1 INTRODUCTION

HAM radios now a day is defined as a high tech hobby that appeals to a diverse amount of people. The main reason for this is it has a variety of applications ranging from recreational uses to large communication organizations example communicating to family or friends via radio waves using hand held devices. Most people tend to think that HAM radio is old fashion but HAM has evolved to become compatible with the digital world and now users are able to communicate digitally using packet radios. Amateur radio operators basically have their own communication station comprising of a receiver and a radio transmitter.

2 METHODOLOGY
This project involves research, analysis and application of Amateur radio systems, also known as HAM radio. Data was collected over the period of the study mostly from reputable and authoritative secondary sources as to maintain the integrity of the study. Online resources were used to a great extent. Relevant books as well as and scholarly articles available on the World Wide Web provided technical for this report. Additional online resources included official HAM operator webpages. First hand interaction with HAM radio equipment as well as interviews with local HAM radio operators served as a means of primary data collection. Additionally oral presentations by TTARL also provided significant information on technical details of amateur radio as well as practical application of these systems. Data from these numerous primary and secondary sources were then analysed and compiled and presented in this document.

3 TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF AMATEUR RADIO

3.1 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
3.1.1
The diagram below shows a diagram of a typical analog HAM radio system, showing all the key components.

Diagram Courtesy, Ham Radio for Dummies All the components are interconnected as shown above to complete a basic HAM radio system. Headphones and Microphone Used for oral communication between the sender and the receiver. These are transducers which convert electrical energy to sound energy and vice-versa.

Power Supply/Amplifier In HAM radio systems, to transmit signals as well as amplify incoming signals for demodulation, they must be amplified; this is done by the power supply and amplifier. Antenna Tuner This allows for selecting the required frequency to transmit/receive on.

Transceiver A transceiver allows for modulation and demodulation of outgoing and incoming signals respectively. This unit will be discussed further in this section

Antennas Antennas in amateur radio are critical, as they allow for the receiving and transmitting of the modulated signals. There are many kinds of antennae employed in HAM systems: Beam Antenna These can be rotated to provide better coverage Cubical Quad Antenna Antenna in a loop with 4 sides Delta Loop Antenna in a loop with 3 sides Dipole this consists of a piece of wire cut in middle and attached to a feedline. The length can be calculated as follows:

3.1.2
The HAM radio system, as mentioned earlier facilitates two way communications using via modulation of electromagnetic waves. We can hence relate the HAM radio system to the

generic communications systems model which is seen below:

The generic communication system as it relates to the HAM radio system can be seen below. Communication takes place between location X and Y. The transceiver consists of a transmitter and a receiver in one unit. This is common for most HAM systems. The diagram on the overleaf shows how the amateur radio system can be related to the generic communication system model.

speaker

Source/Destination: Location X and Y can interchangeably be the source and destination for the information signal, as the radio facilitates listening as well as broadcasting.

Transducer In a HAM radio system, the transducers involved are the Microphone and Speaker/Headphones. The signal, usually voice is converted from sound energy into electrical energy via the microphone, and then sends it to the transceiver. On the receiving end, the electrical signal is converted into sound energy via the speakers. An amplifier is necessary in both instances, as seen in the diagram above.

Transceiver A transceiver, as can be seen in the diagram above consists of a transmitter and a receiver in one unit. They may share common circuitry or be contained in a single housing. These are two elements of the generic communication system.

3.1.3 Digital Implementation in Amateur Radio

Digital technologies are becoming more and more common today especially in the world of communication. Digital communication modes have gained great popularity in the amateur radio field today. A generic digital communications system is seen in the diagram below (Roddy 1995):

Figure X

The diagram below shows how traditional amateur radio can be used to

The diagram above shows how a traditional amateur radio system can be modified to include digital communication technologies: Computer System Computers must be equipped with a sound card and a serial port (RS 232), are used to send and receive digital data. Relevant drivers for this hardware are needed as well as software for communication with external hardware. A microphone and speakers are also connected to the computer. MCP (Multi-Protocol Controller) This acts a modulator/demodulator for differing transmission protocols. It can be seen that this is connected to both the transceiver and the PC. Necessary software is needed to control the MPC. In digital communication however, the communication technologies incorporated vary significantly from analog methods. In analog systems the modulation type is considered but however with Digital incorporation in amateur radio we must examine 3 factors: Modulation Types

This refers to the modulation techniques used to convert the analog voice into digital signals. (YAESU 2011) Some modulation types include: GMSK/D-Star, 16QAM, 4-minute pi DPQSK, C4FM (4-level FSK)

Communication Types This refers to the method of transmitting the modulated digital signals. Two communication schemes employed are: FDMA (Frequency Domain Multiple Access) where the available frequency band is divided into narrow bandwidth channels. TDMA (Time Domain Multiple Access) where multiple time slots are used so that many signals can share the same frequency. (YAESU 2011)

Transmission Protocols This is the processing scheme used for data communication between the transmitter and receiver. This is extremely important in digital radio design as it directly influences the performance of the system. It contains error checking and correction features so that data integrity is maintained. This allows data to be communicated more reliably. Hams have adapted to mainstream technologies such as TCP/IP protocols and even formulated optimised digital protocols such as PSK and D-STAR.

3.1.4 Merits of Digital Communication Techniques for Amateur Radio

Incorporating Digital Communication technologies offer great benefits to amateur radio. The greatest advantage is its ability to transfer larger amounts of data in a relatively short period of time.

Since digital information is discrete data, there is better immunity to interference and distortion. There also exist built-in features with this communication protocol that allow for the maintaining of data integrity such as parity bit check and CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check). Additionally digital communication techniques relatively better voice quality as digital radio is not affected by atmospheric conditions. This may be important in emergency situations such as severe weather conditions. Digital amateur radio can not only carry the voice or message signal, but can also carry information about the sender. Frequencies can be optimised and tuned automatically so that the signal never drops.

3.1.5 Modulation Techniques in HAM Radio

There exist several types of modulation techniques that can be chosen to communicate using HAM radios. In the traditional HAM radios Continuous Wave, Amplitude Modulation, and Single Side Band modulation were commonly used. With modern HAM radio systems Frequency Modulation, Digital Modulation is introduced. Continuous Wave This is simply a signal that is modulated by interrupted by a key or a time interval. This type of signal is also called Morse code. Amplitude Modulation (AM) Here the signals amplitude is varied proportional to the information being transmitted. The signal is the carrier signal and the information signal varies the amplitude of the carrier with respect to the information being transmitted. Single Side Band (SSB) Single side band is the same process as AM. However in Am there exist two side bands, the lower side band (LSB) and the upper side band (USB). These two side bands transmit the same information hence to reduce power and use less bandwidth one side of the bands is suppressed. This type of modulation is known as SSB. Frequency Modulation (FM) Frequency modulation is where the frequency (instantaneous) is varied with respect information being transmitted. The signal being modulated is the carrier signal of a certain frequency. The frequency is then modulated by the information signal.

3.1.6 Digital Modes

Digital modulation is where the on-off (binary) is used to send the information. While this is similar to CW, digital modes require a computer to help decipher the information. There exist several ways the information is represented in digital modulation. RTTY Radio teletype is where 5 bit/7bits are used to represent a character. PACKET Uses ASCII character set to transmit the information. Data is also sent with a check bit. TOR MODES Tele-printing over radio this is similar to Packet however different ways are utilized to provide error free transmission. PSK-31 Phase Key Shifting utilizes the sound card of the computer and messages are sent using the keyboard. The sound card then coverts each char into a audio tone (high pitch whistle) that is fed back to the microphone and transmitted using SSB. To decode this it must be fed back to the sound card on the receiver end and is deciphered by the computer.

While clear distinctions exist between the types listed, certain factors influence the use of the techniques. When signal quality and long distance transmission is required SSB is used as it is utilized by reflecting of the ionosphere allowing it to transverse large distances. In cases where high quality information that must be resilient to strength changes are needed frequency modulation is utilized. It is preferred in cases where the efficient use of frequency bands is to be achieved and less power needed in transmission. However in such cases the cost is greater than SSB as the circuitry is more complex. Thus another factor for use of SSB is the cost of the transmission. These however are used when voice transmission is required. Digital mode is used when the information is not vice but messages. It is preferred to CW as it has methods implemented to prevent error and interference.

3.1.7 Operation of HAM Radio

HAM radio have a very wide range of operating frequency ranging from 1.8MHz to 440MHz but really and truly operating frequencies depend on the situation in which HAM radio is applied to .
Table 1 showing operating frequency of HAM radios

Propagation Propagation in communication with respect to HAM radio refers to the signal being transmitted reaching the Earths ionosphere and bouncing back to the earth to be received at a greater distance than the line of sight. The Earths ionosphere is that area or layer that lies 80 to 300 miles above the surface of the earth. This layer is usually used to deflect harmful UV rays from the sun away from the surface of the earth. It is due to the sun shining on the ionosphere resulting it to change its composition which is why HAM radio operates at best at different frequencies according to the time of the day. Usually signals below 30MHz are able to bounce of this layer. Signals that are beyond 30MHz on the other hand are able to go through the ionosphere and transmit to a further receiver. Usually signals less than 30MHz are transmitted using ground waves. During the day higher frequencies tend to propagate while lower

frequencies are absorbed into the ionosphere and vice versa at nights. Another factor affecting propagation aside from the usual daily sun light cycle is the seasonal patterns. In countries with multi-climates summertime means higher frequencies propagate while lower frequencies propagate during winter time.

TYPES OF PROPAGATION Line of Sight propagation Ground wave propagation Sky-wave propagation

LINE OF SIGHT PROPAGATION This type of propagation uses Very High Frequencies as well as Ultra High Frequencies, in this form of communication the antennas must always be in sight with no obstructions. If the communication is being done closely the user doesnt need to put the antenna high in the air. The reason for this is since the communication is designed for the radio waves to transmit in a straight line then if the antennas are not in sight then the radio waves go off along the earths curvature. Ground Wave Propagation This is not a type of line propagation; really and truly these will travel further than the line of sight since they travel along the earths surface and tens to be constantly pulled to the ground. An antenna located below the horizon can be reached using ground wave propagation. There is a major setback to this form of propagation; a lot of the power tends to be lost along the earths surface thereby reducing the frequency range of operation. Sky-Wave Propagation This form of propagation enables its users to reach all over the world, this propagation uses the ionosphere, the signal is rated up to the ionosphere and according to the

transmitted frequency it is sent back to the receiver properly. In a nut shell the signal will literally skip over a lot of countries to reach the appropriate receiver. From the above analysis we can clear see that according to the application of maritime radio transmission the type of propagation may vary, also the time of the day as well as the weather or season may play an important role in selecting the appropriate range of frequency for the application.

3.2 HAM RADIO PERFORMANCE

3.2.1 Radio Frequency Interference
Ham radio utilizes high frequency (HF), very high frequency (VHF) and the atmosphere to transmit and receive information. Since it is transmitted along the earths atmosphere it can be affected by many sources of interference. This interference has grown however from past times as the amount of electronic devices present todays lifestyle. These electronic equipment generate signals of frequencies that lie in the radio frequency range and result in radio frequency interference (RFI) or commonly known for electronic devices as electromagnetic interference (EMI). The following are some sources of interference. Residential Sources Television Installations including plasma television sets Switch-mode power supplies TV power supplies Video recorder power supplies TV 'set-top boxes' i.e. cable boxes Lighting i.e. light bulbs etc Electronic transformers Compact fluorescent lamps Computer power supplies Fax machines Electric Motors (Fans etc) Computers / Laptops Telephone equipment Emissions from overhead telephone lines

Vehicles Ignition systems Remote keyless entry receivers

Miscellaneous Radio tele-switches Touch Lamps Garage door openers Water conditioners Electric fences Overhead power cables Radio Paging Power line Adaptors (PLAs)

From the above tables it can be observed that most of the devices listed are more that common in todays lifestyle, hence the Ham radio equipment must be modified to combat these interferences to allow for successful usage. The transmitter of the Ham radio utilizes a low pass filter that offer 30-60 dB of stop band attenuation. These filters are called feed line filters that prevent unwanted signals to be transmitted. Also these filters prevent the receiver from being interfered by unwanted signals of a particular frequency. In the receiver part, there also exist filters called receiving filters that are made of quartz crystals that prevent all but one signal from entering the radio device. Additionally the wires used on the front ends are coaxial shielded cables that protect from interference.

3.2.2 Performance Parameters

The transmitter of the HAM radio transmits the signal and has a power rating. This power rating for general transmitters is up to 25W. Hence the transmitter would only work with signals that take less than 25W. On the receiver end there must exist some sensitivity level. This would define the limit of the weak signal, i.e. the threshold that would qualify the signal as an information signal. In typical receivers this threshold is 0. 5uV. However in satellite HAM radios the threshold must be greater to compensate for long distance and interference.

3.2.3 Modulation Performance

With SSB modulation the effects of interference is large as the strength if signals can be affected easily by surrounding equipment, However with frequency modulation where the amplitude does not convey the information, is less susceptible to noise. With the digital system the frequency modulation technique is used, however check keys are used that would be used to identify if the information has interference. If the signal received is incorrect a request for another transmission is sent. Also when the modulation occurs digitally it is less affected by noise. Also a fixed pattern of frequency shifts are used to represent a char hence this would help indicated interference.

4 REGULATORY
4.1 WIRELESS SPECTRUM ALLOCATION AND ASSIGNMENT
A wireless system operates on a wide bandwidth. The transmissions along this bandwidth if not applied accurately will allow for data confusion. As a result there must be a system in place to facilitate proper communication between designated areas over this bandwidth. From this need aroused the sub division of a set wireless network via the processes of allocation and assignment. Wireless allocation occurs were a partition of this entire band is reserved for a specified purpose as in radio communication or telecommunication. On the contrary a component of this allocated bandwidth can be loaned to a party for operations, to do so a license must be obtained. This is referred to as assignment. A radio station is a prime example of wireless assignment, where the owner obtains a license to operate at a specific frequency. http://transition.fcc.gov/connectglobe/sec7.html http://www.ttarl.org/attachments/Framework_for_the_Authorizatio_of_Amateur_Radio.pd f **break bibme.com

4.2 REGULATORY LIMITS IMPOSED ON TRANSMITTERS TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

The transmitter output power is most vital to the data transfer and basic operation of the HAM radio. The quality and range of proposed transmissions is highly dependent on the power output or the capacity of the transmitter to generate Radio Frequency signals however the output of such devices may lead to the interference of vital external transmission based on other media. As such a limit is imposed to the power output of the HAM radio transmitter. This is limited to the location of the device. In Trinidad and Tobago there is no officially imposed transmitter output power however the fully assembled device and its location must be inspected by the Telecommunication Authority of Trinidad and Tobago (TATT). After successful inspection the Authority will determine the operational ability of the set device.

The HAM radios component entirely dependent on location is the Antenna. An Antenna is the means of HAM radio signal output and input, second to the Transceiver; the Antenna is a vital attachment to the amateur radio system, which is responsible for the radio frequency power propagation in desired direction. For maximum efficiency, the antenna should be erected well above the ground level away from tall buildings, trees, electrical power conductors, telephone and telegraph wires and metal objects that absorb the antenna radiated energy. The power of a system is also dependent on physical distance between transmitter and antenna. Connection between this vital components must be taken into consideration since power losses may occur in interconnection mediums further for maximum power transfer transmitter and antenna impedance must match. Coaxial cables are commonly implemented as mediums of interconnection

4.3 SPECTRUM ALLOCATION FOR HAM RADIO Trinidad and Tobago conforms to the ITU Region two allocations. However this may vary for the tailoring to the countrys needs. Multiple sectors of the frequency spectrum are allocated for Amateur Radio use within the airways of Trinidad and Tobago. The following table summarizes the Amateur Radio allocations Purpose Amateur Radio
3500 3750 7100 7300 14250 14350 50M 54M 146M 148M

Frequency /Hz

Amateur Fixed Satellite Radio

3750 4000 7000 7100 14000 14250 18008 18168 21000 21450 28M 29.7M 50M 54M 144M 146M

248M 250 Amateur Fixed line Module 220M 225M

4.4 FREQUENCY ACQUISITION PROCEDURES

In the acquisitions of frequency allocations in Trinidad and Tobago, one must first conform to a series of requirements. This is limited to previous qualifications on the individual. As a result of no local certification bodies for Amateur radio Service, the Authority accepts certification from specified foreign institutions. Certifications are accepted from the following bodies: RSGB ARRL Industry Canada Amateur Radio

This international certification must be valid and active for the Authoritys consideration. For frequency allocations based on Section 36 of the Telecommunications Act (2001), a license is required for the operation of radio communication system and the installations of radio transmitting equipment. Since operators of the HAM radio will not own or install amateur radio transmitting equipment two classes of licenses are granted in the forms of License Document for simple amateur application to allow Amateur Radio operators to be covered in their license should a station be acquired after initial license grant. The requirements for Amateur radio frequency allocation are as follows: In accordance with No. 1.56 of the Radio Regulations (RR) defines that amateur services as A radio communication service for the purpose of self-training, interconnection and technical investigations carried out by amateurs, that is , by duly authorized persons interested in radio technique solely with a personal aim and without pecuniary interest.

In accordance with No. 1.57 which defines that amateur satellite services as: A radio communication service using space stations on earth satellites for the same purposes as those of the amateur service

It must also be considered that certain minimum operator operational and technical qualifications are necessary for the proper operation of an amateur or amateur-satellite station.

It is recommended that the administration take such measures as they judge necessary to verify the operational and technical qualifications of any person wishing to operate an amateur station

It is also recommended that any person seeking a license an amateur station should demonstrate theoretical knowledge of :o Radio Regulations International Domestic Radio telephony Radio telegraphy Data image Transmitters Receivers Antennas and Propagation Measurements

o Methods of radio communication

o Radio system theory

o Radio emissions safety o Electromagnetic compatibility o Avoidance and resolution of radio frequency interference

4.5 RFID SPECTRUM ALLOCATIONS FOR HAM OPERATION

Radio-frequency identification (RFID) implements a non-contact system to effectively transmit data from a tag for the sole purpose of automated identification. These systems transmit data over low frequency radio waves within the bandwidth of 433Hz to 434 Hz. This frequency allocation is within the lower bandwidth allocated to the Amateur radio .The diagram below illustrates the allocations to the RFID operation range, which is within that of the amateur radio region.

This operation poses a level of interference as in the communications of each device. In the instance of each device attempting to establish communication on the same frequency inference may occur where the operation of each device is corrupted. In the case of the RFID, information maybe inaccurately transferred and thus authentication may fail. In the case of the amateur radio, interference may also occur in the form of static. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/18/9/35473009.pdf http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/gadgets/high-tech-gadgets/rfid.htm http://www.erodocdb.dk/docs/doc98/official/pdf/ECCRep007.pdf

5 APPLICATIONS OF AMATEUR RADIO

Ham radios have a variety of application ranging from casual to emergency communication. Ham radios use a wide range of frequencies as well as equipment in order to communicate with each other. This communication is done via Morse code, computer, laser and even satellites. Ham radio is used in most countries during times of crisis such as natural disasters, in these types of situations the more conventional types of communication may fail and amateur radios may be used as emergency communication. Another reason why this is more applicable to disasters is Ham radios generally dont consume much energy and as such they can be powered by an ordinary vehicle battery. Ham radios have been applied to law enforcement and national security cases as well, RACES (Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service) is a nationally organized emergency organization utilizing ham radios during times of national security crisis. ARRL (American Radio Relay League) is one of the largest amateur radio organizations; this organization has a subsection called ARES (Amateur Radio Emergency Service). The ARES operates in support of state and local emergency management, teams at ARES assist in observing weather and also in search and rescue operations. Ham radios are also used in assistance to unlicensed amateurs such as community events, fund raisers etc. ARES also facilitates this. 5.1 TYPICAL ACTIVITIES OF HAM RADIO OPERATORS TALKING- amateur radio operators use their system for short distance communication via hand held transceivers; communication with these transceivers is done through distances over 50 miles. DXing- this is a bit costly but with the appropriate equipment users would have the luxury of worldwide communication on high frequency bands. TECHNICAL EXPERIMENTING- a wide variety of people are interested in HAM radio ranging from technicians to engineers, students to retirees etc. The reason for this is

using HAM radios is a typical start in order to design your own private communication system etc. HAM radios are also used to talk to astronauts since space stations actually do have on board HAM radios. DIGITAL COMMUNICATION- in a nut shell this is simply interfacing a computer system with your HAM radio system so digital communication can be done. INTERNET COMMUNICATIONS- HAM radios are also compatible with the internet using relevant URLs and IRLPs.

5.2 HAM RADIO & THE CARIBBEAN Judging from the above applications amateur radio can be very useful in the Caribbean. The Caribbean being a highly prone hurricane area would be ideal to install amateur radio stations throughout the Caribbean. Most Caribbean nations are of third world status and as a result of this many lives are lost due to lack of communication before, during and after hurricanes, ham radios. Would decrease the amount of lives lost since ham radios do not require any cables or high powers to transmit messages. This is where ham radio gets the lead over any form of wired communications, during hurricanes one of the first few organizations to be affected is regular telecommunication as well as internet and power companies, and as previously mentioned ham radios can operate using a car battery.

6 DISCUSSION
HAM radios facilitate duplex communication via electromagnetic waves. HAM radios are versatile equipment with a wide variety of applications. A working HAM radio system however consists of various key components that reflect the related communications system. Basic systems consist of a microphone and headphones or a paddle and key for Morse code for means of transducing the data into electrical signals. The transceiver handles the modulation and demodulation of the information signal. The antenna tuner allows for channel selection and the antenna allows for transmitting and receiving of the modulated signal. More modern HAM radio systems, implement digital communication technologies. Use of computers as well as digital communication techniques is common nowadays. This offers significant some advantages over the traditional analog systems especially where data integrity is concerned. //HAM radio operates a wide range of frequencies of electromagnetic waves that use different //means of propagation dependant on the required destination.