problems in page proofs, where the position of an illustration or an indexed reference may be affected. Page reorganisation can be avoided if the author or editor ensures that any rewritten copy occupies the same amount of space as the original material. Authors should keep in mind that additions may be made less expensively in the first proofs than in later, imposed proofs. 18.25 The second proof is read against the first proof, not against the original copy, to ensure that all corrections have been made and that no further errors have been introduced. This can be done most efficiently by placing the two sets of proofs side by side and then checking to see that every correction has been made. Proofreaders must guard against the natural tendency to skip from one correction to the next; not only must each reset line be proofread carefully but also the lines above and below to ensure that these have not been affected by the change. Making a check list 18.26 There is no quick method of proofreading. Accurate proofreading requires good organisation and will involve several stages. Proofreaders should always begin by familiarising themselves with the particular publication they are going to correct, and from this reading draw up a list of the special points to be watched. Each point will need to be checked separately; in anything other than the most basic document it is impossible to check accurately, and in the one reading, the many components that might make up a particular publication. Figure 18.1 illustrates a possible check list, and the following paragraphs summarise common points to be watched. The proofreader should treat each item in the check list as a completely separate stage so that there is less likelihood of anything undesirable slipping through.
FIGURE 18.1

Proofreaders check list Spelling and punctuation errors Wordbreaks Orphans and widows Paragraph indention Spacing between lines and words Preliminary pages (prelims) Page numbers Lists Headingsrunning headlines and footlines, chapter headings, subheadings Table of contents List of illustrations Captions Tables, diagrams and figures Telephone numbers Addresses Endmatter Index Footnotes and references Cross-references SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION ERRORS

18.27 The proofreader must read slowly, against the copy, noting every letter in every word along with all the punctuation, and any line in which an error has been found should be read again. Missing characters, especially opening or closing quotes and parentheses (round brackets), can be easily overlooked if the reading is hurried. Although inconsistent spelling, capitalisation and punctuation within quotations should never be altered unless it differs from the copy supplied, such discrepancies should be queried and brought to the attention of the author or editor.
WORDBREAKS

18.28 End-of-line hyphens need careful checking, since wordbreaks which cause the reader to misread a word or mistake its meaning can not only mislead but also interrupt the sentence flow. The place at which a word may be broken depends largely on its pronunciation. For guidance in dividing words see Collins Gem Dictionary of Spelling and Word Division. 18.29 Hyphenation should not occur in two consecutive lines and never in three or more. Such a situation should be referred to the author since rewriting is often the only way to eliminate the problem. The hyphenation of shortened forms needs special care (see paragraphs 3.247). 18.30 Pages should not end with a divided word. While under some circumstances this might be acceptable on a left-hand page, it is never an option when a right-hand page is concerned.
ORPHANS AND WIDOWS

18.31 Pages should not end with a heading nor with only one or two lines of text following a headingit is better to let the page fall short and put the heading on the following page. Pages should not end with the first one or two lines of a new paragraph if it is preceded by paragraph

spacing (such lines are known as orphans)three lines of text should be regarded as the minimum allowable. Short lines at the top of a page (widows) can be eliminated by rewording (authors responsibility); by respacing the preceding line(s); or by letting the previous page go longer.
PARAGRAPH INDENTION

18.32 Paragraph structure must be consistent. For example, in normal text a paragraph set with the first line full out should not suddenly appear among paragraphs set with their first lines indented. Special care should be taken with subparagraph indentions, as style variations can be easily missed when subparagraphs occur pages apart. Doubtful instances should always be referred back to the editor or author.
SPACING BETWEEN LINES AND WORDS

18.33 There should be no noticeable irregularities in the spacing around headings and subheadings, or in the space between the end of one sentence and the beginning of the next in unjustified lines. Naturally, some variation in word spacing will occur in justified lines.
PRELIMINARY PAGES (PRELIMS)

18.34 Prelims should be checked to ensure that all information, such as cataloguing-inpublication (CIP) data from the National Library of Australia, the ISBN and / or ISSN, the copyright statement and the publishing history, has been included where appropriate, and that the page numbering (generally in roman numerals) is correct.
PAGE NUMBERS

18.35 Page numbers (folios) must be checked for sequence and to ensure that none are missing or repeated as a result of changes to content. Paragraph numbering can also be affected by changes to content. The addition or deletion of a paragraph will mean that all subsequent paragraphs must be renumbereda correction all too easy to miss.
LISTS

18.36 The indiscriminate use of dashes, bullets, figures or letters should be noted and referred back to the editor or author. Indentions should also be checked for consistency.
HEADINGS (RUNNING HEADLINES AND FOOTLINES, CHAPTER HEADINGS, SUBHEADINGS)

18.37 Headings need to be checked to make sure that the appropriate levels, type sizes and fonts have been used. Running headlines should relate to the chapter, section or page on which they occur. While the wording of the running lines is usually identical to the headings they repeat, proofreaders need to be aware that long chapter or section titles may have been abbreviated in the running line for reasons of space.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

18.38 Entries in the table of contents must match the headings contained in the text and page references must be correct. The proofreader should be told at the initial briefing who will be responsible (author, editor or proofreader) for inserting the page numbers in the contents table.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, FIGURES OR TABLES

18.39 The same applies as for the table of contents.

CAPTIONS

18.40 Captions should relate to the subject described; possible transpositions should be referred back to the editor or author. The typeface, type size and style of punctuation used must be consistent.
TABLES, DIAGRAMS AND FIGURES

18.41 All numbers, especially multiple digits, need careful checking. The best way to read numerals is character by characterfor example, 1979 should be read as one nine seven nine. Omissions and duplications in page numbers, footnote indicators, and notations in outlines and lists are frequently overlookedas are misplaced decimal points. Tables and illustrations should lie as close as practicable to their textual reference.
TELEPHONE NUMBERS

18.42 Telephone numbers must be treated consistently: 06 295 4411 in one place should not reappear as (06) 295 4411 further on.
ADDRESSES

18.43 A single publication should not contain such variations as:

AGPS GPO Box 84 CANBERRA, ACT, 2601 A.G.P.S G.P.O. BOX 84 CANBERRA A.C.T. 2601 AGPS GPO Box 84 Canberra ACT 2601

ENDMATTER

18.44 It is important to ensure that no endmatter has been omitted or transposed, and that page numbering is correct (see paragraphs 14.4664). Each appendix should begin on a new page, although short appendixes may run on. The space between each run-on appendix should be kept as consistent as possible.
FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES

18.45 Footnotes must always fallor at least commenceon the same page as their references. See also paragraphs 14.10814.

CROSS-REFERENCES

18.46 If a publication contains references to illustrations, tables, sections and equation numbers, the proofreader must ensure that they are accurate.
INDEX

18.47 The index, if based on page numbers, cannot be completed until after the final pagination has been settled. Once it is typeset, it should be checked by the indexer. Indexes based on paragraph or section numbers are not dependent on page make-upunless page numbers are also included, which sometimes happens. The standard marks 18.48 Standard proofreading marks have evolved over many years and are an unambiguous and widely recognised means of indicating required corrections. Some of the more frequently used marks are explained in paragraphs 18.4963 and are illustrated in figures 18.2 and 18.3.
FIGURE 18.2 Symbols for correcting proofs FIGURE 18.3 The readers proof

Chinese (Overseas)
Forms of address used among chinese living outside China are generally different from those employed in the Peoples Republic of China. Pronunciation and romanization vary according to the dialect, for example Tan and Chan are the same name in Hokien and Cantonese respectively. Spelling frequently varies toconform with European orthography, e.g. Chong in Singapore and Hong Kong (British spelling) is rendered Tjong in Indonesia (Dutch spelling). Chinese who have lived in Indon-China often adopt a Gallic spelling, for example Qui for Kee. The outdated English romanization system mentioned above is more commonly used by Manderin speakers outside the Peoples Republic of China. The following points should be noted. Normally, English-speaking Chinese men are referred to by non-Chinese as Mr and unmarried women as Miss. Although women in the Peoples Republic of China do not change their family names on marriage, most Chinese women outside that country would accept being addressed by their husbands name preceded by Mrs, and indeed would expect to be so

addressed. Lim Yew Lee, for example, should be addressed oral ly as Mr Lim, not Mr Lee. In correspondence the three names should be used. Among close friends and family members he would usually be addressed on the familiar level as Yew Lee. - Owing to Western influence, some overseas Chinese place their Family names last and signify the change by linking the personal names with a hyphen, for example Mr Yew-Lee Lim. Sometimes the personal names are abbreviated to initials for busines spurposes, for example Mr Y. L. Lim When the Malaysian titles Dato or Tun are bestowed on Malaysian Chinese, the full Chinese name is used, for example Tun Tan Seiw Sin, when first mentioned. Later, Tun Tan may be used.

The passage used for figures 18.3 and 18.4 is taken from Robert Hyslop, Dear You: A Guide to Forms of Address, AGPS Press, Canberra, 1991. 18.49 The delete mark is used only when something is to be removed from a line. It should never be used when another letter, word or words, line or paragraph is to be inserted in place of the deleted matter. A diagonal line through a letter to be deleted, or a straight line through a word or words to be deleted, indicates where the deletion is to be made. Anything needing to be removed should not be so obscured by heavy marking that the person making the corrections cannot distinguish which characters to take out. If a comma or full stop, or even a single letter, will be completely covered by the textual delete mark then it may be circled instead, so that it is still visible. The form of the delete mark written in the margin need not be exactly as shown in figure 18.2, but it should be made in such a way that it cannot be confused with any handwritten letter, such as d, e or l. Where a letter is to be deleted from the middle of a word, the delete mark may be written within close up marks (paragraph 18.50). This composite mark is called the delete and close up mark. 18.50 Too much space between letters, words or lines is corrected by the close up mark. This is used in both the line and the margin. Sometimes a word space is misplaced so that the last letter of one word appears at the beginning of the next. When this happens, the close up mark followed by a space mark (paragraph 18.51) is written in the margin, and a close up mark and a vertical linein the appropriate positionare made in the line. 18.51 The space mark is used when more space between words is required. A vertical line or caret indicates where the space is to be inserted. If word spaces in a single line are unequal, the equal space sign is written in the margin and carets are inserted in the place where the problem occurs. Note that spacing between words in two successive lines is not always the same in justified setting. 18.52 A paragraph mark ( ) in the margin tells the keyboard operator to start a new paragraph. In the line, either another paragraph mark before the first word of the new paragraph

or, more commonly, a mark to the left and partly under the word will show where to begin the paragraph. 18.53 To run two paragraphs together, run on is written in the margin and a line drawn from the end of one paragraph to the beginning of the next. 18.54 The need for vertical alignment is rare with computer-generated output; its use is mainly confined to tables.
FIGURE 18.4 The corrected proof

Chinese (Overseas)
Forms of address used among Chinese living outside China are generally different from those employed in the Peoples Republic of China. Pronunciation and romanisation vary according to the dialect, for example Tan and Chan are the same name in Hokkien and Cantonese respectively. Spelling frequently varies to conform with European orthography, for example Chong in Singapore and Hong Kong (British spelling) is rendered Tjong in Indonesia (Dutch spelling). Chinese who have lived in Indo-China often adopt a Gallic spelling, for example Qui for Kee. The outdated English romanisation system mentioned above is more commonly used by Mandarin speakers outside the Peoples Republic of China. The following points should be noted: Normally, English-speaking Chinese men are referred to by non-Chinese as Mr and unmarried women as Miss. Although women in the Peoples Republic of China do not change their family names on marriage, most Chinese women outside that country would accept being addressed by their husbands name preceded by Mrs, and indeed would expect to be so addressed. Lim Yew Lee, for example, should be addressed orally as Mr Lim, not Mr Lee. In correspondence the three names should be used. Among close friends and family members he would usually be addressed on the familiar level as Yew Lee. Owing to western influence, some overseas Chinese place their family names last and signify the change by linking the personal names with a hyphen, for example Mr Yew-Lee Lim. Sometimes the personal names are abbreviated to initials for business purposes, for example Mr Y. L. Lim.

 There is a trend among urban, western-educated Chinese to add a western Christian name to their given names, for example Peter Lim Yew Lee, who may be known as Peter Lim or P. Y. L. Lim. When the Malay titles Dato or Tun are bestowed on Malaysian Chinese, the full Chinese name is used, for example Tun Tan Siew Sin, when first mentioned. Later, Tun Tan may be used.

18.55 The mark for transposing is used for letters, words, phrases, lines, paragraphs indeed for anything that needs to be moved from one position to another. The indication of where the transposition is to be made in the line is drawn in the same way as in editing a manuscript but trs must appear in the margin in proofs so that the change can be clearly seen. 18.56 Abbreviations or figures to be spelled out should be circled in the line and spell out written in the margin. Note that spelling out something in the text makes the line, and possibly the paragraph and page, longer. If there could be any doubt about the spelling, the full word should be written in the margin, rather than spell out. 18.57 The word stet is used when something earlier marked for alteration is to remain unchanged. Dots or hyphens under the crossed-out material indicate what is to remain. Where a note in the margin is also crossed out, stet as set will clarify what to let stand. 18.58 To mark a change from capitals to lower case, a diagonal line is drawn through the letter and l.c. written in the margin. 18.59 To mark a change from lower case to capitals, three lines are drawn under the letter (or letters) and cap (or caps) written in the margin. 18.60 To supply a character where none appears, a caret is placed at the spot and the required character shown in the margin. 18.61 An apostrophe or quotation mark should have a reversed caret beneath it, to indicate its superior position. 18.62 A full stop, when noted in the margin, should be circled so that it can be clearly seen. 18.63 Semicolons, colons, question marks and exclamation marks, if written clearly, need no further identifying marks, except that a question mark that might be mistaken for a query should be followed by set within a circle.

19 Indexes
19.1 The aim of this chapter is to explain basic indexing concepts and practices, and to discuss aspects of the working relationship between those producing a publication and the person indexing it. It is not the aim of this chapter to provide lessons in indexing; the Bibliography lists books more suited to that purpose. For those interested, The Indexer, the quarterly journal of the (British) Society of Indexers and affiliated societies in Australia, Canada and the United States, and the Australian Society of Indexers' Newsletter, cover specific points in detail. Training courses are also run by the Australian society; these provide contact with experienced indexers, who not only impart knowledge but also answer questions. 19.2 Conventions are followed in preparing an index but the quality of the product is the result of the indexer's proficiency. A measure of an indexer's proficiency is the way he or she decides to index a particular concept. Ideas vary. The final form of the index may also be the result of more mundane factors such as author or publisher requirements as to length and what 'must' be indexed. What is an index? 19.3 An index is an efficient means of locating particular information in a publication. It is not always necessary; for instance, a simple directory with well-structured headings may not need one as the arrangement of the material allows the reader to find subject matter easily. However, as the detail and complexity of a text increases, so it becomes more difficult to find specific material, and an index becomes necessary. The value and usefulness of a publication, especially a reference work, is enhanced if information can be found quickly and easily through an index. An index in a government report helps its credibility as an authoritative source of information. 19.4 An index identifies all significant concepts mentioned in the text of a publication and describes them aptly ('text' includes any accompanying material such as footnotes, tables and captions). Descriptions in the index are generally arranged in alphabetical order, but another logical arrangement may be used in certain casesthe arrangement of biographical information in chronological order, for example. An index also links related concepts by pointing to those which are the same ('doctors' and 'medical practitioners'), similar ('doctors' and 'nurses') or which qualify one or another ('doctors' and 'general practitioners' or 'specialists'). 19.5 This ability to show relationships between concepts is what uniquely defines an index. In this respect it is different from a list of computer-generated key words or any other form of concordance. Without human intervention, a computer cannot link synonymous concepts ('Australian Government Publishing Service' with 'AGPS', for example), nor major headings with qualifying or more precise ones ('housing' and 'loans' to 'home loans', for example); it cannot judge whether it is necessary to make such links. Indexers are people with training and experience in making such decisions and judgments.

Components of an index 19.6 An index is composed of entries arranged logically. Each entry consists of two parts: headings, which describe features of the text that are significant; and references, which locate or assist in locating the required information in the text. These are explained in the following paragraphs.
HEADINGS

19.7 Main headings define major concepts and are arranged alphabetically. Subheadings define particular aspects of a major concept and are arranged in a new alphabetical sequence subordinate to the main heading (alphabetical arrangements are described in paras 19.2538). In the example below, 'abbreviations' is a main heading and 'law report titles' and 'legislative' are subheadings.
abbreviations, 96, 978 law report titles, 158 legislative, 106, 148

The initial letter of the first word in the heading need be capitalised only if it is a proper noun.
REFERENCES

Page references 19.8 Page references identify the page or pages on which the information about the concept is given in the text, although they need not always refer to a page number. The index to this manual, for example, refers to the more specific paragraph number(s) which discuss a subject; similarly, legislation indexes generally refer to the sections or subsections of an Act rather than to the page. All such references are arranged in numerical order following the heading. 19.9 Treatment. Some indexers omit the comma separating the heading and the first page reference. This practice can sometimes cause confusion, as in the following example where figures appear in both heading and reference:
F111, 112 not F111 112

19.10 When a subject is continuously discussed over consecutive pages of text, the span is shown by identifying the first and last pages:
cars, 415

19.11 On the other hand, incidental references to a subject on successive pages are generally indicated by listing each page:
cars, 41, 42

19.12 Two treatments are possible for incidental references occurring over several pages. The major subject may be further defined by subheadings:
cars design, 41, 45, 467

safety standards, 41, 44, 48 seat belts, 434, 45, 48

or, where the range of minor subjects covered varies or occurs on every page, a simpler solution may be to treat the various references as if they were single and continuous:
cars, 4152

19.13 Sometimes it is useful to distinguish between the different formatstextual, tabular, illustrativein which a concept is referred to. This can be done by italicising or bolding page references to a specific format. It is normal practice to explain this in an introduction to the index. Cross-references 19.14 Cross-references (see, see also) are a less direct mechanism for locating information. They do not lead index users into the text but to other entries under which page references relating to the required information can be found. 19.15 See references lead from a term not used in the index (and possibly not found in the text) to one which is used as a heading. They appear after the rejected heading in the manner of a page reference:
legislation, see Acts; subordinate legislation

or are inverted under it as if a subheading:

Acts see legislation

19.16 See also references lead from one heading in the index to another under which related or more specific references may be found. They often appear as the last element of the subheading structure regardless of alphabetical order:
abbreviations, 7.35, 7.914 in addresses, 7.1922 see also acronyms; contractions

or they may appear after the main heading:

abbreviations (see also acronyms; contractions), 7.35, 7.914 in addresses, 7.1922

19.17 Cross-references made to headings that do not exist in the index are called dead references. They indicate careless editing of the index by the indexer. Double indexing 19.18 Skill in selecting and using appropriate cross-references is one of the principal hallmarks of a good indexer. Knowing when it is more efficient to double indexindex the same page references at two different headings instead of using cross-referencesis another. For example, double indexing is more economical as well as more efficient in the example below:

AGPS, 80 Australian Government Publishing Service, 80

compared with:
AGPS, see Australian Government Publishing Service Australian Government Publishing Service, 80

Indexing practices
READING THE TEXT

19.19 It is not good practice to rely on computer identification of key words. The indexer must read the text and all accompanying material (such as appendixes, tables, illustrations, captions) right through at least once. She or he will then make an analysis of the text and judge which conceptspeople, places, objects and subjectsare significant. Later, in the course of constructing the index, the indexer will re-read most sections of the book in order to refine headings that have been established, and to check whether references already made retain their significance as further references to the same or related points are found.
SIGNIFICANCE

19.20 Indexers do not include every reference to a concept which appears in the text. The fullest possible reference is given together with any other references adding new information. References which do not add to those already established are discarded as insignificant. 19.21 As an example, a reference to Dame Mary Gilmore being born in 1865 will be included in the index heading as 'Gilmore, Dame Mary (18651962)' if this information is not given elsewhere in the text. However, it will be excluded if this information is given elsewhere with more details about her life and work. It may also be excluded if no other details are given at the reference and the index entry supplies the information, or if this is the only mention (a passing reference) of Dame Mary Gilmore in the work.
INDEXING LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE CONTROL

19.22 Having identified a significant concept, an indexer attempts to describe the concept clearly and succinctly and, as far as possible, in the manner and style of the text. One of the basic principles followed by back-of-the-book indexers (indexers of monographs which are complete in themselves) is that a concept should be described as far as possible in the author's words. This approach does not preclude indexers from using other, related terms under which, in their judgment, potential readers may first look for information, even if these terms are not mentioned in the text.

19.23 Indexers usually distinguish between what would otherwise appear to be synonymous terms by adding a modifying word or phrase after the heading. Modifiers may be more precise subject termsto distinguish between awards given to honour someone from industrial awards, for exampleor biographical or other details to differentiate between people and places with the same name.
awards (honours) awards (industrial) Blanchard, Mary (19001984) Blanchard, Mary (1910) Wellington (New South Wales) Wellington (New Zealand)

19.24 In indexes in multiauthor works such as reports and conference proceedings, where variations in terminology can occur, it is necessary to provide links by way of cross-references, and double indexing is necessary if all relevant references are to be identified by the reader. In large or continuing projects, it is essential to maintain a thesaurus (a record of decisions made about headings to be used or not to be used in the index, as well as the cross-referencing between them) to ensure indexing consistency. Such projects include journals, annual reports and other publications of a continuing nature; large files such as encyclopedias or databases; and major works involving a team of indexers.
ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT

19.25 The alphabetical sequence of main headings may be arranged in two ways: word-byword or letter-by-letter. 19.26 In the word-by-word arrangement, each word in a compound heading (those consisting of two or more words, including hyphenated noun or adjectivenoun combinations) is ordered separately. The space or hyphen separating such words is given precedence over alphabetic characters falling in a corresponding position in single-word headings. Thus:
New England New South Wales Newcastle

In this arrangement 'New England' is arranged before 'New South Wales' (the first four characters are of equal value, but then 'E' precedes 'S'), and 'New South Wales' (n, e, w, space) is arranged before 'Newcastle' (n, e, w, c) because the space takes alphabetical precedence over the 'c'. 19.27 The space is ignored in a letter-by-letter arrangement. 'Newcastle' (n, e, w, c), therefore, would precede both 'New England' (n, e, w, e) and 'New South Wales' (n, e, w, s). 19.28 The word-by-word arrangement is the more commonly used in Australiait is used in the white pages of the telephone book, for example.

Definite and indefinite articles 19.29 Initial articles are generally used in headings only in place names like 'The Hague'. If the indexer chooses not to invert the heading to 'Hague, The', the article is ignored in determining the arrangement and the heading will appear in the 'h' sequence. 19.30 Initial articles in foreign names may be considered in determining the arrangement if the indexer believes that readers will look for the phrase under that word. For example an index to a restaurant guide may file 'La Dolce Vita' under 'l'. Family names, including initial articles, are filed under the most commonly used form:
de la Mare, Walter la Fontaine, Jean de

19.31 In both of the above cases, the indexer decides if references should be made under a different form of the name. According to the book, he or she may do this for La Dolce Vita and Jean de la Fontaine, but is less likely to do this for Walter de la Mare. 19.32 Non-initial articles appearing in headings are treated as words (or letters) in determining the filing arrangement. Prepositions 19.33 Prepositions are used to avoid ambiguity:
books by children for children about spending spending on

19.34 Whether initial prepositions in subheadings should be considered in determining the alphabetical arrangement of subheadings is a matter of debate among indexers. In the example above, the primary arrangement is determined by the key word. However, some indexers consider that this practice is an unnecessary complication and that the preposition is important enough in its contribution to the phrase's meaning to determine the arrangement:
books about spending by children for children spending on

19.35 Non-initial prepositions appearing in main headings or subheadings are treated as words (or letters) in determining the filing arrangement. Shortened forms in names 19.36 For ease of reference, names spelt differently but pronounced the same should be filed together. Family names beginning with Mac, Mc and M' are an example and are best filed as if spelt Mac:
macadamia nuts MacArthur, A. B.

M'Cay, Henry M'Cay, Dame Margaret McEwen, E. Frederic machines Macintosh, Catherine

19.37 Similarly, Saint and St are best filed as if spelt Saint:

St Ledger, Senator A. A. J. St Ledger, Frederick St Lucia Saint-Simon, Claude Henri de Rouvroy

Both practices are followed in the telephone book. Honorifics 19.38 As the above examples show, honorifics ('Senator', 'Dame', 'Dr' etc.) preceding the given name or first initial do not affect the alphabetical arrangement of the name or initial. Some indexers arrange the entry as if the honorific appears as the final element of the headingin effect:
St Ledger, A. A. J., Senator INTRODUCTION TO THE INDEX

19.39 The practices discussed above are common indexing conventions but they may not be fully understood by everyone who refers to an index. A short introduction explaining the basic properties in simple, non-technical language may assist some readers. An introduction is essential where unusual features occur: the special use of shortened forms (see para. 7.55); the highlighting of page numbers (by bolding or italicising, as already noted in para. 19.13) which refer to illustrations, captions or tables; or the alphabetical, letter-by-letter arrangement of the index. The mechanics of indexing 19.40 Headings and references may be recorded on cards or slips of paper of uniform size, one heading (or main heading and subheading) per card. As the indexing proceeds these are sorted in alphabetical sequence in a box. When indexing is completed, a typed version is prepared for submission. 19.41 Computer programs can also be used to assist in preparing an index. Those associated with word processing programs are not well adapted to the particular requirements of index preparation. However, specialist indexing software packages are available that contain features such as automatic sorting, searching and thesaurus creation which allow the indexer to concentrate on index creation rather than the mechanics behind it. Time is also saved since the index can be submitted in machine-readable form (on disk), obviating the need for rekeyboarding and proofreading. 19.42 Software packages assist indexers in the indexing process; they are not the indexers.

How many indexes? 19.43 Some publications commonly have more than one index. Law reports, for example, usually have separate indexes to cases, legislation and subjects. Many bibliographies either have separate author, title and subject indexes, or have a combined authortitle index but a separate subject index. 19.44 The advantage of a combined index is that more relevant references can be found at a single heading or sequence of headings. References to works written by an author will appear under the same heading as those of which she or he is the subject:
White, Patrick biographies

19.45 Books and articles about the author's works will appear with the references to the works themselves:
Tree of man reviews

19.46 Titles act as qualifiers of major subjects:

science marine Science and technology statement

19.47 The disadvantage of two or more indexes is that readers, particularly those who are 'once-off', may not realise that there are other indexes apart from the one they find when they turn to the back of the book. When does indexing begin? 19.48 An indexer may wish to see a relatively early version of a manuscript to make an initial assessment of the text and to estimate the time that will be required to provide a quote for carrying out the work. Early acquaintance may also enable the indexer to make notes about or annotate the text. When index references are to paragraph numbers, indexing can begin once the text has been finalised; but when references are to page numbers, indexing must wait until all pages have been correctly folioed, and the final page proofs or camera-ready pages have been cleared. 19.49 The work should be checked for completeness and to ensure that all pages are in order and are correctly numbered before being sent to the indexer. A wise indexer will also repeat this procedure on receipt of the material. 19.50 If minor amendments are made to the proofs, they should be legibly written and should not alter the paginationif they do, paste-ups of the amended pages at least should be provided to the indexer. If copies of tables and other illustrative matter are provided separately, the number of the page on which they fall should be clearly marked on them; if not provided, they can be indexed to the detail given in the relevant title or caption only.

19.51 Senior executive approval of a publication like the annual report of a government agency should be obtained before indexing commences. Contracting an indexer 19.52 As noted earlier, the index cannot be produced until a relatively late stage of the production cycle. However, early consultation with the indexer will allow the publisher to allocate adequate space to the index and a reasonable time in the publishing schedule for the compilation of the index. 19.53 Booking an indexer in advance of the text being finalised will ensure that there are no delays in commencing the index. Many indexers have other full-time jobs; at certain times of the year indexers may be in demandthe annual report period for government agencies, for example. Booking in advance will also allow any possible compatibility problems between textpreparation and index-preparation software to be overcome. 19.54 Indexers can be identified from a number of sources: recommendation, advertising or calling for expressions of interest, the telephone book and the Australian Society of Indexers. The society has branches in Melbourne, Sydney and Canberra, and members Australia-wide. 19.55 Established publishers have their own lists of indexers and contractual arrangements. For the occasional contractor, the selection of an indexer usually starts with an examination of an indexer's portfolio of previous work. This provides the opportunity for the contractor to examine the quality and variety of the indexer's work and gives the indexer a chance to explain his or her approach. 19.56 In a subsequent briefing, the selected indexer will expect the contractor to explain the purpose of the publication and its market, and to discuss what should or must be covered in the indexfor example, if bibliographical references are to be indexed; or the names of people, places or things, when these appear only in captions to illustrations. Decisions such as these cannot wait until the index is handed in. 19.57 At a minimum, the indexer's portfolio should consist of three previous works, the number that the Australian Society of Indexers requires for its own assessments. At least one of these works should be of a similar nature to the publication being indexed. 19.58 Back-of-the-book indexers must have a good understanding of the principles of editorial style so that they may produce an index that is editorially compatible with the publication. This eliminates a great deal of unnecessary copyediting.
BRIEFS AND QUOTES

19.59 Before a quotation can be provided, the indexer will need to examine the publication in order to establish its scope and level of detail. Obviously, the more complex the work the longer it takes to index. 19.60 If physical examination is not possible, a brief should be prepared by the contractor giving details about:

the extent or estimated extent of the publication; its broad subject matter and coverage; any special features that it contains; its intended market; the anticipated date for delivery to the indexer; time allowed for indexing; and any special requirements regarding the index's contentincluding the indexing of special features like tables, captions and illustrative matterand its length, format or submission.

19.61 An indexer's quote should normally be in writing and give details of: the cost of the job; the date on which it will be ready for submission; the form in which it will be submitted; and any other points raised in discussion with the contracting person or in the brief.

19.62 Acceptance of the quote means that both parties agree on these details. Any variation similarly requires the agreement of both parties. Working with indexers 19.63 An indexer will record queries she or he has about the text and will generally contact the contractor to resolve them in the final stages of indexing. A conscientious indexer will also make notes about textual inconsistencies, which should be resolved before the index is submitted if they have a bearing on it. For example, an event may be recorded as occurring on different dates in different parts of the book: both references may be significant if they are dates quoted by different sources but they may simply be an author's or printer's error. When inconsistencies have no bearing on the final index, they can be explained in a letter accompanying the index when it is submitted. However, the indexer should contact the contractor immediately with any query which may affect paginationrepeated textual matter, illustrative matter which appears to have been omitted, or text which is incomplete. 19.64 Indexers take pride in their work. Most would be pleased to make arrangements to scan proofs of the index to ensure its integrityif machine-readable copy has been supplied, full proofreading should not be requiredand to offer comments to ensure its readability and quality. This is important if the index has been shortened or otherwise revised after it has been delivered by the indexer. 19.65 Most indexers would also welcome some acknowledgment of their work in the publication. This should be presented in the same way that other contributors to the publication, such as editors and designers, are acknowledged.

20 Publishing
20.1 The term 'publishing' is all too often misunderstood. It is sometimes confused with 'printing', although printing is only one part of the publishing process. Similarly, its use is not justified in the term 'desktop publishing'. 20.2 Publishing comprises a number of diverse operationssome may occur even before the author has written anything (market identification, for example) and others during and after the printing and binding (marketing, selling, distribution). 20.3 This chapter provides a brief description of these operations in relation to commercial book publishing and government publishing in Australia. The term 'desktop publishing' was coined when it became possible not only to create and edit a manuscript via computer, but also to use the computer to design the layout, set the type and produce finished pages, thus enabling one person to carry out the functions of five: author, editor, designer, typesetter and printer Commercial publishing 20.4 Commercial publishers aim to publish books which will return a profit. Sales must at least recoup costs, and if risks are taken on marginal enterprises, any losses must be offset by profits on other books.
ACQUISITION OF MANUSCRIPTS

20.5 Many books are commissioned, but writers also produce manuscripts on their own initiative and submit them to publishers, often initially in the form of synopses or sample chapters. While many publishers welcome unsolicited manuscripts, relatively few are accepted for publication. Generally, the publisher's first consideration is whether a manuscriptregardless of meritis appropriate to the publishing list. For example, a publisher of fine art books will have no interest in a physics textbook and will therefore not accept it for publication. There are other reasons: the subject may be too obscure or relate to an already saturated market; the cost and effort needed to bring the manuscript up to standard may be out of proportion to any financial return; or the quality of the writing may simply be too poor for the work to be considered. 20.6 In the case of commissioned books, either the publisher perceives the need for a certain kind of book and commissions an author to write it, or an author conceives an idea for a book and seeks a commission by submitting a brief outline to the publisher. 20.7 Full-time professional writers generally use literary agents to negotiate the sale of their manuscripts and the terms of their contracts. Literary agents also look out for promising authors and ideas; they may generate ideas for books themselves, or find writers to realise those that originate with publishers.

CONTRACTS

20.8 When a manuscript has been accepted for publication, the publisher and the author normally sign a contractand it is certainly preferable that they do so. Contracts must be expressed clearly and precisely to prevent misunderstandings, and take full account of the interests of the parties concerned. 20.9 The contract will specify that the author be paid either a fee or a royalty. A fee is full payment, usually paid in stated amounts at agreed stagesfor example, an 'up-front' amount paid on signing the contract, with further payments on acceptance of final manuscript, for checking proofs and on publication. Payment by fee means that the author can make no further monetary claim once payment is completed. A royalty is an amount calculated as a percentage of either the recommended retail price of the book or of the revenue earned by the publisher on sales. The contract may make provision for an advance payment based on projected royalties, and also for an increase in the percentage when agreed sales levels are reached. Usually, different royalties are paid on hardcover and paperback sales. 20.10 Contracts should pay particular attention to subsidiary rights. These are the rights, retained by the author or the publisher, either wholly by one or partially by both, to reproduce the work in other forms besides the book form specified in the contract. Thus subsidiary rights include the right of publication in anthologies, periodicals and so on; and the right to adapt the work for film, audio, video, dramatisation, translation, electronic, serial and picturisation (retelling the story in illustrational form).
EDITING

20.11 Basically, editors acquire manuscripts (commissioning editors) and edit them (desk editors, copyeditors). Major publishers may have managing or supervising editors and assistant editors; while in small firms editors may perform commissioning as well as other editing tasks, although much of the copyediting is put out to freelance editors. 20.12 As their name suggests, commissioning editors are 'talent scouts' who commission manuscripts for which they believe there is a market. These manuscripts go to make up the publisher's list, which is a list of titles to be published over the year. They may also negotiate contracts and subsidiary rights. 20.13 Desk editors are responsible for the substantive (structural) editing of the manuscript, for managing the progress of the work through the production stages and for securing permissions for the use of copyright material. They are also involved in decisions on the design of the book. 20.14 Copyeditors correct manuscripts. They check punctuation, spelling, syntax and grammar; look for textual inconsistencies; and ensure that the manuscript is stylistically consistent.

MARKETING

20.15 Marketing is an integral part of the publishing process, not just an afterthought. It plays a role in the success or failure of every book produced. 20.16 Development of a marketing strategy begins as soon assometimes even beforea manuscript has been accepted for publication. Once a market and price has been identified for a book, the textual approach, design and presentation can be oriented to best exploit that market. Pricing 20.17 The recommended retail price (RRP) is based on the estimated costs of marketing, advertising and promotion, production (including preparation and run-on), royalties, distribution and overheads; account is also taken of the maximum trade terms that will be offered to retailers. Each of these costs can be calculated as a fixed sum of money per book unit or as a percentage of the final RRP. 20.18 There is no legal obligation in Australia to sell any product at the RRP. Trade terms 20.19 Publishers commonly offer a sliding scale of trade discounts to distributors and booksellers. A bulk purchase of a particular title represents not only a substantial sum of money but also an implied intention to promote that publication and display it prominently. Consequently, the distributor or bookseller expects to receive a higher trade discount than might otherwise be offeredeither for the individual title or for the whole account. A bookseller buying only a few copies, however, still expects trade terms. The marketer has therefore to work out an anticipated average trade discount for each title and take account of it when setting the RRP. 20.20 Other trade terms may be offered to library suppliers. To promote new titles, the publisher may also offer discounts (prepublication prices, for example) to the book-buying public. Changes to RRP 20.21 Price increases are inevitable during periods of inflation; even warehoused stocks may be affected if inflation has caused overhead and marketing costs to rise beyond the publisher's capacity to absorb them. In all cases, the publisher must inform the bookseller of the increases as early as possible. 20.22 The RRP of a new or revised edition of a title will be affected by changes to content and possibly to format and design. The bookseller will be advised of the new price, and the scheduled publication and release dates. Promotion 20.23 Book promotionbefore and after publicationis aimed at generating sales and opening up new markets. 20.24 Media releases and advertising, point-of-sale advertising, television and radio interviews with authors, book launches and reviews are all means of promoting a title. The distribution of

complimentary copies (review copies, for example) and of promotional aidssuch as book covers and jackets, posters, counterpacks and dump binssubstantially increase costs, but since total production costs are averaged out over the number of copies printed for sale, the additional cost per title unit attributable to promotion expenses is not great.
PRODUCTION

20.25 Production begins once the publisher has determined the book's market, its selling price, the budget available and the projected publication date. Decisions are taken concerning the quality and format of the book, the design approach and the production schedule. If the book is to be illustrated, the nature of the illustrations, their treatment and likely cost will be considered. Materialspaper, cover stock and so onand the method of manufacture have to be specified. 20.26 As most books are manufactured under contract, the publisher's production department must know designers, typesetters and printers who are capable of doing the work to the standard required. Design and illustration 20.27 The publisher may need the services of a graphic designer for the design of the more complex publications or for revised editions that need revitalising. It may also be necessary to contract a specialist illustrator or photographer. 20.28 The designer works to a brief given by the publisher, and provides any layout, copy mark-up or artwork that is required. Complex work is planned in consultation with the publisher's production staff or with the printer to ensure that the production processes are economically consistent with the design, and with the quality required. Contracting designers and illustrators 20.29 There are many designers and illustrators, and the difficulty lies in selecting one who is suitable, and who will produce the job required within the time agreed. The publisher's files contain the names of qualified people, their specialisations, reliability and fees. These files are reviewed regularly. 20.30 The designer and illustrator should be briefed together. Independent briefings and second-hand advice may make it difficult for the designer to reconcile the illustration work with the overall design. The direct involvement of the designer allows potential problems to be dealt with before their consequences become serious. Similarly, it is essential that the illustrator understand the designer's intentions. 20.31 Agreements between publisher and designer or illustrator should be in writing, and should stipulate (among other things) the full copyright and ownership arrangements, the extent of the work to be done, the fee and the time for completion. Production costs 20.32 Production costs are basically of two kinds: fixed costs and variable costs ('run-on'). Fixed costs include the costs of editing; design and artwork; print preparationtypesetting,

page make-up; platemaking; and machine make-readies. Variable costs include the costs of the paper and other materials used, machine running time (the actual printing and binding processes), packing and delivery. Final estimates are normally in cost per unitthat is, the total fixed costs plus the total variable costs, divided by the quantity. The number of books in an edition can influence the unit cost; in other words, it will be cheaper per unit to produce 10 000 copies than 1000 copies. The publisher must balance this factor against sales expectations to establish the viable print run. 20.33 Every book is an entity with its own problemscontracts to be agreed, designs approved and schedules drawn up for the many production processes. Failure to meet any part of the schedule will result in increased costs and may delay publication. Production can take from several months to well over a year. Publications can, however, be produced quickly if topicality and the potential market provide sufficient inducement, but this is usually at the expense of other work and can involve severe cost penalty.
SALES

20.34 There are a number of outlets for a publisher's books. 20.35 Distributors. Many publishers contract distribution agencies to handle the distribution of their books, on the basis of either direct sale to the agency (at a discount of RRP) or on consignment. With consignment, the distributor takes an agreed quantity to sell on behalf of the publisher, and pays the publisher only for what is sold. The contract terms take into account the distributor's costs, such as storage, marketing and dispatch. 20.36 General booksellers. Since general booksellers are in close touch with the reading public, publishers devote much of their sales attention to them. It is particularly important that they be provided as soon as possible with full details of new titles. This is usually done by the sales representatives working for the publisher. To develop and improve their contacts with general booksellers, publishers can generally obtain (for a fee) the membership lists of the various book trade associations and the lists of subscribers to trade magazines. 20.37 Mail-order sales. Mail-order selling is becoming increasingly common, particularly for specialist publications. To use this method successfully, publishers have to develop comprehensive mailing lists, and computer software is readily available for this purpose. Previous clients, institutions and organisations, people with specialist interests, professional associations and clients of related companies or groups generally form the bases of such lists. 20.38 Academic bookshops. Since the nature of an educational establishment largely determines the nature of the books carried by the bookshop servicing it, selling to such bookshops will depend on the nature of the publisher's books. Publishers also have to bear in mind that as emphasis is naturally placed on academic titlesand particularly those that appear on prescribed reading listsonly a limited range of general titles (including fiction) will probably be carried.

20.39 If a publisher's authors are themselves members of the teaching staff of an educational establishment and if their books are on the prescribed reading lists, little usually needs to be done in the way of individual title promotion. 20.40 Book clubs. Book clubs have certain advantages over retail booksellers: they do not need premises in areas where there is considerable pedestrian traffic; fewer sales assistants are required, as most business is conducted by mail or telephone; and it is unnecessary to maintain the sort of premises that will attract customers. 20.41 However, the nature of a book club's operation is such that it must spend heavily on promotional materials and have first-class computerised systems for processing orders, excellent financial management and strict inventory control. Servicing sales 20.42 Efficient delivery, accounting, reporting on orders and assistance with sales campaigns, as well as comprehensive follow-up, are all essential parts of the service provided by the publisher to the bookseller. Publishers have well-defined policies for dealing with such matters as replacement of faulty copies; sale or return of stock; warehousing; freight payment; special delivery arrangements for urgent orders; credit period allowed; drop shipments to different branches of the same bookseller; single-copy orders and surcharges (if any); and remainder sales of discontinued titles (see para. 20.46). Distribution techniques and policies 20.43 The efficient distribution of publications requires constant review of distribution lists and maintenance of up-to-date mailing records. Computerisation makes these operations relatively simple. 20.44 Specialist publications have only a limited marketability, and their distribution may not require the normal commercial marketing procedures. However, each publisher concerned has an established policy for these publications, one that covers such matters as the unit price offered to groups or individuals; any other pricing structure for sales through commercial channels; automatic delivery methods; and any free distribution. Disposal of stock 20.45 A bookshop may still have some copies of a title left when advised of the publication date of a new edition. It then has several options, depending on the terms agreed with the publisher when the order was placed: have a special promotion to clear stocks before the new edition appears; reduce the selling price; or return the unsold copies (or ask the publisher to help it transfer stock within the trade). 20.46 When publishers decide to stop selling a title and to dispose of the remaining stock, the stock may be withdrawn, written off and sold for scrap or pulped; offered at a fraction of cost to wholesalers, who will try to sell it in bulk lots to booksellers (such books are known as 'remainders'); or offered to booksellers at a reduced price.

Government publishing 20.47 Government publishers generally provide a centralised publishing service for Parliaments (Hansard, for example) and government organisations. This essentially entails meeting urgent, confidential and security publishing requirements and ensuring wide public access to government information. 20.48 Government publishers differ from commercial publishers mainly in the nature of the material they publish. Not all of this can generate a profit, as many government publications are produced under obligation to the taxpayer, and losses on these titles can be quite heavy. 20.49 Usually, government publishers do not take publishing decisions; instead, each government organisation decides what it will publish in its particular sphere of activity. The government publisher is in a position to provide the necessary coordination and expertise. 20.50 Many government organisations are obliged to publish through the government publisher. In such cases, the government publisher generally undertakes to provide editing, design, typesetting, printing and binding services. These tasks will be performed in-house or contracted out to the private sector.
FUNDING AND COST RECOVERY

20.51 In the past, government publishing operations were generally funded direct from annual government budget appropriations. Thus departments and agencies (author bodies) were allocated finance for their projected publishing programs and the publisher was provided with funds to cover operational requirements. 20.52 Publication sales were often undertaken on a quasi-commercial cost recovery basis, with government publishers operating their own retail and mail-order sales operations and also marketing government publications through commercial outlets such as the book trade. 20.53 Today, however, most governments are moving towards adoption of the 'user pays' principle in many areas, including publishing. This increasingly requires those bodies concerned not only to be self-sufficient but also to generate modest financial profits, for example through the imposition of charges on government clients for services. One result of this change is that publication sales operations are being undertaken more and more on a full commercial basis.
INDUSTRY RESPONSIBILITIES

20.54 Government publishers usually establish and maintain publishing standards and editorial style for use within their own organisations, and provide to clients guidelines consistent with good, cost-effective publishing practice. Most government publishers are also responsible for administering copyright in government publications. 20.55 Government publishers and printers are among the major publishing and printing houses and make a valuable contribution to the industry in respect of standards and technology. High levels of probity are required in contracting out work to the private sector.

21 Typesetting and printing

21.1 This chapter contains a brief summary of current typesetting technology, and an explanation of the principles of the main printing processes together with some guidelines for their application. Typesetting 21.2 The latter half of this century has seen revolutionary changes in typesetting technology from hand composition and hot-metal composition of lines of type on Intertype, Linotype, Ludlow and Monotype, machines, through photocomposition and manual and electric typewriters, to digitised imagesetting of text and illustration within electronically variable page patterns. Highly sophisticated graphic material in reproducible form can now be produced on desktop computers.
IMAGESETTERS

21.3 Imagesetters represent the latest and most dynamic change in methods of producing type on paper or film. They range from the powerful, highly sophisticated computers needed by major typesetters and printers to the comparatively less powerful desktop computers in wide use. These machines transfer an image from disk to printer by means of a laser beam that generates densities of up to 2540 raster dots per inch (dpi) in both horizontal and vertical directions, ensuring reproduction of a very high quality. 21.4 This technology allows the output from the machine to flow in a continuous forward movement that enables the user to accurately reproduce any image, including type, halftones, line illustrations and other graphic material. Reproduction ranges from rough proofs to full pages on bromide paperthe quality required for high-grade bookwork. 21.5 The imagesetter consists of two unitsthe page-image (or raster-image) processor and the actual imager. The page-image processor constructs in bit form an electronic equivalent of any typeface or any illustrative material being input from keyboard, disk or scanner, and emits the information to the imager in the form of raster dots (see also paragraph 21.70). 21.6 Until the early 1990s the maximum page width that could be output on an imagesetter was 457 mm. With the advent of drum imagesetters this increased to 609 mm, giving a maximum size of 1219 mm 609 mm (48 in 24 in). Also at this time electronic imposition and step-and-repeat software became available. This allows the output of fully imposed pages (8 A4), including halftones, line graphics and text, directly to film or plastic plate, obviating the camera and combining work normally done by the graphic reproducer. 21.7 Imagesetters have an in-built capacity to produce any size of type required for text and headings in bookwork or for display purposes.

PHOTODISPLAY UNITS

21.8 Photodisplay units were developed to provide small amounts of setting of display or ornamental typefacesas in headings and displayed lines of advertisements, brochures and so on. 21.9 Photodisplay units operate from disks or grids that carry the characters in negative form. The imaging of these characters is controlled by computerised input from keyboards and each image is directed onto photosensitive paper or film. 21.10 Spacing may be visually adjusted by the operator as setting proceeds, or controlled automatically by the photodisplay unit. Adjustment by the operator is usually more satisfactory but is slower. Other information entry and access systems
CHARACTER SCANNING

21.11 Character-scanning systems, incorporating the principle known as optical character recognition (OCR), can contribute to costtime savings in the input of typeset or typewritten material into computers (including typesetters), and facilitate the further processing of such material and its dissemination in both electronic and print forms. The savings potential is realised by not having to rekeyboard text. Scanning takes minutes compared to hours of rekeyboarding the same material. 21.12 OCR software can recognise and generate font characters within a range of both singlespaced and proportionally spaced typewriter faces. Almost all typefaces from various output devices can be recognised; however, sanserif faces are usually more readable than serif or display faces. 21.13 These devices also come with highly sophisticated on-line text-editing facilities and can manage complex formats. Depending on the program used the output can be to magnetic tape or disk in about five hundred computer formats. Spellcheck facilities allow manual correction of misread words at the time of scanning. Autoformatting, available on some programs, allows the scanned text to be automatically changed to a selection of word processor formats, which greatly increases the usefulness of OCR as an entry medium for material to be edited on computer. 21.14 Flat-bed and drum scanners are used to scan in illustrations (line, halftone and continuous tone) and load them onto computer, which may then be combined with text input by OCR, using various page make-up software applications. 21.15 OCR systems have great potential in the field of electronic publishing when conversion of material into a form suitable for electronic dissemination is required. This also applies to demand publishing: out-of-print books can be scanned and, with the text captured on disk, a one-off book can be produced on request via an electronic photocopier.

MICROFILM

21.16 The process of microfilming allows computer data or hard copy to be stored on film in a miniaturised form and in a way that allows the material to be quickly accessed through a magnifying reader. This film master is called microfiche (or fiche). Its dimensions are normally 105 mm 148 mm, and the microimages are contained in various formats in grid patterns. As many duplicates as are needed can be made from this master. 21.17 Microfilming records and other documents can save as much as 96 per cent of the space currently used for the storage of active material. Microfilm has approximately one-fiftieth the volume and weight of paper documents. 21.18 The microfilm original is normally silver halide film. Microfilm is available in various formats, including 16 mm and 35 mm roll, aperture card and microfiche jacket. Colour film is available but expensive. If the film is properly manufactured, processed and handled, and stored under archival conditions, it will not deteriorate. It is an effective, permanent method of preserving records. 21.19 Dark-coloured papers will adversely affect reproduction on microfilm, as will lightcoloured inks. Some reds may not be reproducible on microfilm. 21.20 The quality of paper used for source documents can also affect microfilm image quality. Thin papers and high-white papers allow printed matter to show through from one side of the leaf to the other on double-sided documents, and this secondary image can be picked up by the microfilm camera. Microfilm reproduction methods 21.21 Microfilm can be created from original documents or from computer output. 21.22 Original documents may be microfilmed in various formats, depending on the size of the documents, by a step-and-repeat camera. It is also possible to microfilm them onto 16 mm or 35 mm roll film; they may then be read by means of a roll film reader, or the roll may be cut into strips which are inserted into jackets for use in standard microfiche readers. 21.23 Computer output is recorded on microfilm in human-readable form by means of a computer output microfilm (COM) device. This may be connected directly to a computer for on-line operations, or as a stand-alone unit for off-line operation. The magnetic tape unit reads information into the COM from a tape previously recorded directly from a computer. 21.24 Microfilmed material is generally reproduced by duplicating onto diazo film or by copying to paper through a readerprinter. The first method is used when multiple sets of the original microfiche can be produced quickly and inexpensively, and the second when reference copies of specific frames are required. In the latter case, the image is enlarged from microfiche size to normal hard copy size for ease of reading. Microfilm as a publishing medium 21.25 Microfilm is mainly used for the storage and easy retrieval of data.

21.26 Microfilm produced as microfiche is an important publishing medium. Microfiche may be read for long periods at a time, and microfiche readers are readily available in libraries and in government and commercial offices. 21.27 Publications that are out of print or in short supply can be economically reproduced through the use of microfiche and a plain-paper copier. This demand-publishing technique can achieve substantial savings in storage and distribution costs. Colour separation 21.28 Until the transition in recent years to colour-scanning machines, colour separations were produced photographically. Copy had to be photographed four times through special filters to produce the basic yellow, red (magenta), blue (cyan) and black images on separate continuous tone negatives. The negatives were colour-corrected and exposed together with a halftone screen grid to produce final colour-separated halftone film in negative or positive form. 21.29 Colour separations are now produced by colour-scanning machines. Flexible copy is attached to a cylinder that rotates at very high speed, and an operator then adjusts the machine for the correct exposure and colour balance in each of the four basic colours. The copy, which can be either positive colour film or reflection copy, is then electronically scanned and a set of four-colour-screened film separations is simultaneously produced. Laser scanners have been incorporated in the latest equipment, which can produce in minutes what previously took hours to produce by the photographic method. 21.30 Also in use are highly sophisticated, fully computerised colour-editing systems. These accept the information produced by the scanner, and the image can then be brought up on a screen monitor and manipulated until the required result is achieved. As the image has been digitised, this equipment has an almost infinite potential for manipulating images. Colour can thus be added or subtracted, and the image can be changed by deletions and additions (from separate copy) before any film has been produced. The systems are used extensively for promotional work, where multiple images may be merged and corrected to produce almost flawless results. Finally, the fully adjusted and composed image is output onto film. Invariably, the final image is stored on disk or tape for future use, and the need to store film and plates is thus reduced. 21.31 The high-technology colour-editing system can now be digitally linked to certain sophisticated typesetting systems; this allows infinite manipulation of the total image right up to the platemaking stage. These systems are extremely expensive and should be considered only where the very highest quality and versatility are necessary. 21.32 For optimum results, colour separation should be undertaken only after the printer has nominated the type of paper, the ink type and density readings, and the colour sequence. Colour separations prepared in this way should provide the best opportunity for matching colour on the press.

COLOUR PROOFS

21.33 There are several methods of producing colour proofs. Printing on proof presses is a costly method; if it is employed, it is essential that the ink and paper be the same as those that will be used in the printed work. Chemical proofing systems that use toner pigments to simulate the printer's process colours are more common, but although they are also more economical, the proofs have to be produced with great care in order to achieve the desired result. 21.34 No proofing method can duplicate exactly the actual conditions that will be met on the press. To provide the best opportunity for accuracy, however, it is essential that proofs be in close register and that colour bars be placed on each one so that agreed ink density readings can be strictly followed for each colour. 21.35 Progressive proofs, that is proofs of each colour presented in the sequence in which the work will be printed, are sometimes required but are not necessary if four-colour presses are used. Printing 21.36 The basic principles used in the main printing processes are planographic, relief and intaglio. In planographic printing the image lies on the printing surface; lithography and collotype are planographic processes. In relief printing the image is transferred by means of a raised printing surface that is inked and brought into contact with the paper under pressure; letterpress printing in its various forms is a relief process. In intaglio printing the image lies beneath the surface of the printing plate; intaglio processes include photogravure, engraving from copper or steel dies or plates, and diestamping.
LITHOGRAPHY

21.37 Lithography is by far the most common printing process used today. Essentially, the image is printed from the flat surface of a lithographic plate onto a second, rubber-blanketed roller, which then offsets the image onto paper carried round a third (impression) cylinder. The printing image on the plate is ink-receptive and the non-image areas are water-receptive. Plates are almost entirely produced photographically (photolithography) from images on either positive or negative film that is photographically exposed onto the plate. There are also systems in which the image is exposed onto the plate direct from original artwork, but quality limitations may restrict their use in some cases. It is also possible to draw the image directly on the plate (autolithography), but this process is now rarely used. 21.38 Most lithographic printing is produced from plates prepared photographically, using the offset method. This kind of printing is variously described as 'photolitho', 'photo-offset', 'lithography' or simply 'offset', the last term being the one most frequently used. 21.39 The two basic types of offset printing machines are the sheet-fed and web-fed presses. Both are used for single-colour and multicolour work and are manufactured in a number of sizes and configurations.

21.40 Depending on their size, sheet-fed machines can cater for anything from small jobbing work up to large-volume multicolour bookwork, packaging and promotional printing. Web-fed offset machines, usually equipped with folding units, produce magazines, directories, books and other good quality printing. Owing to their high operating cost and fast running speed, they are generally used for long-run work; however, some of the smaller web offset presses are able to cope economically with short runs. 21.41 The choice of machine depends on the type and weight of paper required, the size of the job, the speed of the press and the time involved in make-ready, the number of colours, the length of the run, and the complexity and exactness of the work. The printing estimator has therefore to select the machine that provides the required result in the most economical manner, and early liaison between publisher and printer can help in that task. 21.42 Each colour deck on an offset machine has three basic cylinders: the first carries the printing plate, the second carries a rubber blanket and the third is an impression cylinder. The printing plate is kept damp by the application of water (with added chemicals to form 'fountain solution') so that when it is inked the grease-based ink adheres to the printing image and not to the damp non-printing area. The inked image is then offset onto the rubber blanket and transferred to the paper travelling round the impression cylinder. 21.43 Offset lithography has a number of advantages. For example, fine images can be printed on coarse paper, since they are printed from a rubber surface instead of direct from the metal plate. Modern offset machines operate at high speed, some sheet-fed presses running up to 15 000 impressions an hour and web presses running much faster again. Technology has lessened make-ready times, and the combination of photography and lithography makes possible the production of multicolour fine-screen halftone images on a wide range of papers, thus allowing greater freedom in combining text and illustration. 21.44 Advanced computerised colour control is possible through the use of sophisticated systems that can preprogram ink settings by evaluating the ink dispersion for individual plates before printing starts and accurately control the correct colour balance while the press is running. However, the effective application of these systems depends on effective liaison between client, colour separator and printer. 21.45 Multiple images can be reproduced via an imagesetter or step-and-repeat camera. This camera repeats the image onto film or directly onto the printing plate as often as required, in perfect position and register, thus reducing not only camera and platemaking time but also machine running time. 21.46 Special care must be taken in preparing copy for printing by offset because corrections are costly, especially if new plates are required. Publishers and designers are therefore strongly advised to discuss production methods with the printer well before the production processes begin. In view of the increasing tendency to use specialist firms for typesetting, colour separation, printing and binding, careful and timely liaison is essential for the economical production of highquality work.

21.47 For example, a well-planned page size will ensure the greatest economy, and early discussions on the area that the image is to occupy will facilitate the correct provision for machine grips, bleeds and trim, and similar allowances for critical binding operations. At the same time, good planning will ensure that the maximum press area is utilised. 21.48 The correct choice of paper is also very important. Although it is possible to print on a wide range of papers, the suitability of different types of paper for specific jobs varies considerably. 21.49 Very sophisticated computerised laser scanning techniques are currently used to produce colour separations. In order to ensure compatibility with similarly advanced colour densitometry systems on modern offset presses, it is advisable to make certain that both the colour separator and the printer are working to the same colour density standards, and that ink standards, type of paper, proofing systems and colour control bars, where appropriate, are all fully coordinated. Lithographic platemaking 21.50 Although there are many kinds of offset plates and platemaking techniques, the process of platemaking begins with the assembly (or, in the case of bookwork, the imposition) of film positives or negatives onto a master or clearbase film the size of the plate required. The assembly of film by hand is an exacting process: illustrations may have to be combined with text; positioning and registration must be perfect; and masks are often required to separate areas of colour in the text. Stipples may also have to be laid as required. The process has been greatly simplified and speeded up by computers, scanners and imagesetters, which produce imposed and colourseparated film ready for camera. 21.51 After assembly is complete the film is photographically exposed onto presensitised plates, more than one exposure sometimes being necessary to combine work of a complicated nature. When exposure is complete, development of the plate removes the presensitised coating from the areas not required, leaving the final plate with the appropriate ink-receptive and water-receptive areas ready for use. 21.52 Systems are now available whereby the complete paged image is scanned, by means of laser technology, direct onto the offset plate. More technical development must be undertaken, however, before there is widespread commercial use of this system. 21.53 In addition to transferring an image direct onto an offset printing plate, another system, called 'digitised printing', enables changes to be made to a plate while on a printing press during a print run. This system has the potential for large cost savings in short-run colour work. 21.54 Small offset machines of the type used for short-run work accept paper plates on which the image has been produced by a typewriter or electronic printer.
LETTERPRESS

21.55 Letterpress, the oldest of the printing processes, is still used but has lost much ground to lithographic (offset) printing. The raised (relief) printing surface may consist of metal type, line blocks, halftone blocks, flat or curved stereotypes or electrotypes. Letterpress blocks or plates may be made from metal, photopolymer or rubber. Other printing materials used include wood

blocks, wood type and linocuts. Today, with the wide use of camera-ready copy, the printing plate is usually made from photopolymer, which is exposed photographically and then etched to provide the relief printing surface. Many major newspapers are still produced by the rotary letterpress process. 21.56 The simplest letterpress machine is the sheet-fed platen, in which all the printing areas are brought into contact with the paper at the same moment. This kind of machine is used for small jobbing work, such as the printing of letterheads, invitation cards and handbills. In other letterpress machines the type is placed on a flat surface, but the paper is fed round a curved impression cylinder that rotates against the printing surface. 21.57 Faster speeds are achieved by rotary machines, in which the printing image is on a curved plate, and the impression cylinder and the printing cylinder rotate so as to be in constant contact. The paper may be fed to the printing machine mechanically or manually either as single sheets or, as in newspaper printing, from a reel. 21.58 Flexography is a letterpress method of printing from rubber or plastic plates, using fastdrying ink. These plates are most commonly produced from film negatives but can be produced from a mould taken from the metal type and then mounted on the cylinder of a fast-running reel-fed printing press. While the image produced is not usually of the same quality as that obtainable from letterpress or lithography, improvements in the technology have substantially increased the range and quality of work that can be produced by this method. Rubber or plastic printing plates and fast-drying inks make flexography suitable for printing on non-fibrous materials, such as plastics, and the process is used extensively for printing cartons, labels and flexible packaging. Flexography is used in some countries for newspaper production. 21.59 Letterset ('dry offset') is a term for offset letterpress printingthat is, printing from a curved letterpress plate onto an offset rubber blanket, from which the image is in turn transferred to the paper. This process was made possible by developments in the technique of manufacturing thin letterpress printing plates that can be wrapped round a printing cylinder. One of the special advantages claimed for letterset is that it permits printing on a wider range of surfaces than does ordinary letterpress printing.
PHOTOGRAVURE

21.60 The photogravure (or 'gravure') process is less commonly used than letterpress or lithography. In Australia it is now used only for the printing of high-volume colour packaging work, newspaper preprints and, to a lesser extent, magazines. 21.61 In this process, the image (as a grid of 'cells') is recessed below the surface of the printing plate, which is usually in the form of a cylinder or a plate wrapped round a cylinder. In the printing action, the plate revolves in a bath of ink to fill the cells; the surface of the plate is then wiped clean by a 'doctor' blade and the ink left in the hollow cells of the image area is transferred to the paper by capillary action as the paper passes over the plate. 21.62 In letterpress and lithography, tonal gradation is obtained by varying the plane of the halftone dots from large in the dark areas to fine in the light areas. In gravure, however, the 'dots' or

cells vary in depth, and the print obtained by this method is considerably richer in tonal values because of the consequent variation in the thickness of the ink transferred to the sheet. A further advantage of gravure is the long print runs obtainable with the chromium-plated cylinders and plates. 21.63 Owing to the extremely high cost of cylinder preparation and the inflexibility of the process, gravure is not suitable for jobbing printing. Although colour reproduction of the highest quality can be printed by gravure, it is not the best process for the reproduction of type and fineline work because the screen that is present in all gravure printing gives the letters a ragged appearance and causes fine lines to be broken, although these faults are not obvious or distracting in normal reading.
SCREEN PRINTING

21.64 Screen printing uses the stencil principle: a fine screen of silk, metal or other material, stretched tightly over a frame, carries a stencil of the image to be printed. This stencil, cut by hand or prepared photographically by means of a film positive, blocks off the mesh and allows only the image area to remain open. The ink is squeegeed across the screen with a rubber blade and passes through the open part of the mesh onto the printing material beneath. 21.65 Screen printing is particularly useful for obtaining colourful results on short-run jobs. The very thick film of ink transferred through the mesh produces richly coloured prints. As the stencils are relatively cheap to prepare, screen printing is suitable for short-run reproduction, such as posters. It is also possible to print by this method on almost any kind of materialpaper, cloth, glass, plastics and so on. The main drawbacks are the comparative slowness of the printing operation and the relative coarseness of the type and illustrations reproduced through the screen. 21.66 Copy for screen printing can be prepared by an artist in much the same way as copy for lithography. Since most inks used in screen printing are opaque, any colour printed on top of another will mask the first colour.
LASER PRINTERS

21.67 In the mid-1980s laser printers emerged as an alternative means of producing images of reasonable quality from laser imagesetters, computers and phototypesetters on offset printing paper. 21.68 Laser printers can be linked very effectively to image processors and are particularly useful in the production of proof copies. Such copies allow editing and proofreading to be carried out before high-resolution, reproduction-quality bromides are made. Short-run printed matter can also be produced by this method. 21.69 Laser printers are also used in conjunction with desktop computers to produce cameraready copy; however, depending on the power of the equipment, reproduction time may be much longer than when laser printers are linked to the more powerful page-image processors such as the APS-450. Some equipment may also be limited in the volume of output, and the range of paper sizes that can be used is normally restricted to A3 and A4.

21.70 The quality of the image is governed by the ability of the equipment to produce raster points of high density. Currently, the dot resolution from most laser printers is either 300 or 600 raster dots per inch (dpi), whereas image processors such as the APS-6 operate at densities of up to 2540 dpi. 21.71 All sheet-fed laser printers are of the hot-fusion type, where the image is produced by heat and pressure, and only print in black. As they are driven under digitised direction, the faster, more sophisticated 'stand-alone' machines are particularly useful for producing small-quantity, up-todate listings, such as inventories, price lists and so forth, where the database is continually updated. 21.72 There are also reel-fed cold-fusion machines, which are much slower but have the advantage of being able to print on a wider range of materials and in multiple colours, which is particularly useful in promotional and business-form applications.
FIGURE 21.1 Principles of printing processes INK-JET PRINTERS

21.73 Ink-jet printing is used to produce variable images on business-form presses, and on booklet bindery lines to personalise publications. A computer controls a battery of ink-jet guns attached to a printing press or a binding machine. Each gun fires tiny dots of ink at very high speed, creating a matrixed image. The process is used to create bar codes, encode MICR lines on cheques or personalise booklets or envelopes. It has particular value in mailing applications. 21.74 Ink-jet colour copiers use the same principle of projecting minute ink droplets, but have a number of batteries for each colour. They are used in the graphic arts industry to supply colour proofs of artwork created on computer.
QUALITY CONTROL

21.75 Quality control is a vital part of every manufacturing operation, and work performed efficiently and accurately at every stage will ensure that the finished product is of a high standard. Work must be carefully planned and executedfrom editing and designing through all the ensuing production processesand work schedules maintained. Poorly planned work often causes production problems and can lead to reduced quality and increased costs.

22 Paper
22.1 Most paper is made from cellulose plant fibre. The fibres most widely used are those obtained from wood, straw and esparto, although cotton, linen and hemp fibres obtained from waste rags and other sources are also used. The choice is limited largely by availability. Paper may be made entirely of one kind of fibre or of a mixture of fibres. Fibres derived from waste paper are also used to manufacture paper ('recycled'), either as a portion of the fibre mixture or as one fibre type. 22.2 Different papers have different characteristics and different uses, the characteristics being determined by the raw materials used, the treatment received in processing, the substances added and the finish imparted after the sheet has been formed. Brief descriptions of the most common kinds of paper will be found in the Glossary. 22.3 Broadly speaking, there are four categories of paper. They are newsprint; printing and writing papers, which are also defined as 'fine papers' for publications, magazines and most printed paper products; tissues and paper towels for cleaning and hygiene use; and packaging and industrial papers for cartons, packaging and wrapping paper, plaster liner boards and padded envelopes. Fibre-pulping processes 22.4 In Australia most fine papers are made from wood. They are broadly classified as 'mechanical', 'chemical' or 'semichemical', according to the way in which wood is broken down into its fibres ('pulped'). 22.5 The pulp used in making mechanical papers is produced from wood that has been mechanically disintegrated by grinding. This process leaves impurities in the pulp that adversely affect its quality. The paper thus produced tends to deteriorate and discolour rapidly, and its varieties are cheap and usually of poor colourfor example, newsprint and the cheaper offwhite offsets and printings. 22.6 The pulp used in making chemical papers is usually produced from hardwood by the soda (alkali) method, or from softwood by the sulphite (acid) method or sulphate / kraft (alkali) method. These processes remove non-cellulose material and thus produce paper of superior quality. Chemical wood papers (for example, white and high-white offsets, bonds and banks, copy papers and many specialty papers) are strong, clean and of good colour, and have long life expectancy. They are sometimes described as 'woodfree' (that is, free of any mechanical wood pulp). 22.7 Semichemical papers are made mechanically, but caustic soda is used to soften the wood chips and help dissolve the non-cellulose material. These papers are stronger and more durable than mechanical papers but do not have the colour or quality of chemical papers. They are generally referred to as 'publication grade' papers.

Papermaking 22.8 In the making of paper, pulp is firstly subjected to a number of processes, such as bleaching, digesting and refining. (Many of the characteristics of a paper result from these processes, which when varied produce very different papers.) 22.9 Fillersmainly white clay and titanium dioxideare added to the pulp in order to improve the surface and colour of the finished product and to fill up the interstices between the fibres so as to increase opacity. Size is also added to stiffen the paper and reduce absorbency. 22.10 The pulp, suspended in water, is then fed into the papermaking machine. It is carried forward on a moving continuous wire mesh, which allows much of the water to drain away before the mat of wet fibres is passed on through a composite system of pressing and drying rollers. The first roller is the 'dandy roll', which consists of a brass framework to which is attached a wire mesh cover, sometimes incorporating a name or design as a watermark. If the mesh is woven, it produces 'wove' paper; if the mesh is patternedthat is, if it consists of narrowly spaced parallel wires joined by other wires at right angles and at greater intervalsit produces 'laid' paper.
PAPER FINISHING

22.11 After it has been pressed to squeeze out more water, the web is further dried by passing over and under a series of drying rollers. It then passes through the size press (where starch is added to improve the surface of the paper) and through a further set of rollers, known as 'calenders'. These smooth the surface of the paper before it is reeled at the delivery end of the machine. Machine-finished paper is complete at this stage. If a very smooth finish is required, the reel is fed through a separate bank of calender rollers, called 'supercalenders', which further compress the fibres in order to increase the density of the paper and impart a hard, glossy surface. 22.12 'Coated' paper is paper that has had a layer of pigment (white clay or calcium carbonate), combined with various additives, applied to its surface. A thin layer of this coating, called 'size press' or 'lick' coating, may be applied to both sides of the sheet on the papermaking machine. A further coating may be added laterin a separate operationto improve the quality of the finish. Coated paper is available in a range of finishes from matt to high gloss (paragraph 22.16). 22.13 At the end of the papermaking process, paper is wound onto reels. These are later either cut into widths suitable for web printing or 'sheeted'that is, unwound and cut into the rectangular sizes used on sheet-fed printing machines. Paper characteristics 22.14 The characteristics of paper are determined by the nature of the pulp and the subsequent processing. The most obvious ones are finish, grammage, thickness, opacity, durability, strength, and colour or whiteness, and an understanding of these characteristics is

essential for sound stock selection. Other characteristics, such as grain direction (paragraph 22.30) and acidity / alkalinity (pHparagraph 22.31), are less obvious but equally important.
FINISH

22.15 The feel and look of paper, known as 'finish', influences the way in which it prints. While it is not always easy to distinguish between coated and uncoated stocks by texture or appearanceuncoated woodfree papers can be as smooth as lightly coated papers, for examplethere can be noticeable differences between the printed results. Coated papers tend to print more sharply than uncoated papers, and give much better resolution of halftones and fine detail. 22.16 Coated papers, referred to collectively as 'art papers', are graded A1, A2 and A3 in descending order of coating quality. The grading of coated paper is determined by the amount or thickness of coating per square metre, the type of coating, the coating application method and the gloss of the finish. Some art papers are actually coated offsets; they are thicker than art papers of comparable grammage and stronger. Coatings may be gloss (markedly lightreflective), suede or dull (low or very little reflection), or matt (non-reflective). 22.17 Cast-coated papers and boards receive their superior gloss and smoothness by another method, in which the wet, coated sheet is pressed against a heated and polished chromiumplated drum. The cost of such stock is high, largely because this is a slow and expensive operation. 22.18 Paper may also be embossed. In this operation, paper is run between two rollers that impress a pattern into the surface of the sheet. These patterns are known by the different textures they simulatelinen, felt, hopsack, sand, coral and so on. 22.19 Plastic-coated papers are also available.
GRAMMAGE

22.20 The weight, or mass, of paper is expressed in grams per square metre (gsm or g / m2). Thus a particular paper may be referred to as being 90 gsm, irrespective of the sheet or reel size in which it is made. 22.21 The most commonly used grammages for publications range from about 55 gsm, when book weight is a critical factor, to about 130 gsm for prestigious volumes. Most publications are printed on papers in the 75110 gsm range. Since the weight of a book affects its distribution costs, it is useful to be able to calculate its final weight when deciding on the paper to be used. The formula employed is:
(Area of 1 page in mm2 gsm / 1 000 000) number of leaves

To this weight must be added the grammage of the cover (by the same formula) and any carton or other packaging.

THICKNESS (BULK)

22.22 The thickness of a piece of paper is measured in microns (m). Thickness is not proportional to substance; owing to their lower density, some bulky papers and boards are in fact lighter than comparable thinner stock. 22.23 The thickness of a text block (in millimetres) can be ascertained by using the following formula:
Number of leaves thickness of stock / 1000

To establish total bulk, the thickness of covers, fold-ins and so on must be added as necessary.
OPACITY

22.24 The less opaque a paper is, the greater the problem of 'showthrough'the visibility of a printed image through the reverse side of a sheet or through a superimposed sheet. Because showthrough affects readability as well as appearance, the opacity of a proposed text paper is always an important consideration. 22.25 Opacity is affected by the fillers used and by the density, bulk and whiteness (or colour) of the stock. Fillers contain light-scattering pigments that increase opacity. Low-density and high-bulk papers tend to have good opacity, while the opacity of papers subjected to heavy calendering tends to be reduced. Showthrough is more noticeable with high-white papers than with off-white or tinted papers.
DURABILITY

22.26 The life expectancy of paper depends basically on the nature of the pulp and the pH of the paper. Paper made from mechanical pulp retains many of the natural elements of wood and is highly unstable. Under optimum conditions it will last for years but otherwise deteriorates rapidly. Archival (permanent) papers, which are made from rag pulp or rag and highly refined woodfree pulp, are alkaline. They stand up well to constant handling and are formulated to last for at least five hundred years. The average woodfree publication papers, including most coated papers, approximate a neutral pH and thus have good life expectancy.
STRENGTH

22.27 When used in connection with paper, the word 'strength' relates to folding endurance, tear resistance, tensile and burst strengths, and stiffness. Not all these properties can be contained in one sheet of paper; for example, a paper able to withstand constant folding and unfolding will also have good tear resistance but low tensile strength. 22.28 The folding strengths of rag and woodfree papers are superior to those of mechanical and semichemical papers. High-density papers also withstand folding and flexing better than low-density ones.

WHITENESS

22.29 Paper comes in many shades of white. The actual shade of white is determined by the kinds of bleaches used and the variety of dyes (such as fluorescent whitening agents) blended into the pulp. Bleaching intensifies the brightness of the pulp without altering its basic colour; and it may also remove impure natural components, thus helping to obtain a cleaner pulp. The quality of whiteness is improved by the addition of blue or violet dyes. Dyes are also added to coating mixtures to enhance the whiteness of coated papers.
GRAIN DIRECTION

22.30 The term 'grain direction' (or 'machine direction') refers to the predominant direction of the fibres in a sheet of paper. Fibres lie mostly in the direction of movement of the watersaturated pulp as it flows over the wire mesh at the front end of the papermaking machine. Grain direction affects both expansion potentialimportant in register printing, such as four-colour illustrationand folding (book sections should be folded with the spine parallel to the grain direction).
ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY

22.31 The pH of a paper quality not only determines the life expectancy of the paper itself but also has significance for materials in contact with the paper for any length of time. Paper used in microfiche envelopes, for example, or in picture mounting must be acid-free, as acid will eventually damageeven destroythe microfiche film or other material in contact. For this reason too, acidic covering materials, adhesives and so on must be avoided on books that are intended to last a long time. Synthetic paper 22.32 Developments in plastics technology have made it possible to manufacture synthetic materials for publications and other printed matter where special applications or outdoor conditions make conventional paper unsuitable. These materials are generally known as 'synthetic papers' because of their paper-like qualities and uses, and their ability to be printed by conventional techniques. The most common types are manufactured from various plasticssuch as spun-bonded olefin (polyethylene fibre), filled polyolefin, clay-coated polypropylene and vinyland are available under various trade names. They have higher fold and burst strengths and greater initial tear strength than cellulose fibre papers, and their water resistance, non-water absorbency, and resistance to acids, alkalis, solvents and oils make them appropriate for use in conditions where these qualities are necessary. The range of uses for synthetic papers encompasses items such as maps, tour guides, mailing envelopes, labels, out-door posters and banners, field books, and safety and rescue manuals. Recycled paper 22.33 Paper composed of fibres obtained from waste paper is known as 'recycled' paper. Recycled paper may be composed entirely of recycled fibres or of a blend of recycled and new

fibres. Paper made from raw materials, usually wood, is known as 'new' or 'virgin' fibre paper because it has been made into paper for the first time. 'Industrial waste fibres' is the term used to identify cellulose fibres suitable for papermaking from residues or by-products from other industries not usually associated with the papermaking industry. These fibres include bagasse, hemp, esparto, straw and kenaf. 22.34 Most paper mills and distributors identify recycled paper by the percentage of recycled fibres they contain, and its suitability for particular uses. 22.35 The making of recycled paper begins when the waste paper collected is sorted and repulped in order to reduce the paper sheets to individual fibres in a water suspension. Repulping processes include both mechanical and chemical operations and the screening of any non-fibre material. De-inking and bleaching may be employed at this stage; however, these processes are not applied to all recycled papers. Conventional papermaking techniques are then used. The resulting recycled paper (or board) is available in sheets or reels. Paper mills and distributors develop recycled papers to suit particular markets, and the findings of their market research determine which papermaking techniques will be used and the characteristics of the paper product. 22.36 The characteristics of recycled paper can be defined in the same terms as those of virgin fibre paperthat is, finish, grammage, thickness, opacity, durability, strength, whiteness, and pH. These characteristics can all be measured and predetermined by the papermaker. The archival properties of recycled papers depend, to a large extent, on the types of waste paper used as the fibre source. If the collected waste paper can be separated into groups such as woodfree papers and mechanical pulp papers, the papermaker is able to use the appropriate sorted waste paper to produce a recycled paper best suited to the users' needs. For example, newspapers and magazines can be recycled into newsprint; office waste paper into publicationgrade and copier-grade papers; and mixed waste paper into packaging papers and boards. 22.37 The range of recycled papers and products can match, in most instances, the range of virgin fibre papers and products. Specifications 22.38 Sheet paper is normally packed in reams of 500 sheets. The particulars included in papermakers' descriptions are as follows: kind of paper, colour, grammage, size of sheets, grain direction and mass (in kilograms per 1000 sheets). The mass per 1000 sheets is used for calculating the mass of a consignment for transport and storage purposes, and for pricing when the paper is sold by mass. Paper in reels is usually sold by grammage, mass, reel width, reel diameter and internal core diameter. 22.39 Boards are normally sold and packed in 100s and described by grammage, thickness, mass or variations such as the number of boards to a given mass. 22.40 When specifying paper for printing, it is necessary to indicate the kind of paperby its generic description or its market nameand the grammage and colour. Where appropriate, it is also necessary to indicate whether the paper is 'one-sided' or 'two-sided'. (The term 'one-sided'

is used to describe a paper or board when the surface of one side has been treated differently from the other in the finishing process. It is 'two-sided' when the two surfaces have a similar finish.) It is also helpful to give the name of the maker or supplier. For example, a generic description might be 'White A2 matt art, 100 gsm', while a specific description (market name) could be 'APPM Impress matt art, 100 gsm'. 22.41 The normal designation when specifying paper for bookwork assumes that the page is upright, the depth being the greater dimension. A landscape format, where the depth is the lesser dimension, is indicated by adding the letter 'L' to the designation; thus A4L is 210 mm deep 297 mm wide. 22.42 When specifying the size of printed matter by dimensions alone, it is important to quote the depth first: a book 250 mm 176 mm is deeper than it is wide, and a book 176 mm 250 mm is wider than it is deep. Choosing a paper 22.43 The selection of the right stock for any piece of printing requires an awareness of the characteristics of paper, an appreciation of printing and binding needs, and a regard for the user. Although the final choice may be affected by considerations of cost and availability, the suitability of the stock for its purpose and for the demands that print production will make upon it must remain paramount.
SUITABILITY

22.44 The suitability of a stock can be established fairly easily by considering what is going to be printed on it, what treatment it has to stand up to, how long it will have to last and how and where the publication will be used. 22.45 Work that is meant to lastsuch as a textbook or reference manualwill need a paper that will withstand constant use and will not deteriorate or discolour rapidly with age. It is therefore necessary to choose a coated or uncoated woodfree offset, archival-quality paper, or plastic-coated or synthetic stock. 22.46 Many different papers are available for annual and other kinds of reports, and for publicity material. Specialty papers, coated or uncoated offsets, and art papers are all suitable; which one is chosen depends on the significance of the document as well as its market, selling price, distribution, size and complexity. 22.47 Mechanical, recycled or publication-grade paper is sufficient for the more ephemeral or less demanding publications such as newspapers or cheap paperback novels. However, not all work of an ephemeral nature should be printed on poor-quality paper; for instance, a publicity piece can fail if an unsuitable paper is used. 22.48 The bulk of a book will be affected by the thickness of the paper. It is therefore necessary to choose a thin paper to prevent a book such as a dictionary from bulking too much. Conversely a thick paper may be specified to give more bulk to a thin book.

22.49 Gloss-coated paper is not appropriate for publications that are totally or predominantly textual, as light reflected from the shiny surface can be annoying and thus affect reading concentration. Gloss art is, however, often preferred to matt art for halftone reproduction, especially of four-colour illustrations in which sharpness, detail and brilliance of colour are essential. 22.50 Surface-light reflectance (paper brightness as distinct from light glare) is a characteristic of high-white papers, uncoated as well as coated. Whiteness of paper varies considerably, ranging from warm (creamy off-white) to cool (blueish snow-white). Colour printed on the whiter papers is brighter and cleaner, and halftones tend to be more distinct. However, the crisp contrast of black ink against white paper, while superficially attractive and effective for brief or ephemeral publications, may cause visual discomfort if used in books that demand close, sustained reading. 22.51 High whiteness is subject to some degree of eventual fading, because of the effect of light on the fluorescent dyes used to produce brightness. 22.52 It is worth considering synthetic or latex-impregnated papers for maps or field books, especially where hard wear or soiling must be expected. These stocks are generally superior to fibre papers for such purposes because of their resistance to water and grease, and their toughness. They are much more expensive than paperroughly three times the cost of A1 quality art papersbut their initial cost should be considered in the light of their life expectancy and resistance properties compared with the life expectancy and resistance properties of paper when used under the same conditions. 22.53 It is most important that advice on the use of synthetic stocks be obtained from the supplying merchant before specifications are finalised.
COVER STOCKS

22.54 Cover stocks range from heavyweight art papers and offsets to one-sided and twosided coated boards and specialty boards. All are available in white; cast-coated and specialty boards also come in a wide range of colours. Specialty boards vary widely in texture and strength, and most are made in a matching text weight. Metallic-surfaced boards are also available. 22.55 The thickness of cover board is quite important. Thickness does not necessarily mean strength. Some one-sided boards are intended for packaging, because their thickness provides insulation and protection. These boards, however, are not strong enough to resist the continual folding or flexing to which the covers of softbound publications are subjected.
AVAILABILITY

22.56 Since ranges of paper are subject to being discontinued or superseded, a paper should not be specified until the printer or paper merchant has confirmed that it is obtainable. If it is not, a decision should be made either to wait until it becomes available or to select another stock.

22.57 For major publications, paper requirements (qualities and quantities) should be established as early as possible so that the printer can buy in or retain sufficient stock for the job. If it is likely that final quantities will not be established until late in the program, an alternative stock should be specified so as to help avoid the production delays that may occur if the first choice becomes unavailable. Cost 22.58 Paper is a basic factor in the cost of printing, for its initial cost forms roughly 40 to 50 per cent of the total cost of the printed job. If the wrong paper is chosen, however, that cost can increase considerably. 22.59 Because papers vary in printabilitythat is, in the way they accept ink, in the way they handle on the printing press and in the speed at which they can be run through the press production times and costs are inevitably affected. For instance, a 'bargain' paper may prove more expensive than a dearer one of better quality because machine time has been increased as a result of frequent web breaks or sheet-feeding problems. It is therefore essential to obtain the opinion of a reliable printer before any decision is made to try a new or untried stock, especially for long-run or urgent work. 22.60 Overspecifying the quality is also wasteful and can have serious consequences; for example, copies of a perfect-bound softcover book printed on heavyweight art paper will probably fall to pieces long before their time, thus affecting sales prospects as well as reputations. In the case of the type of book just mentioned, the publisher must decide whether it merits that quality of paper and a more expensive binding, or whether a lower grade of paper, more suitable for perfect binding, could be used. 22.61 Wherever possible, the dimensions of a publication should be related to those of the paper on which it will be printed. Since the cost of the whole sheet (of the size providing the most efficient cut) is chargednot just the value of the area usedrelated dimensions ensure maximum value for money. When sufficient notice of major work is given, printers may be able to have a paper made or sheeted to the most suitable size, but this is not always possible at short notice. 22.62 Most imported specialty papers are expensive and available only in a limited range of sheet sizes. Since these sizes are not always suitable for bookwork, some waste can be involved in their specification, and the amount and cost of this waste can be surprisingly high. For example, a B5 publication cut from a specialty paper can result in over 30 per cent waste; that is, about one-third of the total paper cost may be paid for paper that is not used. Commonwealth government publishing 22.63 Commonwealth government purchasing guidelines require departments and authorities to give consideration to goods of Australian and New Zealand content when evaluating offers from suppliers, in the context of achieving 'best value for money'. Australian andwith some exceptions to the qualities listedNew Zealand companies manufacture a wide variety of

papers, boards, recycled papers, newsprint, magazine and specialty papers, including highquality fine papers suitable for books, forms and stationery. The Prime Minister announced in December 1992 that the Commonwealth agencies are to meet mandatory purchasing targets for recycled and 'environmentally preferred' papers and paper products. The targets are stated in terms of percentages of money spent from the total for all paper purchases.

23 Binding
23.1 Binding comprises the series of operations by which sheets are converted from the flat form in which they are printed into a continuous sequence of pages fastened together at one edge in a manner that allows convenient access and reference. 23.2 There are many ways of binding a book, all of which are very exacting. No two books are quite the same, but all require a practical, economical and aesthetically appropriate binding. 23.3 The major binding styles are case binding (called 'hardcover' or 'hardback') and paper binding (called 'paperback', 'softcover' or 'limp cover'). These styles include binding methods such as section sewing, saddle stitching (wiring or stapling), side stitching (wiring or stapling) and adhesive binding (including perfect binding and burst binding). 23.4 Loose-leaf binding is also in regular use. Spiral binding, comb binding, ring binding and post binding are all forms of loose-leaf binding. 23.5 The choice of binding depends on the use for which the book is intended, the type of binding equipment available and the cost.
FIGURE 23.1 Styles and methods of binding

Case binding 23.6 Case binding is normally reserved for the better class of publication, either to give a book the prestige implied by the quality of that binding or (for a reference book) to help it withstand heavy or prolonged use. There are a number of stages in case binding, and the most important of these are described below.
MAIN STAGES

23.7 Folding. The method of folding is determined by the imposition scheme, and by the grain direction, grammage and bulk of the paper (see Paper characteristics, ch. 22). Folding must be extremely accurate, as must imposition, printing, backup and trimming. 23.8 In bookwork, sections (or signatures) of 16 or 32 pages are the most commonly used; however, sections of 8, 12 and 24 pages may be used when appropriate. They should contain as far as possible the same number of pages, since this is of assistance in other operations, particularly sewing. 23.9 Endpapering. After folding, the endpapers are attached to the first and last sections by a narrow strip of glue along the spine. They may be printed or plain, but the stock chosen must be able to accept paste without creasing or buckling when the cover is applied. 23.10 Wrapping, inserting and tipping-in. It is sometimes appropriate to print illustrations on a different type of paper from that used for the text. When that is so, they must be produced as four-page units in order to facilitate wrapping (round a section of text) or inserting (into a

section of text). Wrapping is usually a manual operation and therefore relatively costly. It is usually confined to books printed by letterpress, as with offset printing illustrations can be printed directly onto the text stock with little or no loss of quality. Offset printing allows greater flexibility in the placement of illustrations throughout the book.
FIGURE 23.2 Wrapping, inserting and tipping-in

23.11 The method chosenwrapping and inserting, or printing on the one stockwill be determined to some extent by a careful comparison of costs and production times. 23.12 Tip-ins are used in special circumstances and usually take the form of a single leaf (such as a frontispiece); they may, however, comprise a four-page section that can be tipped onto the outside of a section of text for more specific placement. 23.13 Gathering and collating. In this process, sections are gathered together in sequenceby hand or by machineto form the complete text. Collating marks printed to predetermined measurements on the spine of each section form a stepped pattern down the spine of the book that makes it possible to check quickly and accurately whether the sequence is correct. 23.14 Sewing. The sections are then sewn together with thread. Section sewing, described in paragraph 23.39, is generally considered to be superior to other methods in terms of the durability and appearance of the book. It is normally a fully automatic operation, but hand-fed machines are still used to deal with difficult situations. 23.15 Nipping. After sewing, the spine of the book is 'nipped'that is, put under pressure in order to remove air from the sections and generally make the book firmer in readiness for gluing. 23.16 Book-back gluing. To hold sections firmly in place for trimming, a thin layer of glue has to be applied along the spine. The book is thus run, back down, over glue rollers and then over heating elements that ensure adequate drying before trimming. 23.17 Trimming. The trimming process removes approximately 3 mm of waste paper from the head, foredge and tail of the book. This separates the individual leaves and gives the book clean, smooth edges. Three-way guillotines are normally used, as they are the most accurate and the most rapid. It is of particular importance that books be trimmed squarely and predetermined margins carefully observed. 23.18 Rounding and backing. The book is held firmly in a machine that rounds the back over curved formers and then, with backing irons, flares it to form the joint round which the pages will be bent when the book is opened. The round spine minimises strain on the binding. Another style sometimes used is the square back. It is not recommended, however, as it places the binding under strain and frequent use may cause the book to break down prematurely. 23.19 Lining. To provide adequate reinforcement, glue is applied to the spine and a strip of mull (open-mesh material) extending about 25 mm round each side of the book is laid over it. A

layer of glue is then applied to the mull and a strip of heavy paper is placed over the entire spine area. The mull has the vital function of providing the hinge between text and case. 23.20 Headbands and tailbands. These bands, now used only as decoration, are attached during the lining operation to the heavy paper strip on the spine. 23.21 Casing-in. The casing-in machine rolls paste onto the protruding pieces of mull and both front and back endpapers. The book is then guided into its premade case in readiness for building-in. 23.22 Building-in. The cased book is delivered to the building-in machine, which applies pressure to the sides of the cover to ensure a firm bond between case and endpapers. Simultaneously, the joints between the sides and the spine are pressed firmly into shape. Many binding systems automatically link many of the processes described above, thus providing a smooth production flow and greater productivity. Computerised controls also play an important part in improving make-ready times. 23.23 Essentially, the finished book should be firm, and therefore preferably no thicker than about 50 mm between the case boards. In any event, it is advisable to produce a dummy book as soon as the number of pages is known, since this can be used not only to ensure that the final appearance of the book is satisfactoryvery thick books may have to be split into two volumesbut also to help in the preparation of case and jacket artwork. The dummy can also be used to assess cartoning requirements and distribution costs. 23.24 Adhesive binding (casebound books). This method of binding is seldom used in Australia for casebound editions; when it is chosen, thorough quality assurance testing should be undertaken. A square-back style will most likely be chosen since the types of glue used make it impossible to round and back a book effectively. Books bound in that way will not stand much handling (see para. 23.18). 23.25 Casemaking. Some casemaking machines are fed by sheet, others by reel, but all of them position the board sides (varying in thickness from about 1900 to 3700 m) in a controlled position that allows the binding material to be turned in 16 mm on all sides. A heavy strip of paper is also glued to the spine area between the front and back boards. 23.26 In case binding a single piece of binding material may be used, or a separate piece of cloth may be placed along the spine and glued to the front and back of the book ('quarter binding'). The case may also be preprinted or foil-blocked, but since there are numerous possibilities, it is advisable to consult the manufacturer at the planning and estimating stage. 23.27 Jacketing. The application of the dust jacket can be a hand or machine operation. Accurate positioning is important, as the jacket not only provides protection for the book but is also a major medium for display.
BINDING MATERIALS

23.28 Traditionally, woven bookcloth has been the most popular material used for quality binding, but heavyweight embossed papers are also used for general editions. More recently,

nitrocellulose-coated papers have been used with success and have become popular. Although not very suitable for the manufacturing processes, PVC-coated papers have also been used. 23.29 The choice of cloth is determined by price, design, strength required and suitability for the processes involved. 23.30 Aesthetic considerations necessitate a wide choice of materials; however, since the number of locally produced ones is extremely limited, most materials have to be imported. Consequently, early planning is essential in order to ensure supply.
FOIL BLOCKING

23.31 Foil blocking is an embellishing operation. It is essential to make certain that there is complete compatibility between the binding material and the metallic or pigmented foil that is applied under heat and pressure by means of a specially etched die. 23.32 The composition of the binding material is an important factor, as is its finish. For example, coarsely woven cloth or heavily grained material does not, as a general rule, block easily. Illustrations or fine type are also difficult to reproduce, the image tending to fill in under heat and pressure and so lose its clarity. 23.33 Blind blocking (without foil) can also be effective, but since it relies for its effectiveness on the shadows created by the impression, a binding material of suitable type and colour must be chosen. Paper binding 23.34 A paperback (softbound) book is one enclosed in a soft or flexible cover, either a cover paper or a light board (see paragraphs 22.545). The pages may be secured to the cover in one of several ways.
WIRE OR THREAD BINDING

Saddle stitching 23.35 In saddle stitching the pages are imposed and folded in such a manner as to allow each section of text to be inserted into the next. The thickness of the text block should be no more than 56 mm, depending on the folding characteristics of the paper chosen, and the grain direction should runideallyfrom head to tail. Text blocks more than 6 mm thick can adversely affect the trimming of the books, and also produce an unsightly gape at the fold. 23.36 Modern automatic equipment runs at high speed and enables sections and cover to be gathered, inserted, stapled and three-way trimmed in one continuous operation. Side stitching 23.37 In side stitching the sections are gathered in sequence (as in section sewing) and staples are then inserted from the side. Side-stitched books have strength but do not lie flat when open. 23.38 Covers are usually creased about 5 mm from the spine to provide a hinge, and are then glued to the spine andto cover the staplesa short distance round the sides.

Section sewing 23.39 Section-sewn books are prepared and sewn in the same manner as in the casebound process, but the use of endpapers is optional. Endpapers are usually incorporated when a better quality finish or additional strength is required. Covers may be attached by one of the following methods: gluing to the spine only (no endpapers used); gluing to the spine and drawing-on the front and back covers to the endpapers; or gluing to the spine and pasting the front and back covers onto the first and last pages of text (self-endpapers). Three-way trimming then completes the process. 23.40 The covers, usually made of board about 200 to 260 gsm, are often ultravioletvarnished or laminated with a clear film (the latter providing extra durability) in order to give an attractive and protective high-gloss finish.
ADHESIVE BINDING

23.41 Perfect binding is by far the most commonly used form of adhesive binding in bookwork, but burst binding is sometimes used. In all cases, the type of paper used for both text and cover will affect the strength of the binding; papers with long fibres are usually the most suitable. Perfect binding 23.42 High-speed in-line equipment is used in this process. Folded sections of text are gathered into blocks and these are then automatically channelled into the binding machine. They are tightly held in clamps, spine down, and are carried across rotating cutting blades that remove the folds on the spine to expose the edges of the text paper. The book blocks, still clamped, move over rollers where hot-melt glue is applied to the spines. At the next station, the covers are applied to the still wet glue. Guillotining then completes the process. Burst binding 23.43 In burst binding the sections of text are pierced along the spine with slot perforations during the folding operation. The sections are then collated and bound by a method similar to that used in perfect binding. The only difference is that the spine of the book is not removed; instead, glue is rolled onto the spine and forced through the perforations so that the book is securely held together. The cover is then applied to the still wet glue on the spine. Loose-leaf binding 23.44 In loose-leaf binding the text of a book, after gathering, is trimmed on all edges and the separate leaves are then bound. Individual leaves in loose-leaf publications are more prone to wear and tear along the binding than leaves in fully bound publications. The types of bindings described below are illustrated in figure 23.1. 23.45 Spiral (wire or plastic) binding is the most usual and most automated method of looseleaf binding but does not allow amendmentsreplacements of single leaves of textto be made. However, books so bound lie perfectly flat when open, this being a considerable advantage when they are used for reference purposes.

23.46 Comb (plastic) binding is very similar to spiral binding except that a clip-in device resembling a comb is used. Its advantages and disadvantages are the same as those of the spiral method. 23.47 Ring binding is commonly used for price lists, catalogues and other works requiring amendment. The rings can be readily snapped open to allow new or amended pages to be inserted. Ring-bound publications lie flat when open. 23.48 Post binding allows the removal and replacement of leaves, but books bound in this way do not lie flat when open.

Glossary
This glossary includes some words not found in the text of the Style Manual but which users may nevertheless meet in the course of their contacts with the publishing and graphic arts industries. Words printed in italics in the definitions refer to headwords. accordion fold. A type of fold in which a sheet is folded in two or more parallel but opposite folds, to give it an accordion-like structure. Also called a 'concertina fold'. addendum (pl. addenda). An important addition to a work made after the sheet containing the relevant passage has been printed. May be printed within the work in either the prelims (see preliminary pages) or endmatter (to avoid costly remake-up of pages or reimposition) as a notice under this heading, or printed as a separate sheet and inserted in the work after it has been printed and bound. alphanumeric. Containing both letters and numbers. ampersand. (&) The name of the sign for 'and'. antique. A book paper which has received minimal calendering. aperture card. A holder that frames a transparency, as in microfilming. application program; application. Software used to create and modify documents. Some common types of applications are word processing, spreadsheets, databases, graphics and page make-up. area composition. Electronic page composition. The arrangement of typographical and / or illustrative material in page form using special software, enabling complete pages to be presented for reproduction. art paper. Paper coated with a composition of china clay; best suited for the reproduction of fine detail. Available in varying degrees of finish from matt to high gloss. artwork. Text and / or graphic material prepared for reproduction. ascender. The part of a letter that rises above the x-height, as in 'l' or 'h'. asterisk. (*) The first of the six reference marks. author's corrections. 1. Corrections made to a proof by the author that modify the original copy. 2. Any correction which has to be made by the typesetter to the electronic copy to make it agree textually with the hard copy. author's proof. A proof to be read and corrected by the author or editor. back margin. The inner margin of a page, i.e. the margin next to the spine. back lining. The process by which the spine of a casebound book is lined, usually with coarse muslin or paper. back up. To print the reverse side of a sheet when the first side has been completed. backing. The binding operation that consolidates the spine of a book after rounding. bagasse. The dry pulp left after the sugar has been extracted from sugar cane. Can be used as a basic pulp in paper making. bank paper. A thin, tough, semi-opaque writing paper, usually less than 61 gsm. banker. An envelope having the opening on its longer dimension. bar code. A printed code consisting of a series of vertical lines of various thicknesses and combinations that can be read by an optical scanning device. Used at a point-of-sale terminal as a means of stock control to identify a product, its manufacturer and its price. In publishing, it is the graphic representation of the ISBN.

bar graph (bar chart or histogram). A graph in which values are represented by means of horizontal bars. See also column bar. base alignment. Alignment of characters or words of different sizes on a common baseline, as A A A. base art. The basic drawing or artwork to which other drawings, which are to print in register with it, are keyed. See also overlay. bastard title. See half-title. beating. The subjection of wood or other pulp to beaters so that the fibres produce the desired quality of paper. Bible paper. A thin but opaque printing paper used for the Bible and other works where it is desirable to reduce bulk. Also known as 'India' paper. binding edge. The edge of a book along which it is bound. bitmapped font. A font which is drawn by a laser printer using blocks (pixels). black letter. A style of typeface design. Also called 'Old English' or 'Fraktur'. bleaching. The chemical process by which paper fibres are whitened. bleed. The part of an illustration or other printing that runs off the page instead of showing a margin. blind P. See paragraph mark. blocking. Lettering or ornamentation impressed into a surface, such as into the covering material of a book. blurb. A publisher's description of a book, printed on the dust jacket flap or outside back cover. body matter. Text matter as distinct from display. body size. The vertical dimension of a typeface plus any space between the descenders in one line and the ascenders in the next. Thus this dimension may be greater than the actual image size of the typeface. A type size may be expressed as '7 on 7 pt' (or '7 pt solid'), '7 on 8 pt', '9 on 11 pt' etc., where the first size is the image size and the second the body size. See also type size. bold face. A heavy typeface that can be used to obtain contrast or emphasis; generally a thickened version of a standard or roman design. bolts. The closed edges of a folded sheet that are opened by trimming or slitting. bond paper. A tough writing paper of greater substance than bank paper. book block. The bound sections of a book before insertion into the cover. border. A continuous rule or decorative design surrounding an area of type or other printing. box. An area enclosed by a simple border. brace. Either { or }. A typographical means of connecting two or more lines, often used in tabular setting. brackets. A general term for square brackets [ ] or parentheses ( ). broadsheet. 1. A large format newspaper. 2. A large single sheet of paper printed one side only. bromide (or bromide print). A print of a photograph or other graphic representation, including text, made on standard light-sensitive photographic paper. buckram. Strong, superior quality bookbinding cloth. bulk. The thickness of paper or other material; the thickness of a printed work. burst binding. A method of binding in which glue is forced into slots cut into the spine fold of a section .

calendering. The process of passing paper through special iron or steel rolls to improve the surface smoothness. This may take place on the papermaking machine or, when extra smoothness is required, on a separate calender machine. caliper. The thickness of a sheet of paper or board measured in micrometres (m). calligraphy. Handwriting. Generally used to refer to the more stylistic forms of handwriting or lettering. camera-ready copy. Copy prepared in a manner that allows the printer to use it as an original for making a printing plate. caps . Capital letters. CAPITALS. caps and small caps . Words with the initial letters in full-size capitals and the other letters in small capitals: CAPITALS and SMALL CAPITALS . caption. The explanatory matter attached to an illustration; can also refer to the title or heading above an illustration. caret. The name of a proofreader's mark used to indicate that one or more characters or words are missing and are to be inserted. Latin for 'there is missing'. cartridge paper. A tough paper, usually with a rough surface. case. 1. In binding, the assembled front, back and spine covering material into which the book block is bound. The case is comprised of cloth, paper or other material glued onto stiff boards for the front and back covers, and onto paper for the spine. 2. In printing (hand composition), a compartmentalised drawer used for holding type characters. (Two cases were used in the handsetting of bookwork: the 'upper case' was the drawer which held the capital letters; and the 'lower case' was the drawer, always below it, which held the small letters.) casebound. The term applied to a book bound in a case. casing. The insertion of the book block into the case for binding. casting off. Estimating how many lines or pages a manuscript will make when set in type. catchline. 1. A temporary descriptive headline used to identify following material. 2. In law reports, a brief description of a case, printed above the headnote. centre spread. The centre pages of a section, or an illustration or type matter printed across those two pages. character. Any letter, number, punctuation mark, diacritic or symbol in a font of type. chemical wood paper. A paper made from wood pulp derived by chemical, rather than mechanical, action. clean proof. A proof that is correct according to copy and embodies any corrections previously made. close up. Remove spacing (proofreader's instruction). coated paper. See art paper. cold type. Phototypesetting and strike-on setting (as distinct from hot-metal typesetting). collate. To bring all the printed sections of a work together in their correct sequence. collotype. A method of high quality printing, especially of halftones, from a gelatine coating on a glass plate. Now rarely used. colophon. A tailpiece in old books, often ornamental, giving information now placed on the title page. Also a publisher's device. colour bar. A series of tonal and line patterns arranged in a narrow bar, printed along the edge of a sheet in four-colour printing as a visual means of colour control during printing. The colour bar is removed in the trim.

column graph. A graph in which the values are represented by means of vertical bars (see also bar graph). column rule. A rule or line used to separate columns of type in text or tables. COM. Computer output microfilm. Material produced on microfilm from computer output. command. An operator's instruction to a computer. composing. Setting and arranging type. compositor. A printing tradesperson who sets type, makes up pages and generally prepares material for printing. computer graphics. Pictorial or diagrammatic images displayed on a computer screen and generated by means of a keyboard or an input device such as a mouse or light pen. condensed typeface. An elongated or laterally compressed typeface, useful for words displayed in a narrow space. contents. A table or list of the chapter titles, main headings or other divisions of a book; placed in the preliminary pages before the main text. continuous tone. A term used to describe a photograph or other illustrative work in which light, shade and colour are reproduced as unbroken areas of tone. Compare halftone. copy. All matter to be reproducedall matter to be set in type; all graphic devices and illustrations. corrigendum (pl. corrigenda). A notice in a book listing mistakes appearing in the work and their corrections. The word, as now used in publishing, is virtually synonymous with erratum. counter. The fully or partly enclosed space within a letter; e.g. the eye and the loop of the lower-case 'e' are both counters. counterpack. A countertop display unit provided to booksellers to hold sale copies of the title being promoted. cover paper. A general term for many grades of strong paper, white or coloured, plain or textured, which are suitable for use as soft (paperback ) covers. crash. A term used (as a noun or verb) to indicate that a system has suddenly stopped working, or is working incorrectly. CRC. See camera-ready copy. cropping. Trimming or masking off unwanted portions of an illustration. CRT. Cathode ray tube. Used to generate images in computer typesetting. The images are displayed on the screen end of the tube. cursive . Italic typefaces (from the German 'Kursiv'). cut-in illustration. An illustration that occupies less than type-line width and has type set around it. See also text wrap. cyan. The blue primary colour used in four-colour printing. dagger. () The second of the reference marks; it follows the asterisk. Also known as the 'obelisk'. daisy wheel. A printing element on strike-on printers, comprising a flat wheel with radiating spokes bearing raised printing characters on the outer ends. dandy roll. A cylinder of wire mesh on a papermaking machine that helps to compress and solidify the pulp before it passes through the drying rollers. The wove or laid pattern of the mesh gives the paper its basic surface pattern. database. A large store of computer-accessible information.

decimal point. ( ) The true decimal point, sometimes referred to as the waisted point. For general purposes a dot on the line (a full point or a one-dot leader) is preferred to the true decimal point. Used in mathematical expressions when it is necessary to avoid confusion with the full point used as a multiplication sign. deckle edge. The ragged, feathery edge of a sheet of handmade or mould-made paper. deep-etched halftone. A halftone that has had the tone removed from selected areas by the elimination of the halftone dots. deep page. A page that has been made up to include one or more extra lines. default. The settings prescribed within an application if the operator does not specify alternative requirements. Often used to refer to default settings, e.g. margins in a word processing program. densitometer. A photoelectric device for measuring the density of images. In printing, most commonly used for measuring the density of ink on printed matter. descender. The part of a letter that falls below the bottom of the x-height, as in 'y' or 'g'. desktop production. The use of special software on a computer to produce fully made-up camera-ready copy. desktop publishing. An industry term used to describe what is essentially desktop production. diacritic. A sign or accent used with a letter to indicate pronunciation or stress. dialog box. A box on a computer screen or monitor requesting further information or a decision from the operator. diazo. A copying or colouring process using a compound decomposable by light. Didot. A type measurement used in Europe. The Didot point measures 0.3759 mm, and 12 Didot points equal 1 cicero. Compare point. die-cutting. Using raised, sharp-edged dies to cut shapes into, or out of, paper or board. die-stamping. The process by which a raised image is inked and printed in relief in the one operation. digesting. The process by which softwood chips are 'cooked' with chemicals to produce the pulp for paper manufacture. digitise. To reduce an image to the form of a coded signal for electronic generation. digitisation. The storage of a digitised image in computer memory as a sequence of units in binary notation. directory. The contents of a disk or folder, arranged by icon, size, date, type etc. disc. This spelling is used in reference to compact discs, i.e. CD-ROM. See also disk. discretionary hyphen. A hyphen inserted at the discretion of the computer according to instructions given by the keyboard operator. disk. Short for 'diskette'; a flat, physically transportable memory unit used in computers. Information is stored on disks in the form of magnetic impulses. disk drive. The device in a computer that allows information to be written to, and retrieved from, a disk. display matter. Type and / or graphics, arranged to provide emphasis or for visual impact in headings, titles, advertisements etc. display size. Any type size greater than 14 pt. doctor blade. A thin steel blade used to scrape surplus ink from a photogravure cylinder during running; also used in other intaglio processes. document. 1. A collection of information on a disk, grouped together and called by one name. 2. Any written or printed work.

dot-for-dot. A halftone made from a reproduction of another halftone by photographing its dot pattern on line film. See also rescreen. dots per inch. A measure of screen and printer resolution; the number of dots in a horizontal line 1 inch long. Abbreviated as 'dpi'. double-dagger. () The third of the reference marks; it follows the dagger. downloading. Retrieving information from another computer or disk. Opposite of uploading. dpi. See dots per inch. drawn-on cover. A flexible (soft) cover glued to the spine of the book block to create a paperback. drilling. The process by which holes are made in paper, e.g. as in leaves for loose-leaf binders. drop. The distance from the top of the type area to the top of the first line of printed matter at the beginning of a chapter. dropped initial. An initial capital that extends downwards and lines up at its top with the top of the first line. dry-transfer lettering. Adhesive-backed letters designed to be transferred from a carrying sheet to artwork by means of manual pressure. dummy. A sample of a proposed work made from the materials specified for the work, and prepared before printing to assist in estimating and production. A binder's dummy is prepared in order to establish the exact dimensions of the bound book. dump bin. A point-of-sale display floor stand, specially produced to promote a particular title or author, and which carries copies of the title or titles for sale. duotone. A halftone illustration printed in black and a colour, or in two colours. The printing is made from two halftone images which differ only in their tonal densities or ranges. Sometimes both halftones are printed in the same colour, the effect of which is to give a greater tonal range to the illustration than can be otained with a single halftone. See plate VI. dust jacket. The wrapper round a casebound book, generally bearing the title and other information. Serves to protect the case against scuffing or marking. Designs on dust jackets are primarily intended to attract attention to the book at the point of sale. dyeline. Generally, a single-colour imposed proof made using the diazo process. edition. 1. A new publication, or a printing of an existing publication that involves resetting because of substantial or important changes (in this case, called a 'revised edition'). 2. A publication produced in a second or different format (a book may be produced as a casebound edition and as a paperback edition). egyptian. A generic name for slab-serif typefaces, applying especially to those introduced in the nineteenth century. electronic publishing. The publication and dissemination of information by electronic means. electrotype. A moulded, copper-plated letterpress printing plate, used for high quality reproduction and capable of long print runs. ellipsis. The use of three spaced dots to indicate the omission of a word or words, e.g. 'The use of to indicate the omission ' em. A unit of measurement based on the square of a given type size, thus '7-pt em', '14-pt em'. Commonly but incorrectly used as a general printing measure of 12 pts. The word pica, which is unambiguous, is preferred for this purpose. emboss. To print an image in bas-relief by the use of a corresponding set of raised and incised dies. See also die-stamping.

en. Half the width of an em. In copyfitting, an en is taken as the average width of a type character, hence copy may be described as making so many ens when set in type. See extent. endmatter. All material that follows the main text, such as the appendixes, bibliography and index. Also called 'postlims'. endnotes. Reference or explanatory material printed at the end of a chapter, article or text. endpapers. A pair of leaves at the beginning and end of a book, one leaf of each pair being pasted to the inside of the cover, to provide extra support for the binding. erratum (pl. errata). A notice in a publication correcting an error or errors detected after printing. May be printed within the preliminary pages or endmatter of a work (sections containing these pages are generally the last to be printed, and so may be accessible), tipped in or inserted as a separate sheet. Because of the extra cost involved, particularly with the last two options, these notices should not be used lightly. See also corrigendum, addendum. esparto. A fibre obtained from any one of several grasses, from which paper can be made. etching. The process by which the non-printing parts of a plate are removed by acid. even pages. Left-hand, or verso, pages bearing the even page numbers. even small caps . Small capitals without larger initial capitals: EVEN SMALL CAPS . See also caps and small caps. expanded typeface. A laterally widened typeface, mainly used in display matter. extent. The amount of space that a piece of copy will occupy when it is set in type, measured in ens or pages. face. The printing surface of any type or relief printing plate. facsimile. The exact reproduction of an image. A facsimile edition reproduces exactly the typesetting and illustrations of an earlier work. fax. An electronically transmitted image ('facsimile'). An original document is scanned at the transmitting station and printed out as hard copy at the receiving station. figure. 1. An illustration or diagram printed with the text. 2. A number. file. A collection of information stored on disk and given a unique name. See application program; document. filler, fill-up. A casual item inserted in a periodical where there is otherwise insufficient material to fill a space. film advance. The insertion of horizontal spacing (leading) in photocomposition. filmsetting. See photocomposition. finish. The surface quality of paper or board. fixed costs. Those costs in the production of a publication which are incurred irrespective of the number of copies involvedediting, design, typesetting, machine make-ready etc. See also variable costs. fixed space. A control key on an electronic keyboard by means of which characters required to be separated by a space can be held together. This prevents spaced unitsfor example, a number such as 10000from being broken at the space when the number falls at the end of a line. flexography. A method of letterpress printing from rubber or plastic plates mounted on a reel-fed printing press. Used for printing cartons, plastics etc. floppy disk. A removable computer disk that is flexible (although the case in which the magnetic medium is housed may be hard). flowing a document. Electronic placement of text within specified columns in a page.

flowers. Type ornaments used for embellishment. flyleaf. A blank leaf at the beginning or end of a book. foil printing. A process that employs the same basic principles as letterpress printing, the ink being replaced by foil. folder. 1. Printed work that is folded but does not require stitching or sewing. 2. A software device for grouping documents, applications etc.; represented by a folder-shaped icon on the screen. fold-out. A sheet, larger than page size, folded one or more times to less than page size and bound into a publication. folio. 1.A page number. 2. A leaf in a book or manuscript. 3. A standard subdivision of a sheet of paper folded in half, and thus a book made up of sheets folded once only. follow copy. An instruction to the keyboard operator to set material in accordance with the copy, making no changes whatever in spelling, capitalisation, punctuation etc., even when these conflict with the accepted style. font. A complete range of type characters of the same size and face. Also spelt 'fount'. foolscap. A traditional (imperial) paper size measuring 17 in. 13 Traditional sizes have been replaced in. since metrication by ISO paper sizes and other metric sizes. footer; footline. Brief descriptive matter set in the foot margin of a page, relating to the document's identity or to the page contents. See also header, running headline. footnotes. Notes which expand upon a point referenced, or which relate to a source document referred to, in the text on that page. Set in small type at the foot of a page of text but within the type area. foredge. The outer margin of a page. foreword. A prefatory message distinguished from the introduction or preface by being outside the text. It is written by someone other than the author and does not contribute to the textual content. format. 1. n. The size and shape of a publication; may also be extended to include its general appearance, layout, typography, binding etc. 2. A page layout grid. 3 v. To arrange text in columns and pages. 4. To initialise a disk. formatting. Establishing command codes for the typesetting of copy on computer typesetting systems. forme. An assemblage of type and / or blocks arranged and secured for printing by letterpress. foundry type. Type cast in hard metal for letterpress reproduction. The type is used for hand composition, and is specifically made for repeated use, unlike machine-composition type (see slug, Monotype). four-colour printing. Colour printing using the three pigmental primary colours (cyan, magenta and yellow) and black. French fold. A type of fold in which a sheet, printed on one side only, is folded in half then in half again. Both folds are left uncut. French joint. A joint in bookbinding having a deep groove to allow thick binding material (such as leather) to be used without making the book difficult to open. frontispiece. The illustration facing the title page. fugitive ink. A kind of ink used in security printing as a means of preventing forgery; usually water soluble. full out. Type set to full measure with no indention. full point. Printer's term for 'full stop'. furniture. Pieces of wood, metal or plastic placed within a letterpress forme to make the margins and help secure the contents.

galley. A metal tray used to hold type during or after hand or machine composition. galley proofs. Proofs taken from type held on galleys, or any proofs taken of typeset matter before it is divided and made up into pages. gatefold cover. A cover with a flap hinged at the foredge and folded in. gathering. Placing the sections of a book in correct order before binding. ghosted. 1. A term used to describe an illustration in which inessential details are reduced in tone so that important details can stand out. 2. An illustration evenly reduced in tone or printed in a tint over which other material may be printed. gigo. Abbreviation for 'garbage in, garbage out'. Computer term for bad or inaccurate information input to a computer resulting in equally poor information being put out. gm2. See gsm. gothic. A name for (a) types without serifs and (b) black letter. grammage. An industry term referring to the mass of paper expressed in grams per square metre. graticule. The network of lines on paper representing meridians of longitude and parallels of latitude. grey scale. In photography, a printed strip of graduated tones used to check exposure and development times. grippers. Mechanical devices for holding a sheet of paper in position on the impression cylinder of the printing machine. Allowance for grip must be made by having an unprinted area along the gripper edge of the sheet ('gripper margin'). gsm. Grams per square metre: a method of describing the mass of paper that gives a constant figure regardless of the size of the sheet. Also expressed as gm2. guard. A narrow strip of paper or other material, sewn or otherwise bound into a book, onto which a tip-in sheet is pasted. The guard allows an even thickness to be maintained at both spine and foredge. gutter. The space between two columns, or between two pages of text in sheet form. h & j. Hyphenation and justification modes in computer typesetting. half-sheet work. See work-and-turn. half-title. The title of a work printed on a separate page before the title page proper. Also known as the bastard title. halftone. A continuous tone illustration which has been digitised or photographed through a screen to make it suitable for reproduction by one of the printing methods. The halftone process reduces the continuous tones of the original to a pattern of dots which vary in size relative to their tonal values. The dots are not readily discernible to the naked eye, and so the printed result gives the impression of the same continuous tones of the original illustration. hand composition. The setting and arrangement of type by hand. hanging figures. Numerals with ascenders and descenders. Also known as old style figures. hanging indention. An arrangement of type in which the first line of a paragraph or other division of the text is set full out and the following lines are indented at the left. hard copy. 1. Copy produced in either typewritten form or as printout from a word processor or page layout package. 2. Any computer printout. hard disk. A fixed, rigid, usually non-removable disk, and the disk drive that houses it. hardware. The physical components of a computer system. Compare software.

head. The margin from the top of the type area to the top of the page. headbands . Strips of material (primarily decorative) placed at the head, and sometimes the foot, of the spine of a casebound book. header; headline. Brief descriptive matter set in the head margin of a page. See also running headline. hemp. A fibre used for making paper, derived from the cannabis plant family. hickey. An imperfection on a piece of printed matter caused by a spot of dust, ink skin or paper stuck to the printing plate. A hickey shows up as a white or haloed spot. histogram. See bar graph. hot-metal typesetting. Mechanical typesetting using hot metal (e.g. Intertype, Linotype or Monotype). icon. A graphic representation, usually of a file, folder (2), program or disk. imagesetter. An output device that generates, through laser technology, integrated type and graphic images in excess of 1200 dpi onto plain or photographic paper. Imagesetters have the capability of furnishing complete pages (including halftones) either imposed or ready for imposition. They are superseding phototypesetters. imposed signature proof. A proof of a section of a book, usually the first, which carries the title page and other preliminary matter. imposition. The planning and arrangement of pages so that they will be in the correct sequence when printed and folded. impression. 1. The pressure brought to bear on the paper during its contact with the printing surface while printing. 2. A reprint made without changes to the text. imprint. The name and address of the publisher or printer, or both, printed in a publication. indent. To leave a space at the beginning of a line or lines. The first line of a new paragraph will often be indented. See also hanging indention. India paper. See Bible paper. inferiors. Small letters or figures printed below the level of the line of type, as in chemical formulae (e.g. U3O8). initial letters. Large capital letters, plain or ornamental, sometimes used at the beginning of a work and at the beginning of chapters. These may be 'dropped' or 'raised' ('cocked up'). ink-jet printer. A printer that forms the character image on the sheet by means of a stream of tiny, electrostatically charged ink drops. intaglio. The method of printing from plates into which the image has been incised or etched. interface. The link between the various parts of a system, with particular reference to computers. interleave. To insert a blank leaf or leaves between the leaves of a book. interpolation. The insertion of additional matter. Intertype. A hot-metal, slug-setting composing machine, similar to Linotype; a trade name. ISBN. International Standard Book Number. A numbering system used by libraries and other book-handling agencies for the identification of books. ISO. International Organization for Standardization. International paper sizes were framed by the ISO, and are thus also termed 'ISO sizes'. ISSN. International Standard Serial Number. A numbering system used by libraries and other book-handling agencies for the identification of serial publications.

italic. Sloping characters. The headwords in this glossary are set in italic. jacket. See dust jacket. jaggies. The ragged edges of a character generated by a laser output device. The fewer the dpi in the output, the more ragged the edge of the type character. jobbing (or job) printing. All printing except book, periodical and newspaper work. justify. To space words and letters to a given measure. This produces vertical alignment at the right and left of successive lines of type matter. keep down. Use lower case except where capitals are specifically marked (proofreader's instruction). keep standing. To retain reproduction material after use for possible reprinting. kenaf. The fibre derived from the plant Hibiscus cannabinus. Can be used as a pulp for papermaking. kern. The portion of a letter that overhangs the body space of another letter (e.g. fo). kerning. In digital composition or in phototypesetting, reducing the space between characters so that the letters appear evenly spaced, e.g. S W A T , S WAT . key. 1. To identify related pieces of copy by means of a common symbol (usually 'A', 'B', 'C' etc.) or to identify an insert with its position in the copy. 2. An explanation of colours or symbols in an illustration. 3. See also register marks. keyboard. n. The set of manually operated keys on a text entry machine by means of which characters are reproduced. v. To operate a keyboard. keyline drawing. A drawing in which a thin, black line is drawn to outline each of the different colour areas. This is a way of ensuring that the colour-separated films from which the printing plates are made are in exact register. keyword index. An index that uses, for the purposes of identifying a work for retrieval from computer memory, a word or words taken from its title kilobyte. A measure of computer memory, disk space and the like, equal to 1024 characters or bytes. Abbrev. 'K'. label. The characters or words used to identify the various elements in a map or diagram. laid. A term used to describe paper which, when held to the light, shows a series of ribbed lines, the vertical (or 'chain') lines being widely separated and the horizontal (or 'laid') lines being close together. This effect is caused by the mesh of the dandy roll. See also wove. lamination. A layer of plastic applied to papers or boards (especially covers) for protection and to improve their appearance. See also varnishing. landscape. A page or illustration that is wider than it is deep, particularly when it is turned sideways to be parallel to the binding edge. layout. The plan of any piece of printing, specifying the size, typefaces and area of type, the treatment of headings and the position of illustrations. leaders. A series of dots which direct the eye from one point to another. leading (pronounced 'ledding'). Originally, spacing lines of type by means of 'leads', strips of non-printing metal of various standard thicknesses. The term is still sometimes used in electronic typesetting to refer to line spacing. leaf. Two backing pages (the front and back of a single piece of paper). legend. Explanatory detail included within the boundaries of a map or illustration. letter spacing. Inserting spaces between the letters of a word. Also called 'interletter spacing'.

letterpress. Printing direct from a raised printing surface. letterset. A term used to describe offset letterpress printing. See offset. library binding. A strong binding used for library books; also special binding services for libraries. ligature. Tied letters such as 'ff', 'fl' and 'ffi'. light pen. A photoelectronic tool for use against the surface of a visual display screen to make or position images. line block. Any graphic line (as distinct from halftone) material cast on a metal plate for printing by letterpress. line and halftone. The combination of a line image and a halftone image. line feed. In phototypesetting, the amount (in points) by which film is advanced to produce the required spacing between lines. lining figures. Numerals all of the same height as the capital letters: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0. Also known as modern figures. Linotype. A composing machine that sets type in solid lines called 'slugs'; a trade name. literals. Typesetting errors caused by the omission of letters or the inclusion of wrong letters in words, or the introduction of wrong fonts. Also known as 'typos'. lithography. Printing by the planographic process. See offset. loading. The process by which china clay, titanium oxide or barium sulphate is added to paper to improve the surface. local area network. A network of computer equipment confined to a relatively small area, and usually connected by dedicated lines rather than by regular telephone lines. Abbreviated to LAN. logo. The name or initials of an organisation or product, generally with the letters combined to form a single, distinctive design. Short for 'logotype'. Now also applied to any design for the purpose of identification. long-grain paper. Paper in which the machine direction is parallel to its longer dimension. lower case. Small letters, as distinct from capitals: a, b, c, d etc. See also case. Ludlow. A semiautomatic hot-metal composition system, used for display typesetting. A trade name. machine coated. A term applied to an art paper that is coated on the papermaking machine (see artpaper). machine direction. The predominant direction of the fibres in a piece of paper. The fibres tend to form up parallel to the direction of travel as the paper passes through the papermaking machine. machine finish (MF). A term applied to a paper that has received no additional finishing process after leaving the papermaking machine. machine glaze (MG). A term applied to paper that is glazed on one side and rough on the other; used mainly for posters and paper bags. machine ruling. A method of printing parallel lines, as in account books. machine varnishing. See varnishing. macro. A command that incorporates two or more other commands. magenta. The red primary colour used in four-colour printing. magnetic tape. Plastic tape coated with ferrous oxide; used to store information for retrieval by computer. make-ready. The processes involved in preparing a printing, binding or other machine to its operating level.

make-up. The arrangement of type and illustration into pages. making out to paper. The method of determining the space required in the tails and gutters by measuring across pairs of pages in each direction or by checking against a folded sheet of the paper to be used in the printing. manuscript (abbr. MS, pl. MSS). Author's handwritten or typewritten copy. margins. The space surrounding the type area at the top, bottom and sides of a page. masking. Isolating parts of, or colours in, an illustration by mechanical or photographic means. matrix (pl. matrices) A mould in which hot-metal type is cast. matt finish. A dull, non-reflective finish on paper. measure. The width to which a line of type is set. mechanical tints. Preprinted patterns used with artwork to simulate shading or texture. mechanical wood paper. A paper made from mechanically treated wood pulp. meg; megabyte. A measure of computer memory, disk space and the like, equal to 1 048 576 bytes. Abbreviated 'MB'. memory. Integrated circuits (chips) that store computer information electronically. There are two main types, RAM and ROM. menu. A list of available computer functions; can be either commands in a command menu or options in a command field. menu bar. The horizontal area, usually across the top of the screen, that contains the menu titles. microfiche. A sheet of microfilm on which a series of greatly reduced images is arranged in the form of a grid. microfiche reader. A device that enlarges the images on a microfiche for visual display. microfilm. Film in various forms (roll, sheet etc.) on which images, greatly reduced in size, can be stored. microform. A general term to describe images reproduced in miniature, in whatever form (e.g. reel or fiche). mid (middle) space. In typesetting, a space equal to one quarter of the width of the em. mint copy. A copy in as-new or perfect condition. mitre. To cut the ends of rules and borders to 45 so that the corners join. mock-up. A model of a finished book or magazine with only the essential details sketched in. modem. A device that allows computers to intercommunicate via telephone lines. Short for 'modular demodulator'. modern figures. See lining figures. moir pattern. The undesirable pattern formed when one screen overlays another at an incongruent angle. monograph. A treatise confined to one subject or aspect of a subject. Monotype. A hot-metal typesetting system in which every character is cast on its own body. A trade name. mould-made paper. Imitation handmade paper produced on a flat or cylindrical mould whose surface is divided into sections by thin rubber strips. mount. The base onto which a letterpress block is fixed to bring it level with the printing surface of the type. mount flush. To mount a letterpress block on its base without flanges at one or more edges.

mouse. A hand-held device, connected to a computer by a long, thin cord, and used to electronically position graphic elements called up on a visual display screen. natural measure. The width to which a line of type may be set using normal, consistent spacing, i.e. without adding or reducing space through the line. obelisk. See dagger. OCR. Optical character recognition. The recognition of printed or typed characters by an electronic optical reading head that senses the light reflected from the printed image and provides impulses to recognition circuits that identify each character in order to reproduce it. off-line equipment. Devices not connected to, or controlled by, a central processor but providing a service to a computer system. offprint. A chapter or other part of a publication reprinted as a separate publication or for special distribution. offset. A printing method in which the image is transferred from plate to paper by means of a rubber-covered cylinder. A general term for offset lithography. See also letterset. offset paper. A hard, lint-free paper made for printing by offset lithography. old-style figures. See hanging figures. on-line equipment. Devices connected to, or under the control of, the central processor of a data processing system. optical spacing. The adjustment of spacing between characters so that the letters appear visually equidistant. Generally confined to display lines. See also kerning. ornament. A generic term for the various kinds of decoration which, traditionally, the compositor uses in conjunction with type (e.g. borders, flowers, rules). orphan. A word or line at the foot of a page, isolated by space from the text preceding it. Typographically undesirable. overlay. 1. A separate drawing on transparent material, keyed to register with the base art, and used as camera-ready artwork. 2. Tracing or other paper attached to the back of a print or photograph and folded over the front to provide protection. May also contain any special instructions concerning the relevant processing. overmatter. Matter that has been set but cannot be accommodated on any page. Also known as 'overset'. overrun. To turn words from one line to the next for as long as is necessary after a deletion or insertion has been made. overs. Copies of a publication in excess of the quantity ordered. overset. See overmatter. page proof. A proof taken after the work has been made up into pages. pagination. The paging of a book and the numbering of the pages. paging terminal. A photocomposition terminal on which the various elements can be brought together and manipulated to make up pages. paperback. A book bound in a flexible ('soft') cover of paper or light board. paragraph mark. () The sixth of the reference marks; it follows the parallel mark. Also known as blind P. parallel mark. ( ) The fifth of the reference marks; it follows the section mark. parameter. In computer typesetting, this term is applied to line measure, type size and character width, which may alter from job to job, although the basic computer program may remain constant.

parentheses. Round brackets ( ). paste-up. Sheets on which proofs of type and illustrations are pasted to show the position they must occupy in the eventual printing. pasteboard. A flexible board made up of several thicknesses of paper. perfect binding. A form of binding in which the binding edge is trimmed to separate the leaves; the cut edge is then roughened and glued to receive the cover. perfecting press. Printing press that prints both sides of a sheet in a single pass. pH. The degree or measure of acidity or alkalinity of substances. photocomposition; phototypesetting; filmsetting. The process of typesetting using computer-controlled equipment which, by means of a light source (such as laser technology) and the photographic process, produces type and other line material on bromide paper. photographic proof. A proof taken photographically from artwork or from negatives to be used for platemaking. photogravure. Printing by the intaglio process from plates made by photography and etching. photolithography. Lithography from plates prepared by photographic means. photomechanical transfer (PMT). A paper-to-paper photographic development system, used in the production of artwork. phototypesetting. See photocomposition. pica. 1. A linear measure in printing, equal to 12 pts. 2. A typewriter face having 10 characters to the inch. picking. 1. A fault in printing in which tiny spots of paper are torn away, so that the printing image is marred by flecks of white. There are a number of causes, the main one being the use of ink with too much tack . 2. Filling book orders by taking from open stock stored in a special distribution holding area. pie chart. A circular chart or graph in which proportions are stated in the form of segments. pixel. A 'building block' element on a visual display screen. An image is built up on the screen by activation of the pixels. planographic. Describes a printing method in which an image is printed from a flat sheet (plate), using the natural antipathy of grease and water. The plate is chemically treated so that, in the printing process, the greasy printing ink adheres to the image area but not to the non-image areas, which are protected by the application of water. See also offset. plate. 1. The carrier for a printing surface. 2. An illustration in a book, generally printed on different paper from that used for the text. (Plates do not carry page numbers.) plate sinking. The impression of a blank area into board or paper to simulate framing. platen. 1. The flat surface of a printing press. 2. The roller on a typewriter against which the paper is held to receive the typing. pocket envelope. An envelope having the opening on the shorter dimension. point (abbr. pt). Basic unit of measurement for type and spacing, approximately 0.35 mm. Twelve points equal 1 pica. point system. A standard of type measurement based on the point. Also called the 'Anglo-American point system'. port. A computer term for the device which connects the cables, computers etc. together. portrait. A page or illustration deeper than it is wide.

pos s. The apostrophe plus 's' added to a noun to indicate the possessive. PostScript. A page-describing programming language developed by Adobe. Both of these names are registered trade marks. p.; pp. The abbreviations for 'page' and 'pages'. premake-ready. Procedures by which materials are prepared for printing in order to reduce press makeready time. preface. The introductory address of the author to the reader, in which the scope and purpose of the book are explained. May also include acknowledgments. preliminary pages (prelims ). All pages preceding the main text of a work. pre-press. Relates to those production operations, such as typesetting, page make-up and platemaking, which must be completed before the work can be put on the printing press. preparation cost. See fixed costs. press proof. The last proof returned to the printer before printing begins. print buffer. A hardware device that intercepts a print file on its way to the printer and reroutes it to the buffer's own memory. The file is then held until the laser printer is ready for it, allowing the operator to continue working while the printer is operating. process inks. Standard colour inks used for four-colour printing. program. A series of step-by-step instructions to control the whole sequence of a computer operation. proof. Any reproduction of type or illustration made for the purpose of correction or checking. proportional spacing. A system of spacing in which the width of each character varies according to its design, as distinct from fixed-unit spacing, in which each character occupies the same width. public domain. Any work that may be freely used by the public is said to be in the 'public domain'. These are works on which copyright has expired, or to which copyright does not apply. put down. Reduce from capitals to lower case (proofreader's instruction). put up. Promote from lower case to capitals (proofreader's instruction). quire. A twentieth of a ream. Usually taken as 24 or 25 sheets. quoins. Wedges or mechanical expanding devices used to secure letterpress formes for printing. raised initial. An initial letter that projects above the first line of type. RAM. Random access memory. The part of a computer's memory used for the short-term retention of information. RAM would be lost, for example, when the power to the computer is turned off. random spacing. A means of justifying lines on a word processor print-out. Spaces between randomly selected words in a line are doubled until the line is justified. range. To align elements such as line endings, or a caption with an illustration. Matter set unjustified may be said to 'range left' or 'range right'. raster. A grid or screen. raster scan. On a CRT, the line-by-line sweeps of the scanning head that builds up the image on the screen. reader. 1. In printing, a person employed to read proofs. 2. The scanning head of an OCR or bar code reader which converts graphical data into digital form for computer processing. 3. A screen for displaying microfiche. ream. A paper quantity, normally 500 sheets. The number varies depending on the type of stock.

recto. A right-hand page of a book (an odd-number page). reference marks. Signs used to direct the reader from the text to a note. See asterisk, dagger, double dagger, section mark, parallel mark and paragraph mark; they are used in that order. register. 1. The accurate superimposition of colours in multicolour printing. 2. The exact alignment of pages so that they back up precisely. register marks. Crosses or other marks placed on artwork to act as a guide for platemaking, printing and colour registration; sometimes known as 'keys'. relief printing. See letterpress. remainders. Copies of a book released for sale at well below its original selling price, essentially to clear stocks. reprint. A further printing of an edition, in which no or few corrections have been made. See edition, impression. reproduction proofs. High-quality proofs produced for artwork or platemaking. reprography. Reproduction by photography. This term is used loosely to describe all duplicating and copying processes, whether involving photography or not. rescreen. A halftone made by photographing an existing halftone print through a screen. See dot-for-dot. resolution. The number of dots per inch used to represent a character or a graphic image. The edges of high-resolution images look smoother than those of coarse-resolution images because of the higher number of dpi involved in their construction. return key. On an electronic keyboard, the key which causes the insertion point to move to the beginning of the next line. Elsewhere it is used to confirm an entry or command. reversal; reverse print. A printed image reversed from black to white, or from right to left (as for offset printing). right-reading. Images that read from left to right or are otherwise directionally correct. river; river-of-white. A coincidence of word spacing occurring in successive lines that forms an unwanted eye trap. ROM. Read only memory. The part of a computer's memory used to store programs which are seldom or never changed. roman. Normal upright letters (i.e. as this, not italic or bold). Generally, 'roman' is used to describe letters with serifs, but may also describe upright sanserif letters to distinguish them from the other forms. rough. An artist's sketch or layout for a client. rounding. The process by which the sewn and trimmed sections of a book are rounded at the binding edge to eliminate swelling at the back caused by the folds of the sections. rubbermark. A cheaper alternative to a watermark. A pattern stamped into the web of paper during papermaking, able to be seen on the sheet and felt as an impressed image. rule. A printed line. run. The number of copies of a work to be printed. run on. 1. To make sentences follow each other without a paragraph break. 2. To separate chapters or appendixes by space rather than start each new one on a fresh page. 3. All sheets or other items after the first, processed in a repetitive printing or binding operation. run-on cost. The cost of producing run-on (3) items, in terms of printing and binding time, and paper stock and other materials used. See also variable costs.

running headline. A brief descriptive heading printed at the top of each page, which repeats the name of the publication or the name of the chapter, or which relates to the material contained in the text below it. A running footline performs a similar function at the foot of a page. These lines are referred to generically as 'running lines'. s pos. The apostrophe added to a noun ending in 's' to indicate the possessive. saccade. An eye movement from one fixation point to the next, as in reading. saddle stitching; saddle wiring. A bookbinding process in which pages are secured by means of thread or a wire staple drawn or punched through the centre fold. In saddle-stitched work, the printed sections are inserted one inside the other. A common form of binding for the smaller paperback publications. sanserif. A generic term for a typeface without serifs. See serif. saving. Putting a document into memory, on disk, for later retrieval. scanner. In general terms, a photoelectric device that digitises an image and feeds it into computer memory. scoring. Creasing a sheet, particularly if it is heavy stock, by impressing a metal rule into the surface to compress the coating and fibres. This allows the material to fold without cracking. screen. 1. A grid of intersecting lines or a set of digitised instructions used to convert a continuous tone image into a pattern of dots or lines. (See also halftone, stipple.) The greater the number of lines per centimetre, the finer the screen. 2. The surface of a cathode ray tube on which images are displayed. screen printing. See silk screen. script. A form of lettering or type that emulates flowing handwriting. scrolling. Moving through the contents of a computer screen window or list box in order to see options not currently displayed. secondary colour. A colour formed by the combination of two primary coloursgreen, for example, which is formed by mixing cyan and yellow. section. A printed sheet, usually containing 4, 8, 16 or 32 pages. section mark. () The fourth of the reference marks; it follows the double dagger. self-cover. A cover that is printed on the same stock as the text of the book or booklet. separate cover. A book cover printed on stock different from that used for the text. separation artwork. Artwork comprising base art and keyed overlays representing different printing colours, variations etc. serial publications. Magazines, journals etc. that are issued in instalments. serif. Small extensions terminating the main strokes of letters and other characters. serigraphy. See silk screen. set down. To reset type in a smaller size (proofreader's instruction). set flush. To align successive lines of type at either the left or right ends, leaving the opposite end unjustified. set-off. Ink unintentionally transferred from one printed sheet to another. setting. See typesetting. shade. A colour darkened by the addition of black. shareware. Software that is distributed on the honour system, usually through bulletin boards, user groups, information services etc. Operators are allowed to try out the software and give copies to others, and pay only a nominal registration fee if they decide to continue using it.

sheet. A flat piece of paper, generally rectangular. Sheets of printing paper are made in a range of standard sizes (see appendix II). sheet-fed. A term used to describe a printing machine that prints sheets of paper individually (as distinct from a web machine). sheet-work. See work-and-back. shift key. Either of two keys on the computer keyboard that are used to capitalise letters, and for many other purposes when used in combination with other keys. short-grain paper. Paper which is cut so that the machine direction is parallel to the shorter dimension. short page. A page of text that does not occupy the full depth of the text area. showthrough. The noticeability of print through the reverse side of a sheet. SI. The most widely used system of metric measurement (from 'Systme international'). side heading. A heading set to the left of the page or column as a separate line. side stitching; side wiring. A cheap method of securing sections of a book by driving stitches (staples) through the back margins from the first sheet to the last. sidenotes. Notes appearing in the margin alongside the passages to which they refer. signature. See section. signature mark; section mark. A small capital letter or a number printed sequentially at the bottom of the first page of each section (signature). The lettering or numbering of sections is progressive through the book. Alternatively, a short bar printed on the spine of each section so as to form a continuous, descending line across the spine. Used in bookwork as a guide to gathering. silk screen. A method of printing from stencils through a fine mesh of silk, metal or other material. The stencils may be made photographically or cut by hand. size. A gelatinous substance added to paper to reduce its absorbency. sizing. Specifying the increase or decrease in the size of an illustration to make it fit a prescribed area within a page layout. slip case. A box specially made to contain and protect prestige publications. The box is open to expose the spine of the book, allowing the book's identification and removal. Slip cases are made from pulp board and are usually covered with material similar to, or complementing, that used for the book. Slip cases do not carry the title of the book. slug. A single line of type cast by a hot-metal line-casting machine (Intertype, Linotype). small caps. Capital letters approximately the same height as the lower-case 'x': small capitals. soft cover. See paperback. soft proofing. Proofreading copy on screen instead of proofing hard copy printouts. software. A set of instructions that direct the operations of a computer. solid matter. Type set on its own body size without extra space between the lines. solidus. (/) The diagonal, oblique or slash. sort. Any character in a font of type. specification sheet; spec sheet. A set of specifications giving details relating to the manufacture of a work. specimen pages. A trial setting prepared by the typesetter or imagesetter to show typesetting, page makeup, imposition and trimming.

spill. Matter transferred to another page because of lack of space. spine. The part of a book's cover or jacket that links the front and back covers; the binding edge. spot-varnishing. The application of UV varnish to defined areas, such as halftone images, to enhance colour and general appearance. See varnishing. standing matter. Type, film or plates used in a publication and held for further use. startup disk. A disk containing the systems software needed to operate the computer. step-and-repeat. A precision system for repeating exact duplicates of images in predetermined positions on film or paper. stereotype. A letterpress plate cast in molten metal from a matrix or mould. stet. Latin for 'let it stand' (proofreader's instruction). stipple. A pattern of dots used to form an area of tone. stock. Paper or other material (e.g. cloth, plastic) used for printing or binding. strawboard. A cheap board used in case binding for front and back covers. strike-on setting. Typewriter setting in which a raised image of a character is struck onto the paper by means of mechanical arms attached to a keyboard. strip. To combine two or more elements on artwork or film. style sheets. 1. Two or more composite pages of printed matter with instructions on typesetting, margins, make-up and treatment of headings. 2. Editors' style sheets containing notes on editorial style. 3. A collection of computerised type specifications and format definitions that can be saved and used in various documents. subeditor. In journalism, an assistant editor. One who adjusts journalists' copy to fit the space (newspapers etc.) or time (TV, radio) available. supercalendered paper. Paper that has been passed between heavy calender rollers to give a smooth surface of moderate gloss (see calendering). superiors. Small letters or figures that print above the level of the x-height. They are used to indicate notes and references, as in this manual, or to indicate powers, as in 102. Also called 'superscripts'. superscript. Any small character that prints above the x-height or otherwise at the top of a line (as in formulas). swash letters. Ornate letters, often capitals in an italic font. system board. A type of flexible board used for card indexes, punch cards, covers etc. systems software. A general term for the basic programs that help computers work. tab. A facility on a keyboard for defining columns and indentions. tabloid. A small format newspaper, half broadsheet. tabular work. Statistical and other matter set in columns in the form of a table. tack. The resistance of ink to pull; stickiness. tail. 1. The margin from the bottom of the type area to the bottom of the page. 2. The hanging part of a letter, such as in 'y', 'j', etc. tailpiece. Illustration or decoration at the end of a chapter or book. take. A batch of copy to be typeset. telecommunications. Transferring information between computers over telephone lines.

template. A document with a special format that can be repeatedly modified and saved under different names. ten-pitch. A unit of spacing on a typewriter; ten spaces or characters to the inch. text wrap. An image processing feature that automatically flows text around a graphic image on a page. See also word wrap. thermography. The process by which an image is first printed using a slow-drying ink, then dusted with a fine resinous powder and finally subjected to heat, the resin thus being fused into a glossy, raised image. throw-out. A folded map or plan printed and bound into a book. The throw-out is said to 'throw clear' when the image is positioned so as to be clear of the normal page area when the throw-out is unfolded. thumb index. An alphabetical or subject index cut into the foredge of a book to facilitate quick reference. thumbnail. A small, quick sketch which gives an impression rather than an accurate representation of the finished design. tint. To reduce the intensity of a colour by adding white. tip-in. A page printed separately from the main work and inserted. The page is fixed in position by being pasted along one edge and attached to the inner margin of the page nearest the appropriate point of insertion or to a guard. title. The name given to a manuscript, book, chapter etc. The word is often used as an alternative word for 'book'. tone drawing. A drawing that cannot be reproduced by line because brush, wash or other forms of shading are used to merge tone gradually from black to white (see continuous tone). tone drop-out. A photograph that has been treated to remove the halftones so that it can be reproduced in line form. transpose. To move letters, word, lines, paragraphs etc. from one position to another. trim. Removal of the uneven edges from a paperback book after binding, from a book block before it is casebound, or from sheets prior to printing, to produce the required squared-up size. TTS. Teletypesetting; a trade name. turnover. The carry-over from one line to the next. twelve-pitch. A unit of spacing on a typewriter; twelve spaces or characters to the inch. twin-wire papers. Papers made as two separate sheets and joined in broadsheet form while still wet so that they have similar surfaces on both sides of the sheet. type area. The printed area of a page. type height. The regular height (23.32 mm) at which letterpress type is cast and illustrations mounted. type size. The size of a type character expressed in points (see point). typesetter. 1. One who converts copy (in whatever form) into the typeface and size that is to be used for the published work. 2. A typesetting machine. typesetting. A general term referring to the keyboarding of copy for proofing or reproduction, whether on a typesetting or imagesetting machine, or on a desktop computer. typography. The study of type, its design and function, and the art of its practical application. underline. A line under a word or words. unders. The number of copies short of the quantity ordered. unjustified. Type set with even word spacing so that successive lines are of irregular lengths.

uploading. Sending information to another computer. upper case. Capital letters (see caps, case). user group. A group of people interested in a particular kind of computer hardware or software. User groups are typically non-profit oriented and independent of any computer or software manufacturer. utility. A program that performs a relatively simple task; for example, searching for a specified file on a disk or counting the words in a document. Unlike applications, utilities normally do not generate documents. variable costs. Those costs in the production of a publication which are affected by the number of copies involved. These include the costs of paper and other materials used, the running costs of the printing and binding machines, the packing and distribution costs etc. varnishing. The process by which a protective varnish, usually clear, is applied, by means of a printing machine, over the surface of a piece of printing. Normal machine varnish is air-dried, but where spotvarnishing or a high-gloss finish is required, a superior quality varnish, capable of being dried under ultraviolet light, is used ('UV varnish'). See also lamination, spot-varnish. veranda. The projection of the case boards beyond the head, foredge and tail of a book. verso. The left-hand page of a book (an even-number page). vignette. An illustration in which the image fades away at the edges. virus. A generic term for alien data that corrupts a computer program or disk. visuals. A representation of the finished printed product, prepared by a designer for approval by a client or to test out design ideas. waisted point. See decimal point. watermark. A design fixed within the dandy roll mesh and pressed onto paper during manufacture. It shows as a 'watery' image when held up to the light. It may serve to identify the paper as a product of a particular paper mill, or as a special make. web. Paper not cut into sheets but reeled. Thus 'web-fed' 'web-offset'. widow. The part of a divided word that stands alone on the last line of a paragraph. Also a single word or short line at the top of a page or column.Typographically undesirable. window. An enclosed area on a computer screen that has a title bar. Disks and folders can be opened into windows, and documents appear in windows when being worked on. woodfree paper. Paper made from wood pulp that has had the impurities chemically removed. word processing. An electronic text entry and editing system. word wrap. A feature of most word processing and desktop computer software that enables text to flow around graphic images, or text to flow into new formats, such as from a single column format into a multicolumn format. work-and-back. A method of printing using two formes or plates to produce one copy or section. The 'outer' forme carries those pages that, progressively, fall on the outer side of the bolts, and the 'inner' forme those that fall inside the bolts. Also known as 'sheetwork'. work-and-tumble. A method of printing in which a sheet is turned over its horizontal axis for the reverse side to be printed; the sheet thus has two gripper edges. work-and-turn. A method of printing in which all pages of the section are imposed in one forme, so that after both sides of the paper have been printed two complete copies of the section are produced. Also known as 'half-sheet work'. working layout. A reasonably accurate representation of the finished design with detailed instructions on typesetting and spacing.

working title. A temporary descriptive title given to a piece of work in the publishing process. wove. A term used to describe paper bearing the light impression of a woven mesh dandy roll. (Compare laid paper.) wrapround plates. 1. Pages of illustrations wrapped round a section in the make-up of a book. 2. Flexible printing plates that are made flat and then wrapped round the plate cylinder of the printing press. wrong font. A character of a different kind or size of type from that in which the job is set. WYSIWYG. 'What you see is what you get'. A term used to describe systems that display full pages on screen with both text and graphics in their representative size, style and position. x-height. The height of a lower-case 'x' in a font. The term is used to indicate the height of lower-case letters exclusive of ascenders and descenders. xerography. An electronic printing process. yapp. A binding in which the covers overlap the edges of the pages and flop over to protect them. zinco. A letterpress printing or stamping block made of zinc.

Bibliography
Armstrong, M., Blakeney, M. & Watterson, R. 1988, Media Law in Australia, 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. The Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary 1992, 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. The Australian National Dictionary 1988, ed. W. S. Ramson, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. The Australian National Flag 1985, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. Australia's National Symbols 1993, AGPS Press, Canberra. Baker, Jill 1987, Copy Prep, Blueprint Publishing Ltd, London. Bernard, J. R. L. 1986, A Short Guide to Traditional Grammar, Sydney University Press, Sydney. Binns, Betty 1989, Better Type, Watson-Guptill Publications, New York. A Roundtable Press Book. Boone, L. E. & Kurtz, D. L. 1992, Contemporary Marketing, 7th edn, Dryden Press, Hinsdale, Illinois. British Standards Institution 1988, British Standards Recommendations for Preparing Indexes to Books, Periodicals and Other Documents (BS 3700:1988), London. Brown, Bruce 1983, Browns Index, ed. S. W. Greenwood, Greenwood Publishing, Minehead, Somerset. Bureau of Flora and Fauna 1987, Fauna of Australia, vol. 1A, General Articles, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. Bureau of Flora and Fauna 1981, Flora of Australia, vol. 1, Introduction, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. Butcher, Judith 1992, Copy-editing: The Cambridge Handbook for Editors, Authors and Publishers, 3rd edn, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Campbell, A. 1992, The Mac Designer's Handbook, Harper Collins, London. Chicago Guide to Preparing Electronic Manuscripts: For Authors and Publishers 1987, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. The Chicago Manual of Style 1993, 14th edn, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Collins Dictionary of the English Language 1986, 2nd edn, Collins, Sydney. Collins Gem Dictionary of Spelling & Word Division 1968, Collins, London. Commonwealth Printing and Publishing Manual 1988, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. Council of Biology Editors 1983, CBE Style Manual, 5th edn, rev., Council of Biology Editors, Bethesda, Maryland. Craig, James 1990, Basic Typography: A Design Manual, Watson-Guptill Publications, New York. Crystal, D. 1991, Rediscover Grammar, Longman, London. Dalley, T. (ed.) 1980, The Complete Guide to Illustration and Design Techniques and Materials, QED Publishing, London. Debrett's Handbook of Australia 1991, Debrett's Peerage (Australasia) & Collins, Sydney. Eagleson, R. D. 1990, Writing in Plain English, AGPS Press, Canberra. Engel, K. F. 1986, Bookselling in Australia, Acorn Press, Canberra.

Evans, H. & Evans, M. 1992, The Picture Researcher's Handbook: An International Guide to Picture Sources and How to Use Them, Blueprint Publishing Ltd, London. Forrestal, Peter 1992, Look It Up: A Reference Book for Students of English, 2nd edn, Thomas Nelson Australia, South Melbourne. Fowler, H. W. 1983, A Dictionary of Modern English Usage, 2nd edn, rev. Sir Ernest Gowers, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Paperback edition, with corrections. Frank, F. W. & Treichler, P. A. 1989, Language, Gender and Profession Writing: Theoretical Approaches and Guidelines for Nonsexist Usage, Modern Language Association of America, New York. (With contributions by H. Lee Gershuny, S. McConnell-Ginet, S. J. Wolfe.) Garland, K. 1988, Graphics, Design and Printing Terms (2nd edn of Illustrated Graphics Glossary), Lund Humphries, London. Gatley on Libel and Slander 1981, 8th edn, Sweet & Maxwell, London. Golvan, C. 1989, Words and Law: A Practical Guide for All Those Whose Business Is Writing, Penguin Books Australia Ltd, Ringwood, Victoria. Gowers, Sir Ernest 1986, The Complete Plain Words, 3rd edn, rev. S. Greenbaum & J. Whitcut, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London. Hart's Rules for Compositors and Readers at the University Press, Oxford 1983, 39th edn, rev., Oxford University Press, Oxford. Hudson, Nicholas 1993, Modern Australian Usage, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Hyslop, Robert 1991, Dear You: A Guide to Forms of Address, AGPS Press, Canberra. Index Medicus, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland. Published every January. International Organization for Standardization 1986, Documentation: International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) (ISO 3297:1986). International Organization for Standardization 1992, Information and Documentation: International Standard Book Number (ISBN) (ISO 2108:1992). Joel, Sir Asher 1988, Australian Protocol and Procedures, Angus & Robertson, Sydney. Knight, G. Norman 1979, Indexing, the Art of: A Guide to the Indexing of Books and Periodicals, Allen & Unwin, London. Legat, M. 1991, An Author's Guide to Publishing, 2nd edn, rev., Robert Hale, London. Lewis, H. & Hudson, H. 1992, The Don't Panic Guide to Annual Report Production, AGPS Press, Canberra. McGraw-Hill Book Company 1983, Guidelines for Bias-free Publishing, McGraw-Hill, New York. The Macquarie Dictionary 1991, 2nd edn, Macquarie Library, Sydney. Miller, C. & Swift, K. 1981, The Handbook of Non-sexist Writing for Writers, Editors and Speakers, rev. British edn, The Women's Press, London. Murray-Smith, S. 1990, Right Words: A Guide to English Usage in Australia, 2nd edn, Penguin Books Australia Ltd, Ringwood, Victoria. O'Connor, Maeve 1986, How to Copy Edit Scientific Books and Journals, ISI Press, Philadelphia. Office of the Status of Women 1983, Fair Exposure: Guidelines for the Constructive and Positive Portrayal and Presentation of Women in the Media, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. The Oxford Dictionary for Scientific Writers and Editors 1991, Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Partridge, E. 1973, Usage and Abusage, rev. edn, Penguin, Harmondsworth. Pauwels, A. 1991, Non-discriminatory Language, AGPS Press, Canberra. The Penguin Macquarie Thesaurus 1986, ed. J. R. L. Bernard, Penguin Books Australia Ltd in assoc. with Macquarie Library, Sydney. The Penguin Working Words: An Australian Guide to Modern English Usage 1993, ed. B. Hughes, Penguin Books Australia Ltd, Ringwood, Victoria. Printmate: A Graphic Arts Reference Book 1991, T. Wilson Publishing Company for Associated Pulp and Paper Mills, Melbourne. Purchase, S. (ed.) 1991, The Australian Writers' and Editors' Guide, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Oxford Reference edition. Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. & Svartvik, J. A. 1985, A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, Longman, London. Rasmussen, R. & Rasmussen, H. (eds) 1982, Prejudice in Print: The Treatment of Ethnic Minorities in Published Works, Centre for Migrant Studies, Monash University, Melbourne. Ricketson, S. 1984, The Law of Intellectual Property, Law Book Company, Sydney. The Right Word at the Right Time 1985, Reader's Digest, London. Rocke, F. A. 1984, Handbook of Units and Quantities, Australian Atomic Energy Commission, Lucas Heights, New South Wales. Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases 1982, ed. S. M. Lloyd, Longman, London. Romano, F. 1984, The typEncyclopedia: A User's Guide to Better Typography, R. R. Bowker, New York. Sawer, G. 1984, A Guide to Australian Law for Journalists, Authors, Printers and Publishers, 3rd edn, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. Shatzkin, L. 1982, In Cold Type: Overcoming the Book Crisis, Houghton Mifflin, Boston. Shields, N. E. & Uhle, M. E. 1985, Where Credit is Due: A Guide to Proper Citing of SourcesPrint and Nonprint, Scarecrow Press, Metuchen N.J. and London. Sorrels, B. D. 1983, The Nonsexist Communicator: Solving the Problems of Gender and Awkwardness in Modern English, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Standards Association of Australia 1974, Australian Standards: Paper Sizes (AS 16121974). Standards Association of Australia 1992, Australian Standard: Recycled PaperGlossary of Terms (AS 40821992), Standards Australia, North Sydney. Standards Association of Australia, Catalogue of Publications and Subject Index of Australian Standards, Standards Australia, North Sydney. A Standards updating service is provided by Standards Australia. Strunk, W. Jr & White, E. B. 1979, The Elements of Style, 3rd edn, Macmillan, New York. The Times Atlas of the World 1992, Times Books, London. Comprehensive edition. United States Government Printing Office, 1986, A Manual of Style, Gramercy Publishing, New York. Wellisch, Hans H. 1991, Indexing from A to Z, H. W. Wilson Company, Bronx, New York. Williamson, H. 1983, Methods of Book Design, Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut. Words into Type 1974, 3rd edn (rev. 1986), Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Based on studies by Marjorie E. Skillin, Robert M. Gay and other authorities.

Appendix I

Titles, honours and forms of address

Space does not permit an exhaustive discussion of all the styles and titles, awards, honours and forms of address in common use in Australia. Some general practices of particular importance are described below. More detailed guidance will be found in Hyslop (1991), Joel (1988) and in Debrett's Handbook of Australia (1991). Titles and honorifics
THE RIGHT TO TITLES

Everyone has the right to a title that precedes his or her name. This may be a conventional titleMr, Mrs, Miss or Msor it may be an honorific title or a title derived from rank, qualification or status such as Dame, Doctor or The Honourable. Some titles are shown after the name and are known as postnominals; they also indicate rank, qualification or status, such as AM (Member of the Order of Australia) or CPA (Certified Public Accountant).
HONOURS AND AWARDS

Honours and awards are indicated by titles, which may be prefixed or affixed. Honorific prefixed titles include royal titles, and titles of peers, knights and dames. Prefixed titles of rank and status include marks of ecclesiastic, academic or professional distinctionprincipally descriptive titles such as Professor, Doctor or Archbishop. Honorific affixed titles and affixed titles of rank and statuspostnominalsconsist of abbreviations or initials. The following list is the Australian order of precedence of honours and awards as set out in the Commonwealth of Australia Gazette of 15 January 1993. Postnominal initials have been added to those that carry them.
Victoria Cross George Cross Cross of Valour Knight / Lady of the Garter Knight / Lady of the Thistle Knight / Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Order of Merit Knight / Dame of the Order of Australia (Provision for further awards at this level within the Order of Australia was removed by the Queen on 3 March 1986 on the advice of the Prime Minister) Knight / Dame Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George Knight / Dame Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order VC GC CV KG / LG KT / LT GCB OM AK / AD

GCMG GCVO

Knight / Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire Companion of the Order of Australia Companion of Honour Knight / Dame Commander of the Order of the Bath Knight / Dame Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George Knight / Dame Commander of the Royal Victorian Order Knight / Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire Knight Bachelor Officer of the Order of Australia Companion of the Order of the Bath Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George Commander of the Royal Victorian Order Commander of the Order of the British Empire Star of Gallantry Star of Courage Companion of the Distinguished Service Order Distinguished Service Cross Member of the Order of Australia Lieutenant of the Royal Victorian Order Officer of the Order of the British Empire Companion of the Imperial Service Order Member of the Royal Victorian Order Member of the Order of the British Empire Conspicuous Service Cross Nursing Service Cross Royal Red Cross (1st Class) Distinguished Service Cross Military Cross Distinguished Flying Cross Air Force Cross Royal Red Cross (2nd Class) Medal for Gallantry Bravery Medal Distinguished Service Medal Public Service Medal Australian Police Medal

GBE AC CH KCB / DCB KCMG / DCMG KCVO / DCVO KBE / DBE

AO CB CMG CVO CBE SG SC DSO DSC AM LVO OBE ISO MVO MBE CSC NSC RRC DSC MC DFC AFC ARRC MG BM DSM PSM APM

Australian Fire Service Medal Medal of the Order of Australia Order of St John Distinguished Conduct Medal Conspicuous Gallantry Medal George Medal Conspicuous Service Medal Antarctic Medal Queen's Police Medal for Gallantry Queen's Fire Service Medal for Gallantry Distinguished Service Medal Military Medal Distinguished Flying Medal Air Force Medal Queen's Gallantry Medal Royal Victorian Medal British Empire Medal Queen's Police Medal for Distinguished Service Queen's Fire Service Medal for Distinguished Service Commendation for Gallantry Commendation for Brave Conduct Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct Commendation for Distinguished Service War Medals / Australian Active Service Medal (in order of date of qualifying service) Australian Service Medal Police Overseas Service Medal Polar Medal Imperial Service Medal Coronation and Jubilee Medals (in order of date of receipt) Defence Force Service Medal Reserve Force Decoration Reserve Force Medal National Medal Champion Shots Medal Long Service Medals

AFSM OAM

DCM CGM GM CSM

QPM QFSM DSM MM DFM AFM QGM RVM BEM QPM QFSM

RFD

Independence and Anniversary Medals (in order of date of receipt) Foreign Awards (in order of date of authorisation of their acceptance and wearing)

Postnominals Postnominals are written without stops, but commas are inserted between them when there are more than one:
AC, MBE

The rule for postnominals is that the higher the honour the nearer its position to the person's name. Postnominal initials associated with honours granted by the Sovereign take precedence over other postnominal initials. The special eminence of the Victoria Cross, the George Cross and the Cross of Valour requires that the initials VC, GC, and CV precede all others. Initials for honours and awards are shown in their order of precedence. Next follow abbreviations for Queen's Counsel (QC) and Justice of the Peace (JP). Other initials are then given in the following order:
University degrees and diplomas Membership of associations and societies Membership of Parliament

When a person is promoted within an order, the letters indicating the honour previously held are no longer used. Thus when a member of the Order of Australia:
Ms Margaret Norton, AM

is promoted to an officer of the Order, she becomes:

Ms Margaret Norton, AO [not AO, AM)] WHERE TO PLACE TITLES

Prefixed titles of rank and status stand immediately before a person's name and after honorific forms of address. Viceregal, ecclesiastic and armed services titles usually precede all others. 'Sir' and 'Dame' A baronet or knight bachelor is entitled to the title Sir before his given name provided that no title indicative of higher rank is more appropriate. The following honours for men also entitle the holder to the title Sir:
KG, KT, GCB, AK, GCMG, GCVO, GBE, KCB, KCMG, KCVO, KBE

In like manner, provided that no higher rank is held, the following honours for women entitle the holder to the title Dame:
GCB, AD, GCMG, GCVO, GBE, DCB, DCMG, DCVO, DBE

When addressing persons entitled to Dame or Sir it is customary to employ the preferred given name before the surname:

Dame Ethel Dahl Sir George Ashcroft

The wife of 'Sir Archbold Dabro' is called 'Lady Dabro'; it is not customary to employ her given name before the surname. A husband derives no title from being married to a dame. 'The Honourable' The title The Honourable (usually written The Hon.) is accorded to holders of the following offices:
Commonwealth Members of the Federal Executive Council Ministers President of the Senate Speaker of the House of Representatives Judges of the High Court Presidential Members of the Australian Industrial Relations Commission Judges of the Federal Court Judges of the Family Court States and Territories Members of the Executive Council Members of the Legislative Council Speaker of the Legislative Assembly (not ACT) Leader of the Opposition (Tasmania) Judges of the Supreme Court Chief Judge, Family Court (Western Australia) President, Industrial Court (South Australia) NAMES

Individuals A person's name comprises a title, given name or initials, surname and postnominals. When there is only one given name, this is shown in full. When there is more than one given name, however, it is customary to show only the initials. It is no longer customary for a married woman to be addressed with the given name or initials of her husband, for example:
Mrs Lucinda Philpott not Mrs Graham Philpott

Nor does every married woman now take her husband's surname. Care is needed here in order to observe individual preferences. Organisations Names of organisations can be shortened but they need to be clearly identified; some organisations are known locally by initials which may be meaningless elsewhere. Foreign names When writing to a person in another country one needs to observe the conventions of that country, whereas when writing to someone with a 'foreign' name living in Australia, one can assume a degree of anglicisation.

In some countries names are shown in a different order from names in English. In Korea, for example, the surname is shown first. The composition of some foreign names is another matter to be watched. In German names, the family prefix von takes the lower case, as does van in Dutch. Likewise in France, de and d' are in lower case. However, du in some cases, for example in Du Fair, takes a capital letter. When it begins a sentence, von, van or de is capitalised. Note too that in some countries less use is made of surnames than is the case in Australia. Thus while a Thai woman formally takes her husband's family name, she continues to be addressed by her first name, changing from
Miss Ngamnate

to
Mrs Ngamnate

It is best to ascertain what the person prefers, either by noting this from written material, such as a letter from the person, or by asking directly.
CONVENTIONAL TITLES

The conventional titles are Mr, Miss, Mrs and Ms. Usage in respect of the last three is changing in Australia. There is a move towards using the title Ms for all women, the justification being that, like Mr, it does not indicate marital status. But there are divisions on this in the community. The most satisfactory guide is to try to ascertain the preference of the person being addressed. Where this preference is not known, the practice most likely to avoid offence is to use Ms unless one knows that the woman is or has been married, in which case Mrs is recommended. For more details, see Hyslop (1991). Forms of address In correspondence, forms of address are the ways of beginning and ending a letter. They consist of three partsname, salutation and complimentary close. The salutation is the opening of a letter; its commonest form is, for example:
Dear Mr Vigano

The complimentary close, written at the end of a letter, takes the form:
Yours faithfully

or a variant of it. The salutation and complimentary close are used in pairs and should be in harmony. Thus 'Dear Madam' is used with 'Yours faithfully', while a letter to 'Dear Mrs Heysen' concludes with 'Yours sincerely'. When writing to someone whose preference for a form of address is known, follow that preference. To assist here, writers of letters should identify themselves precisely in their own

letters, giving their preferred titles and postnominals (if any). A reply to a letter should use the form of address indicated in the letter.
ROYALTY

Her Majesty's title in Australia is as follows:

Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God Queen of Australia and Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth

Letters to the Queen should be addressed to:

Private Secretary to Her Majesty the Queen

The Queen's husband is His Royal Highness the Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh. Letters to Prince Philip should be addressed to:
Private Secretary to HRH the Duke of Edinburgh

The Queen's eldest son is Prince Charles the Prince of Wales. His wife is referred to as the Princess of Wales, not as Princess Diana. Letters to Prince Charles should be addressed to:
Private Secretary to HRH the Prince of Wales

Note that the prefix the before 'Prince' and 'Princess' is used only for the Queen's immediate family, as in the formulation 'the Prince Andrew'. Letters to the Princess of Wales are addressed to:
Private Secretary to HRH the Princess of Wales VICEROYALTY

Governor-General The present Governor-General prefers to be addressed as:

The Hon. Bill Hayden, AC Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia

The title His Excellency is not used. Correspondence to the Governor-General should be addressed to the Official Secretary at Government House. If the Governor-General is addressed personally, the salutation and close is:
Formal: Less formal: Sir Yours faithfully My dear Governor-General Yours sincerely

Administrator When the Governor-General is absent, the same conventions as for the Governor-General apply to the Administrator.

Governor (of a State) The title His or Her Excellency precedes all other ranks and titles. The Governor's spouse is not known as Her or His Excellency. Lieutenant-Governor (of a State) The Lieutenant-Governor is not known as His or Her Excellency. However, in the absence of the Governor he or she is addressed as:
His [Her] Excellency the Lieutenant-Governor of

Correspondence to the Governor-General or to a Governor should be addressed to the Official Secretary at Government House. Similarly, correspondence for the wife or husband of the Governor-General or Governor should be addressed to the Official Secretary, or alternatively to the Private Secretary.
PEERS, BARONETS, KNIGHTS AND DAMES

Peers and baronets Detailed guidance on addressing peers and baronets is to be found in Joel (1988) and in Debrett's Handbook of Australia; for the more usual cases see Hyslop (1991). Knights and dames There are various orders of knighthood, namely Garter, Thistle, St Patrick, Bath, Star of India, St Michael and St George, Indian Empire, Royal Victorian, British Empire and Knight Bachelor. Knights and dames are distinguished by being addressed as, for example:
Sir George Mallaby

or
Dame Mary Stokes

and by the postnominals that attach. Note, however, that Knights Bachelor have no postnominal.
MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT

The postnominals which indicate that a person is a member of Parliament are always shown last. Membership of the House of Representatives in the Federal Parliament confers no prefixed title. Members use the postnominal MP. There has been some use of the initials MHR, but they do not have official sanction. Members of the Senate have the prefixed title Senator, but this confers no postnominal. Members of parliaments in the States use the postnominals MLC, MLA and MHA and are thus distinguished from federal members. Some members of State parliaments, however, now prefer the postnominal MP.

MINISTERS

It is no longer the practice to appoint senior federal ministers as members of the Privy Council. When the Prime Minister was so appointed, the form of address was:
The Right Hon. Clifford Thornberg Prime Minister of Australia

All ministers in both the Federal Government and the State Governments have the title The Honourable, usually abbreviated to The Hon. For example:
The Hon. Barry Truman Minister for Defence

Ministers in the Senate are styled:

Senator the Hon. Denise Cottrell Minister for Communications TERRITORIES

Australian Capital Territory The Speaker and ministers in the ACT Legislative Assembly do not use the honorific title The Honourable. They should be addressed with their own personal preferred titles, obtainable from the Assembly's office. Northern Territory The Administrator of the Northern Territory is addressed as, for example:
His Honour the Administrator Mr J. Q. Vandenberg

Ministers in the Government and the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory have the title The Honourable.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT

In local government there is a variety of titles: Mayor, President, Alderman, Councillor. The lord mayors of Adelaide, Brisbane, Hobart, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney have the title The Right Honourable attached to their offices but not to their names. There is no related honorific for their spouses. The titles Alderman and Councillor do not change if the lord mayor is a woman. The lord mayors of Brisbane, Hobart and Sydney are aldermen, in Adelaide and Perth they use only the conventional title (Mr etc.); the lord mayor of Melbourne is councillor. The lord mayors of Darwin, Newcastle and Wollongong are addressed as 'The Right Worshipful the Lord Mayor of ' The lady mayoress, wife of a lord mayor, is addressed as 'The Lady Mayoress of ' The mayor of Geelong is addressed as 'The Right Worshipful the Mayor of Geelong'. Mayors of other cities are addressed as 'His (or Her) Worship the Mayor of ' The mayoress, wife of a mayor, is addressed as 'The Mayoress of '

A Shire President is addressed as 'The Shire President'. An alderman, man or woman, is addressed as 'Alderman ' Similarly, a councillor is addressed as 'Councillor '
DIPLOMATIC

Ambassadors and high commissioners have the honorific His [Her] Excellency, but not after they have retired. The wife of an ambassador or a high commissioner is entitled to the title Her Excellency when in the country to which her husband is accredited, but this honorific is now less common. The husband of an ambassador or high commissioner is not thereby entitled to the honorific His Excellency. Other diplomatic and consular staff are addressed by name and appointment with only their personal titles.
ECCLESIASTICS

For guidance in addressing ecclesiastics see Hyslop (1991). Note that: a spiritual title precedes a temporal title; it is important to avoid the common error: Reverend Tannenberg which is like saying, for example, Sir Smith. Reverend always takes initials or given name before the surname.
JUDICIARY

The appointment of women as judges and the dislike of sexism have moved most courts in Australia to avoid the conventional titles Mr, Mrs, Miss and Ms, so that judges are now addressed as, for example:
The Hon. Justice Samuel Simpkins

Members of the bench are called Justice in the High Court, the Federal Court and the Family Court in the federal judicature and in the supreme courts in the States and Territories; they have the title The Honourable. In district and county courts, members of the bench are called Judge, and have the title His or Her Honour.
ARMED SERVICES

In formal correspondence officers in the armed services are addressed by their rank, given names or initials, surnames, and any postnominals. In informal correspondence, officers of the rank of army lieutenant, navy sublieutenant and air force flying officer and below are given conventional titles (Mr, Ms, Mrs or Miss), and officers of the rank of colonel and above can be addressed in the salutation by their rank alone without their name.

In correspondence, non-commissioned officers and other ranks are addressed by their rank and surname, not by their given name. Postnominals for honours and awards are shown immediately after the surname and before abbreviations that indicate service or regiment. Rank titles that consist of two words are shown without a hyphen, for example Lieutenant Colonel. A military rank precedes other titles. Chaplains have military rank but they are addressed with their ecclesiastical title only.
ACADEMICS AND PROFESSIONALS

Academics Postnominals representing tertiary education qualifications are usually restricted to correspondence within the academic community or in correspondence where the qualifications are cited as a warrant of expertness. The title Doctor can be abbreviated to Dr in the form:
Dear Dr O'Loughlin

but it is not abbreviated in the form:

Dear Doctor

The title Professor is best spelt out in full. Professionals Professionally qualified people addressed in the context of their profession are given their prefixed and postnominal professional titles, for example:
Dr Brent Hulot, FRACI ABORIGINAL AND TORRES STRAIT ISLANDER PEOPLES

Although Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities do not acknowledge a style common to all groups, most people now have given names and surnames, so that in addressing letters to them the standard Australian conventions usually apply. Some, however, are properly addressed by their traditional names with no conventional title.
OTHERS

When one is writing to a group of women, the salutation Mesdames is better than Dear Mesdames. The salutation Dear Madams is not used in Australia. Messrs may be used when one is addressing brothers but not when addressing father and son, who should be addressed as, for example:
Mr Gerald and Mr Maurice Day

Messrs is acceptable when addressing a partnership, for example:

Messrs Golightly and Limburner

Appendix II
International paper sizes

Paper sizes

Commonwealth government publications, stationery and forms are printed in sizes recommended by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). ISO sizes are Australian standards and are described in Australian Standard AS 16121974. ISO sizes are stated as trimmed sizes, the trimmed size being the size of the finished work after the final trimming. In each of the three series of ISO sizesA, B and Cthe shape of the basic size and of all normal subdivisions is the same. The sides are always in the proportion 1: 2, that is 1:1.414 approximately (see figs II.1(a) and (b)).
FIGURE II.1(a) ISO proportions
The construction of a rectangle with sides of proportion 1: 2

FIGURE II.1(b) ISO proportions

The proportions of the sides are constant in all regular sizes

In the A series the basic size is A0 (1189 mm 841 mm), which occupies an area of 1 m2. All A sizes derive from this standard and are described by the letter 'A' followed by a number. Half of A0 is A1; half of A1 is A2; half of A2 is A3, and so on (see fig. II.2). For sizes larger than A0 the number precedes the letter; for example, 1A is twice the size of A0.
FIGURE II.2 Regular subdivisions of ISOsheet size

In Australia, the letters 'L' or 'b' after a designation indicates that the upright dimension of the page is the shorter, as in an oblong book (A4L, A5L and so on). The A series is designed for printing and stationery. The B series is based on the size B0 (1414 mm 1000 mm) and the normal subdivisions provide sizes between the A subdivisions; for example, B5 is midway between A4 and A5, and B3 is midway between A2 and A3 (fig. II.3). The B sizes were originally intended for envelopes and posters. However, because a better progression can be obtained by using both the A and B ranges than the A range alone, B sizes are also used for Commonwealth government publications; for example, B5 is the standard for the Parliamentary Papers series. C sizes, based on C0 (917 mm 1297 mm), fall between the A and B sizes (see fig. II.3). This manual is C5 (229 mm 162 mm).
FIGURE II.3 Relationship between A, B and C sizes

REGULAR SUBDIVISIONS OF A, B AND C SIZES

The following tables show the range of sizes (in millimetres) that can be obtained by the progressive subdivision of the basic sizes A0 and B0:
A series A0 1189 841 A1 841 594 A2 594 420 A3 420 297 A4 297 210 A5 210 148 A6 148 105 A7 105 74 A8 74 52 B series B0 1414 1000 B1 1000 707 B2 707 500 B3 500 353 B4 353 250 B5 250 176 B6 176 125 B7 125 88 B8 88 62 C series C0 1297 917 C1 917 648 C2 648 458 C3 458 324 C4 324 229 C5 229 162 C6 162 114 C7 114 81 C8 81 57

These are finished trimmed sizes. The permissible allowances for trim are as follows: (a) (b) (c) for dimensions up to and including 150 mm: upper deviation +1.5 mm; lower deviation 1.5 mm for dimensions greater than 150 mm and up to and including 600 mm: upper deviation +2 mm; lower deviation 2 mm for dimensions greater than 600 mm: upper deviation +3 mm; lower deviation 3 mm

PRINCIPAL USES OF THE A AND B SIZES

A4: A4 is used for magazines, stationery and forms, and for bookwork, particularly when large illustrations or large complex tables occur. A4 is suitable for setting in one, two or three columns. It is the most common size for desktop computer laser output, and is the required size for hard copy print-outs. A5: This is used for personal stationery and for brief business letters. In general printing A5 is suitable for small periodicals, booklets, brochures and forms. A6 and A7: A6 is suitable for postcards, invitation cards and pocket books. A6 and A7 are used for compliment slips, labels and other small items of stationery. B5: This is the required size for Commonwealth of Australia parliamentary publications. It can be used for general publications and periodicals, and is also made as an envelope size in Australia. Other ISO sizes may be used for Commonwealth publications, but parent sheet size must be taken into account. Sheeting may be an option with some paper qualities if sufficient time has been allowed for the operation. See paragraphs 22.612 in the text for information on these points.

IRREGULAR SUBDIVISIONS

An A0 sheet can be divided economically in various ways to produce irregular sizes which, although not in the proportion 1:2, are related to the regular subdivisions. Figure II.4 shows a sheet divided to produce the sizes 1/3A4, 2/3A4 and A4 + 1/3. The most common use of 1/3A4 is for brochures and lists; 2/3A4 is a convenient size for forms when A4 is too large and A5 too small; and A4 + 1/3 is useful for A4 forms with a removable 1/3A4 slip. Forms in these sizes fold to fit into DL envelopes.
FIGURE II.4

Irregular subdivisions of ISO sheet size STOCK SIZES OF A AND B

Because ISO sizes are stated as finished sizes for printed matter, the printer must use a stock sheetthat is, paper larger than the trimmed sizeto produce publications in ISO sizes. The International Organization for Standardization has established stock sizes to cater for normal trim and supplementary stock sizes to cater for bled work. These are identified in AS 1612 1974 (although not in merchants' catalogues) by the addition of the prefix 'R' for normal trim and the prefix 'SR' for bled work. For example, A0 describes the trimmed size, RA0 the size of the sheet supplied by the paper mill for normal work and SRA0 the size supplied for work requiring extra trim.
ENVELOPES

The following table lists recommended ISO envelope sizes. The range includes: C sizes, which are for normal A size enclosures; three B sizes, which are used to enclose return envelopes and matter enclosed in C size envelopes; the hybrid B6 / C4 size; and the DL size (the survivor of a D series that was not accepted as an International Standard). Sizes are given in millimetres.
DL C6 B6 B6 / C4 C5 B5 C4 B4 110 220 114 162 125 176 125 324 162 229 176 250 229 324 250 353

The relationship between the envelopes and their enclosures is shown in figure II.5. In addition to the ISO range illustrated, an envelope 190 mm 265 mm is provided for enclosing B5 publications.
FIGURE II.5 International envelope sizes and enclosures

A special convention is observed for envelopes: those that open on the longer side are known as 'bankers' and those that open on the shorter side as 'pockets'. 'Bankers' must be specified when mechanical insertion is required.

Appendix III

Standard page dimensions

The following table gives standard page sizes, type dimensions and margins for Commonwealth government publications not requiring special layouts. Margins have been converted from picas to the nearest millimetre.
Standard Trimmed page size A4 B5 C5 A5 B6 A6 B7 mm 297 210 250 176 229 162 210 148 176 125 148 105 125 88 Back margin (b) mm 22 19 21 15 19 15 15 11 9 picas 5 4 5 3 4 3 3 2 2 Trimmed head margin(c) mm 21 19 18 18 17 15 14 11 10 picas 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 2 2

Single or double column single double single double single single single single single

Type dimensions (a) picas 58 37 60 39 49 30 50 33 45 28 41 27 35 22 30 19 25 16

(a) Page depth includes folios and running headlines. The space between running headline and text, or between text and folio appearing without a headline or at the foot, should not exceed the body size of the type used for the main text. (b) The back margin should be increased by 5 mm (15 pts) per page for side-stiched work, and by 2 mm (6 pts) per page for adhesive binding. (c) The head margin should be reduced by 2 mm (6 pts) when the folio is at the head or when the page has a running headline.

Trims. The head trim for B5 and larger formats is 4 mm (12 pts); for formats smaller than B5, 3 mm (9 pts). The back trim for adhesive binding is 2 mm (6 pts). Special bindings (loose-leaf for example). Page dimensions and margins may be modified according to the type of binder used. Tolerances. The permissible allowances for trim for ISO sizes are listed in the footnote on page 391. Size of casebound books. The case of a bound book should overlap 3 mm at head, tail and foredge. Thus the trimmed page size of a B5 book is 250 mm 176 mm, the size of the case boards is 256 mm 176 mm and overall size (including the rounded back) is approximately 256 mm x 185 mm. The width will vary according to the extent of the rounding.

Appendix IV

Metric conversion tables

Metric equivalents for printing measures The point system, described in paragraphs 13.524, continues to be used for the expression of type sizes, spacings, margins, line widths and the like. Sometimes, however, the measurement of these elements may be stated in millimetres.
Metric equivalent mm 0.35 0.53 0.70 1.05 1.41 1.76 2.11 2.46 2.80 3.16 3.51 3.86 4.22 6.32 8.43 10.54 12.65 16.87 21.08 25.27 Working approximation mm 0.5 1 2 3 4 6 8 11 13 17 21 25 Metric equivalent mm 1.59 3.18 6.35 12.7 25.4 50.8 76.2 101.6 127.0 152.4 177.8 203.2 228.6 254.0 279.4 304.8 457.2 609.6 914.4 1219.2 Working approximation mm 1.5 3 6 13 25 51 76 102 127 152 178 203 229 254 279 305 457 610 914 1219

Points 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 18 24 30 36 48 60 72

Inches 1/16 1/8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 18 24 36 48

Conversion table for common measurements

Conversion factors Quantity Length Imperial unit inch (in) foot (ft) yard (yd) furlong (fur) mile ounce (oz) pound (lb) stone ton Metric unit millimitre or centimetre (cm) centimetre (cm) or metre (m) metre (m) metre (m) or kilometre (km) kilometre (km) gram (g) gram (g) or kilogram (kg) kilogram (kg) tonne (t) Imperial to metric units 1 in = 25.4 mm 1 ft = 30.5 cm 1 yd = 0.914 m 1 fur = 201 m 1 mile = 1.61 km 1 oz = 28.3 gm 1 lb = 454 g 1 stone = 6.35 kg 1 ton = 1.02 t

Mass

Area

square inch (in 2) square foot (ft 2) square yard (yd2) perch (p) rod (rd) acre (ac) square mile

square centimetre (cm2) square centimetre (cm2) or square metre (m2) square metre (m2) square metre (m2) hectare (ha) hectare (ha) square kilometre (km2 cubic centimetre (cm3) cubic metre (m3) cubic metre (m3) cubic metre (m3) cubic metre (m3) millilitre (mL) millilitre (mL) or litre (L) litre (L) or cubic metre (m3) cubic metre (m3) or megalitre (ML) newton (N) kilonewton (kN) kilopascal (kPa)

1 in 2 = 6.45 cm2 1 ft 2 = 929 cm2 1 yd2 = 0.836 m2 1 p = 25.3 m2 1 rd = 0.101 ha 1 ac = 0.405 ha 1 square mile = 2.59 km2 1 in 3 = 16.4 cm3 1 ft 3 = 0.0283 m3 1 yd3 = 0.765 m3 1 bus = 0.0364 m3 1 super ft = 0.00236 m3 1 fl oz = 28.4 mL 1 pt = 568 mL 1 gal = 4.55 L 1 acre-foot = 1230 m3 = 1.23 ML 1 lbf = 4.45 N 1 tonf = 9.96 kN 1 lbf / in 2 = 6.89 kPa

Volume

cubic inch (in 3) cubic foot (ft 3) cubic yard (yd)3 bushel (bus) superficial foot (super ft) fluid ounce (fl oz) pint (pt) gallon (gal) acre-foot pound-force (lbf) ton-force (tonf) pound-force per square inch (lbf / in 2) atmosphere (atm) ton-force per square inch (tonf / in 2)

Force Pressure

kilopascal (kPa) or megapascal (Mpa) megapascal (Mpa)

1 atm = 101 kPa 1 tonf / in 2 = 15.4 Mpa 1 inHg = 33.9 mb 1 mb = 100 Pa 1 mph = 1.61 km / h C = 5 (F32) 9 1 lb / in 3 = 27.7 g / cm3 1 lb / in 3 = 27.7 t / m3 1 ton / yd3 = 1.33 t / m3 1 Btu = 1.06 kJ 1 therm = 106 MJ 1 kWh = 3.60 MJ 1 hp = 0.746 kW 1 c / s = 1 Hz 1 r / min = 0.105 rad / s

For meterology Speed Temperature

inch of mercury (inHg) mile per hour (mph) degree Fahrenheit

millibar (mb) kilometre per hour (km / h) degree Celsius (C)

Density

pound per cubic inch (lb / in 3) ton per cubic yard (ton / yd3)

gram per cubic centimetre (g / cm3) = tonne per cubic metre (t / m3) tonne per cubic metre (t / m3) kilojoule (kJ) megajoule (MJ) kilowatt hour (kWh) kilowatt (kW) hertz (Hz) radian per second (rad / s)

Energy

British thermal unit (Btu) therm horsepower (hp) cycle per second (c / s) revolution per

Power Frequency Angular

velocity

minute (r / min)

revolution per minute (r / min)