Duplex stainless steels

Typically twice the yield of austenitic stainless steels. Minimum Specified UTS typically 680 to 750N/mm2 (98.6 to 108ksi). Elongation typically > 25%. Superior corrosion resistance than a 316. Good Resistance to stress corrosion cracking in a chloride environment. Duplex materials have improved over the last decade; further additions of Nitrogen have been made improving weldability. Because of the complex nature of this material it is important that it is sourced from good quality steel mills and is properly solution annealed. Castings and possibly thick sections may not cool fast when annealed causing sigma and other deleterious phases to form. The material work hardens if cold formed; even the strain produced from welding can work harden the material particularly in multi pass welding. Therefore a full solution anneal is advantageous, particularly if low service temperatures are foreseen. The high strength of this material can make joint fit up difficult. Usable temperature range restricted to, -50 to 280C Used in Oil & Natural Gas production, chemical plants etc. Standard Duplex S31803 22Cr 5Ni 2.8Mo 0.15N PREn = 32-33 Super Duplex: Stronger and more corrosion resistant than standard duplex. S32760(Zeron 100) 25Cr 7.5Ni 3.5Mo 0.23N PREn = 40

Micro Of Standard Duplex Dark Areas:- Ferrite Light Areas:- Austenite

Duplex solidifies initially as ferrite, then transforms on further cooling to a matrix of ferrite and austenite. In modern raw material the balance should be 50/50 for optimum corrosion resistance, particularly resistance to stress corrosion cracking. However the

materials strength is not significantly effected by the ferrite / austenite phase balance.

The main problem with Duplex is that it very easily forms brittle intermetalic phases, such as Sigma, Chi and Alpha Prime. These phases can form rapidly, typically 100 seconds at 900C. However shorter exposure has been known to cause a drop in toughness, this has been attribute to the formation of sigma on a microscopic scale. Prolonged heating in the range 350 to 550C can cause 475C temper embrittlement. For this reason the maximum recommended service temperature for duplex is about 280C. Sigma (55Fe 45Cr) can be a major problem when welding thin walled small bore pipe made of super duplex, although it can occur in thicker sections. It tends to be found in the bulk of the material rather than at the surface, therefore it probably has more effect on toughness than corrosion resistance. Sigma can also occur in thick sections, such as castings that have not been properly solution annealed (Not cooled fast enough). However most standards accept that deleterious phases, such as sigma, chi and laves, may be tolerated if the strength and corrosion resistance are satisfactory. Nitrogen is a strong austenite former and largely responsible for the balance between ferrite and austenite phases and the materials superior corrosion resistance. Nitrogen cant be added to filler metal, as it does not transfer across the arc. It can also be lost from molten parent metal during welding. Its loss can lead to high ferrite and reduced corrosion resistance. Nitrogen can be added to the shielding gas and backing gas, Up to about 10%; however this makes welding difficult as it can cause porosity and contamination of the Tungsten electrode unless the correct welding technique is used. Too much Nitrogen will form a layer of Austenite on the weld surface. In my experience most duplex and super duplex are TIG welded using pure argon.

Backing / purge gas should contain less than 25ppm Oxygen for optimum corrosion resistance. Fast cooling from molten will promote the formation of ferrite, slow cooling will promote austenite. During welding fast cooling is most likely, therefore welding consumables usually contain up to 2 - 4% extra Nickel to promote austenite formation in the weld. Duplex should never be welded without filler metal, as this will promote excessive ferrite, unless the welded component is solution annealed. Acceptable phase balance is usually 30 70% Ferrite Duplex welding consumables are suitable for joining duplex to austenitic stainless steel or carbon steel; they can also be used for corrosion resistant overlays. Nickel based welding consumables can be used but the weld strength will not be as good as the parent metal, particularly on super duplex.

Low levels of austenite: - Poor toughness and general corrosion resistance. High levels of austenite: - Some Reduction in strength and reduced resistance to stress corrosion cracking.

Good impact test results are a good indication that the material has been successfully welded. The parent metal usually exceeds 200J. The ductile to brittle transition temperature is about 50C. The transition is not as steep as that of carbon steel and depends on the welding process used. Flux protected processes, such as MMA; tend to have a steeper transition curve and lower toughness. Multi run welds tend to promote austenite and thus exhibit higher toughness Tight controls and the use of arc monitors are recommended during welding and automatic or mechanised welding is preferred. Repair welding can seriously affect corrosion resistance and toughness; therefore any repairs should follow specially developed procedures. See BS4515 Part 2 for details. Production control test plates are recommended for all critical poduction welds. Welding procedures should be supplemented by additional tests, depending on the application and the requirements of any application code:

A ferrite count using a Ferro scope is probably the most popular. For best accuracy the ferrite count should be performed manually and include a check for deleterious phases. Good impact test results are also a good indication of a successful welding procedure and are mandatory in BS4515 Part 2. A corrosion test, such as the G48 test, is highly recommended. The test may not model the exact service corrosion environment, but gives a good qualative assessment of the welds general corrosion resistance; this gives a good indication that the welding method is satisfactory. G48 test temperature for standard duplex is typically 22C, for super duplex 35C

Typical Welding Procedure For Zeron 100 (Super Duplex) Pipe 60mm Od x 4mm Thick Maximum Interpass 100C 1.6mm Filler Wire Position 6G Temperature at the end of welding < 250C

85 amps 2 weld runs (Root and Cap) Travel speed 0.75 to 1 mm/sec

Arc energy 1 to 1,5 KJ/mm

Recommended Testing 1. Ferric Chloride Pitting Test To ASTM G48 : Method A 2. Chemical analysis of root 3. Ferrite count

Welding Duplex Stainless Steels

Duplex stainless steels are two phase alloys based on the iron-chromium-nickel system. Duplex stainless steels usually comprise approximately equal proportions of the body-centered cubic (bcc) ferrite and face-centered cubic (fcc) austenite phases in their microstructure and generally have a low carbon content as well as, additions of molybdenum, nitrogen, tungsten, and copper. Typical chromium contents are 20 to 30 weight percent and nickel contents are 5 to 10 weight percent. The specific advantages offered by duplex stainless steels over conventional 300 series stainless steels are strength, chloride stress-corrosion cracking resistance, and pitting corrosion resistance. Duplex stainless steels are used in the intermediate temperature ranges from ambient to several hundred degrees Fahrenheit (depending on environment), where resistance to acids and aqueous chlorides is required. The weldability and welding characteristics of duplex stainless steels are better than those of ferritic stainless steels, but generally not as good as austenitic materials. A suitable welding process is needed to obtain sound welds. Duplex stainless steel weldability is generally good, although it is not as forgiving as austenitic stainless steels. Control of heat input is important. Solidification cracking and hydrogen cracking are concerns when welding duplex stainless steels, but not as significant for some other stainless steel alloys. Current commercial grades of duplex stainless steels contain between 22 and 26 weight percent chromium, 4 to 7 weight percent nickel, up to 4.5 weight percent molybdenum, as well as some copper, tungsten, and nitrogen. Modifications to the alloy compositions have been made to improve corrosion resistance, workability, and weldability. In particular, nitrogen additions have been effective in improving pitting corrosion resistance and weldability. The properties of duplex stainless steels can be appreciably affected by welding. Due to the importance of maintaining a balanced microstructure and avoiding the formation of undesirable metallurgical phases, the welding procedures must be properly specified and controlled. If the welding procedure is improper and disrupts the appropriate microstructure, loss of material properties can occur. Because these steels derive properties from both austenitic and ferritic portions of the structure, many of the single-phase base material characteristics are also evident in duplex materials. Austenitic stainless steels have good weldability and lowtemperature toughness, whereas their chloride SCC resistance and strength are comparatively poor. Ferritic stainless steels have good resistance to chloride SCC but have poor toughness, especially in the welded condition. A duplex microstructure with high ferrite content can therefore have poor low-temperature notch toughness, whereas a structure with high austenite content can possess low strength and reduced resistance to chloride SCC. The high alloy content of duplex stainless steels also makes them susceptible to the formation of intermetallic phases from extended exposure to high temperatures.

Significant intermetallic precipitation may lead to a loss of corrosion resistance and sometimes to a loss of toughness. Duplex stainless steels have roughly equal proportions of austenite and ferrite, with ferrite being the matrix. The duplex stainless steels alloying additions are either austenite or ferrite formers. This is occurs by extending the temperature range over which the phase is stable. Among the major alloying elements in duplex stainless steels chromium and molybdenum are ferrite formers, whereas nickel, carbon, nitrogen, and copper are austenite formers. Composition also plays a major role in the corrosion resistance of duplex stainless steels. Pitting corrosion resistance can be adversely affected. To determine the extent of pitting corrosion resistance offered by the material, a pitting resistance equivalent is commonly used

Why use duplex stainless steel?

By Carl Smith, Contributing Writer February 13, 2007 Duplex stainless steel is among various metals used in corrosion-resistant applications. This article presents an overview of the material's properties, advantages, and disadvantages and compares it to other materials suitable for corrosion-prone environments. It also discusses welding and forming duplex.

Duplex stainless steel was introduced to the U.S. welding industry in the early '90s when metallurgists, some of the most knowledgeable people in the worldwide welding industry, presented the concept to the electric power industry in Columbus, Ohio, near the American Electric Power headquarters. A consortium comprising several companies collected the information for the presentation. L. Van Nassau, H. Meelker, and J. Hilkes from Norweld of the Netherlands performed extensive research relating to welding duplex materials. Dr. Damian Kotecki from Lincoln Electric and Dr. Trevor Gooch (now deceased), a private consultant from the United Kingdom, were the keynote speakers at the initial seminar. The primary focus was on welding the duplex material, but the development of usage areas for the material was equally well-depicted. The information was so well-presented to the fabricators, engineering firms, and individual consultants in attendance that it created an immediate response for usage in many industrial areas. Industries represented at the seminar included electric power companies, chemical producers, petroleum processors, welding engineers, transportation equipment manufacturers, and welding supply organizations.

What Is Duplex Stainless?

The word duplex is based on the concept of austenite and ferrite formulated in the same material. The user may require a briefing about the material's composition, but in general, the most important aspect is what it will do in use. Fabricators really are not interested in chemical composition or phase diagrams. They want to know a material's advantages and disadvantages and how difficult or easy it is to fabricate. Metallurgists are interested in the material's composition and the end usage. They may be able to investigate the mechanical, physical, and chemical properties and discover advantages or disadvantages for a particular application. The following information is intended to provide a useful, but not highly technical, characterization of duplex and superduplex stainless steels' usefulness, advantages, disadvantages, and fabrication ease.

Relative Cost Factors

A possible cost reduction almost always spikes interest in any material. If it is possible to retain quality and reduce material cost, even more interest is spiked. Duplex is costeffective in more than one way. The material costs less than many other materials used in a corrosive atmosphere. When compared to 300 series stainless steel, the cost reduction is realized in a different manner. Duplex's yield strength is double that of the 300 series stainless steel. This factor allows the use of a thinner material to support a like load. The cost of fabricating duplex usually is lower than for other materials because of its comparative ease of machining and welding. When high-nickel alloys are welded, small stringer beads and low heat input are recommended. This is not the case with duplex. Higher heat input and a slight weave bead are recommended for this material. The ferrite content causes the welding to be less intimidating than when welding hig- nickel alloys. This factor alone saves significant weld time. Duplex's machining rate of travel is similar to that of 316 stainless steel with highspeed steel tooling, and duplex requires fewer machining labor hours than high-nickel alloys. Welding wire and gas costs are less with duplex, except when the corrosive atmosphere is extreme. In the case of severe corrosion and the possibility of stress corrosion cracking, it is necessary to use ERNiCrMo-3 wire, which is much more expensive (around $30 per pound) than ER2209 (around $11 per pound), which is the matching filler wire. Forming duplex is not complicated. The material can be bent and rolled by almost the same methods as 50,000-PSI-yield-strength material. Conventional rolls and dies are sufficient for forming most shapes, which eliminates the added cost of purchasing special rolls and dies. The only significant requirement is that the dies and rolls must have a hardness of at least 34 Rockwell C to prevent carbon impregnation.

Advantages in Performance
There is no such thing as an all-purpose material for corrosion resistance, just as there is not just one corrosion type. Duplex alloys are in a class with several other materials for various types of corrosion resistance. Some of the corrosive environments listed below depict these differences. There are many more types of corrosive conditions but these are some for which stainless and nickel alloys are suitable.

Environment Chlorides

Problem

Poor

Good Duplex alloys 317LXN Duplex alloys

Best Alloy 276 AL6XN Alloy 600/625 AL6XN

Pitting, crevice 300 Series SS corrosion 300 Series SS

Chlorides/Halide Stress s corrosion cracking Hydrochloric Acid Hydrofluoric Acid Sulfuric Acid

Pitting, crevice Titanium, Duplex, corrosion 20 Cb-3 Pitting, crevice Duplex Alloys corrosion Pitting, crevice Copper-Nickel corrosion (MONEL) Alloy 601 Critical Pitting 300 Series SS

Alloy 22, 276

Zirconium, Tantalum Copper, Alloy 400

Silver, Gold

20 Cb-3

Alloy 622 HASTELLOY C22 Alloy 25-6 Mo Alloy 625

General Acidic Attack

317LNMo Duplex Alloys

AL6XN and 317LXN are Trademarks of Allegheny Ludlum Steel. MONEL and HASTELLOY are trademarks of Allegheny Ludlum Steel. Nitronic is a trademark of U.S. Steel. As the table shows, some alloys outperform duplex alloys in many environments. Duplex is better than the 300 series in nearly every category. The consideration in the case of chlorides and halides must include costs. Duplex alloys are nearly equal in strength to the C276 and AL6XN alloys. The pitting and crevice corrosion resistance of C276 and AL6XN are only slightly superior to the duplex alloys'. The corrosion rate for duplex is 23 mil/year; AL6XN is 17 mil/year. (Boiling NaOH, 290 degrees F for 48 hours.) Duplex alloys are much more readily available than higher-nickel alloys. The elements that provide the strength and corrosion resistance in duplex are much more common than those found in some high-nickel alloys. For instance C276 contains tungsten. Carpenter 20Cb contains columbium and tantalum. The 625 alloy contains columbium, tantalum, cobalt, and titanium. Chromium, nickel, molybdenum, and nitrogen are common elements that provide the strength and corrosion resistance in the duplex alloys. The nitrogen is used in much the same way as it is used to protect the surface of Nitronic 30.

Disadvantages
Welding duplex alloys is not particularly difficult, but the heat input and interpass temperature must be controlled to maintain the ferrite-austenite balance. Otherwise, the advantages of using the duplex material will be sacrificed. The time spent at 1,300

degrees F to 1,800 degrees F must be controlled. The heat-affected zone (HAZ) time-attemperature is critical in controlling the intermetallic phases. If the matching filler wires or electrodes (ER2209 or E2209) are used to join the material, there is a slight disadvantage versus using the more expensive ERNiCrMo-3 or ENiCrMo-3 welding materials in the area of crevice corrosion. The nickel content of E2209 and ER2209 is in the range of only 7 percent to 9 percent, while the nickel content of ERNiCrMo-3 and ENiCrMo-3 is 56 percent to 58 percent. The addition of columbium and niobium limits the carbide precipitation in the HAZ. This cost is worthwhile, but it slightly diminishes the duplex's cost advantage. Another disadvantage is in the rolling and bending process. Duplex's tensile and yield strength and the work-hardening tendency cause springback and sometimes reforming. This is not always the case, but is common in materials thicker than 3/4 in. There are advantages and disadvantages with all materials, as well as specific methods to overcome the disadvantages. Overall, the advantages of duplex materials make themna great addition to the ever-growing compilation of materials. Using these alloys in the power generation field has proven to be valuable for the scrubber fabrication. AL6XN and 317LXN are Trademarks of Allegheny Ludlum Steel. MONEL and HASTELLOY are trademarks of Allegheny Ludlum Steel. Nitronic is a trademark of U.S. Steel. Carl Smith Professor emeritus of welding technology, West Virginia University, Parkersburg Carl Smith is professor emeritus of welding technology at West Virginia University, Parkersburg, and a quality manager and welding technologist, Kanawha Mfg. Co., Charleston and Buffalo, W. V. He can be reached at 304-342-6127, ext. 257. carl.smith@kanawhamgfg.com

Duplex Stainless Steels - Fabrication & Welding

With the ever-increasing demand for duplex stainless steel process equipment fabricators have developed procedures for the welding and fabrication of these grades. A lot of data on these procedures as well as practical experiences have become available. When fabricating duplex stainless steels special attention should be paid to heat treatment and welding. Unsuitable heat treatment can result in precipitation of intermetallic phase and deterioration of toughness and corrosion resistance. Although most welding methods can be used to weld duplex steels, they require special procedures for the retention of properties after welding. Below you will find some general guidelines for welding duplex stainless steels and two practical papers on welding and fabrication respectively. Please check the further reading page.

General Guidelines, Practical Aspects for production Welding, A Fabricators View

General Guidelines: Differences Between Duplex and Austenitic Stainless Steels, Selection of Starting Material, Cleaning Before Welding, Joint Design, Preheating, Heat Input and Interpass Temperature, Postweld Heat Treatment, Phase Balance in the Weld, Dissimilar Metal Welds, Applicable Welding Methods, Welding Procedure Qualification. By Ralph Davison, Technical Marketing Resources, USA Originally published by TAPPI journal 2000, volume 83, no.9.

Introduction
It is assumed that the reader already has experience in welding of austenitic stainless steels such as Type 316L.This section addresses some to commonly discussed welding characteristics and procedures of the duplex stainless steels in terms of how they differ from austenitic stainless steels. Addressing each of these features is essential for the design of technically and economically effective welding procedures to be qualified.

Differences between Duplex and Austenitic Stainless Steels

Duplex stainless steels are typically twice as strong as common austenitic stainless steels. The thermal expansion of the duplex grades is intermediate to that of carbon steel and the austenitic stainless steels. The thermal conductivity of the duplex stainless steels is also intermediate to that of carbon steels and the austenitic stainless steels. When there are problems with welding of austenitic stainless steels, those problems are most frequently associated with hot cracking of the weld metal itself. This hot cracking tendency is aggravated by fully or predominantly austenitic solidification, and by the combination of high thermal expansion and low thermal conductivity. For the more common austenitic stainless steels, hot cracking is minimised by adjusting the composition of the filler metal to provide a significant ferrite content. For the more highly alloyed austenitic stainless steels where the use of a nickel-base filler metal is necessary, austenitic solidification is unavoidable. In these cases these problems must be managed by minimising joint constraint and by low heat input, often requiring many passes to build up the weld. Duplex stainless steels have good hot cracking resistance. Hot cracking of the duplex weld metal is seldom a concern. The problems most typical of duplex stainless steels are associated with the heat-affected zone (HAZ), not with the weld metal. The HAZ problems are not hot cracking but rather a loss of corrosion resistance and toughness, or of post-weld cracking. To avoid these problems, the welding procedure should focus on minimising total time at temperature in the "red hot" range for the whole procedure rather than managing the heat input for any one pass. Experience has shown that this approach can lead to procedures that are both technically and economically optimal.

The data shown in the appendix of ASTM A 923 suggest how rapidly intermetallic phases can precipitate to the extent that corrosion resistance and toughness are significantly affected. With this introduction in mind, it is possible to give some general guidelines for welding of duplex stainless steels and then to apply this background and those guidelines to specific welding methods. The welding characteristics of duplex stainless steels are much more sensitive to minor within-grade variations in chemistry or processing than are austenitic stainless steels. For example, the importance of having sufficient nitrogen in the duplex stainless steel base metal has been repeatedly emphasised. Air cooling of a plate, even when rapid, through the 705 to 980C (1300 to 1800F) range will use up some of the "time on the clock" for the welder to complete the weld before detrimental reactions occur. Similarly, if a plate is allowed to air cool into this range during transfer to water quenching, that time is no longer available to the welder. The metallurgical condition of the material used in actual fabrication should be the same quality with regard to composition and production practice, as the material used to qualify the welding procedure.

Cleaning Before Welding

The need to clean prior to welding applies to all stainless steels. But the duplex stainless steels are more sensitive to contamination, and especially to moisture, than the austenitic stainless steels. The chemistries of the base metal and the filler metal have been developed assuming no additional sources of contamination. Dirt, grease, oil, paint, and sources of moisture of any sort will interfere with welding operations and adversely affect the corrosion resistance and mechanical properties of the weldment. No amount of procedure qualification is effective if the material is not thoroughly clean before welding.

Joint Design
Duplex stainless steels require good joint preparation. For duplex stainless steels, a weld joint design must facilitate full penetration and avoid autogenous regions in the weld solidification. It is best to machine rather than grind the weld edge preparation to provide uniformity of the land thickness or gap. When grinding must be done, special attention should be given to uniformity of the weld preparation and the fit-up. Any grinding burr should be removed to maintain complete fusion and penetration. For an austenitic stainless steel, a skilled welder can overcome some deficiencies in joint preparation by manipulation of the torch. For a duplex stainless steel, these techniques can cause a longer than expected exposure in the harmful temperature range, leading to results outside of those of the qualified procedure. Examples of joint designs used with duplex stainless steels are shown in Figure 1.4 Other designs are possible provided that they assure full penetration welds and minimise the risk of burn-through. Examples of joint designs applied to 2205 duplex stainless steel:

Fig. 1a)

2 mm (0.08 in) < t < 4 mm (0.16 in) A = 1-2 mm (0.04-0.08 in) A. Square Butt Joint - Suitable for single-sided SMAW or double-sided SMAW or GMAW. Fig. 1b)

t < 2.5 mm (0.1 in) A = 1-2 mm (0.04-0.08 in) B. Square Butt Joint - Suitable for GTAW from one side. Backing gas required. Fig. 1c)

4 mm (0.16 in) < t < 12 mm (0.5 in) A = 2 mm (0.08 in) B = 2 mm (0.08 in) C. Suitable for heavier sections with SMAW or GMAW. Increase A to 3 mm (0.12 in) for vertical-up SMAW.

Fig. 1d)

12 mm (0.5 in) < t < 60 mm (2.5 in) A = 3 mm (0.06 in) B = 2 mm (0.08 in) Radius = 6 mm (0.25 in) D. Suitable for very thick base metal with SMAW or GMAW. Fig. 1e)

9 mm (0.36 in) < t < 12 mm (0.5 in) B = 5 mm (0.2 in) E. Suitable for SAW. Grinding after first pass facilitates full penetration. Fig. 1f)

4 mm (0.16 in) < t < 12 mm (0.5 in)

A = 2.5 mm (0.1 in) B = 5 mm (0.2 in) F. Full penetration Fillet. Suitable for SMAW. Tack weld with SMAW or GMAW. Fig. 1g)

4 mm (0.16 in) < t < 12 mm (0.5 in) A = 2.5 mm (0.1 in) B = 2.5 mm (0.1 in) G. Single V Joint. Pipe welding. Suitable with SMAW Fig. 1h)

3 mm (0.12 in) < t < 12 mm (0.5 in) A = 1-2 mm (0.04-0.08 in) B = 2 mm (0.08 in) H. Single U Joint. Pipe Welding. Suitable with GTAW.

Preheating
As a general rule, preheating of duplex stainless steel is not recommended because it slows the cooling of the heat-affected zone. Preheating should not be a part of a procedure unless there is a specific justification.

Preheating may be beneficial when used to eliminate moisture from the steel as may occur in cold ambient conditions or from overnight condensation. When preheating to remove moisture, the steel should be heated to about 95C (200F) uniformly and only after the weld preparation has been cleaned. Preheating may also be beneficial in those exceptional cases where there is a risk for forming a highly ferritic HAZ because of very rapid quenching. Examples include welding a thin sheet to a plate, as with a liner to a vessel or a tube to a tubesheet, or any very low heat input weld where there is exceedingly rapid cooling. (See FAQ 13 )

Heat Input and Interpass Temperature

Compared to austenitic stainless steels, duplex stainless steels can tolerate relatively high heat inputs. The duplex solidification structure of the weld metal is resistant to hot cracking, much more so than that of highly austenitic weld metals. Duplex stainless steels, with higher thermal conductivity and lower coefficient of thermal expansion, do not create the same high intensity of local thermal stresses at the welds of austenitic stainless steels. While it is prudent to avoid severe restraint, hot cracking is seldom a common problem. To avoid problems in the HAZ, the weld procedure should allow rapid (but not extreme) cooling of this region. The temperature of the work piece is important because the plate itself provides the most effective cooling of the HAZ. Typically, the maximum interpass temperature is limited to 150C (300F). That limitation should be imposed when qualifying a weld procedure, and production welding should be monitored to assure that the interpass temperature is no higher than that used in the qualification. Electronic temperature probes and thermocouples are the preferred instruments for monitoring the interpass temperature. When a large amount of welding is to be performed, planning the welding to provide enough time for cooling between passes is good, economical practice. The size of the test piece used in qualifying a weld procedure may affect the cooling rate and the interpass temperature. There is a risk that the test piece for qualification of a multipass weld procedure may come to a lower interpass temperature than can be reasonably or economically achieved during actual fabrication. Therefore, the qualification might not detect the loss of properties that can occur the higher interpass temperature slows the cooling and increases the time at temperature for the HAZ in actual practice. (See FAQ 5, 6)

Postweld Heat Treatment

Postweld stress relief is not necessary or useful for duplex stainless steels. Unlike the Lgrade austenitic stainless steels, the duplex stainless steels are sensitive to even relatively short exposures to temperatures in the 300 to 1000 C (600 to 1800 F) range. Thermal stress relief in the 300 to 700 C (600-1300 F) range may cause precipitation of alpha prime phase ("475C (885F) embrittlement"), causing a loss of toughness and corrosion resistance. Stress relief in the range of 700 to 1000 C (1300 to 1800 F) leads to rapid precipitation of intermetallic phases with moderate to severe loss of toughness and corrosion resistance. Any heat treatment of a duplex stainless steel for whatever reason, should be a full solution anneal, meeting the minimum

temperatures specified for the mill product in the ASTM specifications, followed by water quenching. For 2205 that minimum temperature is 1040 C (1900F) in most cases. Some types of equipment manufactured from duplex stainless steel require a full anneal. For example, the forming of large heads or the fabrication of some valve and pipe assemblies may require annealing. When there is a full solution anneal and quench subsequent to welding, that heat treatment is a part of the welding procedure. Annealing can restore the equilibrium phase balance and eliminate the problems associated with excessive ferrite and intermetallic phases. If the common duplex filler metals are used, typically overalloyed with nickel, phase balance in the fully annealed weld may shift toward austenite. Water quenching is essential after the final anneal, but air cooling from intermediate thermal exposures, such as in hot forming, have been found to be practical and economical. (See FAQ 12, 18)

Phase Balance in the Weld

Modern duplex stainless steel mill products are balanced to have about 40-50% ferrite with the balance being austenite. It is generally agreed that the characteristic benefits of duplex stainless steels (strength, toughness, corrosion resistance, resistance to stress corrosion cracking) are achieved when there is at least 25% ferrite with the balance austenite. The ferrite in the weld metal is typically in the range of 25 to 60%. In some welding methods, particularly those relying upon flux shielding, the phase balance of the filler has been adjusted toward more austenite to provide improved toughness, offsetting the loss of toughness associated with oxygen pickup from the flux. There have been no reports of problems associated with the ferrite contents at the lower end of this range, typically seen in SMAW (shielded metal arc, or stick) or SAW (submerged arc) welds. (See FAQ 16, 17) Rapidly quenched autogenous welds, e.g., arc strikes, repair of arc strikes, small GTA repair welds, etc., tend to have high ferrite, greater than 60%. Such welds can have low toughness and reduced corrosion resistance. (See FAQ 4, 10, 13) Metallographic evaluation of the phase balance in the HAZ is an appropriate test for welding procedure qualification. However, metallographic evaluation is not technically or economically effective for evaluation of annealed mill products or production welds. Magnetic evaluation of the phase balance is widely used but has serious accuracy limitations when used on welds or HAZ.

Dissimilar Metal Welds

Duplex stainless steels can be welded to other duplex stainless steels, to austenitic stainless steels, and to carbon and low alloy steels.

Duplex stainless steel filler metals with increased nickel content relative to the base metal are most frequently used to weld duplex stainless steels to other duplex grades. When welding duplex stainless steels to austenitic grades, the austenitic filler metals with low carbon and a molybdenum content intermediate between the two steels are typically used. AWS E309LMo/ER309LMo is frequently used for these joints. The same filler metal or AWS E309L/ER309L is commonly used to join duplex stainless steels to carbon and low alloy steels. Because austenitic stainless steels have lower strength than duplex grades, welded joints made with austenitic filler metals may not be as strong as the duplex base metal. When welding the highly alloyed austenitic stainless steels, nickel-base fillers are used. The nickel-base filler metals are not normally used for duplex stainless steels, but if they are, they should be free of niobium (columbium). Although not thoroughly documented, there have been suggestions that the ENiCrMo-3 filler (625) has been less than satisfactory, possibly because of interaction of the niobium from the filler with the nitrogen from the duplex base metal. Table I summarises filler metals frequently used to weld duplex stainless steels to dissimilar metals. These examples show the AWS bare wire designation (ER), but depending on the process, joint geometry and other considerations, electrodes (AWS designation E), and flux-cored wire may be considered. Table I: Welding Consumables Used for Dissimilar Metal Welding.

Applicable Welding Methods

Second-generation (nitrogen-alloyed) duplex stainless steels saw rapid development in the early 1980s. With only limited understanding of the formation of intermetallic phases, early views of welding duplex grades focused on limiting heat input, possibly because this approach is what is typically applied to special austenitic grades. With such severe limitations on heat input, many of the more economical welding methods with high deposition rates, such as submerged arc welding, were thought to be inappropriate for the duplex stainless steels. However, the final properties of the duplex stainless steels are of such interest that much effort was directed to learning how to use the more economical processes. Now virtually all welding processes, except for oxyacetylene with its associated carbon contamination of the weld, are applied to duplex stainless steels. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW), Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW), Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW),

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW), and Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) have all seen practical application. Electric Resistance Welding and Electron Beam Welding, although much less common, have also been qualified and used in particular fabrications. There are important differences among the welding procedures. For example, the decision to use a flux-shielded weld and selection of flux for that weld effect toughness. (See FAQ 15, 16)

Welding Procedure Qualification

"Qualification" of welding procedures for duplex stainless steels must be considered in a broad sense, i.e., demonstration that the welding procedure that will be used in fabrication will have acceptable engineering properties, especially toughness and corrosion resistance. For other types of stainless steels, qualification testing for weld procedures is fairly simple, with only a limited amount of testing to qualify a material, filler metal, and weld method. With hardness tests and bend tests, looking for martensite and hot cracking, respectively, these qualification tests reflect long experience for what can go wrong when welding ferritic, martensitic or austenitic steels. Duplex stainless steels are unlikely to have difficulty meeting these requirements, because these standard tests are unlikely to find intermetallic phases or excessive ferrite, the most likely problems for duplex stainless steels. A bend test may still be useful and economical, but it is not conservative in the sense of always detecting problems if present. Because of the limitation on total time at temperature for the HAZ, the properties of duplex grades will be sensitive to section thickness and details of actual welding practice. So the qualification of procedures for duplex stainless steels is specific to particular geometries of welding, much more so than for austenitic stainless steels. It would be desirable to qualify a weld procedure for every thickness, geometry, and method of welding because minor differences in setup may be significant in the results achieved in production. However, the complex nature of actual constructions makes such testing costly. Savings are achieved by qualifying the procedures (defined by section, filler, and method) determined to be the most demanding on the duplex stainless steel. It is also prudent to test welds in the most critical joints in a construction, even when those joints might be exempt from testing of production welds under a strict reading of the ASME requirements. For example, ASME UHA 51 does not require testing for thickness of 3/8-inch or less, or for minimum design metal temperature above -29 C (-20 F).5 The temperature for toughness tests will depend on whether the purpose of the test is to check the metallurgical condition of a mill product or to demonstrate the suitability for use of a construction. (See FAQ 15, 16) Practical aspects for production welding and control of duplex stainless steel pressure and process plants Authors: C. Baxter, Avesta Sheffield Ltd, Sheffield, UK and M.Young, Whitely Read Ltd, Rotherham, UK, originally presented at the Duplex America 2000 Conference, papernumber: DA2_032

Abstract:

Good stainless steel practice is the basis for welding Duplex and Super Duplex grades. However, some issues from the generalised "good practice" rules must be emphasised where as other issues need only the same attention as when welding 300 series stainless steels. This paper discusses good "duplex and super duplex" stainless steel practice. Issues around, for example, welding procedure design, heat input and interpass temperature are discussed. The practical application of the rules is all important. The first step is to educate the work force into thinking "duplex", i.e. not just another grade of stainless steel. Specification and practical fabrication issues, as applied to reactor and pressure vessel fabrication, are described. Welding procedures are given, together with the results of procedure qualification tests and production test plates. Download the file (327 kB) here. (To minimise download time, these files are zipped. You can unzip these using WinZip for Windows or Stuffit Expander for Macintosh). The evolution of duplex fabrication: a fabricator's view By Barry Heuer, Nooter Fabricators Inc., USA, originally presented at the Duplex America 2000 Conference, Houston, USA, paper number DA2_048

Abstract:
United States fabricator?s view of the history of the materials and the demand for such duplex materials in the United States from the 1970?s until the current time. Download the file (5.79 MB) here. (To minimise download time, these files are zipped. You can unzip these using WinZip for Windows or Stuffit Expander for Macintosh). The June 2002 issue of Stainless Steel World contains an excerpt from an article by Mr Joseph W. McEnerney (P.E. Gibson Tube Inc., USA); "Experience manufacturing alloy 19D (UNS S32001) seam welded lean duplex stainless steel tubing for sub sea umbilical applications". The entire text is available here (769KB).