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THE

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


NEW SERIES

EDITED BY

CYRUS ADLER AND

S.

SCHECHTER

VOLUME
1912-1913

III

PHILADELPHIA

THE DROPSIE COLLEGE FOR HEBREW

AND COGNATE LEARNING


LONDON: MACMILLAN & COMPANY,
LTD.

"N

CAHAN PRINTING
218
S.

CO., INC
U. S. A.

FOURTH STREET
.

PHILADELPHIA. PA

CONTENTS
PACE
Adler, Cyrus: Review of

"A

History of Education
Pierrepont

before the Middle Ages" by Frank

Graves

565

Adler, Cyrus: Review of "Michael Heilprin and

His Sons" by Gustav Pollak

567
Its

Bentwich, Norman

Review of "Pharisaism:
R. Travers Herford

Aim and Method" by


Brody, H.
:

549
83
of

Tokehah by R. Saadya Gaon


:

Buchler,

Adoeph

Review
S.

of

"Documents

Jewish Sectaries" by

Schechter

429
221

Cohen, A.

Arabisms

in

Rabbinic Literature

Friedeaender,

Israel:

"A

Moses

Legend"

by
179

Samuel Krauss

Friedeaender, Israee: Jewish-Arabic Studies

235

Greenstone, Jueius H.: Review of "The Use of


the Bible in the Education of the

Young" by T.
571

Raymont
Halper,
B.
:

Hefes

b.

Yasliah's

Lost

Book

of

Precepts

317

Halper, B.

Note on R. Hai's Liturgic Fragment

545
575

Hoschander, Jacob: Assyro-Babylonian Literature

Huhner, Leon: Review

of "History of the Jews in

America" by Peter Wiernik


III

557

Malter, Henry: Saadia Studies

487
101 17

Margous, Max
Margolis,

L.

Recent Hiblical Literature

Max

L.

"Man

by Man," Joshua

7,

319

Mordell, PhinEAS: Origin of Letters and Numerals


in

Sefer Yesirah
:

517
Corrections
to

Perles, Felix

Additions and

Mis-

cellany of Lexical

and Textual

Notes on the
313

Bible

Perles, Felix

v\n&

Hair

547

Philipson, David: Review of "Ethics of Judaism"


by M. Lazarus
167

Poznanski,
Ginzberg

S.

Review of

"Geonica"

by

Louis

397
Disputation in an Italian Novel
Polity

Radin,

Max: A

511
the

Revel, Bernard: Notes on "The

of

Ancient Hebrews" by Judge Sulzberger

315
of

Revel,

Bernard:

Inquiry

into

the

Sources

Karaite Halakah

337
181

Sciiechter,

S. S.
:

An Unknown Khazar Document


Announcement

Schechter,

485

Segal, M. H.
Zadokite

Additional Notes on "Fragments of a

Work"

301
:

Sulzberger,

Mayer

The

Polity

of

the

Ancient
1

Hebrews

IV

THE POLITY OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS*


By Mayer Sulzberger,
1
*

Philadelphia

In accepting the

flattering invitation of

this

learned

institution to deliver a course of lectures

on the Institutes
the natural re-

of

Government of the Ancient Hebrews,


to

luctance

assume

novel

duty

was overcome by the

earnest suggestion that at least so

much was due

to the

cause and to the venerated Founder of this college.


the course of a long

In

and active

life,

he always found time

and opportunity to further the cause of Hebrew learning, and


this munificent
fitting

endowment by
crown upon

his last will

and

testa-

ment was the


cause.

his lifelong labors in the

The western worl

the

world of modern

civilization

has
it

always

felt

and evinced a transcendent


Hebrews.

interest
in

in the polity of the anciei.


is

The books

which

recorded were once universally accepted as

literally

inspired,

and although the modern course of thought has


this

tended to raise important dissents from


still

view,
it

it

is

widely accepted, and even those

who

reject

have

contributed some of the most valuable aids to the under-

standing of the biblical literature.

*A
1912.

course

of

four

-rtures

delivered before

the

DROPSIE COLLEGE
iS,

FOR HEBREW AND COGNATE LEARNING,

March

21,

25

and

28,

Malter, Henry: Saadia Studies

487
101

Margous, Max

L.

Recent Biblical Literature

Margous,

Max

L.

"Man

by Man," Joshua

7,

17

319

MoRDELL, Phineas: Origin of Letters and Numerals


in

Sefer Yesirah
:

517
Corrections
to

Perles, Felix

Additions and

Mis-

cellany of Lexical

and Textual Notes on the


313

Bible

PERLES, Felix

*lt3B>

Hair

547

Phiupson, David: Review of "Ethics of Judaism"


by M. Lazarus
Poznan'skIj
S.
:

167

Review of

"Geonica"

by

Louis

Ginzberg

397
Disputation in an Italian Novel
Polity

Radix,
Revel,

Max: A

511
the

Bernard: Notes on "The

of

Ancient Hebrews" by Judge Sulzberger

315
of

REVEL,

Bernard:

Inquiry

into

the

Sources

Karaite Halakah

337
181

Sciiechter, SciiechtER,

S.
S.
:

An Unknown Khazar Document


Announcement

485

Segal, M. H.
Zadokite

Additional Notes on "Fragments of a

Work"
Mayer: The
Polity

301
of
the

SULZBERGER,

Ancient
1

Hebrews

IV

THE POLITY OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS*


By Mayer Sulzberger,
1

Philadelphia

\
this

In accepting the

flattering invitation of

learned

institution to deliver a course of lectures

on the Institutes

of Government of the Ancient Hebrews, the natural reluctance


to

assume a novel duty was overcome by the

earnest suggestion that at least so

much was due

to

the

cause and to the venerated Founder of this


the course of a long and active
life,

college.

In

he always found time

and opportunity to further the cause of Hebrew learning,


and
this

munificent
fitting

endowment by
crown upon

his last will

and

testa-

ment was the


cause.

his lifelong labors in the

The western worl

the

world of modern
a

civilization

has
it

always

felt

and evinced

transcendent

interest
in

in the polity of the ancier


is

Hebrews.

The books

which

recorded were once universally accepted as

literally

inspired,

and although the modern course of thought has


this

tended to raise important dissents from


still

view,
it

it

is

widely accepted, and even those

who

reject

have

contributed some of the most valuable aids to the under-

standing of the biblical literature.

*A
1912.

course

of

four

--.tures

delivered before the

DROPSIE COLLEGE
18,

FOR HEBREW AND COGNATE LEARNING,

March

ax,

25

and

28,

Mai.tkr.

Henry: Saadia

Studies

487
101 17

Margolis,

Max

L.

Recent Biblical Literature


''Alan by

Margolis,

Max

L.

Man," Joshua

7,

319

Mordell, Piiineas: Origin of Letters and Numerals


in

Sefer Yesirah
Corrections
to

517

Perles, Felix: Additions and


cellany of Lexical

Mis-

and Textual Notes on the


313

Bible

Perles, Felix

ei&6?

Hair

547

Philipson, David: Review of "Ethics of Judaism"


by M. Lazarus
167
of

Pozxaxski,
Ginzberg

S.:

Review

"Geonica"

by

Louis

397
Disputation in an Italian Novel
Polity

Radix.
Revel,

Max: A

511
the

Bernard: Notes on "The

of

Ancient Hebrews" by Judge Sulzberger

315
of

REVEL,

Bernard:

Inquiry

into

the

Sources

Karaite Halakah

337
181

Sciiechter,

S.

An Unknown Khazar Document


Announcement

SciiECiiTER, S.

485

Segal, M. H.
Zadokite

Additional Notes on "Fragments of a

Work"
Mayer: The
Polity

301
of
the

Sulzberger,

Ancient
1

Hebrews

IV

THE POLITY OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS*


By Mayer Sulzberger,
1

Philadelphia

In accepting the

flattering invitation

of this learned

institution to deliver a course of lectures

on the Institutes

of Government of the Ancient Hebrews, the natural reluctance


to

assume a novel duty was overcome by the

earnest suggestion that at least so

much was due

to

the

cause and to the venerated Founder of this college.


the course of a long

In

and active

life,

he always found time

and opportunity and


this

to further the cause of

Hebrew

learning,
testa-

munificent
fitting

endowment by
crown upon

his last will

and

ment was the


cause.

his lifelong labors in the

The western worl

'

the

world of modern

civilization

has
it

always

felt

and evinced a
Hebrews.

transcendent

interest
in

in the polity
is

of the anciei.

The books

which

recorded were once universally accepted as

literally

inspired,

and although the modern course of thought has


this

tended to raise important dissents from


still

view,
it

it

is

widely accepted, and even those

who

reject

have

contributed some of the most valuable aids to the under-

standing of the biblical literature.

*A
1912.

course

of

four

'--tures

delivered before

the

DROPSIE COLLEGE
iS,

FOR HEBREW AND COGNATE LEARNING,

March

21,

25

and

28,

Malter. Henry: Saadia Studies


Margolis,

487
101 17

Max

L.

Recent Biblical Literature

Margous,

Max

L.

"Man

by Man," Joshua

7,

319

Mordell, Phinkas: Origin of Letters and Numerals


in

Sefer Yesirah
:

517
Corrections
to

Perles, Felix

Additions and

Mis-

cellany of Lexical

and Textual Notes on the


313

Bible

Perles, Felix

pibb>

Hair

547

Philipson, David: Review of "Ethics of Judaism"


by M. Lazarus
167

Poznanski,
Ginzberg

S.

Review of

"Geonica"

by

Louis

397
Disputation in an Italian Novel
Polity

Radix,
Revel,

Max: A

511
the

Bernard: Notes on "The

of

Ancient Hebrews" by Judge Sulzberger

315
of

Revel,

Bernard

Inquiry

into

the

Sources

Karaite Halakah
Sciieciiter, S.
:

337
181

An Unknown Khazar Document


Announcement

Sciiechter,
Segal,

S.
:

485

M. H.

Additional Notes on "Fragments of a

Zadokite

Work"

301
:

SULZBERGER,

Mayer

The

Polity

of

the

Ancient
I

Hebrews

IV

THE POLITY OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS*


By Mayer Sulzberger,
1

Philadelphia

In accepting the

flattering invitation

of this learned

institution to deliver a course of lectures

on the Institutes
the natural re-

of

Government of the Ancient Hebrews,


to

luctance

assume a novel duty was overcome by the

earnest suggestion that at least so

much was due

to the

cause and to the venerated Founder of this college.


the course of a long

In

and active

life,

he always found time

and opportunity
and
this

to further the cause of

Hebrew

learning,
testa-

munificent
fitting

endowment by
crown upon

his last will

and

ment was the


cause.

his lifelong labors in the

The western worl

the

world of modern
a

civilization

has
it

always

felt

and evinced

transcendent

interest
in

in the polity of the anciei.


is

Hebrews.

The books

which

recorded were once universally accepted as

literally

inspired,

and although the modern course of thought has


this

tended to raise important dissents from


still

view,
it

it

is

widely accepted, and even those

who

reject

have

contributed some of the most valuable aids to the under-

standing of the biblical literature.

*A
1912.

course

of

four '--tures delivered before the

DROPSIE COLLEGE
iS,

FOR HEBREW AND COGNATE LEARNING,

March

si,

25

and

28,

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

phenomenon

so remarkable cannot be merely casual the legislation of the great Asiatic

or accidental.

Whereas

empires of India and China has merely aroused the curiosity of the scholar, the polity of the

Hebrews has awakcleric

ened the earnest attention of learned and simple, of

and layman, of statesman and


that the ancient

poet.

There

is

feeling

Hebrew

ideals of

government concur with


Absolute
autocracy,

our

own

in their

deepest

meanings.

the lordly disregard of the humble, the exclusive concern

of the individual for himself, these are

all

attributes

which

appear to us to be present

in

the great and powerful of

Eastern lands, and they repel us.


the ideals are the reverse.
people,

In the

Hebrew

polity

The King was

to live for his

was governed by

a fixed law

which he had not made

and which he could not unmake, and was checked by a


national council, representative of the people.

The
owed
tions
tions.

judicial function was, as time progressed, severed

from the general sovereignty and became a power which


allegiance to the law above
all

other masters, antici-

pating in this respect that distribution of sovereign func-

which

is

an essential attribute of modern constitu-

Aliens were no longer looked on as enemies, but were


to

be treated

with

fairness

and

regarded

as

friends.

Slavery was abhorred, and the abuses of capitalism were


deplored and restrained.

A
which
the

few years ago

had the honor

to deliver a lecture

before the Jewish Theological Seminary at


I

New
;

York,

in

endeavored to show that

this trait

was present

in

Hebrew

people from the earliest times

that the avertransi-

sion to absolute kingly authority


tory, but could be traced

was not modern or

back historically to the election

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER
last,

and control by the people's representatives of the kings

from the very


that
also
is,

first

of them, Saul, to the very

Zedekiah
I

through a period of more than four centuries.


demonstrate
essential

endeavored to

that

this

representative

council,

which had

qualities

of modern parlia-

ments, was for long

known

as the 'am ha-ares, a technical

term which,

in

the mutations of time and circumstance,


last

acquired other and totally alien connotations, until at


the true

meaning was forgotten.

The very

simplicity of

the words, the ease with

which a mere tyro can translate


dictionary, became, in later times,

them with the help of a

a powerful obstacle to the recovery of the true meaning.

On
phia
Israel

that occasion

said

(The Am-ha-arctz, Philadel:

(Greenstone),

1910,

page 58)

"The Parliament of
where the

had

its

humble beginnings

at the city gate,

elders of the town, 'comers to the gate,' sat to hold the

Town

Council and the Municipal Court.


evolved,

Gradually there was

from

this institution, the tribal


district

'Am, which dealt


inhabited by the

with the larger matters of the


tribe.

Friendliness

among

neighbors, and the necessity of

defense against enemies, produced alliances between several


tribes,
all

and

finally

there

resulted a union

of

all

or

nearly

the tribes of Israel.

Then only could

there have

been formed a general gathering of delegates, an 'Am of


the land, our

'Am

ha-aretz."

Further

investigation

has

not

resulted

in

finding
evi-

evidence that a tribal 'am ever existed.

Perhaps such
it

dence
likely,

may

be forthcoming in the future, but


so, that the actual

is

just as

and even more

development of the
logical

'am did not follow the symmetrical and

course

had marked out for


has a

it.

Life with

its

rich

and varied aspects

way

of disappointing the most rigid and exact logical

4
processes.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


This
fact,

however,

in

no wise renders doubtful

the

main

thesis that the

'am ha-arcs, a great representative


part
'

body,

played

an

important

in

the government of

ancient Israel.

This present course will be limited

in the

main

to the

examination of the "city gate," where the council {zekcnim,


be'alim,

anashim)
Municipal
I

sat,

not only to hold the but to


exercise

Town
much
in

Council
higher

and the
powers.

Court,

shall

endeavor to show that

pre-Israelite

times Palestine was composed of

many

little city

kingdoms,

independent of one another, sometimes leagued together


for offence or defense, sometimes arrayed against one another.
earth,
local

They lacked
jurisdiction.

large ideals.

Their heaven,

like their

was parceled out among many, each with Gods and Kings
alike

limited

were profusely

numerous.

Upon them came down


religious
]

the

Hebrews with

their large

and national

ideas.

They

believed at least that


rule over Pales-

iivii

was the true and only God who had


and that
all

tine,

other

Gods were

in that

domain

rebels

and usurpers.
longed to
the

The

heathen's thought that the land be-

many gods and many

kings came in conflict with

Hebrew

notion of Canaan as one land, the portion of

one God (Jhvh), for the use of one nation, Jhvh's own,
his helek

(Deut. 32, 9), his segullah (Exod. 19, 5).


divided to the nations their inheritance,

"When Elyon

When
I

he separated the sons of Adam,

[e

set

bounds for the (seventy) peoples, (Gen.

46, 27).

Their number even as the B'ne Israel

Jhvh's portion
Jacob the
I

is

his people,

lot

of his inheritance.
in the desert land,

le

found him

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER

And

in the waste,

howling wilderness;

He He
As

led

him about, he instructed him,


up her

kept him as the apple of his eye.


the eagle stirreth
nest,

Fluttereth over her young,

Spreadeth abroad her wings,

Taketh them,
Beareth them on her wings,

So Jhvh alone did lead him

With him

there

was no

alien

God" (Deut.

32, 8-12).

The Hebrews came


to wrest a country

as an army.
its

Their purpose was

from

possessors, a task that could


If they

only be accomplished by war.

had hopes of sudden


dissipated.

and complete conquest, these were soon


strife

The

went on for decades,

if

not longer, and even at the

end the goal was never quite reached.

Some

parts of the

country always continued in the possession of the natives,


while in others a

mode

of compromise was found which

enabled the natives and the invaders to live together in


peace.

While on the march

it

was

well for

Moses

to

pray

Jhvh
10,

to scatter Israel's enemies

and

to protect the

myriads

(divisions)

and regiments of the Hebrew armies (Num.

35-36), but

they were confronted with the

when they were being settled on the land, many perplexing problems

with which peaceful governments must deal.

The

task of ruling a country

is

far

more complex than


the unity

that of governing a camp.

The compactness and


features,

of the

camp

are

its

essential

while the former

demands the

scattering of the people into a thousand sev-

eral places, separated

from each other by

obstacles, natural

and

artificial.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


The
actual condition of the country
to he considered in

and the people, old

and new, had


ment.

framing the new govern-

That they met the

difficulties

and practically overterritory

came them, history shows.

The new
state.

was

in the

end welded into a solid Hebrew

The

city-kings

and

city-gods disappeared, and in their place

came

a true nation

and a national God

conception which ultimately ex-

panded more and more

until the idea of

one humanity and

one God became deeply rooted.

Our
with the
its
is

task in this course

is

to ascertain

what were the

early stages of this development, dealing in the first place

common

theory of tribal organization, ascertaining


its

true nature, and showing that

duration was less than

usually believed.

We

shall

next examine the pre-Israelite

city-states

and

their

mode

of government, following this up

by a view of the Hebrew statesmanship which, retaining the

form of organization of
essence.

city-states, materially

modified

its

The

notices preserved in the Bible of the actual

exercise of the jurisdiction by the

Hebrew

cities will

next

be considered, to be followed by a consideration of the


legal

provisions
still

concerning

these

Hebrew

city-councils
lastly

which

survive in the Pentateuch.

And

we

shall

endeavor to show that by degrees the national religious


idea

was spread by the Levites and the Nebiim,


were

until a true

Federal state evolved, with incidental remarks as to the

mode by which
I

these great changes


in

effected.
like

need scarcely say that

an inquiry

this

into

obscure points of

Hebrew

Constitutional history, any lan-

guage
sertion.
light

may

use must not be construed into dogmatic asare


all

We

fellow-students, earnestly striving for

and knowledge, with the consciousness that the task

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS


is

SULZBERGER
is

difficult
it

and that the work of many minds

required to

give

even a semblance of completeness.


is

The common opinion undoubtedly


commonwealth was formed by
(

that the

Hebrew
clans

the union oi twelve tribes

mattot,

shcbatim),

which were

subdivided

into

(mishpahot), the latter into families (bct-abot), and these


in their

turn were composed of warriors (gebarim).


classical text

The
of

on the subject
relates that the

is

in the

seventh chap-

ter of Joshua,

which

war

for the conquest


the

Canaan was auspiciously begun by the capture of


;

walled city of Jericho

that by Divine order,

its

inhabitants
to extinc-

(save a few favored for cause)


tion,

were doomed
that

and,

moreover,

it

was commanded
it

the victors
as such

should avoid taking booty, since

was herem and

would contaminate not only the


(Josh.
6,

taker, but the

whole camp

18).

soldier yielding to temptation captured

and hid away a goodly Babylonish garment, two hundred


shekels of silver, and a golden ornament of fifty shekels

weight.
Instantly the Divine favor

was withdrawn.
which seemed

The

city

of Ai, the point of next

attack,

easy of

capture, resisted and defeated the Israelite force.

Joshua,

perturbed, inquired of the oracle and was informed that


the disfavor

was due

to the breach of the order against

booty.

It

became

his task to discover the guilty person.


is is

The mode of
7.

consulting the oracle


series of questions

given at length (Josh.


asked, and the oracle,

16-18).

through the priest in charge of the Ark of the Covenant,

makes

reply.

Incidentally, too.
ization.

we

learn the

scheme of army organtribe


:

representative

of

each

being

brought
of these

before the Ark, the question was put

To which

8
tribes

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


(shebatim) does the offender belong?

The answer

was. JudaJi.

Thereupon the representatives of the several


Judah were placed before the Ark, and
:

clans of the tribe of

the question propounded

To which

of these mishpahot

does the offender belong?

The answer was, Zerah.


of
the

The

representatives of the several families

Zerah clan

being placed before the Ark, the next question was:

To
The

which of these bet-abot does the offender belong?


answer was, Zabdi.

Thereupon the gebarim (individual

warriors) of the Zabdi family, being put before the Ark,


the question

was put

Which

of these gebarim

is

the guilty

man? And

the answer was, Achan, ben Karmi, ben Zabdi,

ben Zerah, of the tribe (mattek) of Judah.


slightly defective, but a careful reading of
it

The

text

is

justifies this

translation.

We
(mattot,

have here a perfect scheme of organization


shebatim),
clans

tribes

(mishpahot),

families

(bet-

abot), gebarim (individual soldiers).


It

does not, however, stand alone.


is

The scheme put


divides the hosts

before Moses by Jethro


into

different.

It

thousands

(alaphim),
f

hundreds
(Exod.
18,

(me'ot),
21).

fifties

(hamishim) and tens

asarot)

At
at

the selection of Saul for

King

(I

Sam.

10,

17-25)

Mizpeh the people were divided


clans

into tribes

(shebatim)

and
el,

(mishpahot).
being picked
is

The
of

bet-abot are not mentionthe

Saul
there

out

mishpahah of Matri.
In verse 19, the word

And

still

another

difficulty.

alaphim

is

used for the mishpahot, a phenomenon which


in the story

occur- also
that
Ik-

of Gideon (Judges

6,

15),

who

says

belonged to a poor clan (eleph).


the

To add

to the

confusion,

passage

Numbers

1,

16 seems to identify

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER
tribes.

the nesi'im of the tribes with the rasliim of the alaphim,

and would make the


In later times the

latter

word mean

word clcph obtained

meaning even

more extended.
promised
(alaphim)
speaks
of
to

When
the

Saul was eager to seize David, he


the
fastnesses

hunt him out of

or

districts
5,
1

of
the

Judean wilderness, while \Iicah


of

city

Bethlehem

as

among

the cities

(alaphim) of Judah.

Whether
Jethro (Exod.

the

systems of Joshua

(7,

14-18)

and of

18, 21) existed contemporaneously,

may

be

incapable of determination on the evidence, but the fact

seems scarcely probable.

It

may
came

be a fair conjecture to
first,

believe that the tribal system

and as time went


So,

on the organization of the army became more perfect.


likewise, as the

Hebrew army occupied and


would take
its

settled the land

piecemeal, an organization quite unlike the military organization in either shape


place.

The Jethro
simple,

organization
first,

being

military,

pure

and

would go down

while the tribal organization,


to a certain extent

founded on notions of kinship and


neighborhood settlement, would

by

last longer.

As

the civil
it

government became more and more powerful,


easily appropriate old tribal military
to
officers

would

terms and attach them


life,

and circumstances of

civil

creating at the

same time new meanings, wholly or


their original meaning.

partially unrelated to

So only can we explain the confusion


eleph, which,

in the

term
is

meaning

at first a

regiment of soldiers,

in

antiquarian records confounded


clan,

now

with

tribe,

now

with

and

in the

speech of the day comes to


citv.

mean

a district

of land, or even a

10

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

On
them

this principle Jethro's

scheme becomes

plain.

He

would form regiments of a thousand


into

(alaphim), divide

companies of a hundred (mc'ot), divide each of


(hamishim), and

these again into half-companies of fifty

then subdivide the latter into squads

(corporal's guards)

of ten, each division and subdivision having a proper officer


(sar).

20.

Some such arrangement appears indicated in Judges 10, where a squad of ten men out of every hundred
to provision the

(company) are designated


statement
(me'ot),
10,000).
is

army, and the


are companies
(rebabot,

incidentally

made

that

there

regiments

(alaphim),

and

divisions

There are other passages confirming

this view.

In the

Song of Moses (Deut.

32, 30) the poet asks:

"How

should
?"

one chase a regiment (eleph) or two a division (rebabah)

And

in Deut. 33, 17, the military


is

prowess of the house of

Joseph

based on the rebabot (divisions) of Ephraim, and


(regiments) of Manasseh.
is

the alaphim

The enmity

con-

ceived by Saul for David

related as having originated in

the former's mortification at the extravagant language of

a popular song which represented David as slaughtering

whole divisions {rebabot), while Saul had only decimated


regiments (alaphim)
(I

Sam.

18, 8).

Perhaps even the term hamushim (soldiers) originated

from these half-companies of


1.

fifty

(Exod.

13,

18; Josh.

14; 4, 12;

Judges

7,

11).

And

the

word

sar long con21,

tinued to be applied to military officers

(Isai.

5; II

Chron. 32, 21).


If
this

theory be correct,

we

are entitled to believe

that as early as the time of Saul the tribal system

had so

weakened

that they used

mishpahah and eleph

indifferently

POUTY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS


for

SULZBERGER
in

II

each other and did not keep bet-abot

mind, and

that in later times there

were

still

wider divergences from

the ancient meaning.

The whole
firm this view.

history of the shophctim also tends to con-

Gideon, whose connection with any other


is

tribe than Manasseh

not

made

clear,

was
is

early considered

the shophet of

all Israel.

And

the

same

true of his son

Abimelech (Judges
11).
to

9,

22), as also of Jephthah (Judges 11,


still is

More

significant
tribe

the fact that

we

are not told

which

Shamgar,

Deborah,

belonged, an omission scarcely explicable

each tribe had some kind of a


within
its

or Abdon we assume that government of its own


Ibzan,
if

own
is

territory.
difficulty in

There

no

concluding that the real tribal

organization disappeared with the conquest and survived

only in names and in fragments of institutions.


as the time of David, the census

As

early

lumps the ten


I

tribes to-

gether as Israel (II Sam. 24, 9;

Chron. 21, 5-6).


tribal
terri-

Solomon's government seems to have ignored


authority.

His twelve nissabim had jurisdiction over


is

tory, but their tribal connection


4,

not mentioned (I Kings


for

7-19).

Jeroboam was Solomon's supervisor of labor


11,
all

Beth- Joseph (I Kings


alternative
(I

28), which seems to have been an


Israel outside of

name
11,

for

Judah-Benjamin

Kings

28).

The

narrative concerning the latter's

strange investiture into

the

kingly

office

by the prophet
(I

Ahijah would seem to allow of no other conclusion

Kings
out,

11,

31).
is

And

finally,

when

the

rebellion

breaks

there

no mention of any

tribe.

All Israel (kol(I

Israel) shouted:

"To your

tents,

Israel!"

Kings

12,

16).

12

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Still

more

significant of the effacement of tribal lines

is

the fact that

we do

not

know

to

which

tribe

belonged

Omri, Ahab, or Jehu, the three most notable kings of the


northern
line.

The evidence seems


the

conclusive
2

that

this

effacement of tribal lines had gone on for


that

few centuries,

we

see

movement
it

in

progress in the Song of

Deborah, and that

was nearly accomplished by the time

of the priest-sJwphct Eli.


that

At

all

events, the tradition

was

Deborah judged not

a tribe or a small
4,

group of
Eli
(I

tribes,
4,

but the B'ne-Israel (Judges


18)

5)
(I

and that

Sam.

and Samuel did the same


it

Sam.

7,

16-17).

And
Israel,

although
called

may

well be that

some of

the military chiefs,

shophctim (judges), ruled only a section of

the evidence that this rule


scanty.

was

tribal in its

nature

is

very

Jephthah, one of the most renowned of them, was

the head of Gilead,

which was not a

tribe but a territory.

At

all

events, the oldest traditions of Israel

were that there

was
head.

in

those old times a national union with a national

Assuming,

then,

that

this

military

organization

for

conquest became gradually modified as the invasion grew

more and more

successful,

it

becomes interesting
place.
to

to learn

how and why such changes took


The
objective purpose of

Moses was

overcome and

possess Canaan, the territory between the Mediterranean

and the Jordan,


as a unified

and

to

establish

therein the B'ne-Israel

commonwealth with righteous aims and sound


to

laws.

For reasons which seemed

him good and

sufficient,

he determined that the attack should be made from the


east,

by fording the Jordan.

In a friendly

way

he requested

the

powers controlling the eastern territory to grant

him

leave to pass.

This being refused, he fought his way, and

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS


thus the

SULZBERGER

war began

in a

country on which he had no hostile


Sihon,

designs and at a time earlier than he had planned.

king of the Amorites, was the


invaders.

first to

go down before the


in

At the
lost

battle of his land

Jahaz he was defeated, and

consequence
took
all

from Arnon
their

to Jabbok.

Israel

his

cities

with

banot and occupied them

(Numb.
35), and

21, 24-25, 32).

Og, king of Bashan, was the next


totally routed

to suffer.

At Edrei he was

(Numb.

21, 33,
it

Israel took possession of his domain, as

had

before dealt with the Amorite land

(Numb.

21, 34).

The advance was then made


Jericho,

to the Jordan,

opposite
to begin

from which point

it

had been designed

the war.

At once
it

the important question obtruded


to

itself,

whether
for an

were wise

abandon the conquered


it

territory

enemy
portion

to re-occupy, or to retain

and thus enlarge the


to

of

land

which would

fall

each.

The B'ne

Reuben and

the B'ne-Gad offered to send their military

contingent to aid in the conquest of Canaan proper, and


to

waive their share of that land,

if

the territory east of

Jordan were assigned to them as their portion.

Their offer
half-tribe of
in

was accepted and


*

they,

together
to

with the

Manasseh (which appears

have joined them

their

project), received the territory which had been reft

from
32,

Sihon and from Og, with the


1-33), their
their villages
13,

cities

thereof

(Numb.
32, 42),

dependencies

(banot)

(Numb.

and

(hawwot) (Numb.

32, 41), or

haserim (Josh.

28).

The momentous nature


was soon
realized.

of the question facing Israel

Two

tribes

and a half were

to leave

their wives, their children,


territory,

and

their cattle in the


all

conquered

while the active warriors,

the

men between

14

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


fifty

twenty and

years of age, were to leave the country to

carry on in the land west of Jordan a


for years.

war

that might last

The

necessity of providing for the

government
to

of this East-Jordanic territory

was obvious.

Order had

be preserved, enemies guarded against, quarrels adjusted.

The duty
fifty,

naturally devolved on the zekenim, the

men

over

who had become exempt from


field.

active military service

in

the

Circumstances did not favor the immediate

establishment of a

permanent

tribal

government

in

the

East-Jordanic territory.
tary chiefs

The vigorous and ambitious


to

mili-

were about

depart on a long and perilous

expedition; the country was already organized into a series


of city-states or district states, and,
system,
it

how ever
T

faulty the

had worked somehow.

As

a temporary arrange-

ment
Israel.

it

may have commended


It

itself to

the best minds of

This nascent nation had great ambitions but no

past

history.

had never owned land or

cities,

but

it

sacredly cherished ancient ambitions which told of divine

promises of both.

Now
of these

it

suddenly and unexpectedly became the master


city-kingdoms.

little

Sentiment doubtless soon became active.


the legends of old, that the first

Men

recalled

a city (Gen. 4, 17)


in the city

that the

man who left Eden built patriarch Abraham sojourned


;

of Gerar (Gen. 20, 1)

that Isaac

was concerned

in the

founding of Beersheba (Gen. 26, 33), and that Jacob


it

had stopped at Luz and had given


19)-

new name (Gen.


T

28,

But whatever the power of sentiment, there was always


in

Israel a certain practical

judgment which regulated

it.

The

great obstacle to the adoption of the


satisfied

mode
was

of governthat Israel

ment which had

the aborigines,

POUTY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS


was
in its
;

SULZBERGER

governmental notions republican and not monviews democratic and not aristocratic.

archical

in its social

The Canaanite

city-states

were founded on principles which

revolted the Hebrews.

The
list

twelfth chapter of Joshua (vv. 9-24) gives us a


thirty-one
city-states,
is

of

each

governed

by

king

(melck) and the inference

not remote that the

cities east

of the Jordan were similarly governed, Sihon and

Og

being

overlords, kings of the federations of city-states, each of

which had a kinglet of and


all

his

own.
13,

The
17),

expressions "Heshbon
"the
cities

her cities"

(Josh.

and

their

villages"

(Josh. 13, 23. 28) used of places east of Jordan

give support to this view.

Such

a city-state

was composed
:

in general of at least

three constituent elements

the fortified city proper, with

walls and towers of defense; several neighboring towns.

and a number of outlying

villages.

The

fortified city itself

sustained the relation of mother (em) to the neighboring

towns and

villages.

The towns were


hawwot

called

daughters

(baiwt), and the outlying villages

or haserim.

In the absence of powerful kingdoms, the formation

of such small

city-kingdoms,

or

more

properly,

district

kingdoms, was inevitable.


fertile

The

relatively small territory of

land betwen the Mediterranean Sea and the Eastern

Desert was then, as now, subject to incursions from the

Bedouins

in years

when

a decreased rainfall

narrowed

their

grazing-ground.

Driven westward by the mere

instinct of settled

self-preservation, they

would swoop down upon the

land and strip

it

bare.

The shepherds and

agriculturists
this necessity

had to take measures to save themselves.


the
fortified
city

Of

was born.

The

inhabitants of villages

and towns were compelled

to have a protected place of re-

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

fuge where their lives and as


they could store would be
hordes.

much

of their property as
the
city,

safe
in the

against

maurauding
wherein the

This they found

walled

inhabitants of a district within easy call could promptly

gather for defense against the dreaded enemy.

These overmastering

necessities

affecting

both sides
for ages

created an irrepressible conflict, which

was waged

and the memory of which


hatred

is

preserved in the undying

denounced

against
6,

the

nomadic

Midianites
;

and

Amalekites (Judges
17,

1-6; 7, 23-25; Isai. 9, 3 (4)

Exod.

16; Deut. 25, 19).


It is

probable that the kings of these numerous city-

states

governed despotically by the aid of ministers of their


If they

own

selection.

were aided or restrained by a conrepresentative of the com-

siderable

body of

councillors,

munity, the evidence of the fact does not survive in our


records.

However
all

this

may

be, the

advent of Israel swept away


a

these kinglets.
city,

Whenever

Hebrew army captured and


was
at

occupied a
lished.

a government by elders

once estab-

That

this

change was disagreeable to the aborigines

who continued to live alongside of the invaders, is probable. Of this state of feeling there is perhaps a hint in the narrative recording

Abimelech's attainment of the

office

of city-

king of Shechem.

The
:

persuasive argument in his favor


prefer to be ruled over by
2).

was the interrogatory


-evenly or by one?

Do you

(Judges

9,

Such a disharmony between the

aborigines and

the

invaders could not have been exceptional.


the

The

notes on

subject are too

numerous

to be disregarded or to be

treated lightly, and they establish the fact that the conquest

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER
who

was

partial in this, that the aborigines

survived the

wars lived peacefully with and alongside of the conquerors.

Here are specimens of

texts supporting this

view

The
day

B'ne-Judah could not drive out the Jebusites from Jerusalem, but the Jebusites dwell there with
(Josh. 15, 63).

them

to this

The B'ne-Benjamin
this

did

not drive out the Jebusites


to

from Jerusalem, but the Jebusites dwell there with them


day (Judges
i,

21).
valley

Judah could not drive out the inhabitants of the


(Judges
1,

19).

Manasseh did not drive out

the inhabitants of Beth-

shean and her banot; nor of Taanach and her banot, nor
of

Dor and her

banot, nor of Ibleam

and her banot, nor of

Megiddo and her


this district

banot, but the Canaanites remained in


1,

(Judges

27).

Ephraim
in

did not drive out the Canaanites


1,

who

lived

Gezer (Judges

29).

Zebulun did not drive out the inhabitants of Kitron,


nor those of Xahalol, but the Canaanites continued to dwell
with them (Judges
1,

30).

Asher did not drive out the inhabitants of Acco, nor


those of Zidon, nor those of Ahlab, nor those of iVchzib,

nor those of Helbah, nor those of

Aphik,

nor
the

those

of

Rehob; but the Asherites


(Judges
1,

dwelt

among

Canaanites

31-32).

Xaphtali did not drive out the inhabitants of Beth-

Shemesh, nor those of Beth-anath, but he lived among the


Canaanites

who

paid him tribute (Judges


in

1,

33).
in
1,

The Amorites dwelt


in Shaalbim, but

Mount Heres,

Aijalon and
35).

became

tributaries (Judges

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

the

From this mass of evidence Hebrew conquerors found it


who were

it

must be concluded

that

necessary or agreeable to
in

adopt a policy of conciliation and compromise,


that the natives
to

order

either too strong or too useful

be eliminated, might live content with the

new

insti-

tutions
It

and customs introduced by the B'ne-Israel.


thus appears that at the very outset of
its

national
justly

career, Israel

had to learn how

to deal wisely

and

with the natives,

who had

different notions of

government

and of

religion

and who, by the advent of the conquerors,


aliens in their

had practically become

own

birthplaces.

The
strangers

solution of the difficulty, so far as governmental

features were concerned,

was found
only to

in the

doctrine that
rights, but to

are

entitled

not

equal

genuine respect and brotherly

affection.

Having brought

the

Hebrews

into

contact with the

natives and their organized governments, and having sug-

gested that a policy prevailed which


able,
if

may

be called remark-

not unique, for those times and climes,

we

shall

reserve the detailed consideration of the subject for our

next lecture.

II

The problems which


cally different
tion.

beset an invading

army

are radi-

from those which confront a


is

settled popula-

In the one case the purpose

aggression, in the other

defense.

We

have seen that the Hebrew conquerors of


to

Eastern

Palestine had

face

both kinds of

difficulties.

They were
from

settling in the east

and conquering

in the west.

Hence, notwithstanding the disadvantage plainly accruing


a policy of

compromise, they adopted

it

as the lesser

POUTY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS


evil

SULZBERCl
to

19

and arranged
the

to allow the natives to live with


rights.

them

in

enjoyment of
for
this

Means

procure general

favor
history

course

were not wanting.


its
c

Legend and

could be invoked in
is

behalf.

The

patriarch

Abraham
I

made

to say to the

am

ha-ares of the Hittites


;

am

a resident alien (gcr zve-toshab) (Gen. 23, 4)

Moses

declares that he has been an alien (gcr) in a foreign land


(crcs nokriyah)

(Exod.

2,

22;

18,

3).

In his proposed

covenant between

Jhvh and

Israel,

he expressly recognizes
29, 10),

the alien (gcr) in the

camp (Deut.

and

in his fare-

well address, delivered after the capture of the cities east

of Jordan, he provides for national reunions


of the future commonwealth, and includes

in the capital

among

the con12).

gregants the alien

(ger)

from

the cities

(Deut. 31,

So

likewise Joshua,

when he read

the whole law before

the whole congregation, did not forget to procure the at-

tendance of the ger (Josh.

8,

35).

That the sentiment behind these utterances was strong

may

be inferred from

its

persistence in later times.


is

David's
to.

friendly relations with foreigners

frequently alluded

There

is

no

finer instance of loyal fidelity than the devotion

of Ittai of Gath, the captain of David's body-guard, to his


royal master.

About

to flee

from the west-land


he
said
to

in conse:

quence of

Absalom's

rebellion,

Ittai

Why
?

shouldst thou an alien

(nokri)

share

my

fallen

fortunes

when
Ittai

the king that

is

would gladly

retain thee in thy office


zi'c-hc

Swearing the great oath (hai Jhvh


replied
:

adoni ha-melek),
for

"My

place

is

with

my

lord the King,

death or for life!" and David said: Pass on.


these great souls scant speech sufficed (II

Between
15. 19-22).

Sam.

So too Solomon,

in

his

great dedication prayer,


(I

re-

membered

the nokri of distant lands

Kings

8.

4 I_ 43;

20

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


and even took a census of the gerim
in

II Chr. 6, 32. 33),

the country which ascertained that their

number exceeded

150.000 (II Chr.

2.

16 (17)).

Cireat social facts like these necessarily find expression


in legislation,

which

is

in the

main the mere

crystallization

of custom.

Accordingly

we

find that the institution of the

Sabbath

is

to give rest not only to Israel but to the ger

[who

is

in

thy

cities]

(Exod.

20,

10; Deut.

5,

14); or

simply to the ger (Exod. 23, 12).

Benevolent provision for the poor comprehends the


ger as well as the Israelite (Deut.
14, 28.

29; 26, n-13).

Oppression of the ger

is

insistently reprehended.

"Do

not vex a ger, nor oppress him, for ye were gerim

in the land of Egypt"'

(Ex. 22, 20 (21)

23, 9; Lev. 19, 33).

"The ger
not vex.
shalt love

that dwelleth with


shall

you

in

your land ye

shall

He
him

be to you as an czrah (native).

Thou

as thyself; for ye
19,

were gerim
10,

in the land of

Egypt" (Lev.

33. 34; Deut.

19).

"Thou
in

shalt not oppress a

poor and needy hired serv-

ant (sakir), whether he be of thy brethren or of the gerim

thy land in thy


24,

cities.

Pay him

his

wage before sun-

down" (Deut.

14.

15).

The ger was "Ye


(Exod.
shall
12,

entitled to the equal benefit of the law.

have the same mishpat for ger as for ezrah"

49; Lev. 24, 22;

Num.

9,

14).

"Hear between your brethren and judge righteously


between a
16).

man and

his

fellow-Israelite or ger"

(Deut.

I,

"Pervert not the judgment of the ger or of the yatom"


I

Deut. 24, 17).

POLITY

.OF

ANCIENT HEBREWS
killed a

SULZBERGER
is

21
entitled

The ger who has

man

unwittingly

to the benefit of the city of refuge.

"The

cities

of refuge are for the B'ne-Israel and

<

ir

the ger ive-toshab


9)-

among them" (Numb.

35, 15; Josh. 20,

And though

in

one respect the ger was the inferior

of the Hebrew, in that the latter

was not

to be held as a

bond-slave, while the ger we-toshab might be (Lev. 25, 45),


yet the latter

had opportunities

for

social

advancement.

Some

of them had actually bought impoverished Israelites

as bond-slaves,

and were

legally

entitled

to

hold

them,

unless redeemed for full value (Lev. 25, 47-49).

That the policy of incorporating the natives of the


land into the body of the

new

state

met with opposition and

was adopted with reluctance


Entering
intention,

is

highly probable.

the

trans- Jordanic

country

with

peaceful
repelled

Moses found none but enemies.

Edom

him. while Sihon and

Og

insisted

on

battle to the death.

Moab's pretended amity covered undying hatred and the


fraternization at Shittim caused the leaders of the people
to

become

traitors to

Jhvh's cause (Numb.

25,

1-5)

and

threatened the disruption of Israel.

Small

wonder,

then,

that

the

policy

of

extinction

should find sturdy advocates.

The foundation
natives,

stone of the
friendly

new

republic,

the

worship of Jhvh, had.


with
the

in the

intimacy of Israel

been

forgotten

and

Baal-Peor seemed triumphant.


sion

Stern measures of repres-

were necessary and were executed by the militant


Phineas,
25,

priest

with

the

provost-marshals

(shophetitn)

(Num.

5-9).

If the principle of the

new

state
to

were

to

be

firmly

established, a Pontiff

was necessary

guard the national

22
religion.
1

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Phineas was chosen
for

the

office

(Num.

25,

1-

13), the Levite with an eye single for the cause,

"who
chil-

did not acknowledge his brethren or

know

his

own

dren,"

if

they were unfaithful to

it

(Deut. 33, 9).

When
him down.

Joshua from the east bank of Jordan looked on

Jericho, the

whole stupendous problem must have weighed

There was much

in favor of

extreme measures
he was about to

and much against them.

Even

in the city

attack he had found friends


less there

among

the natives, and doubt-

were such everywhere.


to the side of

They might be won


your God,

Jhvh.

The

spies

returned had but just brought him Rahab's words: "Jhvh,


is

God

in

heaven above and


decided
in

in earth beneath."

In the end
course.

Joshua

favor

of the

milder
religion

He must
hold
its

have believed
its

that the

Jhvh

would, under the guidance of

sturdy priest,

make

its

way and

own.

At

all

events, after the bloody days

of Jericho and Ai, he

made

a treaty with Gibeon, the great

city (Josh. 9, 15; 10, 2),

and the new policy was, for weal

or for woe, initiated.

History records that the Gibeonites

became servants
27), and thus

in the

Temple and

for the altar (Josh. 9,

this first treaty

was an auspicious beginning Jhvh, which

of the peace policy, a bloodless victory for

might well inspire hope for the future.

While Joshua was thus reorganizing

his city-states,

he

took care to provide that the national idea should be worthily


Israel,

represented.

The

ohel-mo'ed,

the

tent-temple
1
;

of

was

instantly set

up

at Shiloh

(Josh. 18,

Jer. 7,

12 )

there the tribes were gathered to attest their allegiance

to the cause of

Jhvh

there

abode

the

national

priest.

From

thence and succeeding ecclesiastical capitals radiated

the influences which were gradually to bring the city-states

POUTY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS


into

SULZBERGER

23

harmony with

the

Hebrew

ideals of religion

and gov-

ernment and were

finally to

transform the

federation of

small states into one unified

kingdom

for

the

north

and

another unified kingdom for the south.

These

city-states

(called for

short,

cities)

each

in-

cluded at least one

city,

several towns and villages, together


city

with

fields,
its all

which were owned by the residents of the

and
not

dependencies.
Israelites,

Under

the policy adopted, these were

but a certain residue of the natives re-

mained

in their old

homes.
all

These
rived.
little

city-states
its

existed before the

Hebrews

ar-

Each had
kingdom.

king and his ministers,


at

who

ruled the

The Hebrews

once abolished the kingly


in the

office

and placed the government

hands of a council,

substantially representative in character.

They
at

did more.

They
office

established a national priesthood

Shiloh,

whose

was

to bring the

law of the constituent

city-states,

or city-districts, into harmony with each other and with the


national and religious customs and ideals of the
people.

The

difficulties

in

the

Hebrew way were enormous. A


government

landless people

were

to learn that the military

of a

camp was

quite unadapted to the rule of the country

they had conquered.

They had

to realize that local gov-

ernments were

necessary; that each of these

had a center
(the

or quasi-capital,
fortified
cities)

and that from these quasi-capitals

would radiate opinions which had to be

reckoned with.

How
was

well
it

they

learned

the

lesson

the

literature shows, since

indicates that the people's concepit

tion of the state

that

was an aggregation of

cities,

and that the word


for the land itself.

"cities

of the land" became a mere term

24

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Jephthah was buried
in

his

native

state

of

Gilead
in

(precisely

where we do not know), but the historian


:

stating this fact, simply says


"cities"

Jephthah was buried


12, 7).

in the

(state) of Gilead
civil

(Judges

In the great
ter

war with the B'ne-Benjamin the

lat-

hastened to the rendezvous from the "cities" (Judges


;

20. 14)
cities

and when peace was restored they returned

to their

(Judges 21, 23).


all

To

hail the

triumphant David the

women came from


Damascus, the
Kings
15,

the "cities" of Israel (I Sam. 18, 6),


alliance with

and when Asa of Judah formed


latter

Benhadad of
of
Israel
(I

attacked

the

"cities"

20).

When

David was arranging

to be

anointed King of
"cities."

Judah, he and his retinue settled in the Hebron

At the secession of Northern

Israel

under Jeroboam,

the B'ne-Israel that dwelt in the "cities" of


faithful to

Judah remained

Rehoboam
in

(I

Kings

12,

17).
Israel,
its

When
Kings
17,

722 B. C. Sargon overcame


dwelt in

he settled
(II

foreigners in Samaria and they


24.

"cities"

26).

When

Josiah introduced his reforms, he put

down

the

high places in the "cities" of Judah (II Kings 23, 5) and


in the "cities"

of Samaria (II Kings 23, 19).

Isaiah in his fortieth chapter addresses the nation as


"cities" of

Judah

(Isai. 40,

9) and does the like in 44, 26.

Jeremiah does the same uniformly.

"Publish against

Jerusalem, that watchers come from a far country and give


out their voice against the "cities" of Judah" (Jer. 4, 16).
"I

shall

cause to cease from the "cities" of Judah and

from the

streets of Jerusalem, the voice of


7,

mirth

.,

and

the land shall be desolate" (Jer.

34; 33, 10).

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS


"I will

SULZBERGER
and the

25

make Jerusalem heaps


(Jer. 9,

....

"cities" of

Judah desolate"

10 (11); 34, 22).


bruit
is

"The
"cities" of

noise

of

the

come
10,

.... to

make

the

Judah desolate"

(Jer.

22).

"Seest thou not what they do in the "cities" of Judah

and

in the streets of

Jerusalem?" (Jer.
all

7,

17).

Jhvh
"cities" of

said unto me, Proclaim

these words in the

Judah and

in the streets of

Jerusalem" (Jer.

11,

6).

"Then

shall the

"cities" of

Judah and inhabitants of

Jerusalem go and cry unto the gods unto


incense" (Jer. 11, 12).

whom
me
all

they offer

"Jhvh, the God of


wine cup of
(goyim)
to
this

Israel,

saith unto

Take

the

fury at
I

my

hand, and cause


it:

the nations

whom

send thee to drink

"Jerusalem and the "cities" of Judah and the kings


thereof and the sarim thereof .... " (Jer. 25, 15. 18).

"Thus
and speak
ship in

saith

Jhvh Stand
:

in the court of

Jhvh's house
to

to all the "cities" of

Judah which come

wor-

Jhvh's house
fifth

.... " (Jer. 26, 2).

"In the

year of Jehoiakim, the son of Josiah, king

of Judah, in the ninth month, they proclaimed a


vocation, fast
?)
all

som (con"cities" of

before

Jhvh

to all the people in Jeru-

salem, and to

the people that

came from the

Judah

to Jerusalem"

(Jer. 36. 9).

"Go back
of Shaphan,
in the "cities"

also to Gedaliah, the son of

Ahikam, the son

whom

the king of Babylon hath


" (Jer. 40, 5).

made governor

of Judah

Thus
seen
all
all

saith

Jhvh

of hosts, the
I

God
"

of Israel

Ye have

the evil that

have brought upon Jerusalem and

upon

the "cities" of

Judah

(Jer. 44, 2).

26

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

"My
salem

fury and mine anger was poured forth and was

kindled in the "cities" of Judah and in the streets of Jeru....


"

(Jer. 44, 6.

17).

Ezekiel fashion

speaks of

the

land of

Israel in

the

same

"The

inhabitants

of

the

"cities"

of

Israel shall

go

forth .... " (Ezek. 39, 9).

Zechariah characterizes
larly
:

the

southern kingdom

simi-

"How
from the

long wilt thou withhold mercy on Jerusalem and

"cities" of

Judah

....

"

(Zech.

1,

12).

From
had taken

the very beginning of the conquest this notion


is

that the state

only a bundle of "cities"

(city-districts)

root.
is

In reading the book of Joshua, one


fact that the
is

struck with the

number of

cities

awarded

to the several tribes

so large that the territory represented by

them and
part

their

dependencies practically covers

the

settled

of

the

country and

is

sufficient

to contain the
cities,

whole population.

Reuben

is

credited with thirteen

whose names are


as

given, and with a group without


"all the cities

names but described

of the plain" (Josh. 13, 17-21).


cities

Gad has four


Gilead" (Josh.

named,

plus "all

the

cities

of

13, 30.

31).
cities

Judah has one hundred and twelve


villages

and

their

(Josh.

15,

21-62).
18,

Benjamin has twenty-six (Josh.


Zebulun twelve (Josh.
Fssachar sixteen
(Josh.
19,
19,

12-28).

15).

22). 30).
38).

Adier twenty-two (Josh.


Naphtali nineteen
(Josh.
19,

19,
19,

Dan eighteen (Josh.

41-47).

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER

27
to

The number awarded


Ephraim
is

to

Western Manasseh and

not stated, but even without them and without

the groups

whose numbers are not


cities,

given, there are


its

more

than three hundred


its

each having

dependencies and
walls,

outliers.

"These

cities
3,

were fenced with high


5;
1,

gates and bars"

(Deut.

28).

In time the idea of the state as "cities" was expressed

even more significantly by the word sha'ar, which from

meaning the gate of a


court which

fortified city,

came

to

signify the

was held

at the gate, then the city itself,

and

finally all the

dwelling places
5,

of
6,

the
11,

people
20;
12,

everywhere
15. 17.

(Exod.
14,

20,

10; Deut.

14;

9;

18;

27;

15, 7; 16, 5. 11; 31,

12).

Indeed, so extended had

become the idea attached

to the

word

that

it

was applied

even to an encampment composed only of tents (Exod. 32,


26.

27).

The
assumed,

existence

of

these

pre-Israelite

city-states,

and

their persistence
it

under the Hebrews as

city-districts being

becomes important

to ascertain

what were

their

powers, their practical jurisdiction, before the conquest and


after the conquest.

From

pre-Hebraic

times

we

have

two

examples,

Shechem and Gibeon.


Ebal and Gerizim.

Shechem

lies in

the valley between

It is

to-day the sacred city of the Sa-

maritan sectaries, the seat of the government of the province,

and the connecting-link of the telegraphic systems of


Its history

the east and west of Jordan.

extends back into


visited
it,

remote antiquity.
Israel chose
it

Abraham and Jacob

and

all

for the inaugural service on taking possession

of the Promised Land.

Gibeon, too, has

its

story.

It

was

the

first

of

the
to

Palestinian cities to see that the countrv

was doomed

28

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


to its

succumb

Hebrew

invaders.
in
J

It

possessed

an

early

Hebrew temple

(bct-clohim),

which adherents of the


;

native religion agreed to serve

hvh and
its

it

gave the

final

touch to the tragedy of Saul's career by

insistence
priests,

on the

law

of

blood-guilt
in.

for

Nob's

murdered

which

culminated
21,

the

gruesome tenderness of Rizpah (II Sam.

i-ii).

Shechem, the Hivite, the son of the nasi of the


state of

city-

Shechem, loved Jacob's daughter Dinah and began

to treat with her people, the B'ne Jacob, in order to arrange

a marriage.

The

narrative indicates that up to that time

there

was no

right of

connubium between the two contractboth parties, was

ing powers.

Such a

right, general to

now

proposed by Hamor, the nasi of the Hivites, coupled with


the privilege
of settling the country, dwelling and trading

therein, acquiring lands

and ultimately becoming one with


insisted

the natives.
ble terms, to

The B'ne Jacob


this point
it is

on certain indispensa-

which the nasi and

his son

were willing

to

agree.

At

seen that the nasi and his son had

not the power to bind their people without obtaining the

consent of the council.

Hamor and Shechem


The
latter

duly proposed the treaty at

''the

gate of their city," to the council there met, the anshc ha-'ir.

accepted the terms and the part to be performed

by the Shechemites was duly carried out.


ever, failed

The

treaty,

how-

on account of the vengeful wrath of Simeon


34, 8-27).

and Levi (Gen.

The second example


<>\

of

inter-national action by one


is

the pre-Hebraic citv-states

the case of Gibeon.


t

In

Joshua's plan of campaign this place was marked out for


early
attack.
Its

capture would have had an enormous


It

effect in depressing the spirit of the natives.

was the

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS


capital
city

SULZBERGER
district,

2<j

of an exceptionally important
cities,

which

included three other


fields

besides the towns, villages, and

dependent on and appurtenant to each of them.


;

The
and

king of the district had his royal court there


'ir-melukah.
ability.

it

was an

Its

magnates showed

their

vigilance

When

they saw that the resistance of Jericho and


futile

Ai were merely

and that Joshua had

relentlessly

pun-

ished those unfortunates, they determined that peace at any


price

was

the wise policy.

The
fashion,

report (Josh.
T

9,

3-27)

tells,

in excellent narrative

how the emissaries of

the zekenim of Gibeon dis-

guised themselves so as to appear to have come from a far


country,

how

they entered Joshua's

camp

at

Gilgal,

how

they declared that they had heard of the wonderful exodus

from Egypt and of the great


and

victories of Israel over Sihon

Og

in

Eastern Palestine

(carefully

concealing
their

their

knowledge of Joshua's

late victories),

and how
a

magtheir

nates {zekenim and yoshebim)

(not

word about

melek) had urged that an alliance with the Hebrews was a


desirable

and necessary

thing.
tales,

Captivated by these flattering


councillors

Joshua and

his

omitted to

consult the

oracle,

allowed them-

selves to be tricked into a treaty of alliance,

and

ratified

it

by the oaths of the nesi'im of the


of the Privy Council of Israel).

edah (the twelve princes

A
and

few

clays later the truth

leaked out.

The worn-out
Gibeon

and weary wanderers lived close by,


its

in the cities of

dependencies,

Kephirah,
host

Beeroth,

and

Kiriathat

jearim.

The conquering The


at

was naturally indignant

the deceit.

general assembly of Israel (kol ha-'edah)


of the terms accorded, but the

murmured

the lenity

nesi'im had ratified the treaty,

had given

their

word.

Per-

30

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


it

sonal and national honor required that


fully carried out.

should be faith-

The
the
9,

incident of Gibeon left an abiding impression on


the

mind of

Hebrew

people.

The

old narrative (Josh.

23-27) records that Joshua, while adhering strictly to the

terms of the treaty, found a means of punishing the Gibeonite

magnates who had tricked him into


to

it.

He

sentenced

them

become hewers of wood and drawers of water for

the bct-clohim.

They were glad


to

that things

were no worse,

and the story ends by

telling that they at

once took up their


this day."

work which they continue

perform "even unto


its is

The

city,

however,

retained
It

importance
probable

in

the

subsequent

history of
fleeing

Israel.

that

Nob,
either

where David,
one of the
the

from Saul, was succored, was

cities

of the city-state of Gibeon, or perhaps was

name
was

of the priests' quarter of the city itself (I Sam.

21, 1-9), just as the quarter of Jerusalem in

which Huldah

lived
22,

called
1,

by

its

14; Zeph.

10).

own name, the Mishneh (II Kings The dreadful cruelty of Saul in
Indeed,
it is

slaughtering the priests for their innocent aid to David (I

Sam.

22, 9-23)

was long remembered.

record-

ed that in David's reign

Jhvh

visited Israel with a famine,


for,

because this blood-guilt had been in no wise atoned

and

that in order to regain Divine favor, the Gibeonites

were

besought to accept compensation or wergild (kopher) for


their
offer,

murdered kinsmen, that they disdainfully spurned

this

but finally consented to accept the death of seven sons

of Saul in satisfaction of the whole blood-guilt (II Sam.


2T,

I-IO).

In the time of place)


feast

Solomon

it

was

the great

bamah (high
sacrificial

whither Solomon went to make a great


in

and where he had the dream

which, asked by

Jhvh

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER
to

3
(I

what he wanted, he prayed for wisdom


Kings
3,

do justice

4-15).
story

The
ness

was

finally amplified

and embellished.

The

sacrosanct ohel mo'ed which

Moses had made


set

in the wilder-

was supposed

to

have been

up

at

Gibeon

(I

Chron.
History

16, 39).

Of

course the legend was mere poetry.

establishes that the ohel


19,

mo'ed was

at

Shiloh (Josh.

18,

1.

8;

51; 22, 12; Judges 21, 19).

These two instances


highest national

in

which

city-states exercised the

functions,

namely

dealing

with

foreign

powers, are both pre-Israelite.

The absence

of such ex-

amples

in

Hebrew

times

is

persuasive evidence of the firm-

ness with which the national idea had taken root.

re-

markable feature
is

in

both cases

is

that the dominant

power

ascribed to the council.

The king
;

or chief in the one

case can do nothing by himself

in the other case

he

is

not
pre-

even

mentioned.

That

this

accurately

represents

Israelite conditions is highly improbable.

The abundance
in

of kinglets to which
against
it.

we have

before alluded, speaks loudly


is

Moreover, there
this

hint

the

story

of

Abimelech with relation to

same

city-state of

Shechem,

which gives weight to the theory that the king had great
power.
great

Gideon, the chief of the clan of Abiezer, and the


of Manasseh, died leaving seventy sons by his

man

wives, and one son (Abimelech) by a Shechemite concubine.

In the natural order of events a legitimate son would have

succeeded to the chieftainship, under whose sway stood,

among
before

others, the ancient city-state of

Shechem.

That

its

great families should recall with regret the good old times
the

Hebrew
was but

conquest,

when

the

city-state

of

Shechem was an independent


was the
capital,

sovereignty, of which the city

natural.

Now

they owed allegiance

32
to

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


the

overlord,

Manasseh's

chief,

whose

capital

was

at

Ophrah.

With

the instincts of an able

demagogue, Abimelech
discontent

intrigued to fan

the

flame

of

Shechemite

by

comparing the present tributary condition with the former


independence.

His chief assault was directed against the

leading feature of
seventy.

Hebrew
it

polity,

the

great

council

of

He made
ba'alc

clear to the municipal council (anshe

Shechem,

Shcchem)

that

any of the legitimate heirs


institution,
in his

of Gideon would be

faithful

to this

and

his

spokesman summed up the argument


question:

favor by the

Do you

prefer to be ruled over by seventy or by


its

one?

It

turned the tide; Shechem revolted, and


9,

mag-

nates enthroned Abimelech as king (Judges

1-6).

One cannot

read this story without suspecting that the

accounts of pre-Israelite councils at Shechem and at Gibeon


are deficient in not attributing to the kings of those states
the

power which was


is

theirs

under the ancient Constitutions.


at.

Nor

the omission to be

wondered

When

the accounts

were written, these numerous independent


long disappeared and been forgotten.

little

kings had
too, that

We

know,

the knowledge of the early writers concerning the remote

past

was

defective.

You

will recall the fact that at least

one

of the ancient scribes naively believed that before the institution of the

Kingdom

there
:

w as no law
r

at

all.

To

use his

own
own

quaintly simple words

"In those days there was no

king in Israel; every

man

did that which

was

right in his

eyes" (Judges 17, 6; 21, 25).

Before leaving

this subject of international dealings


it

by

pre-Israelite city-states,

may, for the sake of completebetween the B'ne-

ness, be well to allude to the negotiations


1

feth

and Abraham.

It is

true that the narrative appears to

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS


concern a larger nation than
that the council
Jia-'ir,
is is

SULZBERGER

33

included in a city-state, and

not called zckenim nor bc'alim, nor anshe


ha-'ir,

nor sikne

but has the larger


council.

title

of 'am

lia-

arcs,

which designates a national

On

the other
in

hand,

we know

that the great Hittite empire


it

was

the

north, and that the section of

with which

Abraham
in
it

dealt

must have been


and
in

relatively small.
this

Hebron was
there

the capital,
the

connection with

place

survives

records one reminiscent note which seems to place


parity with Gibeon, which, as

on a

we have

seen,

was

a larger

city-state than ordinary, was, in fact, a league of cities.

When
the

David believed that

his time

had come

to obtain

chieftainship of Judah,

he consulted the oracle, was


to

affirmed in his belief and

was directed

go to Hebron.
in the

He, together with


'-'cities''

all

his train,

went up and dwelt


1-3).

of

Hebron

(II

Sam.

2,

This passage would


for long the capital

seem

to indicate that

Hebron had been


and

of a larger city-state, composed of a league of cities with


their appurtenant towns, villages,
fields.

When

Sarah died

at

Hebron, Abraham desired to obown.


It

tain a burying-place of his

would seem,

that ac-

cording to the customary law, an alien

(ger zcc-toshab)

could not acquire an indefeasible permanent estate in land.

He

therefore applied to the council

for the grant

of an

exceptional privilege, enabling


pose.

him

to

accomplish his pur-

He

was recognized as an important power: "Thou

art a nest elohim (a prince of

God)

in

our midst."

Every

one was willing to tender a burial-place for Sarah's body.

But

this

was not what Abraham wished.


estate

He wanted
council

permanent

(ahuzzah)

and

this

the

finally

accorded to him.

34

T HE

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


in public session of the council,

The proceedings were


ceremonious.

were presided over by Ephron, and were highly

polite

and

Abraham urged

his

request,

the

President

answered, the matter was agreed on, and the treaty was
solemnly consummated in the presence of the whole council

(Gen. 23, 3-20).

Whether
district-states,

this

Hittite

example

relates to

one of these

may remain

doubtful, but the other instances

that have been given are sufficient to

show the sovereign

character of these city-states, and to point out what radical

changes were necessary,


national federal republic.

if

they were ever to constitute a

An

early example of the process


It

is

given us in the

case of the city-state of Ophrah.

had

fallen to the share

of Manasseh, and the ruling clan of that tribe, Abiezer,

was seated
clan.

there.

The

chief

was Joash, the head of the


little

From

time immemorial the

state

had had

its

Baal-altar with the

Asherah pertaining

to

through a nabi or mal'ak Jhvh, that the

Word came worship of Jhvh


it.

must now be
cast

substituted.

To

that end

it

was necessary

to

down

the Baal altar, cut

down

the Asherah, and build

an

altar to

Jhvh

on the height called Rosh ha-ma'oz.


Joash

The

chieftain
all

had carried out the policy of


Baal
still

conciliation

too well.

reigned

supreme

in

Ophrah and Joash lacked


strengthen the cause of the

either the will or the

force to
religion.

Hebrew
his

nation and

its

The
ceived

task of

making good

delinquencies

was imre-

posed on his son Gideon.


it

When
those

the message

came he

with the usual profession of modesty which Heattribute to


is

brew writers
eleph

born to
I

greatness:

"My
in

(clan)

lowly in Manasseh and

am

the

pigmy

my

bct-ab ;" just as Saul,

when apprised

of his selection as

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER
not

35

King of
smallest

Israel, protested:

"Am

not
is

a Benjamite, of the

of

Israel's

tribes?
all

and

my
3,

clan

(tnisli-

pahah) the puniest of


9,

the clans of that tribe?" (I

Sam.

21).

To Moses

in the early age

(Exod.
1,

11; 4, 10),

and to Jeremiah

in the later times (Jer.

6), similar

mod-

est declaimers are credited.

Gideon's scruples were, howaccepted


the

ever,

overcome,
that he

and

he

perilous

post.

Knowing

would place himself


chief

in opposition to the

authorities,

whose

was

his

own

father, he determined

to initiate the revolution at night.

With
altar,

the help of ten


cut

trusty men, he cast

down

the Baal

down

the

Asherah, and burned the wood thereof in offering an 'olah

upon the Jhvh


In the

altar

which he
city

built.

morning the

was

in

commotion.

The
some

anshe ha-'ir promptly viewed the situation, and the question


ran
:

Who

is

guilty

Doubtless the

oracle

was

in

form

consulted

(wayebakeshu)
:

and the

judgment

was
this

pronounced (zvayomru)
deed.

Gideon ben Joash has done

The anshe ha-ir demanded


his son for execution.

of Joash that he surrender

This

was

in

strict

conformity with the law of the


its

ancient city-state, which gave

authorities the

power

to

vindicate the religion of the state.


in the records in

This old law survives


It is

Deut. 21, 18-21.

the law

commonly
which pro-

called that of the stubborn

and

rebellious son,

vides that the delinquent's parents shall bring

him

to the

sikne ha-ir at the gate (v. 19), and


ha-'ir, v.

that the latter

(anshe

21) shall stone him.


this

The

details of the

examinare-

tion of

interesting

and little-understood law are

served for further consideration,

when we come

to review

36

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


still

the remnants of the sikne ha-'ir code

preserved in the

Pentateuch.
In Gideon's case there
this

was an additional reason

for

demand upon

his father Joash.

The

latter

was not a

mere member of the

council, but

its

chief.

In no other

way can
strued.

certain expressions of the text be properly conIt is

Joash

who

is

custodian of Baal's altar;


sacrifice
is

it

is

from

his cattle that the

Jhvh
altar

culled

it

is
is

his
in

opposition to the

Jhvh

that

is

feared,

and

it

subordination to him that the other


ha-'ir stand

members of

the anshe
ha-' am
'al

(act or serve)

{'amdu 'alaw), just as

stood

in

the

court

of

Moses

{way a' am od

ha-' am

Mosheh) (Exod.

18, 13), as

Eglon's court councillors stood


3,

with him (kol ha-'omdim 'alaw) (Judges


angels in the court of
left

19),

and as the
right

Heaven stood
22, 19).

to

Jhvh's

and

('omcd 'alaw) (I Kings

Joash met his fellow councillors with a


tion of their action.

flat

denuncia-

This, he said,

is

a contest between

gods.
will

Baal has been worsted.

He

could not save himself,

your aid save him?


will

Beware, the mighty power that

overthrew Baal
death,
do.

punish your puny efforts with instant

and

will save

my

son from any

harm

that Baal can

The
with
the

council acquiesced and Gideon


epithet

became the

chief

of

Jerub-baal attached to his name, in

memory
8.

of his victory over the deposed god

(Judges

6,

11.

24-32).
see here the nation in the making.
It

We
city-state
cil,

adopts the

without
in

its

king, but gives the

power

to the coun-

which

this

instance assumes to act as the highest

ecclesiastical authority, doubtless in strict


Israelite practice.

accord with pre-

Every autonomous

district

had

its

own

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS


king and
its

SULZBERGER
jurisdiction,

2)7

own

god, and the sovereign authority was not

differentiated into military

and

civil

nor subfunction.

divided

into

legislative,

executive,

and and

judicial
its

The genius

of the people

was

local

outlook narrow.

There were then, as now,

ambitious

souls

dreaming of

world-conquest, but they lived in Egypt and by the Euphrates

and not

in

Palestine.

The entrance

of the

Hebrews
and
with

into the country brought a rush of


religious.

new

ideas, political

Palestine

was

to

become one great

state

one only God.

Local sovereignties and religions were to be


fused with institutions embodying

extirpated, or at least

these loftier conceptions.

We
spirit

have seen in the case of Gideon


its

how
is

this national

made

way

in

one quarter.

There

no reason

to

doubt that the movement throughout the whole country was

conducted on similar

lines.

The presence and


all

vigor of a

national supervising body being granted,


ally

the rest natur-

follows.

Indeed,

it is

Gideon himself

who

energetically promotes

the further progress of nationalization.

As

this

phase

of

his

career

brings

out

clearly the

functions of the zikne ha-ir of two cities east of Jordan in

Hebrew

times,

further description

thereof

may conven-

iently be reserved for the next lecture.

Ill

Gideon, the champion of Jhvh, was the chief

man

in

Manasseh.

He

had attained a recognized position by his

brave advocacy of Hebrew nationalism against the conservative pagan party, but the success of the cause
yet doubtful.

was

as

38

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

An
was

event occurred which put the matter to the proof.


the

The Bedouins overran


to be saved

country,

and

if

anything

from these maurauders prompt action was


Gideon aroused
his

imperatively

needed.

Abiezer clan.

With

three hundred picked men,

shouting their way-cry,

"The sword of Jhvh and of


and hotly pursued them.

Gideon,"

he

attacked

and

routed the invaders, drove the

survivors across Jordan,

When

he reached the

city

of

Succoth, in Gilead. his supplies failed.


council

He

applied to the

(aushc Succoth) for bread for his soldiers, as he


the

was pursuing

Bedouin kings and hoped to capture them.


fail,

The
and

sarc Succoth, however, reckoned that he might


in that case

they would have to suffer the vengeance

of the Bedouins.

Their reply, indicating the probability of

such an event, irritated the fiery chieftain.


with the ominous parting message:
livered
flesh

He When Jhvh
I

retorted

hath de-

Zebah and Zalmuna

into

my

hand,

will treat

your

with mid bar-thorns and with briers.

Abating nothing
Penuel and there

of the pursuit, he

reached

the

city of

made
like

his application

for relief.
a

those of Succoth, gave him

The anshe Penuel, timid The infuriflat refusal.


them after he should

ated

Gideon threatened to

revisit

have triumphed, and to break down their tower (migdal).

Gideon overtook the


victory,

fleeing

enemy, won a complete


its

overthrew the retreating army, and captured

kings.
(

)n

his return

march he punished the

cities

which had

treated

him so
in

coldly and unpatriotically.

Having picked
was a
clerk

Up

man

the neighborhood of the city of Succoth, he


l>v

ascertained,

questioning, that his prisoner

(na'ar) of the city council (anshe Succoth).

Whereupon,

he compelled him to write a

roll

or

list

of the sarim and

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER

39

sekenim of Succoth.

There were seventy-seven

in all (per-

haps seventy zckcnim and seven sarim).

Thus prepared, he entered


ing with

the city in triumph, carry-

him the captive


you thought

kings.

Then he compelled
them thus
:

the

council to meet and addressed

Here are the

kings

whom

could not capture.

You

are

entitled to the

promised reward
the sikne ha-'ir and thrashed them

Whereupon he took

soundly with midbar-thoms and with briers.

Penuel fared even worse.

He

broke down

its

tower

and slew the members of


7, 7.

its

council (anshe ha-'ir) (Judges

22;

8,

4-17).

These two incidents give us a vivid picture of the times.


Succoth and Penuel, two
cities

of eastern

Palestine,

are
re-

governed by zekenim and their

officials

(sarim).

They

gard alone the interests of their narrow communities.

The
their

harrying of Manasseh and other districts west of Jordan


does
not
disturb
to

them.

If

the

Bedouins

confine

marauding

western

districts,

they will remain neutral.


not
affected

The

national

consciousness

has

them.

In

Gideon, however, they met the


pressive lessons.

man who

could give im-

Of

all

the

chieftains

called

Judges

(shophetitn)
to

Gideon appears to have been the most forceful, and

have

given the earliest and greatest impulsion to the unification

and nationalization of
described, the records

Israel.

Besides his actions already

aver that he

succeeded in

getting

partisans out of Naphtali, Asher, and

Ephraim

to act with

Manasseh
battle-cry

in

war (Judges

7. 23.

24), and the fact that his

survived,

indicates

how deep an

impression of

him was stamped on the popular mind.

40

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


It is plainly

erroneous to see in these military leaders

the peaceful magistrates


times.
all

known by
of Israel

the

same name
the

in later

The experience

was

same

as that of

other peoples whose rise depended on the success of

The great soldiers wielded the whole power of the state, and when more peaceful times came and the balance of power swung to the civil side, the names of the
their arms.
offices

which had become important

in

the

eyes of

the

people,

were transferred to purely

civil

offices,

with radi-

cally different functions.

Thus

it is

that the melck, shophet,

dayan, mehokek, and sophcr, who, were, of old, military


officers,
civil.

came

to designate officials

whose

duties were mainly

Ha- am, which was

anciently the

army
fifty)

(that

is,

all

males between the ages of twenty and

became the

whole body of the people.


shophetim
is

And

of the process the In

word

perhaps the most striking instance.

Num-

bers (ch. 25)


affiliation
to, in

we have

the record of Israel's

unwholesome

with Moab.

Drastic measures had to be resorted

order to cure the mischief.


all

Moses was expressly en-

joined by Jhvh, to take

the chieftains (rashe ha-'arn)

and hang them, whereupon he ordered the shophetim to


slay each

one such of his

men

as

had accepted Baal Peor.

This was an order merely military to the Provost-marshals


of the

army,

whose duty

it

was

to

execute

the

culprits

CXumb.

25, 1-5).

When

the contest had progressed and the


it

people were fighting for the land, conquering

and

settling

down on
civil

it

piecemeal as they could, these shophetim as mili-

tary chiefs had forced

upon them questions


territory they

relating to the

government of the
of their office
functions
it

commanded. Thus
its

the

name
and
stage,

was preserved, while


Finally,
at

jurisdiction

were modified.

much

later

came

to designate civil judges charged with the

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER

4T

administration of justice according to law, and thus lost


military connotations.

its

The records of
from an
early stage.
last,

the shophctim book

show
first

the process

From

Othniel. the
(

of them, to

Samson, the

they were

all

so far as

we know anything
is

about them) successful warriors; even Deborah


cepted, since she stirred

not ex-

up the great war against Sisera


in
it.

and took a personal part

It

is

only with Eli and

Samuel
first

that the atmosphere changes.


is

encounter him,

a priest,

The former, when we grown old in the service

of the Shiloh temple, while the latter begins as his acolyte.

War, instead of being

the normal condition, has degenerated


it is

into an incident, not unusual


ally

true, but also not

abnorm-

frequent.

The

ecclesiastical

jurisdiction has

become

firmly fixed,

and men are questioning and

criticizing its ad-

ministration by particular officials as a corrupt departure

from ancient custom

(I

Sam.

2,

13-17).

All the

symptoms
and that

indicate that the nation has been practically united,

the national idea of

God and

the state have permeated everyhis city yearly to


1,

where.

Elkanah went up out of


sacrifice at Shiloh (I

worship

and to
accept

Sam.

3), and we may freely


all

him

as a type.

Substantial farmers from


2.

sections
Israel

of the country did the same (I Sam.

14).

"And
20V

all

from Dan even

to

Beersheba knew that Samuel was estab-

lished to be a prophet of
\\ nile
it

Jhyh"

(I

Sam.

3.

is

true that

we cannnot we may
The

trace the progress of

nationalization before Eli,

be sure that Gideon's

part in
tional

it

was not

small.

tradition survived that a naisJi

assembly of Israel (kol

Israel)

offered

him

the

royal crown, with the right of succession in his descendants

(Judges

8,

22), and that he

made

his home-city

Ophrah

the

virtual or actual capital of Israel (Judges 8. 27).

42

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


There
is

another chief, Jephthah,


12, 7).

been shophet of Israel (Judges


side of his

who is said to have Of his activity outor nothing.


the

own

Gilead,

we know

little

His
trans-

story

merely emphasizes the separateness of

Jordanic Hebrews, which incensed Gideon and which was


pithily depicted in the

song of Deborah: "Reuben abode


Gilead

among
(Judges

his
5,

sheepfolds.
16. 17).

abode

beyond Jordan"

The blame

for this condition


alone.

must not

attach to the Eastern

Hebrew

When
it

Gilead was

threatened,
12, 2),

it

applied for help to


bitter

Ephraim

in vain

(Judges

and so

was the

feeling that

led to

war

be-

tween Ephraim and Gilead (Judges


Jephthah's career
of
view.
is

12, 4-6).

interesting,

however, for our point


"cities" of

He
cities.

is

the

rosh

and kasin of the

Gilead. and he

became so by the independent action of that

league of

The

narrative
a

is

full

and complete.
in

The B'ne-Ammon,
Gilead.

non-Hebrew people dwelling

Eastern Palestine, suddenly put an

army

in

motion against

The

case

was desperate and the zekenim of Gilead


Jephthah as a
desirable
leader.

bethought themselves of

He, a native of the land, the son of a princely father, had


been exiled
at the instance of his brethren,

who

claimed the

superior rights of legitimacy.


in

He had

taken up his abode

the land of Tob, whither traveled a delegation of the

zekenim of Gilead to fetch him home.

They

said to

him:

Come home and we


I

will

make you the head of the army.


hostilfirst

Te

made

difficulties,

reminded them of their former


their offer,

ity.
all

They increased

would make him

of

the lords of the land

(rosh lekol yoshbe Gilead).

He

demanded an oath
after the victory.
1

that they

would not forget the promise


it

They

took

by the solemn formula:

11

if

be the witness (shome'a) between us!

Whereupon

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER

43

he accompanied them and was made rosh and kasin, the


duties of which offices he formally
at

assumed liphne Jiivh

Mizpeh.

We

have here an instance

in

Hebrew

times of a city-

state exercising, apparently

without limitation or restraint,


it

as complete

powers of sovereignty as
It
is

would have en-

joyed in pre-Israelite days.

threatened by a foreign
the record has

power, which ''made war against


it

Israel,'' as

(Judges
except

11,

4).

No

part of Israel, however, seems to


Gilead,

act

the

zekenim of

who

send
to

to

fetch

Jephthah home from


their chief

his exile,

and promise

make him

(rosh).

He

enters into a solemn bargain with


in consequence,

them liphne Jhvh, and,


in the

assumes command

manner of a king owing


for aid to
is

allegiance to nobody.

He

applies

Ephraim

as a friendly though

foreign

power,

refused on the ground that he does not acknowlit,

edge allegiance to
ites

the claim being

made

that the Gilead12,

were Ephraimite fugitives (Judges

4).

He

re-

sents the claim,

wages war against Ephraim, and demonby showing that no Ephraima

strates the latter's foreignness


ite

could

pronounce a shin as
12,

true

Gileadite

would

(Judges

6).

In short,
state

we have

here a picture of a pre-Israelite city-

with

its

king; the only difference being that the king

has another

title

and that Jhvh

is

acknowledged as God.
feeling must, however,

These concessions
not be overrated.

to national

They show

that the federal unity, though

not established, had

made

a start.

Even then

the influence

of Shiloh must have been at work.


tion ran that
it

Indeed, the old tradi-

was from Shiloh


its

that Gilead

had started

to
all

take possession of

country (Josh. 22, 9), and when

44
[srael

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


declared

war against Benjamin, Gilead


its cities

sent

its

con-

tingent (Judges 20, i), only one of

holding aloof.

There

is

another and later example of the exercise of

sovereign power by one of the cities east of Jordan.


city

That

was Jabesh-Gilead (Judges

21, 9).

When
it

the Federal
city that

council

declared war against Benjamin,


its

was the

refused to send
cities

quota to the army, though the other


so.

of Gilead did

The

result of the

war was

the
its

almost complete ruin of Benjamin; only six hundred of

young braves survived


council,

(Judges

20,

47).

The Federal
about for

dismayed

at the extinction of a tribe, cast


it.

method of
their
to find

rehabilitating

They had

all

sworn not to

give

daughters to

Benjamites.

The only resource


oath.

was

women

of Israel

whose fathers had kept aloof

from the Federal army and from the


it

On

roll-call

was found

that there

was no one present from Jabeshwas summarily convicted of


was decreed.

Gilead.

The

disaffected city

high treason to the Federal cause and the total destruction


of
its

inhabitants other than

young

virgins

An

expedition was immediately fitted out, the city was taken,

and

its

inhabitants were killed, save four hundred

young

virgins

who were

given to Benjamites for wives.


in

Another narrative (found


the true

Samuel) gives a clue to

meaning of

this incident.

The

tradition evidently
alli-

ran

in

Israel that

Jabesh had maintained a relation of


its

ance with the .Ammonites and that this caused


join the

refusal to

body of

Israel.
it,

After the war of the tribes against


of Jabesh

the revived city

was incorporated
I

into the

Federal Union.
11

So

only does the narrative in


It

Samuel

become

intelligible.

1-

there related that

Nahash

(the king of the

Ammonites)
it

encamped against Jabesh-Gilead, evidently because

had

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS


fallen off,

SULZBERGER
promptly offered

45
to

and that the

anslic Jabcsli

renew

their allegiance.

This he arrogantly refused, unless

they would submit to have their right eyes thrust out as a

reproach

and defiance

to

united

Israel.

The

vindictive

nature of this
the

demand must be

ascribed to the transfer by

same

city council of the city's allegiance

from

Ammon

to Israel,

for

which desertion signal punishment was nezikne Jabesh

cessary.

The

demanded

a respite of seven

days to communicate this defiance to Israel and to receive


help from
it.

This Nahash magnanimously granted.

The
|

zikne Jabesh sent messengers to the council of Gibeah,

(kol ha-' am

who broke
from

into

weeping

at the tidings.

When

Saul, returned

his day's business in the field, learned

the cause of the confusion, he promptly called for Federal

troops to aid- the distressed return

city,

and bade the messengers

home with

the assurance that help

was

at

hand.

The

anshe Jabesh received the news with enthusiasm.


time Saul arrived and defeated the Ammonites.
victory silenced
all

In due

His signal

opposition as well to the Federal union

as to his Kingship,

and

his

enthronement

in the

Western
East-

kingdom was now

affirmed and

celebrated in the

Jordanic territory at Gilgal, an event which greatly rejoiced

Samuel and the Federal Council {kol


11,

anslie Israel)

(I

Sam.

I-I5).

The value

of the narrative

is

in its indication that the

Jordan marked as well the

political as the physical separate-

ness of the East and West.

When

stubborn old Jabesh


all

was

at last

convinced that a Federal union of


the

Israel
it

was

inevitable,

work was

finished.

Even then

did not

accept the western king as the legal head of the state until

he had been crowned

in the East.

46

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


The examples
of Succoth, of Penuel, of Gilead

show

that as regards political


that lay to the East of

power the

early

Hebrew

city-states
it

Jordan seem to have exercised

without restraint or control.

The

instance of

Ophrah shows

that the

same was true

of the Western city-states' ecclesiastical power.

Even
of
it

so late as the time of

Samuel we
of

find

remnants

in the

West.

When

the

Ark
at

Jhvh was
it

cast adrift

by the Philistines and landed

Beth-Shemesh, the anshe

Bet-shemesh assumed
'olot

official

control over
15),

and offered
its

and sehahim

(I

Sam.

6,

and when

presence

brought calamity, the anshe Bet-shemesh sent messengers to


Kiriath-jearim, to induce that city to take charge of the

holy
a

relic.

The
to

latter fetched

it

and

sanctified (kiddeshu)

young man

guard

it.

And

to the last, after the federal

union had been established for ages, and the ecclesiastical

power had become

nationalized,

the priest-cities

retained

the ecclesiastical powers of the old city-states.


learn

This

we

from the action of the Anathoth council against


Anathoth was a
priest-city at least as early as

Jeremiah.

the time of Solomon.

When
2,

Abiathar

fell

from the

latter's

favor, he was ordered to go into retirement on his estate


at

Anathoth

(I

Kings

26).
it

Jeremiah belonged to

by birth (Jer. 1,1), being "of

the kohanim that were in Anathoth."

When

he began to

take his
desist,

own

course, the anshe Anathoth ordered

him
if

to

claiming the right to condemn and execute him


11,

he

disobeyed (Jer.

21).

One
ereignty

other important survival of the old city-state sov-

was the importance

in the public life of the state

of the capital cities of the

two kingdoms.
with

Jeremiah, than
conditions,

whom

none was more

familiar

political

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS


addresses the state as

SUI,ZBERGEK
25;
7,

47

"men

(ish) of
4,

Judah and inhabitants


17,
17.

(yoshbe) of Jerusalem" (Jer.


etc.,

4:

34;

8,

1.

etc.),

always mentioning the capital


it

city in a

manner

indicating that

possessed and exercised special powers.


is

A
destroy

similar

phenomenon
Jehu had
of

observable in the Northern

Kingdom.
he

When

killed

Ahab and was about


root

to

the

scions

that

house,

and

branch,

mockingly
to

dared

the

sarim
of

and
sons

zekenim
(II

of

Jezreel
10.

enthrone
a

one
jest,

Ahab's

Kings
the

1-3),

sorry

indicating,

however,

that

council of that city had special political powers not shared

by the other

cities

of the kingdom.
she intrigued to put Xaboth on
trial

So

Jezebel,

when

for blasphemy

and lese-majesty, gave the directions

to the

zekenim and the sarim of Jezreel, fellow-councillors with

Xaboth
had

(I

Kings

21, 8), to

convoke the high court of the

nation, the rosli ha-

am

(21, 12), in

which they must have

a specially influential position.

That these
functions was a
strangers

city-councils exercised ordinary municipal

matter of

course.

When

distinguished

came

to the city, the council received

and enter-

tained them.

Samuel, for instance, visited Bethlehem for an important purpose, which


ha-'ir cordially

was not

publicly

known.
(I

The zikne
16, 4).
It

met and welcomed him

Sam.

may

be well to note here that the Authorized Version which


at

makes the zekenim tremble


a misunderstanding of the

Samuel's coming
i

is

based on
besides

word wayeher4u which

trembling means also being extremely hospitable.


Elisha.
in

Thus
of
the

acknowledging the anxious

hospitality
4,

great lady of

Shunem,

calls

it

haradah (II Kings

13).

48

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

When King
the anshe ha-'ir,

Josiah visited Bethel he was attended by

who promptly gave him


anshe
2,

the information

he was seeking (II Kings 23, 17).


supply of Jericho was defective,
Elisha to improve
its th'e

And when
19).

the water

ha-'ir requested

quality (II Kings

Besides their political,

ecclesiastical,

and

municipal

functions, the sikne ha-'ir exercised general judicial powers.

They

tried

murder

cases,

and

if

the murderer fled to a city obtain his extradition


to

of refuge, they could

demand and

for the purpose of handing

him over
If

the

executioner

{god

Jia-dam) (Deut.

19,

12).

the murderer could not

be discovered they washed the

city's

hands of "innocent

blood" by a ceremony and a


the blood-guilt which
city.

sacrifice,

and thus removed


to the

would otherwise have attached


of
the
victim,

If

the

murderer
in a field,

whose
it

dead

body was found

could not be discovered,


it

was

the duty of the sikne ha-'ir to see to

that the blood-guilt

should not be fastened on their

own

city, unless,
it

by careful

measurement,

it

should be ascertained that

was nearer

than any other city to the place where the body lay (Deut.
21,

1-9).

The sikne

ha-'ir also

had jurisdiction

in certain delicate

matrimonial questions involving not only amercements and


other penalties, but extending also to capital punishment

(Deut. 22,
Indeed,

13-21
it

).

is

probable that the twenty-first and twenty-

second chapters of

Deuteronomy were compiled from


ha-'ir,

code defining the powers of the zikne

and that certain

provisions contained in those chapters were part of such


code, although the ziknc ha-'ir are not mentioned in con-

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS


nection with them.

SULZBERGER
(Deut.
22,

49

Such

is

particularly the direction to

build battlements for the roofs of

houses

9).

The
22,

distinction

between a criminal act perpetrated within

the city, and a similar act perpetrated in the field (Deut.

23-27)

may

also be derived

from that code.


to

The evidence seems


combined the
full judicial

sufficient

warrant the conclu-

sion that these councils (the anslie ha-'xr, the zikne Jia-'ir)

power with
justice

their other functions,

and that the administration of


special
class

was not confided

to a

of experts learned in the law until a

much

later period.

When

this

change came about


it

is

matter for
perfectly

future
plain.

investigation.

That

had

to

come

is

The country was composed


cantons, called "cities."

of

large

number of

The aim was

to create a nation.

clash

between the "cantonal" view and the "federal"


It resulted at first in

view was inevitable.


bring the cantonal

the endeavor to
positions

bodies

to

take

national

on

questions coming before them by sending a federal expert

or experts to advise them or to


the establishment of the

sit

with them, and

finally, in

federal courts, which

should in

certain federal questions be supreme.

There
nevertheless

are

certain

passages,

obscure

it

is

true, but

significant,

which warrant these conclusions.

We

have already referred to the case of a murdered


field,

man

being found in a

and of the necessity of ascertaining


city,

which was the nearest

since

upon

it

the blood-guilt

would be fastened.

Finally the zikne ha-'ir of those cities


it

met each other for the purpose, and,


squabbles followed.
(the B'ne Levi)

is

safe to say.

Afterward we

find that the

kohanim
fol-

join them,

and the explanatory note

lowing

this

statement gives as a reason for the apparent

50
intrusion that

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

"Jhvh

thy

God

hath chosen them to minister

unto him and to bless

in the

name

of

Jhvh; and by
and
every

their

word
(nega
f

shall
)

every

controversy

{rib)

assault

be tried" (Deut. 21, 5). That these kohanim {B'ne


federal

Levi) were the delegates of the


scarcely be doubted.

government can

Concerning the establishment of a federal court and


the removal thereto of an inter-cantonal question,

we

also

have evidence.

By

the old zikne ha-'ir law,

if

murderer
city

fled the jurisdiction


its

and was admitted

to

an asylum

by

zikne ha-'ir, the zikne ha-'ir of the city where the crime
his extradition for execution

had been committed demanded


by the go'cl ha-dam (Deut.
the asylum city

19,

12).

As

his admission to

was not granted was

until his application


ha-'ir of the

had
city

been passed upon by the zikne


(Josh. 20, 4), there
that

asylum

virtually a

judgment

in his favor

the

murder was mere manslaughter.


attacked
this

for extradition necessarily

The demand judgment. The

old law (Deut. 19, 12) nevertheless required his surrender.

The

inter-cantonal controversies thus arising were there-

fore removed to the federal court.

The

zikne ha-'ir of the

asylum
the

city

were forbidden to surrender the fugitive on


of his

demand

home

city

(through the go'cl ha-dam)

(Josh. 20, 5)
jurisdiction.

and the national court, the 'cdah, acquired

"The 'edah
ha-dam."
If

shall
it

judge between the slayer

and the

go'cl

affirmed the judgment of the


it

zikne ha-'ir of the

asylum

city,

(the 'cdah) restored the

defendant to

it

Numb.

35, 24. 25; Josh. 20, 6).

There were, however, two

classes of cases over

which

the old zikne ha-'ir had jurisdiction which in importance


far

overshadowed
as the sole

all

others.

In

the

contest

to

establish

Jhvh

God

of the nation, the most dangerous

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER
men
was

crime was missionary apostasy, the misleading of


revert to the old

to

paganism.

This

crime

technically

known
ities

as sarah or dibber s-a-r-a-h,


its

and the federal author-

deemed

suppression vital to the existence of the

commonwealth.
In the endeavor
agriculturists
to

establish

state

of

prosperous

among whom

there

should
first
its

be

no extreme

poverty, the land-laws were of the

importance.

That
its

every family could have and retain

own farm and

own home was


The

the ideal of the federal statesmen.

jurisdiction of the cantonal tribunals

was unfavor-

able to the achievement of either of these purposes.

YVe have already seen

in the trial of

Gideon for over-

throwing the Baal


striving to

altar,

that the zikne ha-'ir, instead of

promote the cause of Jhvh, stood by the old pre-

Israelite cantonal

god

that they looked

upon Gideon, who

had

enlisted others in his cause, as guilty of s-a-r-a-h, the

offence being committed not against


Baal.
It

Jhvh.

but

against
the

was

also intimated that the proceedings of

zikne ha-'ir, including their

demand on Joash
in

to

produce

Gideon for execution, were by virtue of an ancient zikne


ha-'ir

law which survives

the

Pentateuch

(Deut.

21,

18-21).

The wording

is:

"If a

man have

a ben sorer u-moreh,

who

will not

obey the voice of his father, or the voice of


that,

his mother,

and

when they have chastened him,

will

not hearken unto them

"Then

shall his father

and

his

mother

lay hold on him,


city

and bring him out unto the elders of


the gate of his place.

his

and unto

And
is

they shall say unto the elders


sorer u-moreh, and he will not

of his city: This our son

obey our voice; he

is

glutton (zolel)

and a drunkard

52

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


'xro shall

(sobe), and kol anshe

stone

him with stones

that

he die."

At

first

blush there would seem to be nothing in this


it

law to justify the view that

is

leveled against apostasy.

more careful examination, however,

reveals certain facts


is

which cannot be ignored.

The

first

of them

that the law

contains inconsistent definitions of the crime.

The term

ben sorer u-morch


body.
i.

itself

was probably

intelligible to every-

Yet we have the following definitions:

Who

will

not obey the voice of his father or his

mother.
2.

The same with

this

qualification:

"After they have chastised him."


3.

He

is

a glutton
it

and a drunkard {cold zve-sobe).

Stripping

of these excrescences,

we have

the original

form
"If a
his

man have
his
city

a ben sorer u-moreh, his father and

mother
of

shall lay hold

on him and bring him out to the


kol anshe
'xro

elders

and

shall stone

him

to

death."

That the

definitions are excrescences


his parents
is

seems very

plain.

That a son should honor

mere commonplace.

Indeed, by a very ancient

Hebrew

law, insulting parents


to

was probably punished with death, "condemned


(arur) shall be he
his

death

who degrades

(or insults) his father or


it is

mother," (Deut. 27, 16).

Certain

that cursing

them

(Exod.
(Exod.

21, 17; Lev. 20, 9; Prov. 20, 20), or striking


21,

them
and

15)

were both

capital crimes.

These provisions
dignity,

were amply
one

sufficient to protect the parental

may

well be puzzled to determine

whv mere

disobedi-

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER

53

ence or eating too much, or drinking too much, should be

made
by
ever,

capital offences in a son not too old to be

whipped

his father or his

mother.

Without the

definitions,

how-

no one would translate ben sorer u-moreh, "stubborn

and rebellious son."

The

clue to the real

meaning

is

to be

found
Sorer
is

in
is

this

crime of s-a-r-a-h which


guilty of apostasy,
in

we

are considering.

one

and moreli means that he


There
is

aggressive

teaching his rebellion.

no reason for translating


its

Dior eh

otherwise than according to


Accordingly,
a

plain
is

meaning of
an apostate

"teacher."

sorer u-moreh

who

teaches apostasy.

The word "sorer"


stances (Isai. 65, 2-7
;

characterizes idolaters in
Jer. 5, 23;
1
)

many

in-

Hos.

4,

15.

16; 9, 1-15)

and

in

one passage Isaiah (30,

calls a

company of men,

rebels to true national policy,

banim sorerim.

And
as a

so moreh.
sJieker

Isaiah denounces the misleading uabi


(Isai.
9,

moreh

14).

Habakkuk

applies the

same term

to the

man who
18.

trusts in his molten images for

guidance (Hab.

2,

19),

and Proverbs declares that a

man

of Belial teaches wickedness {moreh) with his fingers


6,

(Prov.

12.

13).

Indeed, the terms sorer and moreh


gether, because the sorer
is

naturally go to-

one

who

seeks to convert others


13,

by argument.

He

speaks sarah

(dibber sarah, Deut.

6(5)).

The

nabi

Hananiah

is

doomed

to die within the year

because he had spoken sarah (Jer. 28, 16), and the same
expression
32).
is

used of Shemaiah the Xehelamite (Jer. 29,

As

to gluttons

and drunkards, no one dreams of

their

being liable to capital punishment.

The

proverbial philos-

54

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


as

ophy speaks of them much

we would

in

our day
;

The

sobe and zolcl come to poverty (Prov. 23, 20. 21)

whoso

consorts with zolelim shameth his father (Prov. 28, 7).

The meaning
its

of the law thus ascertained makes clear

application to the case of Gideon at Ophrah.


it

Gideon
his fath-

having been adjudged sorer u-morch,


er's

becomes

duty to deliver him to the anshc ha-'ir for execution.

We

need not rely on mere inference, however, for


It

this con-

clusion.

happens that the offence of teaching s-a-r-a-h


is

{dibber s-a-r-a-h)
the right to try
it

fully treated of in a later statute,

when

had been transferred


is

to a Federal court

(kol ha-' am), and this statute


a

express in demanding that

man must denounce

not only his son, but his brother, his

daughter, his wife, or his

bosom

friend, if they

have comdenunciant,

mitted this offence,

and must

also,

as

such

assist at the execution.

The words
"If there

of this remarkable law are as follows


arise

among you

nabi (prophet)

or a

dreamer of dreams, and giveth thee a sign or a wonder"


(Deut.
13, 2

(1)

).

"And

the sign or the

wonder come

to pass,

whereof

he spake unto thee, saying, Let us go after other gods,

which thou hast not known, and


3

let

us serve them"

(13,

(2)

"That nabi and dreamer of

dreams

shall be put

to

death because he hath spoken sarah (dibber sarah) against

Jhvh your God.... to thrust thee out of the way which ..." (13, 6 Jiivir thy God commanded thee to walk in
.

(5)

"If thy brother, the son of thy mother, or thy son, or

thy daughter, or the wife of thy bosom, or thy friend,

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER

55

which

is

as thine

own

soul, entice thee secretly, saying,

Let

us go and serve other gods, which thou hast not known,

thou nor thy fathers" (13, 7 (6))

"Namely, of the gods of the people which are round


about you, nigh unto thee, or far off from thee, from the

one end of the earth even unto the other end of the earth"
(13, 8

(7)

);

''Thou shalt not consent unto him, nor hearken unto

him

neither shall thine eye pity him, neither shalt thou

spare, neither shalt thou conceal

him"

(13, 9 (8)

).

"Thou

shalt
;

inform upon him that he may be tried

and executed

thine

hand

shall

be

first

upon him
1

at the

execution and afterwards the hand of kol ha(9)


)-

am"

(13, 10

"Thou
11

shalt stone

him

that he die

"

(Deut.

13,

(10)

).

And
s-a-r-a-h

there

is

fragment
to

of

even an older law of


trial

which seems
by
oracle,

have been enacted when the


to

was
and

still

and

have been amended from time

to time as the jurisdiction

was vested

first in

the kohanitn the


trial

at a later period in the

sJwphctim.

In

by

oracle,

there

was merely the evidence of


in a

the denunciant.
to the

This consisted
oracle-priest,

solemn statement of the charge

through

whom

the oracle then

communicated

the judgment.
unless the
others,
24, 14)

As

the crime of s-a-r-a-h

was not complete


to

accused

had spoken words of persuasion


called

the denunciant was

shomca' (hearer)

(Lev.

which, in later times designated the righteous witIn other

ness in contrast with the perjurer (Pro. 21, 28).

matters where the transaction was a visible one, the oraclewitness was called ro'eh (seer) (Exod. 22, 9 (10)) a

word

which

finally

came

to

mean spy

(II

Sam

15, 27).

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

When
the

the system

was changed and the kohanim


oracle, the

tried

case

without the
in

mere denunciant disap(

peared and
It

his

stead the true witness


that
originally,

cd)

emerged.
evidence

would appear

the

requisite

against the defendant being given, the court had no option

but to give judgment.


positive

In such a state of the law, where

and

direct evidence of a person

who had heard

or

seen was alone admissible, the defendant's position


perilous.
It

was very

was then enacted

that in cases of s-a-r-a-h the de-

fendant could halt the decision by impeaching the witness


of
perjury.
originally

The new supplemental


tried

issue

thus

framed

was
this
it

by the oracle

(liphne

Jhvh).

As

mode

of

trial

had for the main issue been superseded,

could not have lasted long for the supplemental issue.

Accordingly,
of
trial

we

find the

words liphne Jhvh


the

as the

mode
the

supplemented

by

words liphne ha-kohanim,


themselves

which indicate that the


whole question.

priests

now

tried

Afterwards, when the system of regular

courts (shophetitn) was introduced to replace the kohanim


courts, the judges tried the

whole question.

If the witness
in

was acquitted of the perjury, the defendant


suffered death, but
if

s-a-r-a-h

he was

convicted, the defendant

was
on

acquitted and the perjurer suffered the death by stoning

which he had cruelly and wickedly designed


the innocent defendant.

to inflict

This remarkable statute

is

as follows

"If a false witness rise up against any

man

to accuse

him of surah (apostasy)*' (Deut.

19,

16).

"Then both
(rib)
is

the

men between whom

the controversy

shall

stand liphne

Jhvh

i.

e.

before the kohanim

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER

$7

and the shophetim) which


19,

shall

be in those days)" (Dent.

17).

"And
and behold

the
if

shophetim
the

shall

make
a

diligent

inquisition

witness

be

false

witness
;

and hath

testified falsely against his

brother (19, 18)

''Then shall ye do unto him, as he had thought to have

done unto

his brother

....

"

(19, 19).

"Thine eye

shall not pity, life shall

go for

life,

eye for

eye, tooth for tooth,

hand for hand, foot

for foot" (19, 21).


difficulties,

The

text of this law presents


fact that in
it

many

due,

doubtless, to the

was incorporated an im-

portant later amendment, which provided that in certain


cases
the

evidence of

one witness should thereafter be

insufficient (Deut. 19, 15),

and

to the further fact that the

principle established by imposing the death penalty on false

witnesses

in

s-a-r-a-h

was afterwards expanded

into

general principle affecting false witnesses in cases of mur-

der and assault (Deut. 19, 21), in some of which the penalty

was
form

less

severe.

Nevertheless, a careful scrutiny of


its

the text will


inal
(i.

show
e.

that the tribunal designated in

orig-

the oracle)
to

was changed
the

first to

kohanim
change

and afterwards

shopetim,

notes

of

such

having in time been transferred from the margin to the


text itself.

This

subject

of

s-a-r-a-h

ought not
series
effect

to be dismissed

without at least mentioning a


visions intended to carry into

of other legal prothe

general

policy

which produced the s-a-r-a-h law.

"He
only,

that

sacrificeth

unto any god, save unto

Jhvh
22, 19

shall

be

put to

death"

(yahoram)

(Exod.

(20)).

"Thou

shalt say to the B'ne-Israel,

whoever he be of

the B'ne-Israel or of the ger that sojourn in Israel, that

5&

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

giveth any of his <eed to Moloch; he shall be put to death;


the 'am ha-ares shall stone him" (Lev. 20, 2).

"And

if

the 'am

ha-ares do anyways hide their eyes


his seed to

from the man. when he giveth of


put him not to death"

Moloch and

(Lev. 20, 4).


face against that

"Then
his family

shall set
will

my

man and
that

against
his

and

cut

him

off

and

all

follow

practice to worship Moloch,


20. 5).

from among

his people" (Lev.

"If

there

be

found

among

you,

within any of thy

she'arim

man
of

(gates, cities), which Jhvh thy God giveth thee, woman that hath wrought wickedness in the sight Jhvh thy God, in transgressing his covenant" (Deut.

or

17, 2).

"And

hath gone and served other gods and worship-

ped them, either the sun, or moon, or any of the host of


heaven, which
I

have not commanded" (Deut.

17, 3).
I

"And

it

be told thee and thou hast heard (the shomea'


diligently

and enquired

and behold
is

it

be true and the thing


in Israel"

certain, that such


17,

abomination

wrought

(Deut.

4).

"Then thou
even that
they die"

shalt bring forth that

man

or that

woman
until

which have committed that wicked

thing, unto thy gates,


shalt stone

man

or that
17,

woman, and

them

(Deut.

5).
(

"At the mouth of two witnesses


3

cdim) or three wit-

shall

the convict

(ha-met) be put to death; at the


shall not be put to

mouth of one witness he


17.

death" (Deut.

6).

"The hands of
to put

the witnesses shall be

first

upon him
lia-'am

him
"
(

to death,
17,

and afterwards the hands of kol


)

....

Deut.

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER
presume
to

59
speak a

"The nabi (prophet) which


word
in

shall

my

name, which

have not commanded

him

to

speak, or that shall speak in the

name

of other gods, that

nabi shall die (Deut. 18, 20).

Noteworthy

in

this

series of

laws are the following

points, all relating to the proceedings in the Federal courts


a.

In Exod. 22, 19 (20) the


"shall be put to death."

word yahoram
It

is

used to

mean

probably indicates the

form of death sentence pronounced by the kohanim, during


their judicial pre-eminence.
b.

In Lev. 20. 2 the

am

lia-arcs

is

the Federal trial

court.
c.

In

Lev.

20,

the

'am

ha-arcs

is

impliedly

re-

proached for lenity towards Moloch-worshipers.


d.

In Deut. 17,

7,

too, the

'am

is

the trial court.


it

In connection with this whole subject,


esting to note a reported case
inflicted,

will be inter-

where the death-penalty was

which

case, according to ancient

Hebrew

practice,
in

at

once became a binding precedent and was restated

statutory form.
It is

the case of a

man who was

the son of a

Hebrew
having

woman

by an

Egyptian.

He was

charged with

blasphemed the shem (a kind of s-a-r-a-h), being the public


reviling of the

Ark

of the Covenant, the visible

power
20.
16.

in

the oracle tribunal, which

was
II

called slicm
6, 2
;

(Exod.
8.

7;

Num.
9, 6, 5.

6,

27; Deut.

5.

11

Sam.

Kings

29;

3; 11. 36; II

Kings
8.

21, 4. 7; 23. 27; I Chr. 13, 6; II Chr.


4. 7).
if

6;

7,

20; 20,

9; 33,

There was no doubt that the offence,

committed by

a Hebrew, was punishable with death, but the question was raised whether one of the half-blood

was subject

to the

60

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


penalty.

same

The

decision

was

that though not a pure

Hebrew, he came within the


were
liable in the

class of

gerim and that gerim

same manner

as

Hebrews.

Hence

the wording of the statute


(yekallel) his

"Whosoever curseth
sin,

God

shall bear his


shall surely

and he that blasphemeth the shem of Jhvh


;

be put to death

kol ha-'cdah shall stone him,


15.

as

well the

gcr as the ezraly' (Lev. 24,

16).

The
est.

report of the case presents other points of inter-

It establishes that the jurisdiction

had already vested

in the

Federal tribunal (kol ha-'edah), but that


for which there

when

a case

came up

was no precedent or
It

statute, the

oracle had to be consulted.


principle that the witnesses

also reaffirms the general


initiate the

must

execution of

the criminal by laying their hands on his head,

and

attests
city-

the law that executions gates

must take place outside of the

(Lev. 24, 11-16. 23).


is

The wording

as follows

"And
mother's

the Israelitish

woman's son blasphemed the shem


the daughter of Dibri, of
11).

and cursed.

And

they brought him unto Moses: (and his

name was Shelomith,


(Lev. 24,

the tribe of Dan.)"

"And

they put him in ward, that the mind of

Jhvh

might be showed them" (24, 12).

"And Jhvh spake unto Moses,


out the

saying:" (23, 13).

"Bring forth the mekallel (him that hath cursed) with-

camp and
and
let

let all

the shomc'im lay their hands

upon

his head,

kol ha-'edah stone

him"

(24,

14).

"And thou
saving,
15).

shalt

speak

unto the

children

of

Israel,

Whosoever curseth

his

God

shall bear his sin" (24,

"And he

that blasphemeth the

shem of Jhvh

shall be

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER
shcm

put to death; kol ha-'edah shall stone him, as well the ger
as the ezrah,
to

when he blasphemeth

the

shall be put

death" (24, 15).

"And Moses spake


him.
(24,

to the B'ne-Isracl, that they should

bring forth him that had cursed out of the camp, and stone

And
23).

the B'ne-Israel did as

Jhvh commanded Moses"

In this connection should be mentioned another old


law, closely related to the law of Exod. 22, 19 (20), and ap-

parently designed to supplement the ancient law of s-a-r-a-Ji.

Whereas the
the act even

latter

crime was not complete without prose-

lyting activity on the part of the accused, this law punishes

when done

in secret

(ba-seter). It

is

as fol-

lows

"Arur the man

that

maketh any graven or molten

image, an abomination to Jhvh, the

work

of the crafts>.

man's hand, and

sets

it

up

in secret"

(Deut. 2J, 15
20, this

Like the yahoram of


is

Exod.
of

22,

word arur
Perhaps

probably a priestly

form

death-sentence.

different

modes of execution are intimated by

these vari-

ant forms.

In

the

next

lecture,

the

last

of

this

series,

some

phases of the

an effort

Hebrew land-law will be touched upon, and will be made to show that this branch of the
became a mat-

original jurisdiction of the zikne ha-'ir soon

ter of Federal concern, as a necessary step in the policy of

unifying the cantons forming the

state.

IV
The
zikne
ha-'ir,

who had

general jurisdiction of

all

affairs of their canton,

must have taken cognizance of

all

controversies relating to the possession of land.

The

scanty

remnants of the zikne

ha-'ir

law

are,

however,

insufficient

02
to

THK JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

show

their procedure

in

such cases.

The

chief cause

of early quarrels about land In a very early code this

was the removal of landmarks.


landmark"

was accounted a crime punishable


removeth
another's

by death.

"Arur he

that

(Deut. 27, 17), and Hosea, speaking of the save Judah as

deserving condign

Divine punishment, exhausts the lanto

guage of condemnation by comparing them


landmarks (Hos.
This
trespass,
5,

removers of

10).

severe

treatment

of

what

is,

after

all,

but a

would seem

to indicate that the honest acquisition


difficult,
if

of land was a thing very


that, in

not impossible, and


to enlarge their

consequence,

men who were greedy


is

holdings resorted to fraud as the readiest means to obtain


their ends.

The

conclusion

not remote that the reason

for this difficulty in honestly acquiring land lay in the policy

of the Federal government

making land

inalienable either
its

by deed or

will, to

the end that each family should hold

estate in perpetuity.

Such would be the natural course

for

the conquerors of a settled country.

The

soldiers

would

probably claim equal rights in the division.

This supposition finds support in the law of yabam


as applied in the early days of

Hebrew domination:
marry without

"If

brethren dwell together, and one of them die and have no


son,

the

wife

of
;

the

dead

shall not

to a

stranger (ish car)

her husband's brother shall go unto her

and take her for his wife.

And

the

first

born son (bckor)


of
his

that she beareth shall succeed to the

name

dead

brother"

(Deut. 25,
the

5.

6).

That

custom

originated in prehistoric antiquity,

and had meanings with which


is

we

are no longer acquainted,


is,

highly probable.

The

fact,

however,

as regards our

subject,

unimportant.

Perhaps the majority of the most

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER

63

modern customs

could,

if

we had
all

the full evidence', be

traced back to notions held by primeval savages. ing civilization consists, and in

Advanc-

ages has consisted, in

the reshaping of established institutions, so as to


to

conform

improved thought and

to

become useful

in

furthering

progress.

There

is

no doubt that so soon as the policy of equality

of land-holding
the endeavor

was adopted by the Federal government,


to

was made

conform the yabam law to


of
the

it.

While,

originally, the

brother

deceased took the

widow

of the latter for his wife, and there was no question

of estate involved, the

new policy carried


r

to the brother

the landed estate of the decedent, to be held by


trust for the first-born son of the

him

in

new marriage, and only


necessarily implied

on the

failure of

male issue of the new marriage did he


All this
is

acquire the absolute estate.


in the provision that the

bekor of the new marriage shall


first

stand in the place of the

husband and bear

his

name

(Deut. 25, 6).

Assuming

this,

it

would follow

that a

man

with a wife

and a family of daughters, though the owner of a landed


estate,

could not provide for the

latter.

They would have

to

depend on the generosity of their uncle after he had

married their mother.

Nor could any

foresight or good will


If he could

of their father alter the situation.


the land for

have sold

money

or other portable property, he could


fruits of the sale, but the entail pre-

have given them the


vented
this.

In short, to use the technical language of the

English law, the land

was

entailed in

tail

male,

which

means that by no means whatever could the owner prevent


his

male descendants from enjoying

it.

If

male descendants
if

failed,

the land went to the decedent's brothers;

there

64

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


to the brothers of the decedent's

were none, then

father;

and
his

if this

line too failed,

then to the nearest kinsman of

mishpahah.
27,

So much of the ancient law we learn from


9-1
1.

Numbers
It

must have been

at

an early day that a reform was


civil

demanded, though of course not before the


had superseded the military regime.
at
its

government
latter

While the

was

height, the soldiers


its

who were conquering


it

the land

from

possessors, doubtless claimed

as the fruit

and

reward of their exertions.

In this state of opinion

women
the

had small chance to be considered.


statesmen began to get the upper

When, however,
the

hand,

injustice of

leaving a man's wife and daughters to charity, while others

were
nized.

in lawful

enjoyment of the family

estate,
is

was recog-

The
stated

general law of

Numbers

27, 8

but declaratory

of a precedent which had been established.


fully
in

The

case

is

the

twenty-seventh chapter "of

Numbers.

The
and
at

five

daughters of Zelophehad appeared before Moses


coadjutors, composing the high court which sat

his

the

door of the ohcl mo'cd, and asked, as a matter of

justice, that they

might inherit their father's

estate, instead

of

its

going to their uncles.

Moses consulted

the oracle

(brought their mishpat liphne


decision
let

Jhvh (Numb.

27, 5) ).

The

was

"The daughters of Zelophehad speak


according to the

right

the inheritance of their father pass unto


7).

them" (Numb.
practice
this

2y,

And
(Numb.

invariable

precedent was immediately put into the form of a general


statute
27, 8).

This was a momentous decision.


daughters

The mother
would
not

of these
still

would,

according to the ancient custom,


she
take

marry her

brother-in-law, but

the

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS


family estate with her.
as
if

SULZBERGER
would take
it.

6j
just

The

(laughters

they had been sons.

That brothers-in-law would not be anxious


out the old
natural.

to
i>

carry

yabam law under such circumstances

only

Indeed, the power of the heiress to choose her


virtually

husband

substituted her for a son, and enabled

her to confer the


bckor.

name of her dead


be,

father

upon her own

However
would

foreign to the spirit of the old law such


it

a practice
sciences,

would soon

satisfy
rest.

people's

con-

and fashion would do the


with this recognition of

Moreover, conas

currently

women

capable of
relation

inheriting, the

whole tone of opinion regarding the

of

the

sexes

underwent a profound change.

Especially

powerful was the trend toward enlarging the number of


prohibited
degrees.
is

In the

old

arur

code

punishment

(probably death)
his

denounced against him that married


sister,

step-mother
27,

(Deut. 27, 20), his


or
his

his

half-sister
27,

(Deut.

22),

mother-in-law

(Deut.
list

23).

This

statute

was now amended.

new

of capital

crimes was made, which included, in addition to those of


the arur code, marriage with a son's wife (Lev. 20,
12).

Moreover,
cannot

serious

penalties,

the

exact

nature

of

which

now

be determined, were denounced against mar-

riage with an aunt (Lex. 20, 19), or with the wife of an

uncle (Lev. 20, 20).

The

feature of

this

amended code which


is

is

most

relevant to our present inquiry,


a brother's wife.
It is
it

the prohibition to

marry

not rated as a crime punishable by

human
"They

law,

but

is

denounced as niddah

(abhorrent)
is:

(Lev. 20, 21).

The

only evil consequence threatened

shall be childless."

That

this provision

is

a pointed

condemnation of the yabam marriage, seems

clear.

The

66

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


latter

purpose of the

was the

birth of a son

who

should

stand in the place of the dead

now
son.

it

was solemnly declared

man who had no son. And that Jhvh himself would


They would have no
sterile.

prevent the attainment of the object.

The marriage would be

In the state of public opinion thus indicated, the severe

blow dealt the yabam law by the Zelophehad decision was

much

aggravated.

In short, fashion and morals joined in

discrediting the Levirate marriage.

This,

however, was not

all.

The

great land-owners

of Zelophehad's kin became alarmed.

The

latter's

estate

had slipped from their grasp into the hands of a bevy of


damsels, whose fancy might bestow them on the dreaded
outsider (ish zar).

In the general

greed

for

increasing
if

their holdings, land-owners

from other mishpahot,

not

from other

tribes,

might come a-wooing, and by marriage

with the heiresses, deprive the kinsmen of their cherished

chance to annex the lands of failing

lines.

To
of

save what they could, the chiefs of the mishpahot

of Gilead appealed to the

High Court

to

modify

its

decree

Numbers

27,

7,

by adding thereto a limitation of the

right of heiresses in the choice of husbands.

They urged

that

without such limitation,

men

of other tribes would

reduce the state of Gilead by coming in and marrying the

women

of landed estate.
tribunal

The

heeded

the

protest

and modified the

fomer decree by declaring that the daughters of Zelophehad


might marry
choice
fell

whom

they would, provided only that their


tribe, in

on men of their own

order that every


its

one of the tribes of the B'ne-Isracl should keep


inheritance
is

own
tribe

(Num.
is

36,

1-9).

Whether mishpahah or

here meant

not quite clear from the language of the

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS


text.

SULZBERGER

67

The

probability, however,

is

that mishpahot only are

intended,

and that by mishpahot we are to understand

recognizable kinsmen.
find that in the

As

late as the

time of Jeremiah,

we

domain of the
sell

priest-city of Anathoth, a

man

could not

land to

whom

he would, but that the

nearest kinsman had a preferential right to buy.

Though

the existence of a custom in a priest-city at a late period


is

no warrant for

its

general existence at the time through-

out the realm, because of the tenacity with which the priests
held on to their ancient rights and privileges, yet
least
it

is

at
in

good evidence of ancient customs which were,


It

former times, general.

appears that Hanamel, the son


sell

of Jeremiah's uncle Shallum, determined to

his land,

and accordingly made the

first

offer to his cousin

Jeremiah

as the one having the preferential right (gc'ullah).

More-

over, he expressly stated that this preferential right

was

based on or conjoined with the right of inheritance (yerushah), which can only
that he

mean

that

Hanamel was

childless,

had no brothers, that

his uncles

were dead and that

Jeremiah was the next of kin

(Jer. 32, 7-8).


to the

We
It

must return, however,


that the

Zelophehad heiresses.
the

appears

modification

of

decree did not

seriously disturb them.

They married
in the

their first cousins

and thus the


11.

estates

were kept

family

(Numb.

36,

12).

These cousins, who,

in

part,

owed

their

success in
land-

wooing
hunger.

to the

law courts, were not alone

in their

We

have already noticed the drastic denunciation


Despite everything, the
increased, and the

of land-thieves in the avur code.


thing went on.

Wealth and luxury

men

newly risen to opulence were eager for


ment.

their aggrandize-

They were not

too dainty as to the

means whereby

<>s

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

they accomplished their purpose.

Some
This

of

them doubtless
could
the

were of the sikne


relied

ha-'ir,

and that tribunal


is

not

be

on to interfere with them.

meaning of
but

Isaiah's bitter cry:

He

looked for mishpat


for

(justice)

received
iniquity.
field to

mispah

(oppression);

equity and
house
to

behold

Woe
field,

unto them that join


till

house and

there
the land

is

no room for others and they


(Isai.
5,

remain alone
thought
is

in

7.

8).

Their inward

that their houses shall endure forever; they call

their lands after their

own names

(Ps. 49, 12 (11)).

The
families

strife

degenerated into a contest between the old


rich,

and the new


families

and, as
in

consequence,

the

decaying

and the poor

general

fared badly

between the upper and nether mill-stone.

The yabam

law,

which was one means of securing the

inalienability of landed estates, was treated with scant courtesy by the rising families, was assailed as immoral by the Federal kohanim and statesmen, and had doubtless
fallen

under the

social ban.

No

appeal to antiquity could

save

it

from

falling into obsolescence.

The

result

was

inevitable.

As

in

all

nations with a
the fictio

genius for jurisprudence, the

Hebrews employed

juris, the legal fiction, to set aside

laws and customs which


that the

they dared not repeal outright.

They determined
if

woman who

could not marry anyone but her brother-in-law.


the latter in proper

should be free of the obligation,

form

declared he would not marry her.

This was

a substantial repeal of the


its

yabam

law, by the

abandonment of

only effective feature, the sanction or

vindicatory part thereof. For once the Federal government and the cantonal councils were of one mind. The zikne
ha-'ir,

as

has been seen, had the largest general powers.

POLITY oi ANCIEN'J In earlier days,

HEBREWS
still

SULZBERGEB

6g

when

they were

enforcing the yabam

law, they doubtless compelled specific performance of the

brother-in-law's duty,

just

as

in

another class of matriof his almost indefeasiCertain

monial cases they deprived a


ble right to divorce his wife
it

man

(Deut. 22, 13-19).

is

that they never hesitated to enforce their judgment-

by punishing
chary of
21.
22.

men

in

body and

estate,

and were by no means


19,

inflicting the

death penalty (Deut.

12. 21

22,

24.

25).

That the violation of the yabam law might well be


punished by death appears

from

the

story

of

Tamar,
slain

Judah's daughter-in-law, whose husband

Onan was
38, 1-10).

by

Jhvh
The

for fraud on this


particular

same law (Gen.

ceremony by which

legal fiction effected


in later

the gradual disuse of the

yabam law was what came


It is fully
all

times to be called the halisah.


25,

described in Deut.

5-10.

The

details

are not

comprehensible.

They

doubtless, in part at least, simulate the proceedings which

were had when the

trial

was

a very real one with serious

consequences to the defendant.

The

first

step

evidently

was

that the
her,

widow

explicitly asked her brother-in-law to

marry
that
this
is.

and he declined.

Thereupon she

instituted suit,

she went to the city gate, to the zckcnim, and


:

made

formal complaint
will not

My

husband's brother refuses to

marry me.
upon

comply with the yabam law.

Where-

the zikne

lia-'ir

summoned

him.

He

appeared.

They

informed him what the complaint was.


of his replying that the

The contingency
is

complaint

is is

not true, that he


not mentioned.
it

quite ready to

marry the woman,


If

His
said,

refusal
I

was taken for granted.

he stood by

and

do not wish

to take her, this confession of his guilt

was
was

followed by no judgment of the tribunal.

Xo

redress

/O

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

given to the complainant, no punishment was decreed against


the defendant.
off

What happened was


formula,

that the

woman drew
and

one of his shoes, ceremoniously spat

in his presence,

uttered an antique
sinister

which

probably had once a

meaning, but had become harmless and even unin-

telligible.

These were the words


that will not build

"So

shall

it

be done unto

that

man

up

his brother's house.

His

name

shall

be

called

in

Israel,

The house
free to

of

him of the

loosed shoe."

This accomplished, the parties went their

way, and probably the


would, which, after

woman was

marry

whom

she

all,

was what everybody had intended

from the
There

first.

is

but one other instance of zikne ha-'ir law


in the present inquiry.
It

which concerns us

occurs in the

Book

of Ruth.

According to the author's presentation, the duty which


the law, as
brother,

we know
to

it,

puts upon the


go' el

yabam

or husband's

attaches

the

or

near
is

kinsman of the

mishpahah.

This, duty, moreover,

not primary, but in-

cidental to the exercise of the right of ge'iillah,

which

is

the

preferential

right

of

the

next of

kin to purchase
to
sell,

lands

which a member of the mishpahah wishes


they can be sold to a buyer from without.
in short, is a
(jc'itllah
is

before
duty,

The yabam

mere incident of the

ge'iillah.

This right of

assignable by one go' el to another in the order


is

of succession, which

determined by nearness of kinship,


it

and such assignment or waiver carries with


to anybody.
effective,

no reproach
be legally
at

In order that the transaction

may

certain

forms are necessary.

It

must be
(ten)

the

gate,

in

the presence of at least a

quorum

of the

zekenim.
>r,

The
:

assignor, next of kin, addressing his sucit

says

"You may buy

for yourself," and with the

POUTY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS


words from
delivers to
his foot.

SULZBERGER
just

him the shoe which he has

drawn

The

assignee takes the shoe, and, address:

ing the zckenim and the by-standers, says nesses


this

"Ye

are wit-

day:"

(then

formally

recites

what he has

acquired) and closes by repeating the words:


nesses {'edim) this day."

"Ye

are wit-

The zekenim and


forever

the by-standers
is

say in chorus; 'edim


closed,

(witnesses), and the transaction

4,

is

firm and stable

(lekaycm kol dabar)

(Ruth

7).

Xeedless to say,
there ever

there

is

no

tittle

of

evidence

that

was

in Israel a

compound gc'idlah-yabam law


Moreover, there
this
is

such as

is

here described.

reason to

believe that the author

knew

perfectly

well,

having

before him

all

the data accessible to us.

His acquaintance

with the most ancient form of yabam law, as exemplified


in the story of

Tamar (Gen.
1,

38, 6-30)
12.

is

attested by the

utterances of
the

Ruth

11

and

4,

That he was aware of


to propose
3,

custom which allowed the


25,

woman
Ruth
it

to the

yabam (Deut.
in

7)

is

seen in

9,

and that the


tells

drawn-off shoe plays a part in

(Deut. 25, 5-10) he

Ruth

4,

7.

8.

In view of these facts,

it

would be rash
27, 7-10,

to

doubt his

knowledge of the law of Numbers

and one can

hardly go wrong in supposing that he had read the ge'ullah


transaction of Jeremiah 32, 7-12.

Having
us that

this

knowledge,

it

was

as plain to

him

as to

when Mahlon

died, leaving

no

children,

no broth-

ers and no uncles, the inheritance

went

to the next of kin

(Numb.
Ruth
4.

2y,

11), the pcloni almoni

(Mr. So and So) of

There was no power


had no
title

either in

Xaomi

or in

Ruth

to

sell because they

of any kind. Peloni almoni wsus

/2
the absolute

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


owner.

There was no room, therefore, for


none for yabam duty.

ge'ullah and, a fortiori,

The
purpose.

author, however, wrote his imaginary law for a

He was

creating one of the great masterpieces

of the world's literature, with the design to show that marriage with

non-Hebrew women might not only be harmless,


In the restricted
of
ac-

but highly beneficial in bringing into the fold the most noble

and charming of foreign damsels.

life

Eastern women, he could find no class to

whom was

corded the liberty of making advances, save the childless

widow, and she only

to the

yabam.

The

situation rendered

an actual brother-in-law impossible, so his part was taken

by the noblest gentleman of Bethlehem. on


to a

Everything runs

happy ending, and the baby-boy Obed becomes the

ancestor of

King David.
therefore,

We

may

with

safety,
in

eliminate

from the

discussion the law as laid

down

Ruth, though on certain

minor points

it

may

be informing.
is

*The only great land-law remaining to be considered


that of Leviticus
as follows
(25,

10-34).

Its

salient provisions are

"And
liberty

ye shall hallow the

fiftieth

year
all

and proclaim
the inhabitants

(dcror) throughout the land to


it

thereof:

shall be a jubilee

unto you; and ye shall return


(ahuccah), and ye shall

every

man

unto his possession

return every
10).

man

unto his family (mishpahah)" (Lev. 25,

"In the year of this jubilee ye shall return every

man

unto his possession" (ahuzzah)

(Lev. 25, 13).

"According to the number of years after the jubilee


thou shalt buy of thy neighbor; according to the number of
years of the fruits he shall
sell

unto thee:" (Lev. 25, 15).

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER

73
shall

"According

to the greater

number of years thou


for

increase the price thereof, and according to the fewness of

years thou shalt diminish the price of


of crops he
is

it;

it

is

number

selling thee"

(Lev. 25, 16).

"The land

shall not be sold in perpetuity (Lev. 25, 23).

"Ye
25, 2 4).

shall grant ge'ullah

(redemption) for land" (Lev.

"If thy brother be

waxen

poor, and hath sold


his next go'cl

away

some of

his

ahuzzah (estate), and


it,

(kinsman)

come

to

redeem

he shall have the right to do so" (Lev.

25, 25).

"If the

man have no
(Lev. 25, 26),
let

go'el,

but can gather the means to

redeem

it"

"Then
sale

him count the value of

the years since the

(deduct that

the balance unto the

sum from the purchase money) and pay man to whom he sold it then he may
:

return to his ahuzzah" (Lev. 25, 2j).


"If he cannot gather the
shall

means

to

redeem
until

it,

then year

it

remain

in the

buyer's

possession
is

the

of

jubilee:
to his

and

in the year of jubilee he

entitled to return

ahuzzah" (Lev.

25, 28).

"If a

man
it

sell

a dwelling-house in a walled city, he


it

may redeem
25,

within a whole year after

is

sold" (Lev.

29).

"If
it

it

be not redeemed within the space of a

full year,

shall be the buyer's in perpetuity


it

throughout the genera-

tions;

does not revert in the jubilee" (Lev. 25, 30).


in

"But houses

hoserim (villages) which have no wall


to be treated as fields
in the jubilee"
:

round about them are


ject to ge'ullah

they are sub-

and revert

(Lev. 25. 31).

74

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


"As
to the Levite cities

the

houses of the

cities

of

their possession, are subject to perpetual ge'itllah for the

Levites" (Lev. 25, 32).

"And
in a

if

man

of the Levites

fail
it

to

redeem a house

Levite city which he has sold,

reverts to

him

in the

jubilee"

(Lev. 25, 33).

''The field in the migrash of their (Levites') cities

may

not be sold;

it

is

an ahussah
this

in perpetuity"

(Lev. 25, 34).

A
great

mere reading of

jubilee-statute

shows that
c

it

has no reference to the days

when
The

the sikne ha-

ir

were the
it

men
in

of the country.

earliest allusions to

are

found

Jeremiah and Ezekiel.

The

latter

speaks of the
it

seller returning

and makes a gloomy prediction that

will

not happen, the trumpet that has been blown, presaging

misery instead of happiness (Ezek.

7,

12.

13. 14).

He

also points out that royal grants to


is,

members

of the

royal family are nahalah, that

are not to revert, but that

royal grants to others revert in the dcror year (Ezek. 46,


16.

17).

And

this allusion to the

blowing of the trumpet and

to the dcror year recalls the statute (berit, covenant)

made
twain,

during the reign of Zedekiah in the most solemn fashion


before

Jhvh,
and

to

wit:

They
the

cut

calf

in

and
of
the

passed

between
the

parts

thereof,

the

sarim
sarisim,

Judah,

sarim
kol

of

Jerusalem,
ha-arcs.

the
the

kohanim,
this

and
law,

'am

By

terms
free

of
his

dcror

every

man
that

was
occasion

bound

to

Hebrew
the

slaves.

On

Jeremiah

de-

nounced

non-observance of

the

old

law forbidding

Hebrew
ing the

slavery, and also castigated those

who were

violat-

new

statute (Jer. 34, 8-22).

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER

75

The connection between

Leviticus 25 and these pass-

ages from Jeremiah and Ezekiel seem clear.

We

are,

however, not concerned here with the slavery


it

question, though

would appear

to

have been inseparably view


is

connected

with

the land

question, in

of

Ezekiel's

words wherein the expression dcror year


jubilee year of Leviticus.

used for the

We

may

take

it

for granted that the

land-greed of while

which something has been already


the cantonal magnates
statute

said, did not abate

had

their

own way.

The

jubilee

seems to be a compromise

between the parties to

this age-long contest.

By
was

it

the old Federal policy of the

inalienability of land
ha-'ir,

definitely

abandoned.

The
cities,

zikne

the magnates

who

dwelt in the walled

who
By

were, in fact, the great land barons, had finally triumphed,

though concessions had

to be

made
cities

to other interests.

the terms of the compromise, the absolute inalienability of

land was abolished; houses in


alienable,

were made practically

and agricultural lands and village-houses, while

they could hot be sold in perpetuity, could nevertheless be


aliened by the owner, on condition that they should revert
in the jubilee year

and be subject to ge'ullah

at

any time

before.

The

Levites (kohanim) succeeded in securing for

themselves the right of ge'ullah and of jubilee-reversion


in their walled cities, while as to their

migrash

fields

they

maintained the ancient law

of total inalienability.
as

The
expected.

result

was perhaps

good as could have been

The growth of commerce and of wealth had brought into more active operation economic laws which
defeated the plans devised by the Federalists in the earlier
times of greater simplicity.

The

great barons were

now

authorized by law to acquire perpetual

estates in their val-

/6

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


and
to

liable city holdings,

extend them without limit; their


before held in defiance of

purchased agricultural
ancient law, were

estates,

made

secure until the dcror year, and this

provision must have added to their power and influence.

The

Levites

{kohanim)

retained or reconquered the

placid security of primitive times, while the masses of the

farmers, though they derived only moderate benefits during


their active lives, could at least

hope that their children's

condition would be permanently improved.

The achievement, though


optimists,

far short of the hopes of the

was greater than

it

may

seem.

The

old law of
to

inalienability

had been so uniformly disregarded as

have

become

practically obsolete,

and the lands of the poor were

being gradually absorbed by the land-barons.

Any

degree

of amelioration was an advance, and none could have been

secured
steadily

if

the influence of the

common

people

had not

grown.

At

least

one of the great estates of the


a sturdy fight for the

realm, the 'am ha-arcs,


rights of the masses.

was making
In
the

struggle

for

the

Zedekiah

statute, they took a leading part, and though the powerful

classes

were tempted

to

evade the laws which hampered


all

their efforts

for control of

kinds,

some progress was

always made.

We
which
is

must

not,

however, prolong remarks on a subject

too remote

from our main theme,

to be adequately

treated in this connection.

There are many questions of

equal

interest

which must be discussed before a proper

understanding of the polity of the ancient Hebrews can be


attained.
It is

necessary to understand
forces,

how

the conflict be-

tween the
lia-'ir,

centrifugal

represented

by

the

zikne

and the centripetal forces of the nation was carried


it

on,

and by whose activity

was

finally

decided in favor

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS


of the
latter.

SULZBERGER

77

This involves an investigation into the part

played by the Nebiim and the Levites (kokanim), and by


the former
I

mean, not the writing prophets, but the guild


by the
illustrious old
I

which
I

is

typified

hero Elijah.

When
all

first

began these investigations

intended to take Up

the laws recorded in the Bible, with the design of developing therefrom a complete scheme of the
tution and laws.
It

Hebrew

Consti-

soon became apparent that

in the

zikne

ka-ir laws
codes.

we had

a system

more ancient than


showed

the accepted

Further examination revealed the cantonal basis of


clearly the necessity

the Federal government and

of going to the
result has

bottom of the sikne ha'ir laws.


conceived to
be
its

The
main

been that what was

the

subject has scarcely been touched upon, and


tion

considera-

must be postponed
It

to a future occasion.
I

remains only to summarize what

conceive to be

the result of this preliminary work.

At
of

the

Exodus

the

Hebrews were arrayed


efficient organization,

as

tribes

with sub-divisions.

As
more

they advanced and the necessities they formed

war

dictated a

into

regiments

(alaphim)

with proper sub-divisions and


in

aggregations.

Both forms of organization were


so.

their

nature military, the latter specifically

As

they con-

quered settled territory, with established governments, they


learned a
in

new

lesson.

The

pre-Israelite inhabitants lived


little

many
in

cantons, each constituting a

kingdom, called

a "city."

The name was


and sometimes

not literally exact.

The canton

had
and

it,

besides the walled city, certain towns, villages,


it

fields,
all

had one or more additional


city,

cities,

looking up to the royal

which was the seat


his court.

of government where the King held

The Heof

brews

recognized

and

adopted

this

subdivision

the

78

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

country, and in part accepted the


a practical solution of the

mode

of government as

new and

intricate

problems which
royalty.

they

had

to

solve.

They,

however,

abolished

Councils,

somehow
power

representative in their make-up, became

which were to be the constituent elements of a central Federal government.

the ruling

in these little cantons,

The conquest was tardy. The policy

slow,

and the progress of nationalization

of exterminating the natives, which

was

the obvious one for an invading horde that started out to take possession of a whole country, had to be abandoned.

Concessions were made to the natives, who, under the


of gcrhn, exercised

much

influence in the
city-states.

which superseded the old


of
declaring

name Hebrew cantons, The national policy

Jhvh as the one God of the country was hindered at every step by the stubborn conservatism which adhered to the multifarious cantonal gods, and the central
government established
in

at Shiloh found great difficulty bringing the cantonal councils to a lively comprehension

of the importance of stamping out the old worship.

There was one other leading feature of policy

in the

new
was

nation.

The land

for which the

Hebrews

so longed

to be divided as equally as possible


it

among

those

who

had won

by their blood.
to rely

In this matter, too, the central

government had

on effective administration by the

obstacles encountered were great. Leading chieftains naturally claimed greater shares, many

cantonal councils.

The

and the theoretical idea of which would, under the most favorable circumstances, have been only partially translated into practice,
holdings,
equality,

natives

kept

their

was but

slimly carried out.

The

principle,

however, that

family land was inalienable was adopted as law. been consistently carried out, there would not

Had

this

have arisen

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS


a slavery question.

SULZBERGER
The

/<;

Unfortunately, however, though shut


it

out at the front door,

slunk in at the side.


first

ancient

severe notions of debtors' law were at

accepted.

new farmers were


slavery.

not

all

equally skilled or capable.

The Some

of them had to borrow, and the penalty of not paying was

Men

with talents for accumulation were then,

as

now,

alert to seize opportunity.


felt

So long

as they kept

within the law, they

no reproach of conscience, and

often they went beyond in order to attain their ends. of the farmers
fell

Many
As
the

into debt,

and not only

lost their hold-

ings, but their liberty state

and that of
the

their children.

grew

in

wealth,

application of

economic laws
state

became more and more


were badly

certain,

and though the

and

the successful classes prospered, the poor, at the other end,


off.

The most

energetic efforts of the central

government

to

ward

off these evils fell far short of success.

The

rising

men

held the power in the cantonal councils, and

they favored their class.

There was thus a steady

conflict

between the central


latter
fol-

government and the cantonal governments, the

lowing local policies and the former working for a larger,


freer, unified state.

The removal
The

of the jurisdiction over s-a-r-a-h from the

cantonal to the Federal courts was a long step forward.


struggle to maintain the Federal land laws
victory

was

less

successful, but, in the end, a partial

was achieved

by the Nationalists, who had added


element

to their forces a

new
the

by

the

introduction
into

of
the

representatives

of

poorer classes
e

(dallim)

great

Federal

council

am

ha-ares).

The

rights of the masses

came

to be

more

and more regarded, and the

aristocratic tendencies of the

country magnates, sitting as sikne ha-ir, were curbed by

8o

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

joining with them Federal judges with plenary powers (the

shophetim of the

later period),

and by the establishment of

Federal courts, with superior jurisdiction in cases involving


great national policies.
finally

The primacy

of

the

nation was

assured and the zikne ha-'ir sank to a subordinate

position.

How

deeply this

nationalization

was

rooted

in

the
state

minds and hearts of the people we can learn from the


of affairs in Ezra's time, more

than a

century

after

the

downfall of the old Judean

state.

The burning
it

question

was

that of intermarriage.

That

shook the

state to its

center

was

inevitable.

Great personages had married nonall

Hebrew women, and


and
social

that affection, political influence,

power could
in

effect to

avoid

the

disruption

of

families

was put

motion.

Doubtless the great literary

genius of the Book of Ruth was evoked by the sad situation.


Ezra, austere, single-minded, and inflexible, insisted on
his

view as the sole


bitter the

salvation of

church

and

state,

and

however

remedy, the wisest

men

of the country

agreed with him.

A
(Ezra

general convention was called to be held at Jerusalem


10, 7-9).
It

was soon seen

that the task of righting

present conditions could not be accomplished in a day or


two.

The

resolution

was reached,

that

special

court

should be instituted to hear the cases, the work being so

arranged that

it

could be finally completed


it:

in three

months.

And
alien

this

was the manner of

The men who had taken

wives were

summoned

to appear, canton by canton,

at stated times,

bringing with them their zikne ha-'ir and

their shophetim,

and then the special Federal tribunal de(Ezra


10,

cided each case on the merits

14).

POLITY OF ANCIENT HEBREWS

SULZBERGER

8
been

We
their

see here

completed the process which has


sikne ha-ir are
still

described.

The

a body representing
its

canton,

familiar

with

its

people,

customs

the

shophctim are their

legal advisers

on the law as modified by


is

Federal policies, and the Federal tribunal at Jerusalem

bound

to

hear

what they can


final.

say,

and

its

decision

is

supreme, binding, and


It is in

the light of these considerations that

we must
making

view the sikne ha-ir law, which has been the main theme
of these lectures.
clear that the state
If they

have any value,

it

is

in

was always viewed

as a bundle of cities,

and that under such circumstances the volume of sikne


ha-ir law must have been very great
;

that the instances

and

the statutes of that law which survive are but a small frag-

ment

that scanty as are the sources, they are the

still

the best

for learning

foundations

of

the

Federal

law which

superseded the canton law.

That the laws of the Pentateuch can be


stood

better under-

when we

appreciate these facts, seems clear.

May

time and opportunity be given


In any event,
that others
I

me

to continue the task.

may

be permitted to express the hope

who

are interested in the subject

may

take

it

up

and add

their contributions to the

work of giving us

a better

understanding of the constitutional and legal history of the


ancient Hebrews.

A TOKEHAH BY

R.

SAADYA GAON

By H. Brody, Prague
In
the

summer
Genizah

of

the

year

1902, while searching


to the

among

the

leaves
a.

belonging

municipal

library of Frankfurt

M.,

chanced upon an exceedingly


composition

damaged fragment of

a poetical

which

ex-

hibited evident traces of antiquity.

The badly preserved

and very defective text of the fragment offered no safe


clue as to the nature

and characteristics of the composition.

Despite
to

all

that,

however, the manuscript seemed to

me

deserve

publication,

and hence

published

it

in the

Festschrift
division,

sum

70. in

Gcburtstage A. Bcrlincrs

(Hebrew
to light

pp.

9-1 1)

the expectation that in the course

of time other parts of the composition would

come

from the obscurity of the Genizah and

that then the frag-

ment could be

utilized in the restoration of the text.

My
a year

expectation was realized beyond measure.

When,
to

and a half ago,


of
the

first

had an occasion

take

cognizance

excellent
in a

catalogue by

Xeubauer and

Cowley, which describes

wonderful manner the newly

acquired manuscripts and Genizah fragments of the Bod-

Xo. 2710, 3 R1 a S>*? nnvD W3"6 PPmD which opens with the words "pm *%h DS and has the refrain
leiana,
I

found

in

tfnil"!

riXT

tot\

This

refrain

which

also

occurs in

the

Frankfurt fragment suggested the thought that the Oxford


manuscript
contained
the

same poem.
83

By means

of a

K+

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


I

photographic reproduction, for which


instrumentality

am

indebted to the

of

the

learned

and kind

Mr. Cowley,

found
great

this

suggestion verified.
is

That by

myD

tfji

the

Gaon

to be

understood

which

is

already probable
2847, lb.

in itself

is

manifested by

MS. Oxford No.

This

likewise contains a small

fragment of our poem (to the

end of

letter

2) together with an Arabic translation, furnthat

ishing proof

our composition enjoyed high esteem.


:

The

superscription here reads

n^vsiw ibvrp
xnrifcnb

yV2
s

"J^KD
s

naiDiota
y'VT

ru6v^N nh iDBK
ptti

IX

sruxDnaK
is

djti

WE&K

rvnyo

1J1"1

^K.

This tradition

verified
in

beyond doubt through some phrases which occur

the

nrmn and recur

this is

here the translation of the Arabic term


in

rvmo
pip

Saadya's

second

prayer

HPiWD

D^lp
will

D":iKJ, pp. 78-83).


it

comparison of these passages

render

clear.

Tokehah
Letter
n
,

Prayer
:

verse 3

Kobes,
ny-i

p.

79.

1.

12

njno

-ijn:

inn dv n^ he
fc6o

ins nS

Sy

vr

no

vt &6 dv n^ no [nyn] p Sy pT n^ inc6

dki
noi

.pan
Letter
d, verse 4:
yDE>

.nrnnn

ins
21

ni>

k^o

/&/</.

pK
KU3

bs
KV'i

yDD nn

yD

pN
nan

^x
...

yon nnx yDD


lov N3 iy niacin

yD^i

Sqin ia
b

nn^y

i^n

.nuvwpi juyni
Letter
b

^do iov

verse 3
Sdcji

Z&t'rf.,

p. 80,

1.

14:

nncn

dhe:

batan -ib>n "qjdi ...dkdj *baai

nnea

A
Letter

TOKEHAH
p, verse 4:

BY SAADYA GAON
I

BRODY
p.

85
1.

hid.,

79,

5:

U OTTO
Letter n
,

i::it:p

upb: utq uaop iim


/&/</.,

verse 4:

p. 82,

1.

8:

utwn

nrn

D^yn uaoi
Saadya's
authorship

nrn
is

D^yn *o udvi
established,

Now

that

the

publication of the
less so since this

poem needs no

special justification, the

poem

discloses to us a

new phase

of the

creative

power of the poet Saadya.

In regard to technical

and

linguistic

accomplishments the Tokehah differs very

considerably from the extant compositions of Saadya, in

which the

artificial

form and the profuse use of rhyme and


It

acrostic result in clumsiness of language.

shares in com-

mon
the

with the beautiful prose of Saadya's prayers the tendin

ency for clear expression and pure diction,


footnotes

which

as

show

biblical

forms,

phrases,

and figures

are predominant, though here and there talmudic-midrashic

words,
are to

allusions

to

the

haggadah, and payyetanic forms


differs

be

found.
its

The Tokehah
in

from Saadya's
sacrificed in

prayers in

construction, the

rhyme being

order to obtain

imitation

of

the poetical style of the

Bible a grouping in verses and also a fourfold alphabet in


the
acrostic.

The

basis of
I

the

following text

is

the

MS. Oxford
1,

2710 which

designate in the notes up to letter


ff.)

verse

4 (note 26) by "O*", thence (note 27

simply by

MS.

Oxford 2847
D'JIPDp

is

named "O
3,

3
;

"O

" serves for

Oxford 2827,

14b which also contains a portion of the


XnWt, letter

Tokehah (from
"IM6W, letter
1,

verse

1,

to

DJiy

verse 4).

"F"

is

the

name

of the Frankfurt manuscript as

incorporated in the Berliner-Festschrift.


the text with vowel signs
I

Since

provide

have deemed

it

advisable to omit

86
the vowel

THK JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


letters

which accompany
letter
is

it.

The

refrain
fully
at
.

folits

lowing after every second


first

indicated

place,

then only by the two words

nT

W
it

The

manuscrcipts serving as basis have sometimes


or only "Dp.
C'UJ
fcO
.

\p\yy

nxT 1DP

At

letter

c\ verse

4,

the poet, with the

words

etc.,

drops the refrain, which would have been


;

out of place at the end of the whole


at

omit

therefore

the
1

end

despite

the

fact that

it

is

contained in

MS.

("O

")

probably
refrain,

on account of imperfect attention on


'trjn

the part of the copyist,

at the

end o{

letter
,

followso the

ing

the

means undoubtedly
to

nwm

and

Tokehah

seems
'1

have

been

inserted in the group of


T^tfS

verses npivn

lb.

namely before
lina
:

*|Um iS

riDfcOn.

-01 pD8rn!|
t t

v v

nbvw t

wnbin

n?n
v

Dixn wire ?pna ^b t t t t

: :

dK

ni:iyc ,"ini di

niryo ,np inn-jrp &rin3

fojrn iraa
2

^ d^

ns?Sin\

nan

MrvnB'nb

in ba

-n onn^i : -:
t
:

-w^sa t
t
:

itt

,ntf>D \b
:

nx

iwo
:

ib

^N

If

man was

to

be

valued on the basis of the consideration that God


all

has

favored

him above

creatures

and chosen him

for

His service, then

he would have to be pronounced


17,

very perfect and

faultless.

Comp.

Chr.

17;
-

Job

26,

14.

O8

Kin
by

nSyon iino.
physical

Judged,
by
bis

however,
body,
he
is

liis

constitution

and structure
etc.

(Ps.

1.39,

[5),

no
Isa.

more than an earthly fragment,


45,
9;

"lOPin

}Q

-VlXn
''

]D).

Comp.
7,

Gen.
7.

3,

19.

23;

Job

25,

6.

O8

D*inD.

Como. Comp.

Dan.
b.

15;

Ps.

42,

Ber.

Sia and

nneiD pnj51

ad

loc.

(notes

and X); Gen.

1 c,

12.

A TOKEIIAH BY SAADYA GAON


naafe^y 6an *n 'oy^ai
rD^fctej?

BRODY
mn
atfn:i

Xj
tobfyj

vnyy pas

ryy njHP n&a

n^tprjs

D\snS

Tiinn

wix

3in on ,aB

"iybn

r3

3 ,iab

aatr*6 nWa-oa ,*i*pnm ajn^a nyi


7

^nyafra

cvt

t53

oy^T aiKao rb^ba


,jr?o &tin n?aa

:"ia|5-nms ni^x ya-ix ini

jt3

.'eon

yja* ini^y \:sbi fcnzn

nttnar

BB^pjj

ynia

rinw

^n-^a-^jn

,ay

'noa^y M^nnS

inirifa isb

nuO

nay

^a

,-nv S^air^a

ll

-ik

,iabp

"riy

dbki sin "Vsrnfba ibk

najl

B pm6

Isa.

2,

22;

Eccl.

6,

12;

Job

18,

8.

|33
31).

p3 ID3: He

appears on

earth
6

as

if

walking on thorns
Isa.

(Prov.
5.

24,
1
:

Comp.
for

28,

2;

Ps.

57,

2'cp CTtT; 3"in

is

missing there.

has

nS2
7

~E2.
Deut.
32,

Comp.

15;

Hosea

13,

6;

Isa.

8,
1

21;

Eccl.

2,

2.3.

1fty2P3

is

missing in
8

O
8;

1
,

O3

has

inJ?31*3

instead;
6,

O
8.

reads S^pn* for E|Spnni.

Isa.

5,

Gen. 23, 4; Baba batra


3;

Comp. Obad.
Ps.
10,
4.

Isa.

14,

14; ib 8, 15; 28,

13.

O2

has

BM31

for

13^31.

10

11

By

12S0,
10,

as

found

in

both

and

2
,

God might be understood


8.

(comp. Ps.
Zeph.
12

4); perhaps

we should

read 1272, according to Isa. 47,

10;

2,

15.

Comp.

Isa.

14,

15-

IB?

H3
man)

=
is

bwV H3,
moulded.

Job
as

17,

16;

J3*ID^

1BJJ

according to Job 38, 38.


is

The sense then would be


(the

follows:

The grave

the

form

in

which he

88

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

l8

yr
:

161

t:

'

t:

t t

tt

T V

'

Kim
:

iro^-incD-

kib6
:

p t
'

r*nuim nton :

*nnmon ,r33no : t
:

-idibS
t
:

liWH

-*6

nip: Wpn\

roj nni?

,Dp

npjm trm W"5>5 BhT


T

ny"1

rjbsjn

nna

iajj

&6

|3~?y ,\i-ne

n *? "W?P
17

'

ir ?

D ^ n !?*!" n ?

^1

n^yrri nivy
vj-qetie

n^

.ntc?

lar

18

:Di<nQ inyn

^an^a

nn^a3 oy^

13

Comp.

Ps.

58,

9;

Eccl.

6,

5-

O2

reads
10;

IHBpn

3J*n nO*1T, which

is

to

be

explained from Ezek. 23, 20 and Job


is

10,

has inepnri

2J,*n fiftlT,

which

unintelligible to
14

me.
8,

Comp. Cant.
4,

5;

Ps.

77,

11;

Lev.

26,

37.

vocalize

!"ina

(comp.

TT

Micah

10)

because the archetypes exhibit

nn.3

(defective)

and not nmj,


,

which might perhaps be better


born, as Isa.
satisfactorily.
15

(=

mother, comp. Ps. 22, 10). U7E3


Sj?

he was
explain

66,

7.

The words lSB3 B>K1

SbJI

am

unable

to

Ps.

42,
17.

(guide, lead); Job


2
:

-6,

3;

Lam.

1,

12

and some other places;

Jer.

31,
16

IDinS V33HO.
7,

Comp.

Eccl.

23;

Ps.

39,

5;

139,

6.

O2

has Pipim twice.


is

17

The predicate of

the

first

member
1;

of the verse
10,
;

BHT
Eccl.
8,

(in

the prePs.
13,

ceding verse).
3.

Comp. Prov.
(Jon.
43,
1,

27,
6).

Jer.
:

14;

51,

17;
is

11;

ncynn
18

think
Isa.

O
9,

inEI
12.

p3XJfl

missing there.

Comp.

17;

Eccl.

A TOKEHAH BY SAADYA GAON


inn
t

BRODY
nhSlS
t

89

x^r pneHja
:

d\siq i3 ,tonS S>aD rm*fl vbv --;;:t: tt


:

mH
t

V T

fta niogb

po^a

mb*

,-jb^.

"^O

i^

ta3to-i>g

3brr_ nfen
Dion
t t

"wntain
:
:

jpd 5iD3

Kvpj jna$

ip_nj

dn

,aift

ninan run

pnp *mpa

oftr-H

M :nsvp

P|

*lftmia n;ni

naoK ipka ^annnb pan

DKB^aa

npfel

nnN

feft~^K

a^n

61 o^Eps iT*6

ncfe^n
84

,nKr3
i*i

pdbMd-1

arise

19

Comp. Job

28,

8;

41,

26;

Xah.

2,

13

(where

BpB

is

without

the

article).
20

Hab.
(Gen.

2,

(where
5);Cf2"1
9,

xSl

is

found);

Prov.

30,

15.

16.

DTPCC!

the

plants

2,

=
!2B*

all

that
that

moves on the
which

earth,

the animals of the


27,
8.

mainland

(Gen.

3)

swims

(Ezek.
Eccl.
6,

26),
is

fishes.

has BKBflTi

and yatPfl

xS ni!33 ICEi!, comp.


r.
"TJJ

3.

defective

excepting one word (1J,*D\


21

B... and
1;

'

as rest of tP).
5.

Ps.
2

52,

4,

36,
.

5;

Micah

2,

Gen. 49,

"11S21

according to F,

and

read 1*1X31

THVP
Bjn,

(Micah:

mV)P)
27,

is

striking;

2
:

IBB^

F has

rnntain
22

n^n

*SyS

comp.

Prov.

b.

rlullin 94a; Prov. 26, 23.


25, 6

F has VD3

for rp3.
Isa.

23

Comp. Ezek.
Isa.
;

and Targum ad loc;


17,

35, 2.
1.

F:

eprP for q'Srv.

24

66,

8;

Prov.
for

5;

Dent.

4,

39;

30,

and

2
:

riSCn

for

nDB-M

F:

ftnxtr

HnX

'3.

9
brrSa naitf

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


jptn
rvnofcs
,1-vjq-Sj;

than

mh

iona

ypan
-TV

nySl

.riNr -iar.

26

:ie>D:a

d^S.^ji now nek mgrft

nirrp

psn^ Hata*

tfpjo )b nri

,nan

va-ifc

vzpn

inDm

tett

siyT

DH^HI
D '
:

njntPD

Dpba

rwt|

nV#a

,*iny

nana

nyfii

rtnyn

^yST

ftfu

rfnj na-!)

niava

,aar

<a

nyb t
:

insrin
t
:

,fa!>

np nw]

"HT mpvi
tih)

nB"i>3

to

*6i

,iimwi-jd -iudh

jnpj nn
30

keo

max

fl

:nvrba ^yr T T t

23

Comp. Mai.

2,

3.

The

subject

is

treated in Midr.

r.

on Eccl.

12,

6:

no
'i2i

-jS

xn

iS

mow
O
2
:

nth

nnoioi

nypaa

dix

Sty
jn

ions

d*d

nt^tr nnS

d3jb hy ene nn*n Knp inn jo nS *no'


the places registered in the ed.
26

a nrai
b.

noom nSno

(to

Wilna

is

to

be added

Shab. 151&).

and

1*1D

for
30;

nDlil.

27

Comp.

Isa.
18,

30,
10.

Prov. 29,

25;

Sanhedrin

7,

ff.

113^0, masc. to

nniSp, job
28

Jon.

1,

13.

BjJ^t,
.

denom. of

HfiJ^t (Ps.

--9,

53 and elsewhere), part,


17

without performative

-J1JH, part. pass, of

1JH

(Isa. 43,
s.

and elsewhere).
7.

MMO'D,
29

comp.

b.

Taanit 19 a and Kohut, Aruch,


4,

v.

epu, note
6,

Comp. Hosea
in F,

n;

Ps.

107,

27;

Prov.

7,

23;

26.

For2^['],

as

found
i0

MS. has 3y,


first
is

see

however Ezek.

23, 5.

The

MS., and F
of

13, 8) is corrupted in the defective and in a condition not to be used in the restoration

half of the

verse

(comp. Hosea

the

text

(the

word

fl*n to

in

Ffor
Txn

H'T

in

MS. is
ppj

not clear,
,T1T

hence not
1*1311

safe).

Perhaps we are
to

read:
to

JO

niJDPI

'J5?2

iy?

and are

refer the

words

the sexual

intercourse with strange and con-

A TORE II AH BY SAADYA GAOX


"br
t

BRODY
ifti
:

Syy tfntib T

x&
T

xb

,KfeDn
T

lav !*

wa TT

,&>>n T

ip*na &\s

nnJl 'l-'TT
t
:

v:

D;srrbiJ

Dnann

pja-^N

p)a

pzb inxia term inxSn


f

n^

baa

pfl

<3T^-nw nirma ^bxb "


:
"
:

an ,nnftn 16
\

v t

insnm inp^n yj-o naSn t v - v t t


:
: :

-'mv niy
s

.riNT

iar
:

S4
:

rnittBfe'D
t
: :

"ryi

-warbi t t t

ry

mn

nj"l

jnxn-njo

,ttiKiarn

nbbp 3n5

pVp

ny aarojn
83

pw

*a

i^s:

spQ

*nja HJiTTiKi

pEyzi nfcua inpbn


t
:

^pn

,k>v

mi

iivti

pn

,nnp_ dot
36

mb*

jr[p

d^jS niay

sanguineous
this
it

women (W1J?).
word,
to

Or

is

iTTNBQ

?PTOfj

(Dan.
implied.

3,

19)?

In
D12'.

case

such
read
6,

like T12'

PI31T,

would have

to

be

For

woul be better
31

Comp. Prov.

27; II Chr. 24, 27; II Kings 19, 22

(=

Isa.

37,

23).

trn,
a

feci, as

often in

Targum and Talmud.


could
contain

After

KWOn F
letters,

still

has vSj,\ then


St?',

narrow
that
to
32

space

which
to

only

two

and the X of
to

so
is

X7

seems

have been missing here.

According

our version N7

be connected alro with the following 12V.

Comp. Prov.
derived

7,

23; Lev.

1,

16;
,

Num.
33,

24,

10; Ezek. 21, 19; II

Sam.

14,

14-

lOPITl,

from

Miami

Job

20.

pED, MS.

pIBD.

has

lacuna.
33
34
35

Prov.
II

6,

33. 16,
9.

13ttn

of

it

(of

the

sin).

Chr.

Comp. Job

18, 4;
I

Prov. 29, 24; Ps. 109, 17; Zech.


49,

5,

4.

has 2\- for


;

fpltt

For Ty, as

read according to Gen.

27,

MS. has
M t2

TS

F
"3
is

has a

lacuna.
30

Comp. Prov.
eliminated,

31,

16; I

Kings

21,

19;

Job

24,

18.
p.

J,

from
the
'

J,*

the 3

being

comp.

Zunz,

Synagogale Poesie,

873;

vowel

92
rata ip'nzi

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


^psn
abap ,*?
*a 353

ntfaa

,btfo
37

nSa bo\

mCD

njra"ia ian
T

tm

,3*^

dov -:t-

te>a3

:-

nion ,v^jS t
t

nato t

inkna fc6a ins:p ' :

rmcCO t

W :n^ bnb wtea

r&r p$

nw

tfnb <ba n#! ran o^ps^

"15?

tiby

Di^tfa
39

|Vib rrrP

nvnr6
n?
nfirf]

wni

foetop

|#aan

rw ,m

xb\ nru pb'jr

fin'jmrn
40

ojn

nnp^ inwpa
foifc6

*nKan ninaa idid inrrp

^nto rua nnaD

r*irnpb

*rnnr^

"nnipji nnut>'p
.nar -iar
42

:bnn prp Dnwjr!>ai jnair icappi Kapo irP

letter. jHfl,

he resolves and brings his resolution into execution by murdering


wealth
unlawfully.
pft"
,

and

acquiring

B>"V

MS.:

BH

113J?

pDJ?
2,

is

here

in

connection with

nnj, 7XJHP

comp. Ibn Ezra on Hosea

17;

Saadya,

according to a citation by David Kimhi, interprets the passage in a different


way.
37

Comp.

Jer.

2,

26;

Esth.

7,

8;

Prov.

14,

28.

38

Comp. Dan.
Comp. Prov.

1,

10; Judg.
18;

16,
10,

30;
11

Prov.

14,

29.

1B'B3

is

missing in MS.

39

15,

Eccl.

(where XiSn for ^2).

F has

ttipB"

for

B*pB*.
4"

He drinks

the

water of the sea to the


still

last
e.

drop, deprives the rivers

(of their water)

and
Isa.

he does not rest


extinct

(i.

he

is

insatiable);
his

the fire

of

the

smelting-furnace

becomes
6;

the
Exod.
7.

flames
19,
18.

of

jealousy

burn

forever!
41

Comp.
Ps.

19,

Job
Lev.

40,
13,

23;
2. 6.

Comp.

140,

12;

8;
9.

Job

5,

2.

PUS
F:

(or

f'Uft),
3,

or his body, already in the Hebr.


11.

Ben

Sira

10,

lilCD'

lfl'M', Lam.

nmoS
39,
4-

PIDatrO inNOJn, his hatred leads him hurriedly to destruction, comp.

fob.

24;

MS. has
Eccl.
9,

PIE'ttDE lrVOJfl.
6.

Comp.

A TOKKIIAU BY SAADYA GAON


161

BRODY
cn
BtoA?

93

z v'*:":

""-v

nferA

n^DC ir

trap*

rwn avij

-*:i"

-:r

*W

inr t

tateaa : :

nsa fho t r
'

roT*

rip *^a .:'t-: ^p-m nirbat *nnn3


:

ty z'^r

on; mru

rJtirirQa

np^ npb

ds rnyu nnSc
"joan

psv

43

Comp.

Isa.

40.

and elsewhere; Ps.

5a,
it

4;

Jer.

34. to

1.

The sense
they

is

no doubt as follows: If he attains authority

becomes
and

him

a sharp-edged

sword
remain
satisfy

(a

danger);
to

[he

must]

please

friends

servants

(that

may
nevei

faithful
fully

him and help maintain


wishes

his

power),

but

he

can

their

and

desires.

For

IT
.

(F shows

and then a

lacuna)
**

MS. has
Comp.

VT

and

niSHOm
Lam.

for
3,

Djnom
Ps.
59.

ludg.

so,

4.;:

5;
.

5.

F has VTTV

for

|Wl,

for

~D' both
45

archetypes
Ps.
69,

exhibit

"|W
jo.

Comp.
the

4;

Job

6.

The

ruler

should

intervene

between

Cod and
efforts are

people and act on earth according to the will of Cod, but his

in vain
.

and
.

his toil

remains

fruitless.
it

T.D1D3
to

is

vocalized in the

MS. TD1D2
46

ipsin

is

lacking, but

seems

have read tpET.T.

Far from being able


a

to

devote himself securely to the problem allotted


blissful influence
to

to

him by Cod and exert


against
plots

he

must
if

very

often

defend

himself
fall

and conspiracies,
then
o
;

which,

not

guarded,

he could

a victim

where
Ter.

is

his glory,
3,

his

power?

MS. has

B)B1V for 'ur.

* Comp.
**

17.
17.

Job

24.

tfWty (from

'Tiy) barrenness.
a,

Comp. Prow

ai;

Ezek. 21, ao; Isa. 47, 9; 65, 23; Lam.

aa.

94
*p*o

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


fpan^
fan jrv-ja

w-pfejr

/Qh^d idb6

feA

atn?

b^V

hnt nSr

"rioiS

P^'N^

nsrri rja ras*

ffynr\

inspnn ny ?

rrt&eto

;vJ>k

ran

*3 ribfe*

rfpr'a sp.OTiya

^l^i

ib"!fe\*D

*6

&w

,injn
t t

lireoj
: :

,nK>2D-i
:..:

vbv lnabi tt t

mp&> Dimi t v v

nvO t t

52

iEa }'pn

rniani rnrnpnnvjfanb togo

^W
t t

frn

n&w

wry?

noW
:

iivaD

iboa trnVxa db" T


.

..

dn
.

riTB'
.

"oai ...

vnab>
:

6W1 :t
:

,mijn"
:

lias

^ipD

na T -

,n>n
:

inn Dnon ,irrn t t t -:


:

pia*
t t

on
t

vn

innyn- mn -:t t
\
:

-lyj

49

Comp. Gen.

26,

20;

Sam.

25,

10.

Before

<E1J2

word seems

to be

missing.
50

Comp. Job

14,

20.

21.

According

to

that jpft'l

should be read instead

of

BjSnn.
51

Comp. Gen.

21,

(Ps.
12,
1.

106,

2).

MS. has V31130


is

for

WOD.
CD 13*1
(Job 33,
to

52

Lam.

2,

16;

Eccl.

nCDEI

to

be compared with
it

25), but admits here of no satisfactory explanation;

seems

be a mistake

of the copyist.
53

On

this
3,

and the following verse comp.


16;

Eccl.

12,

3.

14; Joel 2,
ljftjfl
,

10

and

4,

15;
,

Ilab.
lStfl

Ps.
.

78,

7;

7i,

9-

MS. has lytJW

for

U9?1Q for

IBpB

for

iSS^l
20,

M Comp. Job

25;

6,

4-

MS. has mnj?3l

for

Vtfiya'1.

A TOKEHAH BY SAADYA GAON


-*6i pyx-th) iaat>>o-^y

BRODY
"wijDn-ip
ac>

95

bb" ,n*pna m*na

oo imn

^iaoD ton J

-n T33.ni

nnnn

nip*

,Tm

^d-id^

waya pjvay ,ob rnva anj


56

n^pni

iab

.nxr

-or

:,T

:mprrSao Na^a nv TV t T
:

naW

rsrO

n*?.

fi3

nr]P2 flatten ntf

ny

5>

,-ivy *iki

rnpa

y^

,ina pni afc^

t t v

D-jni

oyo &n ai3 D'trsnp

/jnp_-ii

inb\ wy

,npsa

injta*

Dp

i!?yi
-.

imo tt

ynv -

iabi

,nmno ixt t
:

vnioy:
t

fova
60

na -t

ib

inofcf
:

rby bp:

ior *oaa

ksi_

*# r^aJrioa

rrnay

n"^ yDo nnx yDo yp


61

:nunw

>i:yni

pH>3d

rrbnn
T V T-:

tw '

id -

mo VT

Dia
'

nn&j>
T T

,vnio'Ni
T

mo-'San ,vtv taeni v'^V V T T^ T


;

"

62

*l>'pa

mr
in

s5

Comp.

Hosea

7,

14;

Isa.

9,

12.

'31BOD,

veins,

frequent

the

Talmud.
56

Comp.
for

Ps.

56,

1;

Isa.
2,

38,

14;

Exod.

8,

11;

Isa.

63,

17.

MS. has

Dm:
57 58
59

WU

(comp. Nah.
I

8),

D'D31 for D1D31.


5,

Comp.

Sam.

23,

26;

Eccl.
is

14.

Now
Comp.

for the first time he


Isa.
51, 8;
19,
10,

able to suppress his wrath.

Job

14,

1;

Exod.
10;

47, 9-

MS. has
3,

XrfasW* for \TbSM,

60 61

Comp. Job Comp. Job Comp.


Ezek.
I

15;

Prov.
20,

14,

Lam.
4.

28.

i"IXin?3,

outwardly.

20;
4,

25;

Ps.
10,

146,

62

Sam.
23,
34.

19;

Dan.

16;

Ps.

18,

5;

116,

3;

55,

5;

Sam.

15,

32;

96
iBtea :

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


nnpm
:

,wi- nan ma
t
:

t t

,r\p& rnicvy v
\
:

jySi
'

,tr*o

inSe vj'bV *:
:

64

3iBn ions DW*i - . .

teno -

q, e
.

^n
.

nD2n: 2nin T T T T_
.

..

n-ui isD3 bun _ _


.

ivV _*r

.riNT ")3r

65

:mnK rpn*no

nixiS vryo n^:p

t>

isU

n3T
t-

dx D v> nn

nma :

rinnyy :tt:

"ib>k
v -:

jnvb t

,ruiy-ta
t
:

ip>s: :

nmB :t
t

mnfo t
:

*a

nbSn
t

ny-i

tt nroa

--t
,yiBh
v
:
:

nxo pvrbi) t-'-tt:

Wv

t t:

tiino

miB t
:

itf&Ji ,nnfc>zi ~
:

batMi

dndj
:
:

,hyw to^s
t t

-ie>x
v -;

,ym ?pn ruB t t v


:
:

68

nbi< vbv V T T T
Iswai \>B

jnD nvb taoetea

prm

lips

rnnr6

Sw

* inni

n^
69

:p3^nn

bh)
:

intrno d*i*6 tsd nfra pnb pxrrbKi tt: tt *t vtt

'
:

byo nnb t t

Kip*
t:
-

-i,y

53

Comp. Job

si, 24;

Prov.

13,

and elsewhere;

Isa.

5,

30.

|J?S

bibl.

ny;b.
64

Comp.
Comp.

Eccl.

12,
3,

6;

Job
6,

14,

11;

Lam.

4,

1.

05

Eccl.
I

22;

12; b.

Sotah 27b.

MS. vSj?0

for

VS'yO.
.

68

Comp.

Sam.

25, 29; II Chr. 24, 7.

MS. has JNB^


Prov. 27,

for yiX*S

innj,'\

in

the Bible only Hiph. and


67

Hoph.
Eccl.
5,

Comp.

Chr. 21,

27;

15;

8.

68
c9 70

Comp. Deut. Comp. Job Comp.


Ps.

28, 54; Ps.


5;

146, 9
59,
4,

and elsewhere; Job

9,

31;

14, 22.

41,
50,

Isa.

10.

4;

Amos

13;

b.

Sanhedrin 91a (further sources are


p.

offered by S. Krauss,

Antoninus und Rabbi,

63,

note 1); Hagigah

5a.

MS.

imar

for

wn3?.

A TOKEHAH BY SAADYA GAOX


*Jtt

BRODY

97

nw

inanzi 'ftra ,pi2 D nn -11x3 lisn


,J,

Krona i^s:b npi^

Bta

mfoKn t

,-inKS v:b iap< ,atf kSi ryete 121 t tt


: :

t t

dx

fota

afta |bJ{ -T

"nerift
.nxr "isr :
*7

:deji
t t
:

phm -:-

patf ,tra
t

vry t

-lay
t

ra^ DHsbn

nap*

mp

,Dnitfsirby

din*

oa ro^P]
u,

x^n

nrp

33 npa
'aa

nno
.in*

n^srfip

rTBnrn

tara

,ni33 Sy

pb^p ,o^Siy

n'D

^aftftfrta
,i^-|3D-;-np
\Sn

nvap ,guDi -kdk

*a

^s

,-133

dd* inn ;^p


ft

T6

ftD|r^aa

pn-^nn

nawo rinupKD op^ip hdko ,u^

*ftn

nta <pb ,uk ttvpga MJb'p


".tttfw jnaft

Dinrft

ny *H?B#P ^Ppv

rSrorni

an onci
78

,"ikpS

ty

irf2

.-in*)

D^23n bw ^insi

tinpnvi

71

Comp. Job Comp. Job


Comp. Job

33,

30;
19;

Ps.

102,
2,

28.

72

21, 21,

Joel
Ps.

6;

Nah.
10.

2,

11;

Job

20, 26.

73

20;

112,
16,
2,

74

Comp. Ezek.
Comp.
Isa.

32,

16;
8;

Jer.

5;

Amos
Isa.

6,

7.

75

28,

Hab.
t

16;

33,

9;

Mai

3,

14.

0*0^1?

'J

are no doubt tfl'W,


76

2n"lJ*
3;
15,

and rVtTBH mi3V


1,

Comp. Job Comp. Comp.


the
rest
I

35,

Eccl.
17;

3.

77

Sam.
59,

Job

6,

7.

78

Isa.
is

12;
off.

Ps.

36,

7;

b.

'Arakin 86.

For "pDDBPQ MS. has

ECE,

worn

98
161
D"ii3Tri

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


U"6k

nn *tfpnt6

wan

nSi
T9

njwrt|

"lbfo

:3*J

Dp: ub "lion

V T

.nxr -tar

nita -iafe6

kti noa-h

spDta nS

rKionb niy

^no

tdni *njn rno|

,-oca tjnni
82

wot^

ni>Da^ liy
t
:

oiy ?in3

s
,

nN^n ^nyw

3.ynK 'BKa sft

nni

-a

'noeb niybat^
83

pja
^{J?

Krbon

rn_3K

?pyBD

-i>*:

^m^y
m

ditti

Din

ujyw nnx
84

y*tta

lipyp
m-itS?

wniWjr^ao

c>inp

*6 ,Drun

unyybyi ?P!Dna ua/^m

79

Comp.

Deut.
s.

32,
v.

29;
]J5-|
.

Ps.

73,

17.

1333*1

we have

acted

foolishly,

comp. Ibn Janah,


80

\HX\

UU'an.

Comp. Ezek.

44,

6;

47,-5.

81

MS. m.
Hab.
3,

82

16.

For

"^'DIN,

following Ps. 88,

9,

we should perhaps read

awn.
83

Comp. Job

27, 60,
12

3;

Isa.

16,

9. }"1*33'3 3,
2.

is

strange,
for

we would expect
"P^BD,
16,

^"102.

84

Comp.

Isa.

ax;

Eccl.

MS.

"|J,'BO
3,

M Exod.

32,

and elsewhere; Zeph.

11;

Ezek.

43.

A TOKEHAH BY SAADYA GAON


b*K

BRODY
uwk
1

99
D'n^iFl

,^Nim

nrr6o

mb^ rfiinbg

un? ago Wish


...

..

onipni spfti? urnrjK

to^

,fcyp

*?

uxn;

'?

yo&h &p pgFl

"man
njnto ?pJWri ropa Jrunn

kS

,HirDBnn ^in^nrn tty

"nsx

T^H

ho- fen

mn

ubSvn >J3W

d vt6

86

Comp.

Chr. 29,

15;

Gen. 47,

25.

87

The

first

half of the
8,

verse follows the prayer


14.

Dim

KtiTI

the second

half follows Deut.


88

16;

Prov. 23, 18; 24,


Isa.
12,

MS. 1*31313
4.

for

-|3iyi3.

Comp.

Isa.

48,

9;

5;

Job

20,

1niJn

is

improbable, per-

haps

inuwi.
89

Affliction;
19

in

this

sense

the

word was
lies
it;

also

used by

the

Hebr.

lien

Sira
tion,"

31,

(Strack,

whose edition

before me, translates '-inner suffoca-

but the contents do not favor

comp. Kohut, Aruch,

s.

v.

pat?

and

pwi).

rfanch.

ms. rhrrch

(defective).

RECEXT BIBLICAL LITERATURE


A
Dictionary of the Bible.

By John
at

D. Davis, Ph. D., D. D., LL. D.,


in

Professor of Oriental and Old Testament Literature


Theological

the

Seminary

Princeton,

N.

J.

With many new


illustrated.

and original maps and plans

and amply

Third
:

edition, revised throughout and enlarged.

Philadelphia
-f-

The

Westminster Press,

191

i.

pp. vii

-f-

840

XIV

maps.

In the language of the author, the book aims to be a dictionary


of

the

Bible,

not

of

speculation

about

the

Bible.

It

seeks
this
in

to

furnish a thorough acquaintance with things biblical.


it

To
stated

end
the

has

been

made

compendium

of

the

facts

Scriptures, and of explanatory and supplementary material

drawn
Israel.

from the records of the ancient people contemporary with


In other words, critical discussions are avoided
at
all
;

where they are

suffered to

come

in,

the spirit

is

unequivocally traditional,

orthodox.
in

The main

feature of the Dictionary therefore consists

arranging the scattered references bearing upon an article with


regard to divergences of sources.
a want;
it

little

Such a work no doubt

fulfils

has gone

now through
der

three editions.

Kur.zgefasstes

Lehrbuch

speziellen

Einleitnng

in

das Alte

Karl Holzhey, Professor der alttestamentlichen Exegese am Kgl. Lyzeum in Freeing. Paderborn
Testament.
Dr.

Von

Ferdinand Schoeningh,
Practical

1912.

pp.

ix

2I 7Lit-

Handbook for
Including

the

Study of the Bible and of Bible


geography,
antiquities,

erature.

biblical

introduc-

tion to the

Old and the

Xew

Testament, and hermeneutics.

By

Michael Seisenberger, Royal Lyceum, Freising. Translated from the sixth German edition by A. M. Buchanan.
Dr.

M. A. (London) and edited by the Rev. Thomas

J.

Gerrard.

Xew York:

Joseph F. Wagner, [1911]-

PP- xii

491.

IOI

102

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


the Scriptures.

Knowing
Dr.

Rules and methods of Bible study.

By

Arthur

T.

Pierson.
*

New York:

Gospel

Publishing

House, [1910].
Introduction
to

pp. 459.

Bible Study:
Litt. D.,

The Old Testament.


in

By

F. V.

N.

Painter, DD.,

Professor

Roanoke

College.
-f-

Boston

and Chicago: Sibley

& Company,

[191 i].

pp. xi

265.

The Great Epic of Israel. The web of myth, legend, history, law, By Amos oracle, wisdom and poetry of the ancient Hebrews.
Kidder Fiske, A. M.
pp.
xi

New York:

Sturgis

& Walton,

1911.

376.

The Old Testament.


Rector of
Co.,
Salle,

By

the Rev. H. C. O. Lanchester,

M.

A.,

Norfolk.

New York Longmans,


:

Green, and

[1911I

pp. vii

+
to

251.

Short

Introduction

the

Old Testament.
All
Saints',

By
1912.

the

Rev.

F.

Ernest Spencer,
and
224.

Vicar of

Haggerston.
Co.,

London

New York: Longmans, Green and

pp. viii

Introductory works to the Bible, according as they deal with


the collection as a whole (history of the canon or text) or with the
several

books singly

(contents

and

critical

questions

concerning

composition and authorship), are either general or special; they

may
or

of course also be both.

Such books are as a

rule intended

for the

student
it

whether the manner of presentation be copious


nevertheless

concise,

is

always argumentative.

further

variety will consist in an outline of the history of biblical literature


as the
single

productions follow each other in time interspersed


its its

with an account of the fortunes of the Jewish people and of


spiritual

progress; a
is

work

of this kind, though ambitious in

pretensions,

particularly serviceable in the


to
utilize the

hands of a popularizer

who knows how


gift

labors of others and possesses the

of

language to turn the dry technical learning into pleasant


All of these varieties are represented in
special

and interesting reading.


our
list.

Holzhey has written a

introduction to the Old


so

Testament.

What

singles
it

his

work out among

many

others

that have preceded

is

not so

much the neatness with which the

contents arc

summed up

or the critical position set forth, or the

RECENT BIBLICAL UTKKATl KK


rich

MARGOUS
the theories
that his

IO3

bibliography at

the

end of each paragraph, but rather the

circumstance that the

writer
is

who
a

accepts

of

the

dominant

critical

school

Catholic

and

book has

received the episcopal imprimatur.


tion
it

As

work of

succinct informa-

will

commend

itself to all

Catholic students for

whom

it

is

primarily designed.

Seisenberger
New

has compressed within a volume

of moderate bulk, over and above a general and special introduction


to

the

Old and

Testament, a Geography of the Holy

Land, a

Biblical

Archaeology,

and a

treatise
is

on

the

Science of
in

Interpretation

(Hermeneutics).

The whole

written

simple

language suitable to the understanding of the

less

mature student

and the educated layman.


Holzhey, Seisenberger
is
is

Unlike his colleague and co-religionist


critics.

unrelenting to the

His procedure

to

give

on every debated point the traditional account with


(critical)

which the modern

theory

is

contrasted; then there fol-

lows a refutation which moves in the track of the usual harmonistic


exegesis

common

to

all

opponents of the
It

critics,

be they Catholics,

Protestants, or Jews.
critical

must be owned that the picture of the


cavil at
at

the
if

position is somewhat overdrawn. But we cannot Churchman who finds much that is precious to him
critical theories to their

stake

he follows out the


is

logical conclusions.

It

crudely, but none the less truly, brought out that according
critics

to

the

the

priests

who

foisted

upon a credulous king or


the outcome of

people a newly composed code of laws as Mosaic were forgers, the

whole of Judaism and Christianity based upon

it

is

repeated acts of deception and not of divine revelation, and Jesus

himself

who

speaks of

Abraham

as the

founder of the race, of

Moses

as a writer,

and of David as a psalmist, was himself ignorant

and therefore could not be God.


traditional account

The author

refuses to turn the

of the religious development of Israel upside


is

down.

Polytheism
revelation

but

an aberration

it

was preceded by
obscured.
is

primitive

which

was for

some time

The
to

teaching of the Church on the subject of inspiration

shown

be intermediate between the broad conception which allows for a

book originating

in

merely human

way,

without
if

supernatural
the

intervention of the

Holy Ghost,
of the

to be called inspired,
it

Church

under the guidance

Holy Ghost admits

to

the

Canon

(modernist position), and the narrow conception which assumes

104
that every

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


word was
of
a

matter of divine communication.


inspiration
it

Thus with
to

the

rejection

verbal

becomes possible

make
hand

allowance for the


expresses
it

human
a

individuality of the sacred writers which

itself

in

particular phraseology.

On

the other

is

maintained that the choice of

many most important words and


editor
(p.

expressions, "such as Elohim,

Yahweh, Logos, Sophia, Mashiach"

was made through

inspiration.

The

vi)

calls

attention

"to a theological distinction which

would seem

to

have come into

prominence since the author


not appear to have been
edition.
It
is
is

first

wrote his book, and which does


even
in

made

sufficiently clear

the latest

the

distinction

between inspiration and revelation.


all

All the Bible


writer,

inspired, but not

the Bible

is

revealed.

sacred

for instance, might write


it

down an account
In

of an event as

he had seen
his

or heard
is

it

from an eye-witness.
writing
it

The source

of

information

purely natural.

down, however,

he does so under the influence of that supernatural charism which


is

known

as

inspiration.

On
for

the other hand, he might have the


directly by God."

knowledge infused
will

into his

mind

Such a position

naturally

make room
in

some or
Christian

all

of the concessions to

criticism

found
of
is

Holzhey, himself the author of a treatise on the

question

inspiration.

The

religion

as

administered

by

Rome

a very restful thing.

On

matters of weighty concern

whether they be classed as dogmas or doctrines the Church has

made pronouncements which no


can challenge.

faithful

son

.of

Mother Church
is

His mind

is

therefore set at rest and there

no

room
still

for

doubt or contrary opinion.

The Catholic

scholar

may
has

find

scope for setting forth and elucidating and sometimes also

of defending the truth, but he can do no more.

Where Rome

not

spoken,

and

Rome
is

often
to

wisely abstains

from speaking, the


faculty and seek

Catholic
the truth

student

free

exercise his critical

according to the approved canons of scientific research.


of

The works
others
a

both these Catholic teachers are


to

among
to

a host of
studies

witness

the

fresh

impulse

given
in

biblical

among
version

Catholics

by

Pope
(

Leo

XIII
18,

his

Encyclical

Letter

Providentissimus Deus
is

November
letter

1893)

of which an English
pp. 159-179.

printed in Seisenberger's
pastoral

Handbook on
to

The
of

purport of that
the

was

re-assert the

solicitude
to lav

Church

for the cultivation of

Holy Scripture and

down

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE


rules
to

MARGOLIS

105

for

"carrying on successfully the study of biblical science"


that

the

clear end

the errors of

rationalism,

"the peremptory

pronouncements of a newly invented free science," might be combated with


the
in

weapons of
studies

criticism.

It

thus meant

counter-

reformation

biblical.

"The Church by no means preprogress.

vents or restrains the pursuit of biblical science, but rather protects


it

from
still

error,

and largely

assists its

real
in

wide

field

is

left

open to the private student,

which

his hermeneutical

skill

may

display itself with signal effect and to the advantage of

the Church.

On

the one hand, in those passages of

Holy Scripture

which have not as yet received a certain and


such labors may,
in

definite interpretation,

the benignant providence of God, prepare for

and bring
in

to maturity the

judgment of the Church; on the


the
private

other,

passages

already

defined,

student

may do

work

equally valuable, either by setting


flock or

them forth more

clearly to the

more

skilfully to the scholars, or

by defending them more

powerfully from hostile attack."

An
preacher
Pierson.
tion.

orthodox Protestant exposition of the rules and methods

of Bible study in a popular style or rather in the manner of a


discoursing
It is

before

his

congregation

is

the

work

of

a trifle diffuse for the average seeker after informain

But to those
itself

need of edification or of an exposition which

addresses

not so

much

to

the

intellect

as to the heart the

book

will

no doubt appeal.
Painter's

Professor

work

is

intended

for

school use.

Its

purpose

is

to set forth the literary, historical,

and

ethical value of

the Bible.
the small

Within

its
is

compass and for the readers contemplated

volume

admirably written.

Mr. Fiske may rightly boast of "a capacity of setting forth


clearly
people'."

what he learns and


His
largely

thinks,

to

be

'understanded

of

the

style is certainly masterly.

His source of informa:

tion

is

the

"Encyclopaedia
tells

Biblica"

but

he

is

somewhat
has

mistaken

when he
its

us that

"comparatively

little

been

added since

publication."
all

As

a restatement in clear and fascin-

ating language of

that is "too detailed, too argumentative, too

heavy or too dry"

in the lore of specialists

Mr. Fiske's volume

will

no doubt appeal to a large class of readers who unable or unwilling

I06
to

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


through
find

wade

the

mass of

argument or discussion

will

be

pleased to
set

laid

before them the conclusions of at least one


to the
in
all

of

scholars
the

who belong
interest

dominant school.
Jewish
Scriptures

In order to

revive

waning

the

the

author

proceeds to divest them of


ments.
that

authoritativeness as inspired docu-

"The common

intelligence will

no longer accept the dogma


is

they are divine


in
all

revelation,

except as divine revelation


;

to

be traced
inspired

human development word of God and contain


accepted,
It

or that they are the specially


all

in

parts infallible truth, to


intelligence

be

unquestioningly
to

for

the

common

has

come

know

better.
its

has been taught to discriminate and to


is

apply reason, and


field.

liberty

not to be excluded from this one


all

noble

may sentiments may


All

truth

be accounted divine,

great thoughts and

be regarded as inspired, but no

more

in this

literature

than

in

others, ancient
(sic)
in

and modern.

The

voice of

God

did not vociferate

one small country for a few centuries

and then

fall

into silence,"

and so

on.

Accordingly, though recogif

nizing the genius of the "peculiar people" on the moral


the
intellectual
side,

not on

he

is

amazed

at

their

"superior pretension"

arising out of an indomitable self-assertion and consisting in im-

posing their literature, described on the title-page as a "web of

myth, legend, history,


valuation."

etc.,"

upon

credulous world "at their


Elohist,

own

Myths pervade the Jahvist and


and the history
a

the

stories

of the heroic period and of the beginnings of the

monarchy are
was
of future than

steeped

in

legend,

of

the

two

Kingdoms

compiled

rather
of

"with
the

view to edification for the

information
"diviners or ceptions
their

past."

The prophets who developed out


deity

soothsayers"

had many "crude and barbarous" conthe

with

regard
but

to

and the "worldly destiny" of


ethical

own
to

nation;

withal they taught lofty

principles

which constitute the peculiar contribution that the Hebrew genius

made

mankind.

The burden of
to

the

later

prophets

from the

Second Isaiah down

the

Second Zechariah was the promise of


and Jacob

world dominion born of the "imagination of the wandering Jew

who
is

believes

that

the

covenant with Abraham,

Isaac

still

to be kept."

hi the

Law, the

vitality of the ethical principles


in

inherited

from the prophets "was impaired

the stress laid


this

upon
is

formal observances and ceremonies.

As

whole

law

....

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

MARGOLIS

107
Its ethical

an unattractive and uninspiring mass of dead letter standard


is

not higher than that which already was appearing

in

Greek
....

literature

and philosophy.

Even the conception of


in the

deity

was

less lofty

than to be found
time
of
the

poetry and philosophy


Nevertheless,
the

of

Greece

at

the

second temple.

influence of this Mosaic heritage

upon the

later religious develop-

ment and upon the destiny of mankind

for ages has no parallel in

human
as in

history."

"To

accept the book of Esther as historical or


is

any sense a narrative of facts

no more rational than bethe stomach of a


'great

lieving in Jonah's three days' sojourn in


rish'

....

It

is

interesting

....

as
in

illustrating

the

character and

spirit

of

the

Jews

in

Judea

the

last

centuries

before the

Christian era, the spirit of the Maccabees and of those


cified

who

cru-

the

gentle teacher

of

Nazareth."

The

"I"

of

the

Psalms

signifies the
all

personified community.

"The wonderful thing about


from the devoted community

these varied utterances that sprang

of which the temple at Jerusalem was the center and the syna-

gogues

were

scattered

branches,

is

their

adaptation

to

human

moods and needs and

aspirations in the individual man, which has


religious devotion

made
all

of

them an anthology of
It
is

and worship for

time."
a

an extravagant claim to regard the book of Job


faultless

as

virtually

production.

"It

contains
it

subtle

delinea-

tions

and some powerful descriptions, but


depths
in

does not reach the


life

profound
sounded

of

philosophy

touching

human

that

were

Greek tragedy of nearly or quite the same period, and

does not excel in power of description, splendor of imagery or


force of expression, the greatest passages of Greek poetry."

The

author's concluding estimate of the "epic"

is

that

it

is

"massive,

conglomerate, amorphous,
is

inartistic,

but imposing, with


its

precious to

mankind mingled

in

great bulk with

much that much of


treasures

grosser quality, the deposit of

centuries in

which the
it

were stored.
but that which

Losing the cement of sanctity


is

may

disintegrate,

precious can never be


is

lost."

Mr. Lanchester's object

likewise

to

popularize the

results
;

of the higher criticism which in his opinion has

come

to stay

but

he

is

not bound hand and foot to

all

of

its

vagaries some of which


finds.

may now

be refuted by the aid of archaeological

Above

all

108

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


He dissects and dissevers, He compares and seeks
and

he writes with sympathy and reverence.


but the parts do not become infinitesimal.

to establish literary dependence, but only to prove to himself


to others

of

how far above comparison is for instance the first chapter Though he concedes much to a sane criticism, he is Genesis.
in

emphatic

having to give up nothing that

is

vital in the value of

the Old Testament.

What Mr.

Fiske designates as myths, are to


It
is
still

him "theological conceptions."

in his
first

judgment a book

of unique and incomparable significance,


the

as the depository of

thoughts of

one of the most gifted nations of the ancient


its

world, then as unapproachable in most of


literary point of view,

parts

from

a purely

and

lastly as the

record of the self-revela-

tion of

God

to

His chosen people.

"While the critics have a friend in the rectory of Salle, Norfolk,

they

are

apparently

not

well

received
is

in

the

vicarage

of

All

Saints' in Haggerston.

Mr. Spencer

a well-informed

and well-

read
ings
in

man he has perused the great mass of modern critical writdown to the latest German brochure but he has succeeded
; ;

persuading himself that the higher


believes that archaeology has

critics

are

losing ground.

He

come

to the rescue of the tradi-

tional position.

He

is

shocked

at

the slur which an exponent of


traditionalists

Wellhausenianism
persons."

casts

upon the

as

"censorious

Among

the latter, he thinks, are scholars of eminence,

such as

Hengstenberg, Keil,

Bachmann,
out,

Gasser,

Moller,

Oettli,

Klostermann

("who

stood

excommunicate"),

and

others.

Genesis, he argues, will be allowed to be the testing ground of the


critical

analysis.

"If

it

is

uncertain

here

it

is

uncertain every-

where.

Xow

let

the English reader take a Genesis in which the

sources are indicated in different colour or type, and the process will

appear strange and unnatural.


old

An

interesting, beautiful,

and very

story

is

observed to be distorted and perplexed.


all

Sometimes
J2>).

the climax, to which

leads up,

is

snipped off"

(p.

"The

cutting up of most of the

an

entire

contempt
the

for

Hebrew prophets into fragments, with Hebrew literary tradition, which is the
seems to

delight

of

German

intellect,
(p.

me

to

be based upon

precarious
thority of

principles"

in).

He

has no scruple, on the au-

Sirach, to accept the Isaianic authorship of the second

RECENT BIBUCAL LITERATURE


part

MARGOUS
"All

[Og
Isaiahs

of

Isaiah.

''The

Deutero, Trito-, and many other


(p.

tend to dwarf the original Isaiah"

112).

men agree
write

that

David wrote the kinah on the death of Saul and Jonathan and the
kinah on the death of Abner.

The man who could

such

poems was
David

a master of his art.

He
is

could turn his hand to other

and even deeper themes.

By

this

admission the fancy portrait of


shattered
....

as a half-heathen savage

His people were

right in attributing to

David, magnanimous, brave, and a genius,


the heart of the
as
his

poetry that has to-day his


there
is

stirred

world,
(p.

and

which

tells

faults

as

well

virtues"

163).

Accordingly
in

a substantial portion of genuinely

Davidic productions

the Psalter.

"I

am aware
later

that there

is

a general agreement
is

among

Hebrew

scholars that the

language of Koheleth
....

impossible to

Solomon, and much


been said by

But

it

may

also

be said, and has

language

is

not decisive.
is

many competent scholars, including Pusey, that the The whole tone and substance and manlike

ner of the book

Solomon's old age

....
is

With regard

to the

language

it

may
just

be said that the language


It
is

not the language of

any post-captivity writing.


late.

only peculiar and supposed to be


in

Xow

in

this

matter there seems extreme danger

too

confident

critical
in

position.

For

it

is

certain

that

Solomon,
in

and especially
dialects.
It
is

his

old age,

was an expert
that

linguist

cognate
with
his

not

conceivable
in

he

held

converse

numerous foreign wives


and spoken
tongue.
in
it

dumb
to

show.

He must
same

have thought
as
his

dialects
is

allied

but not the

native

And

not unnatural to his old age, therefore, that his


still

language,

though

pure

Hebrew

in

the

main,

should have a

colour of foreign words and foreign turns of expression given to


it"

(p.

195).

fear that readers

who

are a bit

more

familiar with

the history of the


to

Hebrew language than

the author shows himself

be

and perhaps with the recollection of what Krochmal has

said about the language of Koheleth will be tempted to smile at

the well-intentioned but naively absurd theory with which

we
for

are
the

here regaled.
ketib in Josh.
also

Of an equal merit
5,
)
1.

is

the

author's

brief

Verse 6

tf?; the Septuagint,


in

by the way, read

UJTQxb

cannot be cited
at

support,

as

any Jew might so


in

have expressed himself

any time.

The

ketib
4,

verse

is

plain error due to aberration of the eye to

23.

The Masoretes

110

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


it.

had no compunction about correcting


by the Septuagint.
booklet
to be

The kere

is

substantiated
the

To

reader

coming

from Wellhausen
But criticism
will

may prove

a serviceable antidote.

have

demolished with more formidable siege-works.

Reasonable

Biblical

Criticism.

By Willi s
and

J.

Beech er,

D.

D.,

Professor

of
(

Hebrew

Language

Literature,

Auburn

Seminary

1871-1908).
iqti.

Philadelphia:
pp. xvii
-f-

The Sunday School

Times Company,

335.

Wider den Bonn der Quellenscheidung.


Moeller.
Giitersloh:
C.

Von

Lie. theol.

Wilhem
229.

Bertelsmann,

1912.

pp.

Cber DoppelbericJite
und eine
geistlicher

in

der Genesis.
Priifung.

Eine kritische Untersuchung

prinzipielle
(sic)

Von

Dr.

Arthur
Studien.

AllgeiER,

Lehrer

am Friedrichsgymnasium
Theologische
der

zu Freiburg

im

Breisgau.

(Freiburger
der

Unter
Fakultat

Mitwirkung

Professoren

theologischen

herausgegeben von Dr. G. Hoberg und Dr. G. Pfeilschifter.


Drittes

Heft.)

Freiburg im Breisgau:
pp. XVI
-f"
T

Herdersche Verlags-

HANDLUNG, IQU.
1.

43-

Mose 14. Eine historisch-kritische Johaxxes Meinhold, Professor


(Beiliefte

Untersuchung.
der

Von
in

D.

Theologie

Bonn.
Wissen-

zur

Zeitschrift
:

fiir

die

alttestamentliche
1911.

schaft,

XXII.) Giessen
to

Alfred ToepELmann,

pp. 50. A.,

An

Introduction

the

Pentateuch.

By
(

A. T.

Chapman, M.
Bible

Emanuel

College,

Cambridge.

The
at

Cambridge

for

Schools and Colleges.)


191
1.

Cambridge:

the University Press,

pp.

xx

339critics equally falls short of


:

Professor Beecher's attack on the


the the

mark.
book.

The reader expects


"Reasonable
Biblical

"counter-critique"
leads

the
to

title

of

Criticism,"

him

suspect

concessions of a certain kind.

But nothing of the sort happens.

You cannot
ing to the

offset criticism

by allegorical interpretation, by imput-

sacred

writers thoughts that are foreign to their lanIf

guage, nor by a multitude of harmonistic devices.


succeeds
in

the

work

con firming

in

their inherited beliefs the particular kind

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE


of readers to whose level of culture
it

MARGOUS
it

III

its

homespun

style descends,
will

will

have achieved

its

purpose;
in

doubt whether

produce
their

even so

much

as

ripple

the circles of the critics and

immediate

disciples.

On
tion.

the

other hand,
the
:

Moller's

work ought
their

He meets
takes

critics

on

to command attenown ground. His book


positive.

consists of

two parts
up
the

a negative

and a

In the

former
into

he

reasons

which have led


that

to

the

analysis

"documents."
if

He shows

the

doublets

or

parallel

accounts,

they are to serve as a clue to disentangling the knot, issue in a

deadlock.

There remain doublets within one and the same docustill

ment

that

are left to be accounted for.

Apparently

it

is

all

a matter of degree, since a certain

amount of duplication

is

conif

sidered harmless.

Where

then

is

the line to be

drawn?

And

an attempt
the

is

made

to carry the analysis to its logical conclusion,


itself

"documentary" theory resolves

at

the hands of Gunkel


;

and Sievers for instance into the "fragmentary" hypothesis

the

"documents" accordingly cease


into an

to be such

and the text

is

broken up

amorphous mass of
character.

infinitesimal parts, disjointed, without

As for the criterion of divine names, it Somehow the ancient writers forget themlikewise breaks down. selves and introduce Jhvh where you expect Elohim and vice versa. The critics thus cornered lay the blame at the door of the compiler or editor. But who is to tell where his exercise of auunity

or

thority

stops?

For the current conception of the editor


:

is

that

he
for

is

altogether mechanical
is

he transcribes the "documents" word

word, he
by

blind

to

contradictions
so

and incongruities, he
as he can

is

perturbed

no

duplication,
all

long

save from the

ancient documents
his

that

is

possible.

But once you grant that

individuality

asserts
in

itself,

and occasionally also beyond the

assumed brackets
really

long portions which


;

show

literary

skill,

he

becomes an author
not

but then

it

becomes apparent that he


he
uses
his

does

mechanically

transcribe at

all,

"sources"

intelligently like so

many an
to

ancient or

modern
their

historian.

And

to

return
earlier

once
critics
;

more

the
at

divine
the

names, the one Elohist of the


successors a
a

received

hands of

twinthird

brother

but

now

it

is

becoming evident that there was

112
Elohist

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


who
critics
is

the most archaic.

For

in certain

legends of Genesis

which

are constrained to place in pre-Israelitish times, the

destruction of

Sodom and Gomorrah

is

an instance, Elohim

is

non-descript appellation of the deity as might have been current

with any people.


sceptical use of
to

As an analogue one may think


Elohim
in

of the philosophic-

Koheleth.

But

if

this

be true, that

is

say

if

the

choice
it

of the divine

name

be
of

conditioned in
authorship,
in

the

subject-matter,

ceases to be a criterion
led

as

one

and the same author would be


criminate.
If

by the subject
are

hand

to dis-

style

and
it

phraseology
all
all

to serve as indices of
if

disparate
sufficiently
ality
split
;

authorship,

is

well

enough

the

documents are

lengthy to show

those traces of linguistic individu-

but when, as with Gunkel and Sievers, J and

and

are

up into multitudinous fragments, the similarity of language

in

certain

groups
the

of

fragments
that
to

becomes

puzzle.

Moller

is

sensitive

of

fact

overcome the dominant method of


criticism
will

criticism

mere fault-finding and negative

not avail.

Hence

in the positive part

he proceeds to show by an example (the


27-25,

story of

Abraham, Gen. n,

11)

how by

more profound
difficulties

delving into the intent of the sacred

writer supposed

disappear and

all

assumes a harmonious aspect.


to

As

in the case of

Eerdmans, we are ready


with
its

admit that criticism has been too

facile

universal

remedy and that often the malady which they

sought to cure was but imaginary.

What
is

differentiates the latter-

day

commentary

to

its

disadvantage

the

unwillingness to do

exegetical

work

pure

and simple
engaged
in
;

of the
to

kind that
with
all
it

an
the

earlier

generation

laboriously

operate
is

analysis

of the texts carried to an absurd point

after

an easy matter.
takes a life-time

With
to

modicum

of linguistic preparation (and


tine

enter into the

points

of

Hebrew

construction and style)

and with the dissecting method which one so readily acquires and
imitates, the

commentary
with

is

all

ready, almost
is

made

to

order.

If

our present fashion of shallowness


for
little

to pass

away and make room


studied,

the

seriousness

which

Holy Writ should be

scepticism

concerning the efficacy of the analytical method


Let us be grateful to those
into the

will

go a long way.

who

are willing

to inject this
tors.

wholesome doubt
will

minds of Bible commentain

The

result

probably be a saner criticism held

check

RECENT BIRLICAL LITERATURE

MARGOUS
will

[13
shrink

by sound learning and a sense of responsibility which

from

vagaries.

Moller's

little

book accomplishes the

important

service of stirring our conscience as expounders of Scripture.

We

have

had

occasion

to

see

how

divided

even

modern
is

Catholics are on the critical position.


ished by the

Another example

furn-

work of

Allgeier who, at least for the book of Genesis,

endeavors to refute the arguments for the existence of parallel

(and contradictory) accounts which were advanced


by Schulz published
the
in

in a

monograph

1908.

The harmonistic
works of the

devices are

much
though

same

as elsewhere in the

traditionalists

bolstered

up by much erudition.

The second
definition

part

of

the

work

which deals with the dogmatic objections


is

to the theory of duplicates

interesting as

showing that no
in the

ex cathedra has so far


to the all-important

been forthcoming

Church with reference


it

matter of inspiration.

Hence
and

is

that for the time being a certain

measure

of

freedom

divergence

of

opinion

exists

among
of the

Catholic dogmaticians which makes for the infiltration of criticism


into the

works of Catholic students of the


is

Bible.

The tone
it is

monograph, though polemical,

dignified;

and since

but proper

that in a controversy both sides should be heard, Allgeier's

work

by the side of that of Schulz will hold


position
is

its

own.

An

intermediate

certain to win out in the end.


all

In spite of

these attacks,

it

is

but fair to say that a sane


is

adherence to the dominant type of criticism


Professor
Genesis
is

holding the ground.


chapter
is

Meinhold's

monograph on
a
fair

the

fourteenth
of

of

perhaps
to a

not

specimen
critics.

what

currently

acceptable

large

body
in

of

His

demolition
of
the

of the

archaeological

evidence
narrative

favor

of
bit

the

historicity
far.

main

points
is

in

the

goes a

too

Post-exilic
all

Judaism

a convenient

enough receptacle for accommodating


is

manner

of literary productions for which one


in

unwilling to find a place

earlier

epochs,

chiefly

for

the

reason that the centuries con-

secutive

upon the work of Ezra are so obscure.


of
right
to

Unstinted
the

praise

belongs

Chapman's Introduction
of the

to

Pentateuch

published
Colleges.

as

part

Cambridge
on the

Bible for Schools and


subject

The

current

treatises

are

so

technical

and overmastering that we know of no work

better suited to the

114

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

needs of the beginner than this admirable presentation by Chapman.

A
to

sober tone prevails throughout.


the

Counter-arguments are brought

attention

of

the
It

learner

and their force submitted

to

searching criticism.
student
in
all

was a wise procedure not


of

to entangle the

the

ramifications

Pentateuchal
outlines are

analysis

of

the

so-called advanced type.


in

The broad

sedulously kept

mind.

As

a
it

work of information on
will

the position of the Wellin the

hausen school

remain useful for some time to come

hands of English-speaking students.

Egypt and

Israel.

By W. M. Flinders
London
pp.
:

Petrie, D. C.

L.,

LL.

D.,

F. R. S., F. B. A.

Society for Promoting Christian


I

Knowledge,

191

i.

5-

Cntndsteine zur Geschichte Israels.

Alttestamentliche Studien von

Martin

Gemoll.

Mit

zwei

Karten.
I9II.

Leipzig:
VIII
-f"

J.

C.

HlNRICHS'sche

BUCHHANDLUNG,
im
Alien

pp.

480.

Die

Indogermanen

Orient.

Mythologisch-historische
Leipzig
:

Funde und Fragen.

Von Martin Gemoll.


I9II.

J.

C.

HlNRICHS'sche BUCHHANDLUNG,
Professor
explorers
of
Petrie,

pp.

VIII

I24.

preeminent

among

living

excavators

and

ancient

Egypt, has written a popular work on the

relations of the land of the

Pharaohs and

Israel.

He

begins with

Abram,

the shepherd prince, and concludes with the Christian age.


;

He
stele

places the exodus in the year 1200 B. C.

he accordingly asPalestine in the

sumes from the mention of


of

Israel as resident in

Mereneptah that only a part of the

Israelites

went

into

Egypt.

He

describes the relations to Egypt in the period of the


finds

monarchy, the bearing of the Elephantine

on the beginnings of

the Jewish immigration into Egypt, the great Alexandrian colony,

the temple of Onias the foundations of which were laid bare by

him
of

he shows

how

the Logos doctrine

was developed on the

soil

Egypt,

how

again the discovery of the Logia of Jesus sheds

light

on the composition of the Gospels,

how

finally certain

elements
It
is

of the Egyptian religion have entered into Christianity.


tainly a very useful treatise
interest.

cer-

on a subject which no
difficulty

will

always excite

Petrie

apparently has

about accepting the

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE


sojourn
in

MARGOUS

Egypt and the exodus as


is

historical

though no direct

reference to either

found on the monuments.


is

Gemoll, on the other hand,

radical.

There have been others


in

who

played

fast

and loose with the traditions deposited

the

Bible concerning an event to which the sacred writers never weary


of alluding.

His starting-point

is

an investigation into the mean-

ing of "Misraim."

Winckler's theories on a Misr contiguous to

but nevertheless outside Egypt are gone into at length.

But the

author arrives at the conclusion that the biblical Misraim together


with the land of Goshen are to be sought
It
is

in

Southern Palestine.
a

there that Israel

was oppressed, and the exodus means but

forced

migration

of

some

tribes

further

Xorth,

pushed out of

their seats by a

fresh

wave of migration.

By

a series of daring

and highly questionable geographical identifications Gemoll transfers

Jephthah and Gilead from across the Jordan to the West


is

Jabesh-Gilead
jearim)
;

the

same

as Jebus-Jerusalem

(=

Salem

= Kiriathand both

the Canaanites and Kenites are


;

made

identical

proclaimed non-Semites
Horites

with them are furthermore identified the


capital

Haru

Aryans whose
;

Jerusalem was

the

Hyksos were likewise Aryans


Jahveh," and Peres-Uzza
is

mount Zion was


Aaron
and

the "mountain of

but the deformed Iranian pa'xrxdaeza

paradise

the

high-priest

Araunah

upon

whose

threshing-floor David built an altar are brought together with the

Iranian

deity

Varuna

Jahveh accordingly becomes Yima-Yama,

Ahura-Varuna's twin-brother.
novel contentions
derived by the
is

The sum and substance


in

of

all

these

that

Jahveh though indigenous

Canaan was
In his

Israelites

from the Aryans

in

Palestine.

subsequent work, "Die Indogermanen im Alten Orient," a mass of


Celtic lore
is

adduced to show that the population which occupied

Palestine in pre-Israelitish times

was not

specifically Indo-Iranian,

but rather generally Indo-European and that the invasion proceeded

from the West.


seriously
to
all

doubt whether sober-minded scholars will take


;

these lucubrations of a fertile imagination


in

it

suffices

mention that

the

newer work Abraham

is

brought together

with King Arthur and Lot with Lear.


of lost labor
learn
!

What

a stupendous

amount
to

That here and there something may be found


observations

from

his

we

will

not gainsay.

But the two

Il6

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

work? must be judged by the general theories rather than by the details, and the former are untenable alike in method and results.

The Source
ancient

of

the

Christian

Tradition.

critical

history

of

Judaism.

By Edouard Dujardin.
McCabe.
[Issued
for

Revised
the
Co.,

edition,

translated

by Joseph

Rationalist
191
1.

Press Association, Limited.] London:


xvi

Watts &

pp.

307.

Sociological Study of the Bible.

University of Chicago Press, [1912].


Geschichte
der

By Louis Wallis. Chicago: pp. xxxv + 38Religion.


u.
:

the

Alttestamentlichen

Kritisch
ord.

dargestellt
u.

von

Eduard

Koenig,

Dr.

Phil.

theol.,

Professor

Geheimem
pp. viii
-f-

Konistorialrat.
608.

Giitersloh

C.

Bertelsmann,

1912.

Die Ddnionen und Hire Abzvchr im Alt en Testament.


Phil.

Von

Dr.

Anton

Jirku.

Leipzig: A. DEiCHERT'sche Verlagsbuchpp. viii


-\-

handlung Xachf.,
Resting on
the

1912.

99.

hypercriticism
all

of

Maurice Vernes "who has

proved that the compilation of


the

the biblical writings, especially


later,

prophetical

works,

must be placed

not

only than

the

destruction of the
tion,"

ancient kingdoms, but

even than the restoratra-

M. Dujardin makes a clean sweep not merely of the

ditional

account of the history of the Jewish people and of the

Jewish religion, but also of the conceptions of the current school


of
in

criticism.

With

the

composition of the biblical books placed


all

post-restoration times,

that

is

narrated in them concerning


is

the long stretch of time antedating that event


ical

pronounced myth-

and legendary, and the

"scientific" spirit has to content itself

with the scanty allusions in extraneous sources to sketch the "early

days"
Israel
its

of
is

Jewish

history

in

all

told

eighteen

pages.

Pre-exilic

reduced to the level of any of the petty peoples

who were

neighbors, and "Jahvch,

who afterwards became

the one god of

the Jews, the Eternal of the Christians, and the Absolute of the

philosophers, cannot have been a less abominable idol than

(Chemosh) and Milcom."


storation

Jewish history begins

in 588.

Camos The Re-

was the work of the Jerusalemites who had remained.

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

MARGOLIS

\\J

few may have returned under Cyrus, but the founders of the
nation

Jewish

must be sought among the miserable population


in the country.

which remained

What we moderns
all

call patriotism,

nationalism, love of country, in Jerusalem


the

found expression

in

name

of Jahveh.

The work
a
cult

of the school of Ezra

for

Ezra

himself

may have been


any other

fictitious

person

consisted

in

the pro-

hibition of

than that of Jahveh, of any representa-

tion of the deity in a material form,

and of mixed marriages.

hierarchy was established and the Sabbath and circumcision were

made

national

institutions.

When

this

work was done, Jewish


Jahvist-Elohist writers

literature began.

The

first

pages of the Mosaic books were written

about the middle of the


projected their

fifth century.

The
past.

own

theories

into

the

They composed

the

narrative of the beginnings to square with their latter-day needs

and wishes.

The year 409


soliciting

is

the approximate date for the proto

mulgation of Deuteronomy.

The Elephantine Jews who turned


interest
in

Jerusalem

their

the

restoration

of

their

destroyed temple opened the eyes of the hierarchy to the necessity


of safeguarding the monopoly of Jerusalem.

The Deuteronomic
when
the
state

Law
as

is

the expression of the imperialist policy of Jerusalem; just


Priests'

the

Code belongs
definitely
in

to

the

period

of

Jerusalem had
Palestine

secured the hegemony over one half of


the

coinciding

main

part

with

the

beginnings

of prophetism in the Greek era.

Hellenism gave the impetus to


their tend-

prophetism.

Over against the ruling aristocracy with


democracy.

ency to Hellenization there arose the prophets as leaders of the


nationalist

Hosea

and

Amos and
;

Jeremiah

and

Ezekiel and Isaiah are but fictitious names


in

the real authors lived

the troublous
in

times of the

Hellenist

invasion.

The prophets
;

and Scripture
their

general were internationalized in aftertimes

in

own day

the prophets were the protagonists "not of justice,

but of the claims of their

own

people and their political party."

The Second

Isaiah closes the century of the prophets about 200;

Daniel, in 164. inaugurates the era of the apocalypses.

The

Psalter

intervenes as the

hymn-book of the
the

traditionalist

party.

In the

Apocalypses Jewish imperialism has come to the despairing surrender of


that
itself

into
is

hands of the supernatural.

It

is

then

religious

faith

born.

"That

is

the prodigy of the Jewish

Il8
soul.
It

THK JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


When
all

hope
;

is
it

forbidden,

it

still
;

finds
it

grounds for hope.

does not abdicate


revenge,

does not renounce

persists in its
is

dream
But

of
its

even when the foot of the

Roman

upon

it.

indefatigable imperialism

down from the ance, the meek


to

heights of
Hillel

now demands that an heaven." If Shammai


arose

angel shall

come

counseled resist-

simply bade the people not to despair but


Prophet-agitators
the

believe

and

hope.

who

were

the

disciples

of

Hillel,

among them John


of the Dispersion

Baptist

and Jesus the

Xazarene.

The Jew

for a correct estimate of

whom we must
strength
in

turn to Tacitus, bent to the inevitab'e but found

his confidence that he

would conquer

in the end.

But

with the idea of victory over their


the
earliest

enemies was associated from

prophets that of the revenge of the lowly over the

powerful.
world.

That message won the lower classes


the

of

the

pagan
that

"Then through

Empire the news suddenly spread


at

the day of deliverance

was

hand, and that, marvelous to relate,


all

not only the Jews, but the Judaisers and


to

the lowly
in

would come

them, would be invited to take their place

the

kingdom of
Tarsus,
in

vengeance.
Syria."

This

novelty
issued
circles

was taught by
which

Jew

of

The book
to

from the Rationalist Press Association


for
it

may

appeal

the

has been translated, but


criticism
will

hardly to sane readers whose canons of historical

guard them against the vagaries of the

"scientific

mind."

The new
method

point

of
is

view
in his

from which Mr. Wallis approaches


estimation the application of sociolog-

the "Bible problem"


ical

in

explaining the evolution of the history of Israel

and Judaism.

The sum and substance

of his reasoning for which

the data have been culled


criticism
self

from works of the dominant school of


hand, though the author shows himeffect

(not always

at
is

first

well-informed)
to history,

to

the

that

the

Hebrew

nation,

as

known

arose at the point of coalescence between the

incoming
lished in

Israelite clans

and the Amorite

city-states already estab-

Canaan

that the

amalgamation of the two heterogeneous

elements entailed a long process during which nomadism and civilization

fought

for

supremacy
in

hence for some time the nation

was divided, one part


worshiping the

which the Amorite tendency was stronger

national

god

in

the

character

of

an

ordinary,

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE


"civilized" Baal,

MARGOUS

[9

who countenanced
its

the social system of civilization,

with

its

universal slavery and

disregard of the

common man,
was the more
of
the
old,

and

the

other

where
the

the

old

Israelite

tendency

powerful

claiming

national

god as the patron

brotherhood mishpat.

"As

a consequence, the evolution of


into
a

Yahweh
was ob-

from

god of nomadism

god of

"civilization"

structed."

That obstruction was the work of the prophets who

stood for the ideals of ancient Israel.

Through
took on

the fight against the


its

Amorite gods the religion of

Israel

world-renowned

character of absolute exclusiveness, and through the struggle with


civilization,

the

"Amorite

iniquity,"

the

prophetic
prophets,

mishpat

was
the

evolved.

There

were

two

classes

of

however,
:

The pendulum sways now the Amorite element predominates, now the Israelite. The prophets (of the "insurgent" class) are not to be classed with the modern
"regulars" and the "insurgents."
socialist.

They
rights"
;

are

not

interested

in

the

abstract

question

of

"human
less

they merely protest against the crowding of the


the

fortunate

property-owners into

lower,

enslaved

class.

When
itself.

at length the

Baal tradition was defeated, the prophets were


its

silenced,

and the Torah with


a

Church and hierarchy established

Under

new and
was

subtle form, that of ritualism, the ancient

Amorite

tradition

brought

back.

The

social

problem

was

rejected by

Judaism.

Jesus was more than a prophet; he

made
While
the

himself ''one" with the Redeeming


Christianity

God
the

of the Hebrews.

began

its

history

in

lower

social

strata,

Catholic Church rejected the social problem

when

the religion of

Jesus became institutionalized


tion,

in

terms of Old Testament evolutinctured


revolt

the

Catholic
at

Church
a

became
social

with

"Amoritism."

There was

length

great

against the mediaeval

Church
social

but

Protestantism likewise became externalized, and the

problem was once more pushed to the background.


dissolves the

Modern
religion.
at

society

ancient bonds between politics


a

and

The modern Church cannot have

"social

program,"

best

it

may

serve as a generator of moral and spirtual energy.

The

great
that

social

awakening

in

our

days

means

that

we

are

learning

human problems
as

are caused not only by the bad will of individuals

but by defective social arrangements.


the

Sociology will assert

itself

svnthesis

of

individualism

and socialism.

Leaving

aside

120
the sociological

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


framework
in

which the author has expressed

his

ideas, the central thesis of the evolution of Judaism out of a conflict of nomadism and civilization has been taken over from

Wellhausen and Stade and others.

The

question, however,

how

it

came about
that

that the

new

"variety" of religion as represented by


is

of

Israel

was evolved

not

sufficiently

answered by the

circumstance that whereas the Normans, the Kassites, the Hyskos

found national group-organizations already formed

in

the

lands

they conquered, the Israelites supplied the framework of national

government and
query
is still

religion to the city-states of the Amorites.

The

pertinent,
lines

Why

did not

Chemosh

for instance develop


like

on the same
the
Israelites,

as

Jahveh?

The Moabites were nomads


habitat.
It

and they found an aboriginal Amorite population


in
is

on

their

settling

their
left

new
out
of

would seem
the

that a

personal

element

account

entirely,

personal

equation which from the start

made Jahveh and

Israel unique.
all

One

turns

away with

"a

sense of relief from

these inter-

esting but nevertheless subjective constructions of the history and

development of Judaism to Konig's monumental "History of the On a previous occasion it was our Old Testament Religion."
privilege to refer to the eminent services of

Konig

in the

province

of the

linguistic

study of the Old Testament.


his latest

The author thus


the entire

comes excellently prepared for

work through

course of which a singular mastery


is

of all the details of

exegesis
his

maintained.

notable

"Introduction

But Konig's previous works, as for instance (1893) and to the Old Testament"

his

"History of the
cations,

Kingdom
him

of
as

God"
a

(1908), aside

from minor

publi-

have

fitted

critic

and theologian.
its

The

signal

feature of the present work, however, consists in

argumentative
linguistic

method which by the way distinguishes


works.

also

Konig's

Thus, while

a positive

development of his own theories


in question

concerning the weighty subject


end,

runs from beginning to

there

is

nevertheless at every stage introduced a thorough

review
reject.

and discussion of the views which he is constrained to The book will commend itself if for no other reason on
this feature alone

the

ground of

which enables the reader

to study

the questions independently and to review in his

mind

all

possible

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

MARGOLIS

12

and impossible positions that have found sponsors.


will

Readers who

consult their aesthetic pleasure or comfort as paramount will

perhaps be repelled by the constant strain to which their reasoning

and
tion

critical

power
right

is

put by Kunig, the student

who

values informawill

of

the

sort

above
to

literary

entertainment
all-round

on

the

contrary

be

grateful

him

for

the

discussion

of

momentous problems.
perhaps a theory of his

The layman of whatever description with own ready-made has his natural preference
difficulty

for the neat theories; the scholar wants the facts, the hard facts

which

fit

themselves with
;

into

any one system.

Konig

believes in criticism
thesis
:

he

is

an upholder of the documentary hypowith


reference
to

but

he

is

conservative

the

order and

dating of the documents.

He

places the Elohist before the Jahvist

and the
the

latter in

Davidic times, while the Decalogue and Book of


are

Covenant

(Exod. 21-23)
is

assigned to the
to

Mosaic period.

He

emphasizes what

common

two or more of the sources


which

and he establishes their


they narrate.
aside
the

credibility with regards to the events

With such preliminary and


evolutionistic
a

basic principles he sets

crude
religion

notions
or

which make of the prein

prophetic

polytheism
like.

polydaemonism originating

totemism, animism, and the

He

questions the misnomer "pre-

prophetism"
prophets.

he

knows
first

of

the

ancient
the

prophets

and

the

later

The
it

prophet of
a

monotheistic

religion

was

Abraham and
of them.

meant

turning away and separation from magic

and divination and the many gods and the sensual representations

Konig vindicates

the historical character of the religion

of the patriarchs and of Moses.

The God
religion

of

Moses was neither


is

Canaanized
for

in

the

sequel

nor Babylonized.

There
the

no ground

contrasting

the
:

prophetic

and

"Volksreligion."

Apostasy existed
itself.
It

but withal the "legitimate" religion maintained


alive in the prophetic guilds

was kept

who
(a

carried on the

Mosaic

traditions.

The "prophets
in

of

action"

phrase adopted
prophets.

from Herder) were followed by the oratorical


Their work consisted
ancestral

(literary)

leading the people back to fidelity to their


in

God.

There was nothing new

their

message.

They

were not founders of the religion of


contributed noteworthy
character

Israel.

Nevertheless they

moments towards
of

the spiritualization of the

and

worship

God.

They

equally

spiritualized

the

122

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Kingdom
to its

conceptions of the

of

of Israel in the world.

When

God and of the providential mission the work of the prophets was done
its

and

Israel

won back
its

God and
The

mission, the task of inuring

the people to

career of faith, obedience, and hope

was taken up

by the scribes and rabbis.


religion of the

appraisal of the final stage of the


its

Jews

as

it

found
is

expression in the

dogma

of

the

supremacy of the Torah


view

naturally undertaken

from the point


the the
spiritual

of

which

looks
in

for the

the

consummation
Such are

of
in

potencies

of Judaism

Gospel.
it

main the

salient points of a
at

work which

is

hoped every student who aims


be tested by objective argu-

arriving at conclusions which


will

may

ment

make

his

vade-mecum.
the

A
off
in

monograph on
the

demons and

the

means of warding them

Old Testament undertaken "without any preconceived


times the sublime world-God of the Hebrews

opinion or apologetic tendency," yet arriving at the conclusion that

"Jahveh was

at

all

and not the product of an evolution from crude beginnings upwards," should evoke interest.
believed in addition to the
spiritual

beings

The author finds that the Hebrews One God in a multitude of subordinate The belief in which we designate as demons.
was
totally

demons,

however,

opposed

to

the

Jahveh
it

religion.

Naturally with the belief in the existence of demons


necessary to find ways and means of warding them
the
off.

became

Some

of

elements of the cult as prescribed in the Priests' Code are

ultimately rooted in the desire of counter-acting the evil influences

of

demons.

While the

belief

in
its

the

existence

of

demons,

the

sliedim
tions,
it

perhaps excepted, has


is

origin in

common-Semitic

tradiinflu-

possible that the cult laws in

P may have been


critics
it

enced by Babylonian customs.


it

But

if

such an influence be assumed,


is

antedated the conquest.

Against certain

denied that
the merits
to

Jahveh betrays any demoniacal features.


of the author's general
several points of detail.

Whatever be

conclusions,

exception

must be taken

Thus
or

the interpretation of D'OJTP

as an

original plural (of the type

D^N)
of

from which the singular


Gen.
32,

^^T
made
taken

was subsequently him


bend
the

derived,

L*"N in

25

as

"demon"
be

(on the basis of Assyrian) and of


knee,
i.

ins

"pm

(v. 30)

as "he

e.

subdued him,"

will

hardly

seriously.

RECENT r.IBUCAL LITERATURE

MARGOUS
pc6n
Schonebergi
Ill,

123
pta.

obwv

mirr

p "wbn ran nmnm nwn mayn


Ben
in

Thesaurus
Elieser

totius Hcbraitatis et veteris ct recentioris.

Auctore

Iehuda,
aedibus

Hierosolymitano.
Prof.
G.

apud
parts

Berolinum
6-12

Langexscheidti.

(rmn

Tip.

pp.

1397-1740.
et

La duree de
Ferares.

J'annce

biblique,
la

I'origine

du

mot

HJK'.
T912.

Par

S.

Extrait de

Revue de Linguistique,
pp.
24.

Paris:

LlBRAIRlE DURLACHER,

IQI2.

Parts 6-12 complete the third volume of

Ben Iehuda's Thesau-

rus of which a lengthy notice appeared in vol. II of the of this Review (591
signification
is

New

Series

ff.).

Of new words
"omelet,"

or words to which a

new

given

we may mention D"U "current

(of thought),"

Iran "schoolmate," nnan


coat,"

Tin

"solemn," n*tn "waistbelieve that

np"vn "blouse."
is

Ferares

would make us
with
i"lj'

7\W
corre-

which

etymologically
to a

connected

"to

double"

sponded
in

measure of time consisting of two lunations and that

the period of

Abraham

a year

was equal

to

seven months or

lunations.

His arguments are not convincing.

Das Buchwesen im Altertum und

iui

Bysantinischen Mittelalter.
Auflage.

Von

V.

Gardthausex.

Zweite

Mit

38

Figuren.

(Griechische
Auflage.
243-

Palaeographie.

Von

V.

Gardthausex.

Zweite

Erster Band.) Leipzig: Veit

&

Co., 1911.

pp. xii

Papyri

Graecae
in

Berolinenses.

Collegit

Wilhelm
sub

Schurart.

(Tabulae

usum
2).

scholarum.

Editae

cura

Iohannis
pp.
xi
-f-

Ltetzmaxx.
tabulae 50
-f-

Bonnae

A.

Marcus,

MCMXI.

pp. xxiii.

The Old Testament


Vaticanus,

in

Greek.

According to the text of

Codex

supplemented

from

other

uncial

manuscripts,

with a critical apparatus containing the variants of the chief


ancient authorities for the text of the Septuagint.

Edited by

Alan England Brooks, B. D., Fellow and Dean of King's College, and Norman McLean*, M. A., Fellow of Christ's
College,

University

Lecturer

in

Aramaic.

Volume

I.

The

124
Octateuch.

THK JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Part I. Genesis. Part II. Exodus and Leviticus. Numbers and Deuteronomy. Cambridge: at the
1906.

Part

III.

University Press,
405
:

1909.

1911.

pp. viii

-f

155;

viii

-J-

vii

676.

Codex

Zuqninensis

Rescriptus

Feteris

Testanienti.

Texte Grec

des manuscripts Vatican Syriaque 162 et Mus. Brit. Additionnel


14.

665.

Edite avec introduction

et

notes par

Eugene TisserPoliglotta

ant.

(Studi
191

e
i.

Testi.

23.)

Roma:

Tipografia

VaTicana,

pp.

lxxxvii -f 2//.

Septuaginta-Studien.

Herausgegeben

von

Alfred

Rahlfs.

3.

Heft: Lucians Recension der Konigsbiicher,


Gottingen:

Von

A. Rahlfs.

Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht,


grtechischen

191

i.

pp. 298.

Fragmente

einer

Ubersetcung

des

samaritanischen

Pentateuchs.
einer

Von Paul Glaue und Alfred Rahlfs.


(Mitteihingen
des

Mit

Lichtdrucktafel.

Septuaginta-Unter-

nehmens der Koniglichcn Gescllschaft der IVissenschaften cu


Gottingen.
191
1.

Heft

2.)

Berlin

YYeidmannsche Buchhandlung.

pp. 68.

Coptic Palimpsest containing Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Judith and

Esther
son.
191
1.

in

the Sahidic dialect.

Edited by Sir Herbert

Thomp-

London: Henry Frowde (Oxford University Press),


pp.
xii

386.

Untersuchungen Uber

die Peschitta cur

gesamten hebraischen Bibel.

Zugleich ein Be.'trag zur Erkenntnis der alten Bibeliibersetzungen.


191
1.

Von
pp.

Dr. Ch.
72.

Heller.

Teil

I.

Berlin: M. PoppELAuer,

Die

aussennasorethischen
Septuaginta
theol.

Ubereinstiinmungen
in

cu'isclien

der
Lie.

und der Peschittha

der

Genesis.

Von

Johannes Haenel.
191

(Peihefte cur Zeitschrift fur die

alttestamentliche Wissenschaft.

XX.) Giessen

Alfred ToepEL-

mann,

1.

pp. 88.

Gardthausen's

work

on

the

Book

in
first

Antiquity and

in

the

Byzantine period which constitutes the


edition
first

volume of the second

of his

monumental text-book of Greek Palaeography (the


appeared

edition

more

than

thirty

years ago)

should

be

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE


brought to the attention of
all

MARGOUS
the
Bible.

125

students

of

For the

manner
a

in

which ancient Hebrew books were prepared we have


L.

monograph by
i.

Blau (Studien

z.

althebr.
fact

Buchwesen
that

1.

Strass-

burg

E.

1902).

But apart from the

the
in

relation

of

Oriental

customs to

Western modes

is

elucidated

the

larger

context as furnished by Gardthausen, the student of the Scriptures

who
cal.

has to deal with Greek and Latin translations must necessarily


all

possess himself of information bearing on

matters palaeographi-

To

all

such the

new Gardthausen
(in

will be

welcome indeed.
is

In

the introduction palaeography


in its

the

narrower sense)

defined
;

relation to epigraphy

and diplomatics (study of documents)


to

a history of
is

Greek palaeography from Montfaucon

modern times

then given together with a bibliography of specimens of writing


facsimile reproductions of entire manuscripts.
in

as well as of

The

history

of

book making

antiquity

is

treated

in

nine

chapters

dealing with writing material


paper,

(papyrus, parchment, "palimpsests,"


the

"water-marks,"

"the

bookworm"),

external

form

of

manuscripts (wood or

wax

tablets, the leaf, the scroll, the

format

of books), letter and seal, bookbinding, writing utensils, ink, color,


silver

and gold

script,

ornaments,
is,
it

initials,
is

painting.

Exact and

up-to-date as the information


externals of book

singularly fascinating.
history

The
book-

producing have

their

which

all

lovers will do well to study.

Many

practical hints

on the manner

of describing manuscripts will be found in this of Greek palaeography.

condensed text-book

On

a previous occasion

we

noticed the publication by Cavalieri

and Lietzmann containing specimens of Greek codices from the


Vatican (JQR.,

New

Series,

I,

574

f.).

In the

same
Berlin.

series

Schuspeci-

bart furnishes specimens of

Greek papyri from

The

mens run
and the

all

the

way from

the fourth pre-Christian to the eighth


it

post-Christian century.
earliest

When

is

remembered

that the archetypes

copies of the Septuagint must have been written

on papyri and

in script similar to the

one used on the contemporin

aneous papyri extant the importance of practice

reading papyri

becomes

obvious.

The McLean

Larger
is

Cambridge

Septuagint

edited

by

Brooke
is

and

now complete

so far as the

Pentateuch

concerned.

126

THE
edition

IK WISH

QUARTERLY REVIEW
is,

The minor

which preceded the present undertaking

as

students know, that by Swete and has


ber of editions.
lected
list

now gone through


its
is

num-

While the

latter

confined

apparatus to a seall
all

of uncials, the larger

work

inclusive of

uncials;

then a stately

number

of selected

:ursive manuscripts,

of the

ancient versions of the Greek, and a goodly

number of Greek and


With regard
in

Latin Fathers have been drawn upon


to the

for variants.

cursives, the

number

collated

falls

below that embodied

Holmes-Parsons, though quite a number of new cursives which


have come to
for the
its

light since the

Oxford

publication have been collated

new work.

The
are

distinguishing

mark

of the

new

edition

is

reliability

on which score the sins of the Oxford editors or


well

their

collaborators

Lagarde).
be perfect.

Of
I

course, no

known to human work

students

(comp.

Ceriani,

of so gigantic a size can

have come across a number of errors, particularly


Thus, to mention one example, the
last
is

errors of omission.

verse

of the sixth chapter of


in

Numbers
is

(in the

Hebrew) which
in

wanting

the

Septuagint

(original)

found not only

quy a? (as the

editors note), but also in

(curiously enough without the asterisk).


said

word or two must be

about the

benefit of the majority of Bible students

new Septuagint for the who are apt to use it and


first

who
it

are not Septuagint specialists.

In the

place the editors


;

have simply given the text of B (the famous Vatican codex

where

was

defective, another uncial takes

its

place)

with some minor


In the apparatus
registered.
it

deviations from the text as published by Swete.


the variants

from the sources indicated above are

But
left

no critical restoration of the original of the Septuagint as


the hands of the

translators

was

intended.

Let therefore no one


is

mistake the intention of the editors.

The warning

not superflu-

ous considering the use to which Lagarde's well-known publication


has been put.
laid

For despite the warning of


for
a

its

editor

who merely
place,

the

foundation

reconstruction of Lucian, his text has


Lucian's.
is

been

persistently

taken

for

In

the

second

the

arrangement of the variants

necessarily mechanical.

Only

in this

way could

the task of registration be accomplished with any degree

of reliability.
It

The arrangement therefore serves


But

practical purposes.

is

not an easy task to reconstruct the consecutive reading of the


it

manuscripts on a given verse.

can be done, and done to

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

MARGOLIS

127

advantage, on the basis of the painstaking labor of the editors,


if

one

will only take the trouble to re- write the evidence in

extenso

as he requires.
will

Much
to

that

is

at

present disjointed or misleading


together.

be

found

be clear

when brought

Thirdly, with
is

regard to the daughter-versions and patristic quotations, what


actually

found

in

them

is

given, but the editors naturally do not

guarantee that every reading thus recorded goes back to a Greek


source.

For the daughter-versions

frequently

deviate

from the

Greek by transposition, addition, and curtailment.

And

the Fathers

have often quoted from memory, or wove the words of Scripture


into their

own words

with the
the

least

intent

of

quoting

exactly.
it

Fourthly, to the
is

unitiated

editorial

work appears
that

gigantic
all

true,

but nevertheless mechanical.

They think

that the

editors did

was excerpting readings, though even

that requires in

the case of manuscripts a knowledge of palaeography, in the ca*e

of the daughter-versions a hue knowledge of or dialects, and in the case of the Fathers

some seven languages


erudition.
If

much

one

remembers that from the

list

of

cursives

extant only a certain

number have been

selected, while the

remainder were incorporated


it

from Holmes-Parsons and marked


a principle of selection

as such,

becomes evident that

was

to be obtained.

Xow

this principle

of

selection

is

based on nothing short of a painstaking and thoroughall

going study of

the

apparatus of Holmes-Parsons which prein

ceded the preparation of each volume

the

manuscript.
those

How

much

discrimination

this

kind

of

work

entails

busied themselves with similar labors alone know.

who have Thus when it

was ascertained that

group of say some thirteen manuscripts


four were selected as
variants

constituted a class by themselves, three or

representatives

of

the

class,

while

the

of

the

other

members of
merely to

the class were not verified but allowed to stand on

the authority of the

Oxford

editors.

This point
the

is

mentioned not

show how much penetration of

mass of variant

readings was required before the editors could approach the task
of re-examining those cursives which were selected for the purpose.
it

For the

right weighing of

the

evidence as

now

presented

is

imperative that the student

know

that a letter of the alphabet


it

may

stand for the manuscript which

designates, but

in

reality

for an entire group of manuscripts.

In other words, the sigla do

128
not

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


stand
for individuals,

although

in

the

nature of the case as


;

far as the editors' intention goes they should so be taken

but in

the

fmal estimate of the readings

it

becomes important

to

know
was
unless

which of them are group-readings.


four

To
the
t

illustrate,

of a group of

manuscripts
as

(74,

76,

84,

134)

latter
is

(134

=
=

t)

selected

the

representative.

reading

therefore,

the contrary becomes evident, the reading of not one, but of four

manuscripts.

Two

further manuscripts (44

d,

106

p)

figure
It is

among

the selected manuscripts which were examined afresh.


t.

misleading to treat them as equal in importance to


represent but themselves.
they
deviate

For they

Both belong

to the

group, but because


it

rather

extensively

from the group,

was deemed

necessary by the editors to give their evidence based on their


sight.

own
or

As

a matter of fact, the deviations are not of importance;

some of
perhaps

the omissions are due to error

(homoioteleuton,

etc.)

to a desire to
in

condense the

text.

This time the editors have erred

giving too

much.

But when one understands

their

motive and moreover has learned to value the readings and by

comprehending them
editors
is

to

remove them, both the procedure of the


be drawn to the Hexaplaric

is

recognized and the dangers of giving them undue weight


off.

warded

Attention

is

finally to

material recorded at the bottom of the page.


the late Greek translators
to
is

thus extended and

Our knowledge of many corrections


this

Field's great
in

work

are obtained.
it

In the light of the remarks

given

the

preceding

becomes evident why a work of

nature must necessarily be a slow one.

Our
;

present generation
will,
if

cannot

expect to

witness

its

completion

our successors

not possessed of the original of the Septuagint, at least possess an

apparatus at once fuller and more reliable.

A new
mains of
in
it,

manuscript of the Septuagint, or as much as

now

re-

has been given to the learned world by M. Tisserant

splendid edition.

Fortunately no part covered by the Larger


is

Cambridge Septuagint
served
for the

contained therein so that


to

it

will

be reuncial.

future
it

parts

incorporate

it

as

new

Strictly speaking,

is

not one, but six codices.

But the parchment


had been

of these

various codices was used in the ninth or tenth century

for the text of a Syriac Chronicle after the

Greek

script

washed

off

(palimpsest).

The

Syriac

codex which was probably

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE


written
in

MARGOUS
and
the

29
is

the

Zuknin monastery
the

(hence

Codex Zukninensis)

now divided between Museum; but the major

Vatican
is

Library

British

part

in

the Vatican.

Portions of the

underlying Greek text were deciphered and published by Teschendorf in 1857 and by Cozza-Luzi in 1902 (1905).
Cornill

and after

him Ceriani
sion.

identified

the Ezekiel parts with the Lucianic recen8, 58-9,

With

the exception of one leaf (III Ki.

1) the

whole,

according to the editor whose contentions are substantiated by the


investigations

of

Rahlfs

(see

below,

and TLZ.,

191

1,

col.

742),

exhibits a Lucianic text.

In the

Book

of Judges for instance the

new manuscript shows marked


has been

affinity

with the cursive 54 which


F.

claimed

as

Lucianic by G.
for the whole of

Moore

for

Judges and
(see JQR.,

recently by Hautsch

the

Octateuch

Xew

Series,
III

I,

572

f.).

The

parts recovered contain portions of

Judges,

Kingdoms, Psalms, Ezekiel, and Daniel.

The

editor

has read the palimpsest without the aid of chemical reagents (Gardthausen, Buchwesen, 107
f.).

Through
to utilize the

the editor's kindness Rahlfs

Zuknin text of

III

was placed Kingdoms for the

in

a position

third part of

his Septuagint Studies

which deals with Lucian's text of the Books

of the
a

Kingdoms (Samuel and Kings).


critical

The monograph which

as

model of

labor centering about an important Septuagint

recension

few

will

be able to approach

does honor alike to the

author and to the philosophical Faculty of the Gottingen University

which

awarded the

first

prize

to

the

essay

submitted

to

it

in

manuscript.

After a survey of the witnesses of the Lucianic


is is

text,

their respective value

determined, and the conclusion


19.

is

reached

that the group 82. 93


lar

superior to the group

108 and that singu-

readings of individual manuscripts within these groups

may

lay

claim to consideration only in a few exceptional cases, that fur-

thermore
ciples

Lagarde's

edition,
will

while

corresponding

to

these

prin-

on the whole,

bear revision here and there.


will

On

the

basis of a

renewed investigation of Josephus (one

remember
Latin

Mez' thesis of an "Ur-Luzian" before Lucian), the Greek writers


to

the

end

of

the

third

post-Christian

century,

and the

writers as well as fragments of the Old Latin Bible, Rahlfs proves

conclusively that there cannot be any question of a Lucianic type


in

advance of Lucian.

He

then submits certain parts of the Lu-

I30

THK JEWISH QUARTERLY RKYIKW


thoroughgoing
test

cianic recension to a

with regard to

its

sources

(his treatment of the catalogue of

Solomon's governors the author

rightly regards as the specimen of a textual


his

commentary which

in

judgment

it

will

become imperative
and
his

to write
is

some day on the

whole of the Septuagint)


recension
is is

result

that the basis of the

an ancient, pre-hexaplaric text of the Septuagint which

closely related to the text of the Vatican

(B) and the Ethiopic


in

translation.

Nevertheless there are elements

Lucian which are

not of his
a
in
is

own making,
it

yet are at variance with

Aethiops.

As

certain

want of principle appears


is

to characterize the

recension

question

not easy to find a criterion for singling out what

Lucianic and what pre-Lucianic.

Nor

will the criteria if

found

be necessarily the same in the several books as Lucian

followed

different

principles

in

different

books or

may have he may have


to

had collaborators who though on the whole working according


his principles nevertheless

went

their

own way
is

in

many

particulars.
(in the

by-product of Rahlfs' investigation

the authentication
its

greater part of the Bible) of the


the Ethiopic version, as

text and of

related satellite,
to the original

embodying the text nearest


(as
is

considering that both Lucian and Origen


it

probable)

made

(that

is,

a text cognate to

it)

the basis of their recensions.

The second instalment


to

of the Gottingen

Academy
I,

publications
is

dealing with the Septuagint (JQR.,

New

Series,

573)

devoted

fragments

of

Greek version

of the Samaritan Pentateuch


leaves

edited

by Glaue and Rahlfs.

The

which were found

in

Egypt are now the property of the University of Giessen and belong to a codex which
Christian
century.

was written The fragments

in the

fifth

or

sixth

post-

contain

portions
is

of

Deuter-

onomy.
the

The Samaritan
in

character of the text


27,

made
for
in

certain by

famous reading
;

"mount Gerizim"

our

"mount
one
in

Ebal"

moreover the words are transliterated and


(Cowley,
apyapi&fi.

Samaritan
in

fashion

Samaritan Liturgy,
It is

TI,

p.

lix)

written

word:

interesting that

reads here likewise:

monte garzin (overlooked by the


liarities

editors).

Other Samaritan pecuthe

of

rendering

which

tally

with

Samaritan

Targum
was

occur.

A
to

Greek

translation

of
this

the

Samaritan

Pentateuch

known

have existed before


p.

find

was made

(see the refer-

ences by the editors

61

ff.).

According

to Rahlfs the

fragment

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE


Gen.
37,

MARGOUS
Greek
version
of

31

4.

9 collated in the Larger


4

Cambridge Septuagint and


the

denoted as

belongs

likewise

to

the

Samaritan Pentateuch.

A
and

palimpsest manuscript acquired by the British

Museum

has

brought to light the Sahidic text of Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Judith,


Esther

which

has

been

edited

by Sir Herbert Thompson.


(see

Hitherto
the
list is

we have
pp.

only possessed fragments of these books

x-xii).

The
In
in

collocation

of

Ruth with Judith and


this

Esther

peculiar.
it

Greek manuscripts

grouping

is

very
p.

rare; but
n.

is

met with
TLZ.,

Syriac (Jacobite codices)

(Crum,

vi,

1;

Rahlfs,

1912, col. 68).

The
in
I

editor avers that he has


;

spared no pains to

make

the text as accurate as possible

but in

view of the condition of the MS.


be certain that he has escaped error.
18,
1.

many

parts

he would not
p.

have noticed an error on

30.

where the second Greek MS.


5).

letter

IT

should be corrected to
is

(see

p. xii).

In the place in question there


(118) and

a reading

which
(see

is

found

in

one lone

the

Old Latin

AJSL.,

XXVIII
upon the
the

(1911),
filiation

The
this

editor has

not ventured to pronounce


"In

of the Greek text underlying the translation.


text

book of Joshua

follows

none of the three chief

uncials

(A, B, F), but seems to be based on an independent text,


itself."

having many readings peculiar to

My own
(I

examination
preparing in

which

at present

is

in

process of completion

am

connection with
in

my

forthcoming edition of the Book of Joshu?


to

Greek according

MS.

54 and

cognate witnesses, a Greek-

Sahidic-Latin-Ethiopic-Syriac-Hebrew
the basis of the text
is

Index)

goes

to

show

that

related to

B and

the unrevised Ethiopic

the present text reveals Hexaplaric revision of which there are a

few elements even

in

B and

a great

shares some readings with the Latin.

many in the Ethiopic it also Of course, there are met


;

with additions which belong to the translator and were no part of


his

"Yorlage"

but otherwise
current
in

it

is

safe to say that

us the Bible

text

the

Egyptian

Church.

we have before The latter


of the

appears to be relatively the purest and, when judiciously emended,


it

will

some day
is

yield

the original.

The importance
is

new

publication
Heller's

thus seen to be great.


the Peshitta

monograph on
is

apparently a doctorate
is

thesis and, as

usual with such publications,

ambitious

in

plan

132

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


It

but modest in actual accomplishment.


first

announces

itself

as the

part of a

work on

the entire Peshitta of the

Old Testament.
of
the

The author has used no manuscripts except one codex


Royal Library
at

Berlin which contains but a small part of the

Old Testament.

He assumes Jewish

influences in the Syriac veris

sion but repudiates Schoenfelder's notion that the Peshitta

de-

pendent upon Onkelos.


various parts under

He

arranges his observations culled from

lists

showing the agreement of the Peshitta

with talmudic exegesis or talmudic hermeneutics as well as with


principles

of

interpretation

evolved

by

the

mediaeval

Jewish
;

exegetes.

As
comes

a specimen of erudition the work


to accepting his contentions
I

may

pass

but

when

it

fear that a

modicum
dealing

of criticism will overthrow them.

Questions of dependence must


;

be settled by a process of elimination

otherwise

we may be

with mere coincidence.

have come across misprints.

The
at least

question of the relation of the Peshitta to the Septuagint


for the

book of Genesis

is

the subject of a
(p.

monograph by
5
f.)
is

Hanel.
factory.

His

critical

apparatus for the Peshitta


is

satis-

The
will

investigation

carried on with judgment.

No
is

single

method

do justice to the problem.

While he repudiates the


not so

thesis that the Peshitta

was made use of by Lucian, he

certain that in

all

places

where the Peshitta goes with the Septu-

agint against the received

Hebrew
text

text the Syriac

was influenced
of these

by the Greek; for


coincidences the

it

is

quite conceivable that in a

number

Hebrew

underlying the Syriac agreed with

that at the basis of the Greek.

certain criterion of dependence

would be found where the rendering of the Peshitta might be


reduced to an error of misinterpretation of the Greek
are few.
;

but the cases

To
it

illustrate

by one example: Gen.


s

2,

19

?D1 )b N"ljT

HO

ltr NTH rvn B>3J D"INn 1^ K"lp


is difficult;

"ICX.

The

construction of PITI G?BJ


gloss.
in

is

thrown out by moderns as a


as apposition
it

Other commen-

tators treat

it

to

the pronoun

"p.

But whether

gloss or original,
nition

is

apparently
the

significant indicating the recog-

by

the

man
is

that

animals

were living creatures

like

himself and at the same time that they were

not of his species (see


PITI

Nahmani).
secondarly

It

unnecessary to go further and take

E'DJ as

accusative
implies,

(Nahmani;

so

clearly

the

Samaritan Taris

gum)

it

moreover, that the antecedent of the relative

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE


the generic

KARGOLIS
antecedent
is

33

word

for "animal" (so apparently Saadia and Vulgate),


is

whereas the natural assumption

that the

"name"

and that the pronoun


the generic

in

y>

is

net a mere 'aid but refers back to


first

word

for "animal," exactly as in the

17.

have

recently had occasion

to deal with this passage in connection with


in the

the rendering of the


first

'a' id

Greek Hexateuch.
in

Now, while

the

17

is
"|S

rendered avra (uniformly attested),


the witnesses vary between

the case of the

second
in

arm

and
l

avra.

The omission

some witnesses

(notably in
avro

m
2 /
l
,

and Philo
original

2 )

might be taken

as an

indication that

was the

and that the 'aid was

omitted as redundant.

Phil-arm

however, together with certain


ovro,

Greek MSS. and the Bohairic. Sahidic, and Ethiopic, has


and
I

am

inclined to believe that

such was the original reading.


to

Hence Hand's deductions with reference


in

the

plural

(lehon)

the Peshitta as due to following a faulty reading of the Septufall

agint

to

the

ground,

especially
is

as

the
in

first

y}

is

equally
his

rendered
general

lehon.

Though Hanel
about
the

wrong
in

this

instance,
to

contention

difficulty

attaching
the

laying
in

the

hand on clear cases of


stantiated

Greek

influence

Syriac

sub-

An

Interpretation of Genesis.

Including a translation into present-

day English.
Presbyterian

By

Rev. F. P. Ramsay. Ph. D.. Pastor Third

Church,

Washington:
347-

Xew York Omaha. Nebraska. The Xeale Publishing Company, 191 i.

and
pp.

La Suit de Penouel.
ologie
israelites.

Etude de

philologie, d'histoire et de

myth-

Par
1.

Alfred-B.
pp.
43.

Hexry.

Paris:

Librairie

Fischbacher.

191

The Book of Exodus. In the Revised Version. With introducBy the Rev. S. R. Driver. D. D., Regius tion and notes.
Professor of Hebrew, and Canon of Christ Church, Oxford,

&c, &c.

(The Cambridge Bible for Schools and


at the

Colleges.)

Cambridge:

University Press,

1911-

pp. lxxii

443.

The Book of Xumbers.


tion

In the Revised Version.

With introduc-

and notes.

By A. H. McXeilE.

D. D., Fellow and

Dean

134

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge.

(The Cambridge Bible


at

for

Schools and
1911.

Colleges.)

Cambridge:

the

University

Press,

pp.

xxvii

196.

ION 2br\2 HJ ^trnn &6.

(Exode

xxiii, 19;
la

xxxiv, 26; Deut.


Extrait de
Paris:

xii,

21).

Une
de

erreur de traduction dans

Bible.

la

Revue

Unguis tique, I9H.


191
1.

Par
32.

S.

Ferares.

Librairie

Fischbacher,

pp.

Commentary on
B.
A.,

the

Book

of Deuteronomy.

D. D.. Professor of
in

By W. G. Jordan, Hebrew and Old Testament liter(The Bible

ature

Queen's University, Kingston. Canada.

for

Home

and School.)
pp.

New York: The Macmillan Com-

pany, 191 1.

263.

Ramsay's "Interpretation of Genesis"


a

is

the popular

work of
with
the

preacher.
for

He

writes

for

the

untutored.

And

he writes for

believers,

Christians.

He makes them
critical theories
difficulty in

acquainted

technical terms used in Bible introductions and Bible commentaries

he gives a sketch of the


the Pentateuch
;

concerning the origin of

he sees no

placing the compilation of

the Pentateuch in post-Mosaic times, but the editors used Mosaic


material.

As

for

Genesis,

Moses used pre-Mosaic


into

material.
is

In

the

book a translation of Genesis


is

modern English

given

which

accompanied by explanatory notes.

As
229)

a specimen of the
:

translation

we may quote Gen.

44, 18

ff.

(p.

"Then Judah came up


'O

close to
I

him and

said,

Your

Excellency,
in

beg that you will permit your servant


hearing.

to speak a

word

Your Excellency's

Do

not be irritated

with your servant, for you are the same as Pharaoh.


cellency asked his servants," etc.

Your Ex-

As with other attempts


effect
is

in
T

the

same direction

(see below), the

not a pleasing one.

doubt whether the modern

man

is

so far

removed from the language of Shakespeare that the English


is

of the Authorized Version, barring isolated cases,


telligible.

for

him unin-

As

for style, generations have labored in creating the


fit

English biblical diction which alone seems to


ature.

the sacred literright feeling

Somehow

the older translators had the

for

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE


the
simplicity

MARGOUS
in

35

of

the

original

which no modern paraphrase can


of the book are
the

match.

The concluding chapters


falsifier,"

nature

of summaries.
calls

In describing the character of

Abraham, the author

him "a

one who "used falsehood without a twinge


critics

of

conscience."
;

The

may

be

wrong about

the

dating of

Genesis

but their historical sense guards them against measuring

the heroes of Genesis with a

modern standard.

That

is

at

least

one gain of historical

criticism.

M.

Henry submits

the narrative

of "the night of Penuel" (Gen. 32, 24-33) to a fresh examination.

The etymologies
"God
fact

of the Jahvist narrator

(Jabbok combined with

'bk; Isra-el interpreted as "he striveth with

God"

in the place of

striveth") cannot be accepted; in the interpretation of Penuel


is

("Face of God") he

nearer the truth.

Whatever

of historical

may

be found to underlie the legend amounts to a pre-Jahvistic

reminiscence of the conquest of Canaan which began somewhere


in

the

fourteenth century B. C.
In
all

Gen. 34 and
is

48,

22 are further

reminiscences.

of

them Jacob

represented as a courageous

warrior so utterly

at

variance with his character in the framework.

As
the
is

for the religious content of the myth,

we

are confronted with

demoniacal character of Jahveh

(contrast Jirku

above)

a savage deity, given to nocturnal attacks, partial to those

please

him,

subject
to

to

moods and whims,


art

pliant

to

those

who who who

know how
time

win him by the

of

magic.

He

attacks Jacob

for no cause whatever, simply because he encounters


;

him

at night

he easily maims the titan that dares to wrestle with him

but before he extricates himself out of the hands of Jacob at the


rise

of

dawn he
Hosea

is

made
1-6)

to bless him,

to

pronounce a berakah,
vanquished becomes
sense of the myth.

magic formula of incantation.


(12,

Thus

the

victor.

well understood the

In the myth furthermore reveal themselves the vicissitudes of the


gods.

Jacobel was the

name

of a Canaanite city in the sixteenth

century B. C. and presumably also of a Canaanite god.

He was
truth not

absorbed
the

among many
but
his

others by Jahveh.
supplanted.

Jacob was
last

in

supplanter,

the

At

he became a

mere

shadow of
of

former character, a mere patriarch.

The change

name

to

Israel

The books

of

marks the final stage of the metamorphosis. Exodus and Numbers in the Cambridge Bible for
in

Schools and Colleges have found worthy expounders

Driver and

136
McNeile.
text.

thi:

wish quarterly review


is

A new
the

feature

the use of the Revised Version in the


is
;

Thus

commentary

relieved

from the necessity of


is

registering alternate

renderings

the

margin of the R. V.
lies in his

re-

tained at the foot of the text.

Driver's strength

intimate

acquaintance with the language and his cautious criticism.


able excursuses convey

Valu-

ing
site

disputed
of

points
in

much useful information and aim at clarifyof much interest. Comp. the notes on the
Code of Hammurabi.
In the Introduction,

Sinai, or,

the appendixes, on the Passover, the date of

the decalogue, and the

the outline of the narratives concerning the exodus and the person

of

Moses

is

accepted as historical.

full

discussion of the data


estimate.

from Egyptian monuments precedes

this

In

Numbers,
is

McNeile distinguishes between the JE narrative which


on traditions which
facts
in
all

based

probability took their rise

from actual
narrative

and the

P
a

narratives

which are "only

laws in

clothing,

and therefore very


basis

few of them can be regarded as


Mosaic history."
P,

possessing even

of

actual

As

for

the

laws which belong exclusively to


is

though their present form

late,

they contain elements which are primitive in several parts,

"but whether any of them date from a period as early as Moses


it

is

impossible to say."
of 1DN

After

reviewing the history of the inter23,

pretation

J?n2 HJ b^'in #b (Exod.


at the

19

and parallels),

M. Ferares arrives

conclusion that
it

its

original

meaning was:
volume on

Thou
Prof.

slnilt

not seethe a kid while


in

is

a suckling.

The
is

Deuteronomy
Jordan.
is

The
In

Bible for

Home

and School

the

work of
document
by
the

the

Bibliography Zangwill's "The Children of


''a

the Ghetto"
relating
to

included,
life

novel, but also an important

the

of

the

modern

Jew

as

moulded

ancient law."

The Hook of Joshua.

Edited by

John Sutherland Black, LX.

D.
at

(The Smaller Cambridge Bible for Schools.) Cambridge:


the University Press, 1910.
pp.
145.

The Book- of Joshua.


of

Edited by the Rev. P.

J.

Boyer, M. A., Vicar

Rothersthorpe,

Northampton. (The Revised Version edited

for the use of Schools.) Cambridge: at the University Press,


\')\ 1.

pp.

xx

-f-

103.

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE


The
First

MARGOLIS
Edited

37
F.

(and

Second)

Book

of

Samuel.

by

A.

Kirkpa trick. D. D. Dean of

Ely.

(The Smaller Cambridge


i.

Bible for Schools.) Cambridge: at the University Press, 191


pp.

176;

176.

Origcncs, Eustathius von Antiochien und Gregor von Nyssa iiber


die

Hexe von Endor.

Herausgegeben von Erich KlosterHer-

MANN.

(Klcine Texte fur Vorlesungen und Ubungen.

ausgegeben von

Hans Lietzmann.) Bonn:


pp.
70.

A.

Marcus und

E. Weber's Yerlag, 1912.

The volumes Joshua and

and

II in

Samuel
revised

in

the

Smaller

Cambridge Bible for Schools appear


series published by the

editions.

are eminently useful in their concise and lucid form.

They Of another
to
is

Cambridge Press and intended likewise

be used in schools the book of Joshua has appeared.


that of the Revised Version

The

text

and notes and introduction are comto

mendable.

For University students who wish

become acquainted
first

with patristic expositions of the Scriptures at

hand Kloster-

mann's publication of the homily of Origen together with the


refutation by Eustathius of Antioch and a letter of Gregory of

Nyssa
come.

all

dealing with the witch of


text
is

Endor

will

prove very wel-

The

based on a Munich

MS.

of the tenth century.

The Hebrew Prophets, or Patriots and Leaders of Israel. A textbook for students of the high school age and above. By
Georgia Louise Chamberlin.
Chicago:

The

University of

Chicago Press,

191

i.

pp.

xviii

2 37-

The Hebrew Prophets for English Readers.


the

In the language of
printed
in

Revised

Version

of

the

English

Bible,

their

poetical form, with headings

and brief annotation.


and

Edited by

Francis

H.
III:

Woods,

B. D.,

Francis E. Powell,

M. A.

Volume

Obadiah, Ezekiel, and Isaiah


xii

(XL-LXVI).
317.

Ox-

ford: at the Clarendon Press, pp.

-f

The Composition of
Archaeology.

the Book of Isaiah in the Light of History and By the Rev. Robert H. Kennett, D. D., Regius Professor of Hebrew and Fellow of Queens' College, CamLondon published for the British bridge, Canon of Ely.
:

138

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Academy by Henry Fkowde (Oxford University Press),
pp.
vii

1910.

94-

The Book of
G.

the

Prophet Isaiah.
D.
D.,

With introduction and


Tutor of
St.

notes.

By

W. Wade,
GORHAM,

Senior

David's College,
:

Lampeter.
S.

(Westminster Commentaries.)
I9II.

New York

Edwin

pp. lxxxii

-\-

431.

ITVE^ "1DD Das Buck Jesaia.

Xach dem Forschungssystem Rabbiner


iibersetzt
:

Samson Raphael Hirschs


Hirsch.
Frankfurt
a.

und

erlautert
1911.

von Julius

M.

J.

Kauffmanx,
on

pp.

vn

508.

Critical

and

Exegetical

Commentary
and

Micah,

Zephaniah,

Xahum,

Habakkuk,

Powis Smith, Ph.


Julius A. Bewf.r,
mentary.)
xix
Jefeth
b.

By John Merlin D., William Hayes Ward, D. D., LL. D., Ph. D. (The International Critical ComObadiah
Joel.

New York: Charles


146.

Scribxer's

Soxs,

1911.

pp.

363 -f

Ali's

Arabic Commentary on Nahum.

With

introduction,

abridged translation and notes.


feld.
42.

Edited by Hartwig Hirsch3.)

(Jews' College Publications, No.

London,

191

1.

pp.

The Book of Habakkuk.


the
B.

Introduction, translation, and notes on


the

Hebrew
D.,

text.

By

Rev.

George G. V.

Stonehouse,

Vice-Principal of the Theological College, Coates Hall,

Edinburgh.

London: Rivixgtoxs,

191

1.

pp.

xiii

+
is

264.

Miss Chamberlin's volume on the Prophets which


a series of text-books for
religious education
is

part of

intended for the

maturer student
earlier
in

in

the

upper classes of the high school or the

years of the College.


:

The treatment
;

is

naturally popular

character

the language simple, yet lofty

the paragraphs well

balanced and supplied with headings; biblical texts introduced at


length in their historical setting; useful

maps and

historical tables.

The

results of the higher criticism are accepted; thus the Messianic


in
;

passages of the First Isaiah are placed


last
is

post-exilic times.
universalistic

The
of

prophetic utterance

is

that of

Jonah

its

message
point

the
is

sum of Old Testament prophecy.


indicated at the conclusion.

The

Christian

view

"Even

at this point

our chain

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE


is

MARGOUS
of the

[39

incomplete,

for

we have made no mention


like

prophet of

Xazareth,

but

onr task

that

of

the

Hebrew

nation
lips

was

to

prepare the way for larger truth, whether from the


or Gentile."
In a footnote to
"It
p.

of

Hebrew

3 the

author refers to the Zionist


as

movement.

should not be looked upon


in

an effort of the

Jewish people to realize

this
all

age their old dream of a world


nations of the earth would pay
persisting the hope of a future

power

in

Palestine, to

which

homage.
for
the

In

it,

however, we see

still

Jewish people, which


all

is

the

expression

of

an optimism

upheld through

the ages by firm trust in Jehovah."


for

The
(see

third
this

volume of
Review.
40-66.

the

Oxford prophets
I.

English

readers

New

Series,

578) contains Obadiah, Ezekiel, and Isaiah


the

In

dealing

with

composition

of

the

book of

Isaiah,

Prof.

Kennett

starts

from the assumption that Isaiah did not


they were rather handed

commit

his prophecies to writing:

down

orally by his disciples


tion.

and

at length

embodied

in a

written collec-

In

the

process,
as
it

though the memory of the ancients was

retentive

aided

was by
lost

the

poetical

form of some of the


so
life

prophecies,
editors

much was

sight

of

so

much

that

the

later

were compelled

to

have recourse to the

of the prophet,

a biography in the

manner of

the stories of Elijah and Elisha in


to

the book of Kings, to

make good
"at

some extent the


as
late

deficiencies.

These narratives date from


Exile."

least

as the time of

the

and consequently the collection of discourses forming the

nucleus of the First Isaiah which

may
later

be ascribed to the son of


date.
is

Amoz was

put together at a

still

So far

as the size

of this nucleus of genuine Isaianic material

concerned, Kennett

(with some 253 verses) in the main agrees with Marti (some 245
verses).
the

Marti,
is

however, assumes

that,

though the collection of


lifetime

prophecies

much
8,

posterior to the
into
30,
it

of the prophet,

the

fragments
:

which entered
16

were

composed

by

Isaiah

himself

he refers to

and

8 in corroboration of his opinion.


latter
is

Kennett has apparently overlooked the


ence to the former he maintains that
stand the words to
ten

passage

with referto under-

"it

more natural

mean
tablets
in

that the prophet's teaching

must be writKennett goes

on the fleshy

of his disciples' hearts."

further than

Marti

assigning the greater part of the book to


:

the second century B. C.

thus not only substantial portion? of the

14-0

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Isaiah, but also the
finds

Second

whole of the Third Isaiah (56-66) for


a few minor additions)
to
in

which Marti
fifth

room (barring

the

century B. C. are brought


as

down

Maccabean
at

times.

Subof the

jective

the

decomposition of our Isaiah


is,

the hands

English

critic

his interpretation of single points is

open to the

same animadversions.
that

Though Kennett

is

not alone in maintaining

HD?yn

designates "one or

more young women of marriageable


is

age" (comp. Stade for instance), the generic article


impossible
in
;

here utterly

the example Eccl.

7,

26 which

is

customarily adduced
is

proof

is

not to the point: there the predicate


the

generic,

and

"woman"

in

singular

and without the


not

article in

would be an
plural
!

adequate English rendering,

"women"

the

You

may
say

"woman is "woman is with


say
the

treacherous and seductive," but you cannot


child."

Whatever has been


have
referred to a
for

said to the condefinite

trary,

prophet can

only

young
fit

woman.

Wade's

criticism
is

which the Editor has thought

to offer an analysis.

apology

conservative in comparison with Kennett's

After the manner of

Duhm,

three Isaiahs seem to


(in a

suffice.

The prophecies concerning Immanuel


Prince of
assigned
to

Messianic sense), the

Peace,

and the Shoot out of the stock of Jesse are

Isaiah.
it

While the
is

Servant

songs

are

declared

of
in

independent origin,

assumed that they were incorporated

Deutero-Isaiah and that accordingly the Servant denotes the collective

people

of

Israel.

Julius
Marcus
of

Hirsch

whose work on Isaiah


the tracks of

was edited by
Hirsch.

his

son

was a son of Samson Raphael


prophet moves
in

The

exposition

the

the noted rabbi's

interpretation of the Pentateuch and other parts


It

of the Scriptures.

goes without saying that the whole of Isaiah

was the work of the son of Amoz.


even
in

But

this absence of criticism,

the
is

face

of

Ibn Ezra's well

known

thesis

of

an exilic

Isaiah,

small

matter
is

compared with the absurd renderings


replete

with which the volume


of
the
a
all

and which are banal perversions


curiosa

common
in

sense.
:

following gems

As "And

exegetical

we may
2
is

single

out

the daughter of Zion, that


5,
1,

was

to be

booth

the vineyard
is

(for the "vineyard"

compared;
field

the "booth"

the Torah),

was

left like a

night-lodging in a

of
let

stubble
it

(n^'pD combined withBPp!)"

(1,

8); "when ye come,


hath required this

be, that

My

countenance be seen

but

who

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE


at

MARGOUS
(t,

l|l

your hand?

it

is

a trampling of
is

my

courts"
in a

12)

pon
;

HtPtt

''direct to salvation that which


it

still

ferment"
v.

(r,

17); "and
v. 5

shall judge," the subject

is

"the

word" of

(2,

4)

and
of

following are placed in the mouth of the heathen,

"O house

Jacob! take the lead, we would walk along

in the light of

God";

"which have brought him to the point

()b

)W
will

"MPS

down,
all

etc."

(2,

20)

"and

it

is

God, that

) that he bows make them bare of

charm
24)
is

(jnriQ

"their

seductiveness"

fromnnS;

4,

17b)

tO^HB

(v.

"foolish joy";

"from

rule

and law he was kept away,

and as for the story of

his times
all

(the times of the galuth during

which he was deprived of


detail"
(53,

rights),
I

who

could

narrate

it

in

8a)
(the

"and also of them

will take to be Levites will

for

the

priests

worthy among the heathen


by the
is

minister to the

priest people, illuminated

spirit

of the divine law; 66, 21);

and so

on.

The work,
greatest

it

but fair to say, should not be taken

as a sample of the contribution of tion

Judaism

at large to the elucida;

of

the

prophet

in

the

Scriptures

it

simply repre-

sents a

family tradition which in the nature of things will not be

long in disappearing.

The work begun by

the

late

William

R.

Harper with

his

Commentary on

the

Minor Prophets has been continued


John M.
Smith,

for the

books of Micah, Zephaniah. Xahum, Habbakuk, Obadiah, and Joel


by three American
scholars,
P. \V.

H.

Ward,
is

and

J.

A.

Bewer.
It
is

Ward's contribution
very
brief.

(on
it

Habbakuk)

the

smallest.

also

Thus
Joel
;

lacks a bibliography.
to

Bewer has written on Obadiah and


rest.

Smith belongs the

The

critical

attitude
liberal

is

sane and cautious.

The vagaries

of

hypercriticism

with

assignments to
is

Maccabean times are

vigorously repudiated.
exposition

Joel

placed in the fourth century.


the
well

The
the

which

proceeds

along

known
it

lines
is

of

International Critical
textual

Commentary
observations

of which

is

a part

rich in

and

linguistic

which
is

will

be

found helpful

by the student for

whom

the series

intended.
(in

Hirschf eld's edition and translation


Ali's

part)

of

Jepheth

b.

Arabic commentary on

Xahum

is

a gift for which

we ought

to be

grateful considering that only a small portion of Jepheth's

exegetical labors have thus far been

made

accessible through pub-

142
lication.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


The
student

should

not
col.

fail

to

note

the

corrections

given by Bacher in TLZ., 1912,

164

f.

Stonehouse's Habbakuk

is

an Oxford dissertation.

The

auis

thor deals at length with the critical theories.

The
to the

translation

based upon an emended


the useful

text.

Notes on the Hebrew text complete

monograph.

The paper contributed


in

"Old Testa-

ment and Semitic Studies


131-142,

Memory

of William Rainey Harper,"

apparently escaped the author's notice.

Die Schriften des Altai

Testaments.

In

Auswahl neu

iibersetzt

und

erklart.

Dritte Abteilung.

Erster Band.

Lyrik (Psahnen,

Hoheslied und J'envandtes).


tungen versehen.
an
der

Ubersetzt, erklart

und mit

Einlei-

Von

Dr.

W.

Staerk, Professor der Theologie

Universitat

Gottingen:

Mit Xamen- und Sachregister. Jena. Vaxdenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1911. pp. xxxn + 285.
Hebraisch und deutsch.

Die Psahnen.
schaftlichen

Mit einem kurzen wissenCist., o.

Kommentar. Von Dr. Xivard ScheeoEGL, O.


in

Universitatsprofessor

Wien.

Mit

oberhirtlicher

Druck-

genehmigung.
Styria, 191
1.

Graz
pp.

und

Wien:

Verlagsbuchhaxdluxg

xxvn

235.

Das Buck der Psahnen. Lateinisch und deutsch mit erklarenden Herausgegeben von Augustin Arndt, S. J. Anmerkungen.
Regensburg: Friedrich Pustet,
Life. Death,
\V. O. E.

1910.
in

pp. VIII

480.

and Immortality: Studies


OesterlEy, D.
D.,

the Psalms.

By
the

the Rev.

Hon.

Sec. of the Society of Sacred


Assist.

Study

(London Diocese), Hon.


xv

Sec.

of

Church

Reading Union
191
1.

(London Diocese).
188.

London: Johx Murray,

pp.

The Hebrew
and
Ph.
1-line

Personification of

Wisdom.

Its Origin,

Development
A.
M..
33-

Influence.
I).

By Charles

Everett

HesselgravE.
1910.

New York:

G. E. StechErT

&

Co.,

pp. VII

baby Ionise he

Quelle
Studie.

fur

das
P.

Buch
Dr.

Job?

Eine

literar-

gcschichtliche

Von

Simon

Landersdori-ek,

O.

S.

B.

{Biblische Studien.
in

Herausgegeben von Prof. Dr. O.

Bardenhewer

Miinchen.

XVI,

2.)

Freiburg im Breisgau
pp.

Herdersche Verlagshandi^ung,

1911-

xn
'

!38.

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE


Commentary on
Bryn
the

MARGOUS
Ph.

I43
J).,

Book of

Job.

By GEORGE A. Barton,
and
Semitic

Professor of

Biblical

Literature

Languages

in

Mawr

College.

(The Bible for

Home
191
i.

and School.)
-f-

Xevv York:

The Macmillan Company,

pp. ix

321.

Das

alt est e

Liebeslied der Welt.

Das Hohelied Salomons (CantiII.

cum Canticorum) D^VKM

Tfc\

Teil der Poesien des Alien

Testaments im deutschen Gezvande.


emeritierter
furt
a.

Von JuDr. M.
in
-f-

Epstkix.

mahr.-schles.
J.

Landesadvokat
191
i.

Briinn.
22.

Frank-

M.

Kauffmann,
sein

pp.

vn

Das

dritte Bitch

Esdras und
P.

Verhdltnis su den Biichcm Esra-

Xehemia.
schrift.

Von

Edmund

Bayer, O. F. M.

Gekronte Preis-

XVI, I.) Freiburg im Breisgau: Herdersche Verlagshandling, 191 1. pp. xiii -f 161.
(Biblische Studicn.

German laymen have had


works on the Old Testament
I

the

advantage of two monumental


intended for their use.
edition,

specifically

refer

to

the

Bibles

of

Reuss

(German
see JQR.,

1892-94)
I,

and
577).

Kautzsch

(third edition,

1909-10;

New

Series,

The

latest

undertaking which we owe to the well known Gottingen

publishing firm of

Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht has features


;

in

com-

mon
of
a

with

its

two predecessors

witness the exposition in the form

running commentary

(Reuss)

and the short introductions

and the non-technical textual notes (Kautzsch).


consist
firstly

The new

features

in

offering selections rather than the whole of the

Bible

but the parts eliminated from the translation are referred

to in the introduction to each volume.

The

principle of selection

implies that not

all

the parts of Scripture are of interest to the

modern

reader.

In this respect the editors have freed themselves


inspiration.

from the dogma of

In the second place, the books of

the Bible are arranged according to literary characteristics.


aesthetic

The

point of view

is

indeed

made much
It

of

for purposes of

classification.

The volume with which we


with the latter

are

immediately con-

cerned
the

is

devoted to the lyric genre.


;

contains the Psalms and

Song of Songs
enough

is

classed Ps. 45, and the

two
is

together exemplify secular lyric poetry.


rightly

The psalm
in

in

question

taken as an epithalamium in honor of one of the

kings of North Israel.

The emendation

v.

13,

it

may

be said

144
in passing,
is

TH E JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


utterly uncalled for
:

the Septuagintal construction of


)

the text

(comp. also the

Targum

was influenced by

the interpreis

tation of the king as the Messiah.


to

The Song
in

of Songs

taken

contain

some wedding songs, but


While the

the

main the poems are

simply erotic.

collection dates

from the third century,

most of the poems ascend


a

to pre-exilic times.

As
to

for the Psalter,


times,

few psalms may with probability be assigned

Maccabean

many, as the greater number of the royal paslms, many hymns,


etc.,

are
is

pre-exilic,

ascending to the times of the prophets, and


to doubt that
titles

there

no reason

some may

really claim

David as

their author,

though the

are of late origin and the historical

references to David's
the

life

may

be proved to be erroneous.

But

bulk

comes

from
as
;

exilic

and

early

post-exilic times.

The

psalms are

classified

hymns

or prayers, both public

(choral)

and private (individual)

then there are poems centering about the

worship and such as are of a didactic character.


translation
original,

Though
scanning

the

makes

the appearance of being in the rhythm of the

the

translator

acknowledges
in

that

all

such

is

tentative.

We
text

are

only

the beginnings
difficulties

of the metrical study

of the Old Testament.


able.

The

are well nigh insurmount-

The

is

often badly preserved,

we know next
it

to nothing

about the pronunciation of Hebrew when


an! the
is

was

a living language,

exact determination of the rhythmical form of the verse

at

present only a matter of guesswork.

Schlogl

is

Catholic

who has done some preliminary labor in scanning Hebrew verse he announces a work soon
scholar
;

the matter

of

to be published

which

will

deal at length with this subject.

In his edition of the


a degree of certainty
is

Psalms he scans the verses throughout with


which leaves nothing
pense of the
criticism
jective
text.

to be desired.
in his

But

it

achieved

at the

ex-

As

previous exegetical works, conjectural


place.
fail

and emendation occupy a far too prominent


his

Sub-

as

reconstruction

of

the

text

is,

it

will

to

win

universal

assent.
this

No

exception should be taken to the principle.

Attempts of

kind will have to be made.

As

mere attempt

the publication merits attention.

Textual criticism of the character


is

described
to the

is

resorted to also in the headings and

made

ancillary

maintenance of the traditional opinion concerning the authorcollection.

ship

and date of the

Accordingly

at

least

two thirds

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE


of the Psalms are vindicated for David.

MARGOUS
Moses

145

He

cannot conceive any


as the author

reason
of the
several
the

why modern

criticism should object to


to

Psalm ascribed

him.

have made an examination of

Psalms as reconstructed by Schlogl and


is

my

impression ol
it

work
on

that while

it

is

painstaking and thorough

rests en-

tirely

subjective

grounds;

some emandations are good, and

some decidedly prosaic and


the Vulgate with a

forced.

Augustin
is

Arndt's reprint of

new German

translation and short notes context


as
a

taining references to the

Hebrew
Psalter

intended for intelligent

devotional

reading.

The

whole

was

collected by

Xehemiah with
are
still

the assistance of Ezra, but the individual collections

older.

The bulk belongs


sin,

to

David.

Oesterley
first

presents

a popular study of the religious content of the Psalms under the

heads of God,

and the future

life.

The

chapter shows
In the doctrine

the influence of Gunkel's

Schopfung mid Chaos.


word-studies

of

God

three stages are differentiated testifying to an "ever-prorevelation."

gressing

Interesting

are

interspersed.

Some
archy

of the Psalms are anterior to the foundation of the

mon-

and others date

from the Maccabean period

throughout

that long stretch of

time there has been a religious development

which

is

mirrored

in the collection.

Hesselgrave's study of the


represents
University.
times,
a

Hebrew
doctorate

personification of

Wisdom

thesis

for the
the

submitted to
placed
the
in

Xew York
post-exilic

With
writer

Wisdom
no

Literature
in

the

has

difficulty

tracing

origin

of

the

Wisdom
be they

speculations chiefly to extra-Jewish currents of thought,

Babylonian,

Persian,

or-

Egyptian

(Breasted's

suggestion

concerning the influence of Egyptian lore on the Messianic doctrine


is

accepted).

In

the

specific

literature

centering about

Hokmah

of Palestinian origin and of the Greek period influences of Greek speculation are at work, and at length
a separate being, the

Wisdom

is

hypostatized as

companion and helper of Jahveh before the


first

world was made, the

created of God.
;

Plato's archetypal ideas

are at the root of this conception


the the
idea

the tendency to transcendentalize the

God was another factor. In author of the "Wisdom of Solomon,"


of

Egyptian diaspora

but more strenuously


Hellenistic
left

Philo

struggled
:

to

bring

Judaism
a great

in

harmony with
but

thought

the

result

was

service,

God was

"too

I46
transcendent,
the

THE:

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


indefinite,

and the mediator too

too

intangible

for

average

man

to

grasp in a way that would minister to his

religious needs in

an age for extreme emphasis on the concrete


at

and

indefinite."

The process
in
;

length

culminated in the move-

ment which had sprung up


preacher of the
fying
the
;

Palestine around the prophet and


St.

new Kingdom
Christ

Paul was on the road to indenti-

risen

with

the

Logos-Wisdom
for

of

Hellenistic

Judaism
of
the

the

complete identification was reserved for the writer


to

Epistle

the

Hebrews and

the

Johannine Gospel.

"Since the writing of the Gospel of John, Christianity has struggled to understand the 'two natures' here mingled, and the end
not yet."
is

The
the

writer puts

forth his thesis clearly and logically.


dispute.

Of
all

course,

premises are subject to

Altogether the

writer confines himself to one set of authorities. too certain.

His theories are


first

We

miss the pros and cons which in a

effort

should never be wanting.

Within the range of the

literature selec-

ted the writer has succeeded in informing himself capitally, though

even here encyclopedias and general works are mainly laid under
contribution.

In

paper contributed to the Journal of Biblical Literature


135
ff.)

(XXV
allel

(1906),

Prof. Jastrow has sought to draw a par-

between the poem of Job and a similar Babylonian text dealing


just.

with the suffering of the

In his opinion the biblical

poem
was

was

indirectly

at

least

influenced

by the Babylonian production.


attention
a

The contention accepted by several scholars whose drawn to the problem is now made the subject of
by Landersdorfer (of the Benedictine Order).

monograph
re-edits

The author
in

the text in transliteration accompanied by a translation and a

com-

mentary; he submits the poem to a literary estimate;


fashion he appraises the biblical
into

similar

poem entering
its

at the

same time
;

the

critical

questions concerning

origin

and purpose

he

then compares the two productions and arrives at the result that
there does not seem to be sufficient ground for assuming that the
biblical

book

is

in

any

manner,

whether

directly

or

indirectly,

dependent upon the Babylonian poem.


do not
point
to
in

Similarities exist, but they

direct

or

indirect

borrowing;

both

rest

on a

popular account
of
these
in

prose which preceded the poetic form and each


is

turn

grounded

in

natural

observation of the

life

RECENT BIBEICAE LITERATURE


about which
pendence.
reservations
is

MARGOEIS
and

47

too general in character to necessitate literary dethere


in

Moreover,
are

are

also

differences;
possible

though

made
it

favor

of

dependence of a

remote character,

is

maintained that no positive evidence exists

to categorically maintain that the

one

is

borrowed from the

other.

The

essay

is

free

from

all

bias

and moves along the


the
results
will

lines

of

scientific

investigation.

Whether
no,

meet

with

general

acceptance

or

the

question

has

been

re-opened.

check

at

any rate has been placed upon the too

facile
all

method of

emphasizing similarities and ignoring differences


or less
writers.
is

with the more

avowed tendency

to

minimize the originality of the sacred


in

Barton's
is

Commentary on Job
which
is
is

the

Macmillan
unstinted

Series
praise.

scholarly

product

deserving

of

Barton

emphatic that there


its

no

literary

connection between

our story of Job and


that

Babylonian counterpart, though he admits

the

story
source,

of

Job probably came to the Hebrews

from
to

foreign
integrity

possibly

from

Babylonia.

With regard
Elihu
40,

the

of

the

book,
28

Barton
praise

throws out the


of

speeches
15-41,

together with ch.


(the description of

(the

Wisdom) and

34

behemoth and leviathan)

as interpolations.

He

accepts the conclusions of his pupil, Dr. H.

H. Xichols (AJSL.,

XXYII,

97-186), that the Elihu discourses are themselves a comis

posite document, but he

willing that the theory should be sub-

mitted to further criticism.


the

With
ch.

the exception of a few glosses,

poem up
it

to

the

end of

23

is

substantially

in

the

form

given

by the
is

author

(barring textual

corruptions).

Bildad's
1-6;
24.

third speech
17.
18.

tentatively reconstructed to consist of 25.


3-8; 24. 21. 22.
19.

5-8:

30,

20.

24.

What remains
Job's
last

of chs.

24 and

30 belongs to Job.
verses
27,

To
of

the
ch.

third
27.
1.

speech of Zophar are

assigned

7-1

1.

13-23
12;
29,

address

was

composed of
35-37.

1-6.

2-25; 30,
is

2.

9-31;

31,

1-34. 38-40.

The

date

of

the

poem
Jew.

placed about 400 B.


notes

C.

The

author was a
the

Palestinian

The intermediate
trifle

between
I

English text and the commentary are a


are

too full and


fulness.
text.

fear

misleading
take

for

the

very reason of their

The
Yet
be of

reader

will

them as matter bearing upon the

many

of them, as for instance those of the Targum,

may

the nature of expansions which are interesting enough exegetically,

148

THE

K WISH

QUARTERLY REVIEW

but hardly textually.

It

is

true that the daughter-versions of the

Septuagint are very useful in reconstructing" the Greek text; but


then the attempt should be

made

to

do that work of reconstruction

and then only the reconstructed Greek text should be cited as


evidence,
that

and that only also then when

it

has been ascertained


In
is

the

Greek

is

based on a Hebrew variant.

the

present

state of the criticism of the

Greek

all

such by-work

largely ornaat

mental.
first

It
;

testifies

to Barton's industry a

and good information


Barton's
type

hand

but

with

scholar
for
it

of

Professor

the

testimony might be taken

granted and the material allowed

to rest in the card case until

was ready

for systematic treatment.

Dr. Epstein

is

man

of advanced age, a lawyer by profession,

who

has turned to translating the poetic parts of the Old Testainto

ment somewhat freely


and

German
all

verse.

He acknowledges

his

indebtedness to Graetz, but above


tators
specifically to

to several Catholic

commen-

Professor Schlogl to
dedicated.

whom

the rendition

of the

Song

of
a

Songs

is

The rhymed
is

translation has

somewhat of

modern

ring; but that


relation

a matter of taste.

The problem of
Esdras
to II

the

of

the

apocryphal

(or

III)

Esdras (the translation of the canonical books Ezrato

Xehemiah)
Series,
I,

which reference was made


f.)
is

in

this

Review (New

567

the subject of a painstaking investigation by


is

Bayer.

The

author's aim
to

to controvert the theories of

Howorth
the

and

Torrey according
of

whom

the

apocryphon

represents

genuine translation

the

canonical

Chronicles and
in

Ezra-Nehecondition.
a
is

miah

by

the

Septuagint
that

preserved

a
is

fragmentary
by

Bayor
version, a

contends
if

the
is

translation

no

means

close

by closeness

meant

literalness.

The

translation
;

rather

free one.

Deviations from the original occur


is

some are based


preferred to the

on a different text which occasionally


received text
ing
its
;

to be

but the translator often failed to grasp the meanhis

of

the

Hebrew;

knowledge of the

biblical

Aramaic with

numerous foreign words was


was
canonical

particularly deficient.

The
in

latter

point serves to prove that the original which underlies the translation
like

the

recension
his

composed
with
a

both
deal

lan-

guages.

The

translator
<>f

handled

text

great

of
all

freedom by way

condensation or amplification.

Of

course,

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

MAKC.OLIS
is

I49

those cases are to be discounted which have undergone corruption


in the

transmission of the Greek text.


the proper names.
it

Corruptions abound particnot a fragment.


)

ularly in

The apocryphon
closes
8.
(

The two words with which


the translation

u
13)

tniavwufiijaav

are not

of

12DNJ

Xehem.

but are based on


is,

DV21
not

misread

into

D^NHV

Ingenious as this conjecture


the

it

will

carry conviction.
lying
the

Thus

characterization

of the

work under-

apocryphon as an

excerpt

from Chronicles-Xehemiah

with the tendency to constitute a temple chronicle beginning with


Josiah and ending in the promulgation of the

Law

by Ezra be-

comes
this

a matter of doubt.
is

Moreover, there

is

enough matter within

framework which

only remotely connected with the temple.

Witness the story of the three youths for which Bayer vindicates
a

Semitic original.

It

will

be readily conceded with Bayer that

the

apocryphon and
solid
is

II

Esdras are independent works.

There

is

much

learning and earnest thinking in Bayer's effort.


too intricate to be disposed of lightly.
the

The
his

problem
handling

In any future
upset,

of

question

Bayer's

thesis

may

be

but

book

will

have to be consulted and his arguments met.

Lcs Psaumes de Salomon.

Introduction, texte grec et traduction.


es

Par

J.

Viteau. Docteur
la

Lettres.

Avec

les

principales

variantes de

version syriaque per Francois Martin, Prof,

de langues semitiques a l'lnstitut Catholique de Paris.

(Doc-

uments pour V etude de

la

Bible.

Publies sous
et

la

direction de
pp. 427.

Francois Martin.) Paris: Letouzey


Viteau's

Ane,

1911.

new

edition

and translation of the Psalms of Solo-

mon may
facts

will

be welcomed not so

much

for any

new

results that

it

contain as for the thoroughness with which the ascertainable

concerning date, author, and the times of the composition

have been put together.


plete

The author

furnishes not only a com-

bibliography, but he

summarizes the contents of each conthe minute study of the phraseology of


a

tribution.

Very useful

is
is

the Greek.

The Greek
party
at

translation

from

Hebrew

original

which was composed between 63 and 40 B. C. by a member of


the

Pharisaic

Jerusalem.

The The

translation
ascription

was made
to

between 40 before and 70 after C.

Solomon

150

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


still

may come from


work
the
is

later

times.

The

really

new

feature of the

Prof.

Martin's contribution in
recently

which the variants from


by

Syriac

translation

discovered

Rendel

Harris are

registered.

The Culture of Ancient Israel. By Aaron P. Drucker, M. A. New York: Beoch Purltshing Co., 1911. pp. 124.

The Story of
of

Israel

and Judah.

From
J.

the Call of

Abraham
A.,

to the

Death of Xehemiah.

By H.

Chaytor, M.
:

Headmaster
Limited,

Plymouth
pp.
xii

College.
-f
311.

London

Blackie

& Son

[911.

Selections

from

the

Old Testament.

Edited with introduction and

notes by

English

Henry Xelson Snyder, President and Professor of Literature in Wofford College. Boston: Ginn and
191
i.

Company,

pp.

xix

-f-

210.

Early Religious Poetry of the Hebrews.

By

E.

G. King, D.
:

D.,

Sidney Sussex College Cambridge.


versity Press, 191
i.

Cambridge

at

the

Uni-

pp. xvi

-j-

156.

The Wisdom of Lawrence.


E. P.
.Mr.

the Apocrypha,

With an

introduction.
Series.)
124.

By

C. E.

(The Wisdom of the East DuTTON and Company, 1910. pp.

New York
Women's

Drucker's lectures delivered before the Jewish

Council of Chicago were no doubt admired by his audience.


lecturer

A
in

has a right to indulge

in

statements which

when

set

cold type need

more than

the enthusiasm of a club to substantiate

them.

Mr. Drucker might have done himself more justice had he


little

chosen to wait a few years with the publication for which a

more information and

little

less

of hasty generalization would


lectures on the art

certainly have proved useful.

The two

and the

drama of ancient
on
evidence
Israelites

Israel

betray a shallow conception of the two


the prophets have to do in a treatise

elements of "culture."
the

What
"general

of
I

culture"

(see
is

Preface)

among

the

ancient

fail

to see.

For

it

the un-religious kind of

culture that the author sets out to describe.

Mr. Drucker should


in

not
Isai.

have
40,
3.

followed

the

Authorized Version
Story of Israel

the

rendering of
is

Mr.

Chaytor's

and Judah

written

RECENT BIBUCAI, LITERATI' RK

MARGOUS
The

for students of the higher grades in a secondary school.

ideal

which he

sets

himself was,

in

the

language of Driver

whom

he

quotes, to present nothing that a boy on reaching

have

to unlearn

on the ground of either science


is

manhood should or history. Whatis

ever of criticism
told
in

injected into the


is

Bible narrative which

re-

simple language,

of the moderate kind.

Prof.
is

Snyder

presents the narratives of the Old Testament and some specimens


of poetry in the language of the Authorized Version. are

The
to

texts

printed

consecutively.

The aim

of

the

selection

teach
In

the Bible style.


the hands of a

Short notes follow at the end of the volume.

good teacher, the volume

will

prove a very useful


English

text-book.

Dr.

King endeavors

to put before the general

reader some idea of the rhythm of


poetry, the strophe, etc.).

Hebrew
on

poetry (kinah, acrostic


varieties of subject-

At the same time the

matter

are

illustrated.

The
to

volume

the

Wisdom
East"

of
series

the
is

Apocrypha contributed
devoted to the

the

"Wisdom
of
the

of

the

Wisdom
the

of

Solomon and

Ecclesiasticus which are

reproduced

in

translation

Revised Version.

few-

portions have been omitted.

An

introduction giving an estimate

of the two apocryphal works precedes.

Prophecy, Jewish and Christian.


burton Lectures
at

Lincoln's

Dean

of Canterbury.

in a series of WarBy Hexry Wace. D. D., London: John Murray, 191 i. pp. 192.

Considered
Inn.

Messianischc IVeissagungen.

-Texte

fur

akademische
O.

Aus dem massoretischen und Vulgata Ubungen zusammengestellt von P.


B.

Materxus Wolff.
pp.
iv

S.

Trier:

Mosella-Verlag,

191

i.

103.

The Parting of
bridge.

the Roads.

Studies in the development of Judaism

and Early Christianity.

By members

of Jesus College,
Ixge,

Camlate

With

an

introduction

Professorial Fellow,

by W. R. now Honorary Fellow


Edited by F.
J.

D.

D.,

of the College and


D..

Dean of
Fellow

St.

Paul's.

Foakes Jacksox, D.

and Dean of the College.


Co.,

Xew York: Longmans.


347.

Greex axd

1912.

pp.

xii

The Hope of Catholick Judaism An Essay towards Orientation. By J. H. A. Hart. M. A., Fellow and Lecturer of St. John's
:

152
College.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Cambridge.

Oxford

Parker &

Co.,

1910.

pp.

xiv

162.

Mountain Pathways.
Mount.

A
a

study

in

Ethics of the

Sermon on
notes.

the

With

new

translation

and

critical

By

Hector WaylEn.
D.
D.,

Introductory letter by F. C. Burkitt, M. A.,

Xorrisian Professor of Divinity in the University of

Cambridge.

Second edition

revised and enlarged.


Co., Ltd., 1912.

London
pp. xviii

Kegan Paue, Trench, Truebner &


128.

''The

Son of Man," or Contributions

to the

Study of the Thoughts


at the

of Jesus.

By Edwin A. Abbott. Cambridge:


pp.
lii

University

Press, 1910.

873.

The Warburton Lectures on Prophecy by


terbury
certainly

the of

Dean
the

of

Can-

conform

to

the

purposes

foundation

which

is

"to prove the truth of revealed religion in general,

and of
in

the Christian in particular, the

from the completion of prophecies


which
of
relate to

Old

and

New
to

Testaments
the

the

Christian

Church,
rejects
itself,

especially

apostasy

papal
is

Rome."

Dr.

Wace

the

critical

views not because he


is

opposed to criticism

but

because he

convinced "that those views rest on a

totally mistaken,

and

in the strict sense of the

word, preposterous
to

application
a
criticism

of

criticism."

With Dillmann he refuses


principles

abide by

which "turns the whole Old Testament topsy-turvy."


that
spiritual

He

avers

and truths of the most


between the
critical

vital

consequences are involved

in the conflict

theory

and "the theory of the Bible." "The narrative of the Bible represents

God Himself
not

as the great

Author and Inspirer of His own

revelation,

leaving

men

gradually to find

Him

out,

as

they

would discover

principles of science, or of ethics, or of theology,

but as Himself finding them out, entering personally into relations

of covenant with them at the very outset of the revelation in the

person of

Abraham,

and leading them on by

successive

words.

prophecies, rebukes, deliverances, to


to

follow Him.

The

other

know Him better, to trust and view represents men as struggling for
It
is

centuries with crude thoughts of God, without any sure, clear, or


authoritative
revelation

from Him.

all

the

difference be-

tween a natural evolution and a positive supernatural education."

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

MARGOLIS
The Messianic
but

53

"Successive revelation" will best describe the process.

Predictive
pre

prophecy runs through the two Scriptures.


diction
is

rooted in the very

life,

and
it

in

the intensest experience,


it

of the Jewish people.

An

evolution

is,

is

accomplished

throughout by the hand and the voice of the Evolver.

The New

Testament

is

perfectly

continuous

with

the

Old.

The prophets

looked always to the future, and to that extent the present was
illuminated.

We
the

are not sufficiently informed about the contem;

porary reference of the Isaianic prophecy of Immanuel


the
this

but "that
us,

Son of
is

Blessed

Virgin has proved to be


all

God with
thankfully

matter

which

Christian

hearts

will

ac-

knowledge."

The

eschatological predictions in the Gospels cannot

be reduced to vaticinations after the event.


tion

The
the

apostle's predic-

that

the

Gentiles

will

be

sharers
true.

with

Jews

in

their
to

spiritual

inheritance

has

become

While not disposed

denounce another communion, as

a Protestant

Churchman he

can-

not disguise his belief that Catholicism represents an apostasv re-

sembling the one depicted


in Revelation.

in the Epistles to the

Thessalonians and

Whatever be our view


insistence

as to the merit of Dr.


in

Wace's

deductions,
is

his

on the prophetic element

Scripture

indeed timely.

The Messianic

or

Christological
P.

passages of the Old Testafor the convenience of


text

ment are gathered together by


acedemic teachers and students.
are

Wolff

The Hebrew

and Vulgate
is

printed

in

parallel

columns.
13-15)is

The

first

passage

the

Protevangelium

(Gen.

3,

"The Parting of the Roads"

the general

title

of a volume

of ten essays dealing with the development of Judaism and Early


Christianity.

The

essayists are

all

"either past or present

members
them are
on

of Jesus College, Cambridge, and the greater

number
and
is

of

young men who took

their

degrees "within the present century."


to Judaism,

Three of the ten essays are devoted


Mr. Ephraim Levine who Mr.

a fourth

"The Break between Judaism and Christianity"


of
is

from the pen

described

by his teacher as an
at

orthodox Jew.
theological

Levine shows himself

home

in

modern
"drawn

literature:

he has read and digested exegetical works

on the

Xew

Testament, a subject which few

men who

are

154

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


;

towards the ministry of the Synagogue" have cultivated

like

some
is

of his fellow-essayists he gleans his loca probantia from what

near at hand, from Encyclopedia articles for instance

like all of

them, he writes interestingly

his

conviction that the survival of

Judaism after the daughter-religion had separated from the motherchurch


receives
the
its

justification

not

merely
it

from

what

it

still

means for
will be

Jews but

also

from what

has done for the world,

shared by every Jew.

Of

the three papers devoted to phases


to the

of

Judaism

and

meant

as introductory

New

Testament

studies, the
will

one by Oesterley on Judaism in the days of the Christ

prove interesting to Jewish readers

who

will note with satis-

faction the author's familiarity with Jewish sources, but in particular his apparent desire to be just to the religion of the

Law.

One

cannot

fail to

discern in this gratifying change of tone the influence

of Schechter whose years of residence in Cambridge, rich in productive scholarship which


fruitful
in

made him world-famous, were


Jewish

just

as

impressing

his

view of things touching that

interesting border-land
rising

between Judaism and Christianity on the


the

theologians

of

Cambridge
turn

school.

It

is

equally

a
in

healthy sign of a

momentous

which

theological

study

England has taken that Schechter's Aspects of Rabbinical Theology


are being read,

excerpted,

and commented upon.

Mr.

Hart who

avers in the preface to his book on "Catholick Judaism" that


at

when

the

advice of Professor Swete he


his

came

to

Dr.

Schechter, he

"waved
is

hand

at the

Wilna Talmud and


Theology.

said, It's all in there,"

another instance of a young English theologian

who
is

has perused

the Aspects of Rabbinic

His attitude

controversial.
in the

Finding Dr. Schechter no friend of the theory that


lyptic literature there is

apoca-

contained an older stage of Rabbinism, he


rebuttal
a

endeavors

to

construct in
to

wider "Catholick" Judaism

which

is

common
to

Old and

New

Testaments, to the prophets and

apocalyptists,

Jesus and the rabbis.


(instance

Mr. Hart's fondness for and


Chrestus)

detecting

paronomasias
in

Christ us
the

which
this

was noticed
REVIEW,

previous
I.

work by
ff.)

same author

(see

New

Series,

407

remains open to objection, and so


arouse dissent.
it

some of
which
in
its
is

his general theories will

The

little

volume

part of a series in which

is

aimed to "discuss Judaism


to

history, or its doctrines,

from a Christian standpoint, and

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE

MARGOLIS

155

bring before both Christian and Jewish readers the relation that
Christianity

holds to Judaism,"
standpoint

is

on the whole interesting, and


not

while

the

Christian

will

be

accepted
is

by Jews

it

merits attention, especially as the Jewish side


into

sufficiently

taken

account. Mr. Waylen's interpretation of the Sermon on the


of which a

Mount
the

new

translation

is

offered serves in the main

purpose of showing
teachings
of
the

how

the

sayings of Jesus are rooted in


in

the

Old Testament and

rabbinic

lore.

The

author

who
all

is

"not ashamed to confess experiences of that order


is

of things which
self

popularly called 'psychic'," though availing him-

of

the light which historical, or, as


is

we should
to

say, philois

logical

study,

able to

throw on these ancient sayings,

never-

theless

eager to penetrate behind the

mere word

the

spiritual

or

"psychic"

thought underlying

it

and thus to detect points of

contact which the narrower philology will pass by in silence.


translation
is

The
;

not exactly intended to be in


is

modern English
meant
the
is

but

the the

language chosen
effect

interpretative

and

is

to

reproduce

on the immediate hearers to

whom

sayings

were

addressed.

The

text underlying the translation

of the author's

own making:
an example we

readings

from the Old Syriac are introduced.


the rendering
5,

As

may mention
Interesting

32

But

say to you

that he that dismisses his wife concerning

whom

adultery has not


fiupe
5,
!

been alleged,

etc.

is

his interpretation of

22 not

from

fiupoq
is

"fool,"

but as a transliteration of PHfa "rebel"

The

author
soften

perfectly justified in his repudiation of the

tendency "to

down and

take

the

keen

edge

off

even

many
to

of

the

simplest sayings in the

Xew

Testament" which he traces

"want

of personal experience in the lives of professing Christians"

com-

bined with "far too

much

reliance upon outward forms, church-

organizations, and clerical ministrations."

The

signification
is

of

the

title,

if

title

it

be,

"The Son of

Man" which
the

used by Jesus with reference to himself has been


special

subject

of

investigations

within
in

recent
at

years.

Dr.
is

Abbott assumes that the current idea


that in using this self-appellation, Jesus
his

England

any rate

had reason

to believe that
(7.

hearers would recall the phrase used in Daniel


title

13)

con-

ceived as a

of the Messiah.

Against this contention the author

156

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Man"
like
at all,

argues that Daniel does not mention "the Son of

but

merely says "one


being,

like

son of man." that

is

one

a
is

human
not a

and

in

the

second place that "the Son of


title

Man"
in

recognized Messianic

in either of the

Talmuds or
"the son of

any other
is

early Jewish literature.


a
title.

Even

in
is

Enoch
sequel

man"

not

supernatural being

introduced as having the appear-

ance of a

man, and then

in

the

he

is

naturally
is,

enough

referred to as "the" or "that son of man," that


viously
characterized.
the
If

the being pre-

then the appellation does not straightit

way denote

Messiah, what does

denote?

Accordingly, Dr.

Abbott's working hypothesis with which he starts in order to defend


it

by a minute examination of the documents bearing on the quesis

tion
their

to

this

effect

Jesus was influenced by the

Scriptures in

entirety,

not indeed excluding the vision of


;

Daniel but in-

cluding a great deal more


"the son of

the Scriptural conception of


to the

"man" and
as

man" has reference

dignity of

man
of

above

the beast and as possessing the faculty of

communion with God

"the son of
first

man" in Hebrew really means "the son man)" who was not brought forth from the
command, but formed by

Adam
like

(the

earth,

the

other animals, at God's

the

Lord God
with the

Himself from the dust of the ground, inspired by


breath of
creation
;

Him

life,

and commanded by

Him

to

rule

over the animal

in

particular Jesus had in view the appellation of "son of


;

Adam"
(

given to Ezekiel
;

'son of

self

bar

the Targum correctly renders bar Adam Adam") hence Jesus, speaking in Aramaic, called himAdam, "son of Adam"; Ezekiel saw one like "a man"
in

near the throne

heaven, that

is,

he

realized

the

humanity of
it

God; and when


signified

the

prophet was addressed as "son of man,"

the divinity of

man; Jesus was

attracted by this vision,

as

there are

many more

parallelisms between Ezekiel and Jesus;

he appropriated this prophetic conception of the humanity of

and the divinity of

man

and, in using the self-appellation bar

God Adam,
a

he meant to convey to his hearers the thought: Keep constantly


in

view

my human
nature

nature, that you

may
to

perceive

how
led

divine

thing
the

human

may

be,

and that you may be


of

through

knowledge of the

divinity

Man
the

the

knowledge of the

humanity of God; Paul understood Jesus well when he designated

him

as

the

second

Adam, being

incarnation

of

the

real

or

RECENT BIBUCAL LITERATURE


ideal

MARGOUS
Dr.

57

Man,
earthly
in

the

Lord above, the perfect and heavenly pattern of

the

and imperfect

Adam who

fell.

Abbott
in

quotes
is

Kimhi
title

support of his theory that "son of man"


;

Ezekiel

of honor

but the further deductions by the Christian theoloto

gian
tors.

would certainly not be acceptable

the Jewish

commenta-

Even Rashi

in his

first
is

explanation (the second explanation

appears to be a gloss)

bent upon emphasizing the distinction


is

between the prophet who

born of

woman and

the angels with


is

whom
out

he associates.
is

But the view of the gloss which


nearer the truth
:

borne
is

by Jerome

probably
is

the

prophet

to

remember
the

that he

but man.

However

that

may
all

be, Dr. Abbott's

work which
Gospels,
observations.
the

represents a painstaking study of

the passages in
fine

including the

fourth,

is

replete

with

exegetical

His

insistence

on

going

behind

the

words

to

thoughts
is

and

on

harmonizing

divergent

accounts to get at
will

the facts
to

sound principle which serious students


Altogether the book
is

do well

ponder over.

an important contribution

to the exegesis of the

New

Testament.

Much

can be learned from

a series of longer footnotes.

Nothing has escaped the attention of


is

Dr. Abbott.

Thanks

to Wiinsche's translations, he

at

home

in

the midrashic literature as

far as

it

bears upon his subject.

He

has

also

availed

himself

of

the

information

furnished

him by

Jewish scholars.

Keutestanientliche Grammatik.

Das Griechisch des Neuen TestaDargestellt

ments im Zusammenhang mit der Volkssprache. von Dr. Ludwig Radermacher, Wien.
o.

Professor an der Universitat


Testament.

(Handbuch
J. C. B.

sum

Xeuen

Band

I,

1.)

Tubingen:

Mohr (Paul

SiEbeck), 1911.

pp. iv -f 207.

An

Atlas of

Textual Criticism.

Being an attempt to show the

mutual relationship of the authorities for the text of the

New
at

Testament up

to about 1000 A. D.
St.

By Edward Ardrox HutCambridge:

tox. M. A., Vicar of

Michael's, Hargrave.
i.

the Uxiversity Press, 191

pp.

xviii

I2 5-

Nauum

Testamentum

Latine.

Secundum editionem
fidem

Sancti

Hie-

ronymi

ad

codicum

manuscriptorum
S.

recensuerunt

Iohaxxes Wordsworth,

T. P., Episcopus Sarisburiensis, et

158

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Henricus Iulianus White, A.
Interpretationis
Editio
M., S. T. P.,

Noui Testamenti

Professor

apud
I.

Collegium

Regium
Oxonii;

Londini.
e

minor curante Henrico

White.
pp.

Tvpo-

GRAPHEO ClARENDONIANO,

MDCCCXI.

XX

62O.

The Commentaries of Isho'dad of Merv, Bishop of Hadatha (c. 850 A. D.), in Syriac and English. Edited and translated by

Margaret Dunlop Gibson, Hon. D. D. (Heidelberg). LL. D. With an In three volumes. (St. Andrews). M. R. A. S.
introduction by

JamES Rexdel Harris, Hon. D.


(Haverford),

Litt.

(Dubl.),

Hon.

LL.

D.

Hon.

D.

theol.

(Leiden),

Hon.

LL. D.
bridge.

(Birmingham), Hon. Fellow of Clark College, Cam-

(Horae Semiticae. Xo. V.) Cambridge:


pp.

at the

Univer-

sity Press, IQII.

xxxiii

290: 238; 230.

The Modern

Speech

New
the late

Testament.

An

idiomatic

translation

into everyday English

from the text of "The Resultant Greek

Testament."
D.
Lit.,

By

Richard Francis Weymouth, M.

A.,

Fellow of University College. London, and formerly


Hill

Headmaster of Mill
Prizeman of

School.

Edited and partly revised

by ERNEST Hampden-Cook, M. A., formerly Exhibitioner and


St.

John's

College,

Cambridge, B.
Co., pp. xiv

A.,

London.

Xew

York: The Bakek and Taylor


to

674.

The Gospel according


kar,

St.

Luke.

Edited by Frederic

W. Far-

D.

D.,

formerly

Dean of Canterbury.
at

(The Smaller
the UNIVERSITY

Cambridge Bible for Schools.) Cambridge:


Press, 1910.
pp. 266.

La date de

"I'epitre de

Barnabe."

Par Michel d'HerbiGny. Extrait


5 et 6,

des Recherches de Science Religieuse, Xos.

1910.

Paris:
pp.

Bureaux

des

"Recherches

de

Science Religieuse,"

1910.

417-443: 540-566.

Radermacher's
for
all

Grammar
to

is

not

intended

for

learners.

But

those

who wish
to

make

a study of the relation of so-called

Biblical

Greek

the

Hellenistic

language the work

will

prove
to

eminently useful.

The

student of the Septuagint will do well

consult the Syntax considering that thus far this side of the gram-

mar has

not

been

treated

by

either

Ilelbing or Thackeray.

The

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE


study of textual criticism
tnent
is

MARGOLIS
For the

[59
Testa

not an easy one.

New

great

masters have done eminent work.

The

uncials

have

been thoroughly collated and of the thousands of cursives a twentieth

part at least

is

available to the student.


sifted.

The mass

of evi-

dence as far as ascertained has been

Three large groups

have come
Air.

to the surface

the Alexandrine, Western, and Syrian.


''a

Hutton's aim was to offer the student


his

kind of chart" to

show him
this

way

in

the

maze of

critical
list

work.
select

With

view to
(312 in

purpose he has drawn up a


in

of

passages

number)
readings.
list

which the three

forms of the text show divergent

In a series of tables the evidence of quite a formidable

of

authorities
:

(Greek

MSS., daughter-versions, Fathers)

is

gathered up

by means of signs indicating the three groups together


is

with peculiar types the reader

enabled to see at a glance which

of the types are represented by each authority.

When

thus

new

MSS.

present themselves

it

will

be possible by the aid of these

tables to

ascertain their character at least in the light of telling

examples.
of the five
three
(13,
in

In an excursus on the Ferrar group

it

is

shown
346.

that

MSS. examined by the author (13, 69, 124, 346, and 543) may be entirely ignored since
them that cannot be found
in

543)

they have

nothing

69 and

124.

The
the

minor

edition of a critical text of the Latin


is

(Vulgate)
a

Xew
only

Testament
of the

for

the

first

part

(to

the

end of Romans)
:

reprint

major edition
major

(Oxford 1909-1905)

for

the

rest

more
the

important codices have been inspected.


in

Of

the

two collaborators
this
life;

the

edition,

Wordsworth has departed

smaller edition has been prepared for the press by White alone.

Ishodad who was one of the most learned Xestorian bishops lived
in

the ninth century.

Of

his

commentary on

the Old Testament

only a small amount has been published (selections from the Minor

Prophets and the Psalter by Diettrich

who has

also

written

on

Ishodad's place in the history of the exegesis of the Old Testa-

ment

Job by Schliebitz; Canticles by Euringer).


is
is

Xow

his

com-

mentary on the Gospels


troduction).

presented in

full

(text,

translation, in-

The

text

based on a transcript of an Ooroomiah


J.
;

MS.
the

in

the possession of Dr.


the

Rendel Harris (who has written


in

introduction to

edition)

the

footnotes variants

from

two Cambridge and one Oxford MS. are given.

For the trans-

l6o
lation

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Mrs.
Gibson,
the
editor

of

the

Syriac

text,

has had

the

benefit of suggestions

from Prof.

Xestle.

This

triple

cord should

guarantee the quality of the work.


in the
tion.'*

The value
that he
is

of Ishodad consists, "a mine of informa-

language of Dr. Harris,

in

"He

supplies us with

(i)

acute criticisms as to the causes


(2)

of various readings, including Synoptic variations;

he brings

us evidence

for the

existence of

Syriac variants, in the case of

readings whose attestation has been hitherto limited to Greek, or


to

Greek and Latin;

(3)

he recovers for us a number of actual

quotations from the lost Syriac of Tatian's Diatessaron, which are


reinforced by the secondary evidence of a

number of passages
;

in

which Ephrem comments upon the Diatessaron

(4)

he supplies

us with a mass of readings from the Old Syriac Gospels, which


are
anterior
to

the

Diatessaron,
later

or,

if

we

follow

Dr.
p.

Burkitt's

criticism,

somewhat

than the Harmony."

On

xxvi of the
see,

Introduction burning and heavy should change places;

by the

way.
Lucae,
In

Xestle,
139.

Einfiihrung

1899,

231

Wellhausen,

Uvangelium

t886

(reprinted 1892)

Weymouth
in

published

The Resultant

Greek Testament, "exhibiting the text

which the majority of

modern

editors

are agreed."

lation into every-day English

Upon this text is based his transnow appearing in a revised edition.


attempt to use modern English

Whatever one may think


in

of the

a translation of

the Scriptures,
that

Weymouth
antiquated
at

has understood the

difference

between

which

is

and that

which

is
it

obsolete or obsolescent.
is

"Without

least a tinge

of antiquity

scarcely possible that there should be that dignity of style that

befits the

sacred themes with which the Evangelists and Apostles

deal."

He

does not believe that a slavishly


to

literal

translation

is

calculated

bring out the

force of the
refers to

original.

He

evidently

thinks of the Revisers

when he

men

of high ability and

undoubted scholarship "racking their brains to exhibit the result


of their labors

splendid

but idle philological tour de force

in
is

what
not

was English nearly 300 years before."


his

Nevertheless,

it

intention to supplant the older versions.


to serve by the
side of its elder

His own trans-

lation

was rather

compeers as a
has paid
is

succinct

and compressed
to

running commentary.
light

He

at-

tention

whatsoever may shed

on the Greek which

not

RECENT BIBLICAL LITERATURE


the
classical,

MARGOLIS
Scriptures.

H.

but the

later

form of the language; and help was

sought

from the Septuagint and the Hebrew


first

As

specimen the

four verses from "The Letter to the Hebrews"

may

follow

"God,
distinct

who

in

ancient days spoke to our forefathers in

many

messages and by various methods through the prophets,

has at the end of these days spoken to us through a Son,


the

who

is

pre-destined
the ages.

Lord of the universe, and through

whom He
is

made

He

brightly reflects God's glory and

the exact
all-

representation of His being, and upholds the universe by His

powerful word.
took His seat
at

After securing man's purification


the
right

from

sin

He

hand of the Majesty on

high,

being

made

as far superior to the angels as the


is

Name He

possesses by

inheritance

more

excellent than theirs."


St.

The volume on
Schools appears
the
to

Luke
a

in

the Smaller
edition,

Cambridge Bible for


In

now
St.
is

in

new
is

revised and enlarged.

Introduction,
the

Luke

said

to

dwell

on Christ's ministry

world;

his,

moreover, the Gospel of

Womanhood and

tolerance.

The

Epistle of Barnabas

is

not in the canon.


its

It

is

first

men-

tioned by Clement of Alexandria, and


fixed.
It
is

date has been variously


it

admitted by
of

all

critics

that

was written
before
the

certainly

after

the

destruction

Jerusalem
is

and

death

of

Hadrian.
in

M. d'Herbigny's paper

directed against

Harnack who

his

Chronologie der altchristlichen Litteratur refuses to make


4,

any deductions from

4 where Daniel

7,

24

is

quoted with some

important alterations: "Thus

also saith the prophet,

Ten

.iaai/etat

(dominions) shall
thereafter,
to

rule over the earth, and

a small king shall arise

who

shall

humble
in

all

at

once three kings."

According

Harnack,

the

writer

adducing the

prophecy

was himself

ignorant of

its signification.

D'Herbigny

is

of the contrary opinion.

Naturally Pseudo-Barnabas thinks of the


question

Roman

emperors.

The
easily

has been,

How

is

the

count to be made?
first

The author

considers

Caesar and Anthony as the

two and thus

finds the eleventh in Vespasian whose immediate predecessors were

Galba, Otho, and Yitellius,

who

all

three died in one year.

The

hypothesis

in

support of which an

interesting exegetical analysis

162
is

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


{reXsurv mcavdakov

given
a

with

reference to the triumph


is

of the

cross,

stumbling block to the Jews)

certainly

plausible.

Die

Oden Salomos.
kungen.
etc.

Aus dem Syrischen

iibersetzt,

rtiit

Anmer-

Ungnad und W. Staerk. (Kleine Tcxte, Herausgegeben von Hans LiETzmaxx.) Bonn: A. MarA.
E.

Von

cus und

Weber's Yerlag,

1910.

pp. 40.

Das Verstandnis dev Oden Salomos.


Fraxkexberg,
schrift

Von

Lie.

theol.

Wilhelm
sur
Zeit-

Pfarrer

in

Ziegenhain.

(Beihefte

fur

alttestamcntliche
191
i.

IVissenschaft.
pp.
103.

XXI.)

Giessen

Alfred Toepelviaxx,
Les Odes de Salomon.
100-120.
J.
1

Une oeuvre

chretienne des environs de l'an


et

Traduction francaise
et
viii

introduction historique.
:

Par

Labourt
1
.

P. Battifol.
-f

Paris

Librairie Victor LecoffrE,

91

pp.

I21

Die

Oden
Versuch.

Salomos.

Syrisch-hebraisch-deutsch.

Ein

kritischer

Von

Hubert
i.

Grim me,
IQII.

o.

6.

Professor an

der

Universitat

Minister

W.

Heidelberg:
pp.
VI

Care Wixters Uni41

VERSITAETSBUCHHAXDEUXG,

49.

Around the Odes of Solomon which J. Rendel Harris made known in 1909 a literature of goodly proportions has arisen. Ungnad and Staerk give a translation of the Syriac together
with a translation of the fragments preserved in the Pistis Sophia.

The
a

other

three

publications

take

sides

in

the

controversy con-

cerning the reputed Jewish origin of the Odes in accordance with


theory

advanced by

Harnack.
original

Grimme
in

follows

Harnack and

reconstructs the

Hebrew
Odes

metrical

form; Frankenberg
Alexandrian school

who
and

sees in the

a Christian product of the

of

the

times

between
into

Clement

of

Alexandria

and

Origen

attempts a retroversion
but the ultimate original.
lation of the Syriac,

Greek as not merely the immediate,


on the basis of Labourt's trans-

Batiffol,

though he rejects Harnack's theory and vindia

cates
to

for the

Odes

Christian

origin,

ascends higher; according


in

him the poems were composed between 100 and 120


perhaps
Asia

Syria

or

Minor.

RECENT BIBLICAL LITKRATU RK

MARGOLIS
[911.

[63
pp.
[29.

Fountain Unsealed.
Bible.

London: Thk BlBLE HOUSE,

Our Grand Old

Being the story of the Authorized

of the English Bible, told for the tercentenary celebration.

By

William Mum, M.

A., B. D.

B. L-,

Second

edition.

New York:
242.

Fleming H. Revell Company, MCMXI.


The Story of
the English Bible.

pp. xii

By Preston

B.

Wells. A.

M., of

the Louisville Conference Methodist Episcopal Church, South.


Louisville, Ky.
204.
:

Pentecostal Publishing Company,

1911.

pp.

Our English
J.

Bible.

The
A.,

history of

its

development.

By

the Rev.

Bevan, M.

Rector of Chillenden, Canterbury.

With
G.

introductory note by the

Marquess

of

Northampton, K.
pp.

London: George Allen & Sons,

iqii.

xv

93.

The Romance of the English Bible. By John T. Faris. phia The Westminster Press, 1911. pp. 63.
:

Philadel-

Records of

the

English

Bible.

The documents

relating

to

the

translation and publication of the Bible in English.

1526-1611.

Edited, with an introduction, by Alfred

W.

Pollard.
i.

London
pp.
xii
-f-

Henry Frowde (Oxford University


387.

Press), 191

The noble achievements


Superintendent.
direction of

of the British and Bible Foreign So-

ciety are interestingly set forth by the Rev. T.

H. Darlow, Literary
the

In

tracing the history

of older attempts in

making the Bible


it,

accessible in the vernacular and in

disseminating
for
all

the

fact

is

brought out that the material means


contributions.

such purposes came from voluntary

Thus
in

the expense of issuing the revised French

Geneva Bible (1588)

three different sizes "to suit people of

all

conditions"

was defrayed

"by certain wealthy


only to serve
the
first

men who sought no gain for themselves but God and His Church." The expense of producing
printed
in

Bible

America (Cambridge 1663) was borne

by the "Corporation for the Promoting and Propagating of the Gospel of Jesus Christ
in

Port Royal version of the


in

Xew Xew

England" founded
Testament
in

in

1649.

The
issued

French was

1667

in

many forms and

sizes,

including very

cheap editions

164
for the poor
a great
less,
:

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


we
are told that pious persons "sent out
sell

from Paris

number

of colporteurs to

copies at cost price, or even


gifts."
in

and defrayed the expense by voluntary

The

British

and Foreign Bible Society which was founded


nearly sixteen millions sterling and issued

1804 has spent

more than two hundred

and twenty-nine million copies of the Holy Scriptures complete or


in

parts.

Versions
dialects.

have
It

been
is

published

in

some

rive

hundred

languages or

certainly a source of gratification to


in

every lover of the Bible that the Scriptures, though


of a Protestant Christian version,
is

the

form

penetrating the dark continents


In England, an English Bible

and the farthest

isles

of the sea.

may
the

be had for the price of tenpence and a

Xew

Testament for a

penny.

To

the British Bible Society

we owe

the cheap editions of

Hebrew

Bible

from

its

press will be issued Christian D. Gins-

burg's

new and
for

large edition of the Masoretic text.

The
a

Society's

Report

1910-11

popularly

presented

constitutes
Bible.

splendid

memorial of the tercentenary of the English


Cook's publication
in

Beside
I,

Prof.

honor of
in

this

great event just referred to


Series,

which received notice

this

Review (Xew
all

576),

five

further treatises have appeared

dealing with the story of the

English

Bible.

The most

interesting

documents relating

to

the

translation and publication of the Bible in English have been edited

by Pollard.
the

Aside
tell

from the learned introduction by the


their

editor,

documents

own

story

and as they are not so readily


all

accessible,

their publication

will

be welcomed by

interested in

the

steps

by which the Authorized Version came into existence.


publications
all

The other

narrate the

story

or

romance of the

English Bible interestingly and learnedly.

Readings from the Bible and Apocrypha.


by

Selected and arranged

Edith

Mary

Ecroyd.
i].

London: Henry Frowde


pp.
vi

(Oxford

University Press), [191


Biblical

+
pp.

336.

Quotations.

By John

II.

BECHTEI*.

Philadelphia:
180.

The

Pew

Publishing Company, ion.

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Max

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LAZARUS' ETHICS OF JUDAISM


Die Ethik des Judenthums.
Zweiter
Dargestcllt von Prof. Dr.
clem

M. Lazarus.
des

Band.

Ans

handschriftlichen
J.

Xachlasse

Verfassers heransgegeben von

Winter and Aug. Wunsche.


1911.

Frankfurt

a.

M.:

J.

Kaufmaxx,

pp. lv

404.

When
work on

Professor Lazarus issued the


the

first

volume of
(English

his notable

Ethics

of

Judaism

in

1898

Translation,

Jewish Publication Society,

1900-01)

he included a table of con-

tents of a forthcoming second volume.

At the time of the author's


However,

demise in
notice

1903,

this

second volume had not appeared.

was given

that

although the manuscript had not received


it

the finishing touches

from the hand of the author,

was

left in

such shape as to be practically complete.


J.

The volume,

edited by
in

Winter and August Wunsche, the well-known collaborators

the publication of translations of

many volumes
was
left

of midrashim has

now

appeared.

In their preface the editors state that they have


it

published the manuscript quite as

by the author with


passages from the

the exception of having translated in full


rabbinical
literature

many

that

Lazarus

simply
that

indicated.

They

also

inserted

other

rabbinical

utterances
this

might
not

illustrate

the

thought.

But
in

further

than

they

did

venture.

They

changed

no manner the written words whereby the author had

expressed his

own

thought.
if

Although granting that


book,
that
is

the author had lived to complete the


recast

many

a chapter

would have been

and many a point

simply indicated would have been amplified, the editors yet


is

claim that this second volume


the

not a torso in the real sense of

word ("Der
I
it

Band
true,

ist

kein

Torso im

strengen

Sinne

des

Wortes").

am
is

unable to agree with the editors in this view.

There

are.

many

fine

and illuminating thoughts

in

the

167

l68
book,
but

THE JEWISH (JIARTKREY REVIEW


there
is

much
have

that

is

fragmentary,

which the author


that
is

would

undoubtedly

elaborated,

and

much

verbose

which the author would just as surely have rewritten and compressed.

The volume

will

add nothing to Lazarus' fame.

cannot

but feel that those responsible for the publication would have been
better advised

had they not issued


it

this

posthumous work.

In

its

present form

falls

far below the masterly first volume.

The
difficult.

task
It
is

of

the

reviewer of such

posthumous volume

is

most ungracious
is

to write detrimentally in

any way

of

the

work of one who


is

beyond the power of


to
will

reply.

The

present writer

most reluctant

incur the charge of such unconfine

graciousness
possible to

and therefore he

himself

as

much

as
its

presenting the plan of the

work and pointing out

leading thoughts as far as they appear.


It
is

cheerfully conceded that the plan of the

work

is

finely

conceived and carr.es out the original scheme of the author as


sketched
in

the

first

volume.

The second volume


to
in

is

divided,

as

was

its

predecessor, into sections, chapters,


this

and paragraphs.
some,
clear
it

Al-

though

method may appear too formal

has the
definite

advantage of presenting the subject-matter

and

form and giving the work the


contains
viz.:

scientific

cast.

The new volume

two

sections,

the

third

and fourth of the whole work,


is

The Path

to Morality,

and The Form of Morality, which

to be shaped.

The former
8,

of these sections contains three chapters


Qualities, Virtues

as follows: chapter

Permanent
9,

(nHD) which
fulfilled,

should be acquired; chapter


Self-Control
or
five
12,
;

The Manifestations

of Virtue; Will,

chapter

10,

Duties
be

ideas

which

should

realized.

chapters, namely:

chapter

(nuin) which should be The latter section .11, Forms of Association;


chapter
Circles

contains

chapter

The School
chapter
i.S,

as the connecting link between the individual and


[3,

society:

Society;

14,

of

Society;

chapter

The
is

State;

Mankind, and Messianic Hopes.


to finish

This plan
the

comprehensive and had the author lived


its

volume

in

all

details, in

accordance with the plan, he would

have given
of

to the

world the most satisfactory systematic treatment


that

Jewish

ethics

we

have.

LAZARUS' ETHICS OF JUDAISM

PHILIPSON
author's
in

I'";

The
(pp.

best portion

of the volume
also

is

the
left

Introduction

ix-xliii).

This

has

been

unfinished

form,
noble

but

even

in

this

form, the
clearness
the
first
is

introduction
of

sets forth

many

thoughts

with

that
in

expression

for

which

Lazarus

was noted.

As

volume so here

also he demonstrates
ethical spirit.

constantly that Judaism idealism of Judaism


he, to
is

permeated with the

The

indestructible.

Woe

unto the people, writes


is

whom

a scientific ethical treatise with its contents

a nov-

elty
is

and teaches new things; and woe

to that ethical science


is

which

merely an individual production and

not the outcome of the


ethics then, although

spirit of the

community.

work on Jewish

written or compiled by an individual, must be the expression of the


spirit of the

Jewish people.
its

And
this,

herein

lies

the peculiarity of the


is

Jewish people, that

entire

view of
still

life

ethical.

There are

many who, while granting


certain

doubt the necessity of a work


to

on the Ethics of Judaism, because

their

mind there

is

now

community and

identity of ethical ideals

among European

peoples and the ethics of Judaism has been merged in the ethics

of European

life.

But Judaism
is

is

here as a living fact and the

essentiality of this fact

the ethics of Judaism.


as

The underlying
to the

motive of Jewish
peoples,
is

ethics,

compared with that of other ancient


of Jewish ethics
is

unique.

The appeal

Jew

it

is

not for Judaism to decide whether others are to draw benefit from
its

ethical treasures.

The
individual

ethical
lies

spirit

of

Judaism
to

is

social.

The value

of

the

in

his

ability

identify

himself

with and work

for society.

To

be holy means not to retire from the world and

live in a hermit's
life's

hut or a monastic

cell,

but to reach out towards

highest possibilities in social contact with the fellowmen.

The
They

ethical

teachings of the
little

rabbis

are of a

social

character.

speculate

on abstract ethical principles and theories, but give


practical

expression

to

rules

of

life

whereby the individual can


which he
lives.

advance the welfare

of the society in

The

necessity

was never
for
ethical

felt

in Judaism to seek for a metaphysical foundation


life

teaching or to connect ethical

with promises of

reward or threats of punishment


rant has been

in a future life.

The
life

ethical

war-

immanent

in the

Jewish view of

from the be-

1/0
ginning;
form.
all

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


that has been

wanting has been

to cast

it

in

scientific

However, rabbinical
is

ethics

is

characteristic not only in that

it

predominantly

social,

which involves as a matter of course the

idea

of the responsibility of the individual to society and to huat

manity

large,

but also in that

it

is

pervaded with the thought


is

of individual

freedom.

The
is

individual
the

ethically

free as he

is

ethically responsible.
it

His

power

to shape his life.

Although
still

is

well and necessary to teach the rules of morality,

all

the

teaching will prove of no avail unless those taught are receptive

and of
ethical

their

own accord

translate the teaching into action.

The

experiences of

past

generations and the ethical doctrines

of the great teachers are of supreme value, but they are theoretical
at
best,

for each and every individual.

They can be
all
is

helpful and

without doubt frequently are, but when


ethical
life

said

and done, the


is

flowers only by individual

effort.

Each individual
experience.

an ethical entity and carves out his

own moral

In a

way. the ethical


life.

life is
is

the individual self-expression of each

human

Freedom
Here then

its

fundamental condition.

is

seeming paradox.
its

The

ethical life bases

upon

individual effort but yet finds


ice.

highest expression in social servits

Individual

responsibility

and individual freedom are

in-

dispensable requisites, but the responsible and free individual must


find the culmination of ethical effort in

working together with other


for the

equally
society.

free

and

responsibje

individuals

well-being

of

In the proper adjustment of individual freedom to social

responsibilities lies the ethical

problem of each human


superficial.

life.

This,

however,
social
shield.

is

only

In

all

truth,

individual

freedom and
of
the

responsibility are the obverse

and the reverse

same

The two must go hand

in

hand

to

make

possible the highest development of the individual


ethical
lines.

and society along

Hillel

pierced to the heart of the matter


I

when he
I?"
ethical

joined into one phrase the two questions: "If

am

not for myself,

who

is

for
it

me? and
is

if

am

only for myself, what


like

am

Now
spirit

in

expressions

this

that

the

Jewish

found voice.

There are thousands of such

ethical teachings

and sayings.

They

are expressive of the Jewish folk spirit which

LAZARUS ETHICS OF JUDAISM

I'll

I.I

I'SoX

\y\

has been a breathing reality for thousands of years.


folk spirit has broadened and deepened

This ethical

with the passing of time.


applications.
insti-

The fundamental thoughts have found The


ethical
life

constantly new

has been continually enriched.

Laws and
spirit.

tutions

have arisen which embodied the ethical

We

have

then a great multiplicity of ethical teachings and institutions.

The
This

underlying

unity

must be

looked

for

in

this

great

multiplicity.

This, the author states, has been his purpose and his task.

underlying
historical

unity

must be sought

in

the

surviving

literary

and

works wherein the


are

ethical

thought and outlook of past


sources

generations

preserved.

These

must be

approached

not with any preconceived ideas as to the fundamental unity.

We

may

not read our ideas into these sources but


principle
spirit

we must
It

discover the

ethical

which underlies the many manifestations of the


in

Jewish

found

these annals of the past.


is

must be

said,
this.

however, that the author himself

not always mindful of

We
the

have frequent interpretations which are his individually and

are called forth largely by his


first

own view

of

life.

Then,

too, as in

volume, his predilection for the Kantian philosophy conIn fact, he says unequivocally that there are

stantly appears.
similarities

many
spirit

between Kant's fundamental ideas and the Jewish


to

and that through Kant one learns

understand the rabbis

better.

He
his

is

led to

make

the latter statement because of a criticism of


in

Kantian tendencies

the

first

volume.

He

grants that his

interpretation of the rabbinical utterances has been shaped largely

by the influence upon his thought, not only of Kant but of Plato,
Aristotle,

and Spinoza.

Were

it

not for this he would have found

in the rabbinical utterances cast as these are in


tific

an exotic unsciensince.
in

form,

nothing more than

have the generations


if

We
them

are unjust to the ancients, he claims,

we do

not find

modern thoughts.

The author asks what


content of Judaism
to
is

the sources are

from which

the ethical

to

be drawn and what relation they bear


p.

one another?

(Introduction,

xlviii).

Here the introduction

stops abruptly.

The author
this
fine

did not live to answer the questions

and

to

finish

essay.

But up
clearly.

to this

point the

author

developed his thought fully and

1/2

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Although the introduction
is

fragment

still

it

is

complete

enough
of the

to indicate that the author continues the plan


first

and purpose
is

volume

in

this

second.
it

That purpose
life

to

present

the ethical spirit of Judaism as

appears in the
in

and

literature

of the Jews.
the

Lazarus makes clear


their

both volumes that although

Jews did not systematize

ethical

views

still

the ethical

spirit

was

life

of their very

life,

being of their very being.


a

This

ethical

spirit

expressed

itself

in

thousand ways,

in

aphorisms,
dis-

apothegms, proverbs, sayings, parables, similes, anecdotes, and


cussions, preserved in the great literature of

bygone ages and de-

veloped in the varied


world.

life

of Jewish communities throughout the


a

These form the material for


ethical

systematic presentation of
relations

Jewish

conceptions

on

all

the

of

life.

Every

proposition of the presentation should therefore be illustrated by


the utterances of the sages and rabbis.

The body
less

of the
in

work

is

devoted to elaborating,
finished

in greater or

detail

and

more or

less

form, the

many branches
indicate

of individual and social activity from the Jewish ethical viewpoint.


It
is

impossible in a brief review to do

more than

some

of the points touched by the author in the comprehensive scheme of his survey.
that in

Throughout

his

work he
is

is

insistent

upon the

fact

Judaism every

activity of life

ethically conditioned: the

prophets and sages wove ethics into the whole pattern of


existence.

human
note,

Herein

he

finds

the

Jewish

viewpoint

unique;

for

example, his illuminating statement on the contrast between

the spirit of the Bible, the Jewish classic, and


classic
:

Homer,

the

Greek
the

"the Greeks gave their children

Homer, we give ours


weaker
is

Bible

....

The
quite

ethical teaching

is

rarer,

in the

Homeric
since

songs, yes,

frequently the view-point


into

unethical
I

the

most exalted beings sink

moral obliquity.

need say nothing

of the power and depth of the ethical pathos in the Bible" (p. 36).

The fundamental

principle

of

Judaism,

the

knowledge of God,

implied the pursuit of the highest morality (p. 11).


to-day must regain this point of view.
ghetto,

The Jews
Jews
left

of
the

When
with

the

the

material

values of

life

overshadowed everything

else

for them.
1

They now share


the_\'

this error

many

others.

In this

rass materialism
spirit

are recreant to the Jewish heritage (p. 171).


life

The Jewish

declares

to be

not merely economically im-

LAZARUS ETHICS OF JUDAISM


portant, but ethically far

PHIUPSON
:

73

more

so.

This teaching must be brought


in their prosperity

home

constantly to the

modern Jews

they must

interpret life in ethical terms.

"Judaism and Jewish ethics must

concern themselves
ities,

in

theory and practice with the larger activ-

with the relations to industry and commerce, to learning and


to society
its

art,

and the

state

....

Here Jewish

ethics has only to

climb to

own

heights.

The

ethical principles of

Judaism need

be only reasserted, for these principles are of such richness and

depth that Jewish ethics


ever appeared
asserts that
it

is

the peer of any ethical theory that has


(p.

among men"
is

175).

Time and again


work
it

the author

the purpose of his

to teach
is

and influence
is

Jews
his

(if

non-Jews are also influenced,


to
its

well,

but this
spells

not

main object),

make them

feel

that

Judaism

ethical

conduct and that

ethical doctrines are equal to all the


life.

demands

and

intricacies of

modern

This leads us to what


this

may
of

be considered the chief value of

second volume of Professor Lazarus' work, namely, the interof


the

pretation

conditions
his

modern

life

in

terms of Jewish
a return to

ethical theory.

To

mind we are witnessing to-day


its

the characteristic feature of Jewish ethics, namely,


tent.

social
is

con-

The predominant note sounded among men now


of
social

the neis

cessity

salvation

the

welfare of the individual


society.

dein

pendent
mediaeval

upon
life.

the

welfare

of

This

was

obscured

Among

Christians

as

matter of course

stress

was

laid

upon the salvation of the individual soul

in the hereafter

rather than upon the salvation of society here.

The
foi

Christian ideal
entirely

was other-worldly.
ent

Among

Jews, also, although


ideal

differ

reasons,

the

ethico-social

was obscured.

Owing

to

the

exclusion of Jews from participation in the activities of the world


in

the Middle Ages, the larger aspect of the duties to society and

humanity
duties.

disappeared
In

and
this

emphasis

was

laid

upon

individual

proof

of

Lazarus asks the

pertinent question

whether

in the

Jewish ethical classic of the Middle Ages, the Hobot


is

ha-lebabot of Bahya, there


the
state,

one reference to the duties owing to


at

to

society,

or

even to Jewry
a light

large.

The
|

prophetic
49,

word,

"I

have made thee

of the nations'"

Isai.

13)

lost all significance.

Under
to its

the changed conditions of to-day, this

idea must again

come

own.

The value

of the individual life

1/4
then
its

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


lies in

the contribution to the welfare of the society to which

possessor belongs.

All

work has an

ethical

background, and
this the

the

more conscious
at great

the individual

worker grows of

more
this

does he advance toward the ethical goal.

Lazarus elaborates

thought

length and draws his illustrations


life,

from the proetc.,

fessions, the
etc.

home

trades unions, employers' associations,

Let a few of his striking phrases expressive of these thoughts

be reproduced here.
is

"Because the fundamental thought

in

Judaism

ethical association, the significance of the individual

and of each

individual action as contributing to the welfare of the whole looms


so large on the horizon of Jewish life"
(p.

302).

"Who

is

my

neighbor?
help

He who
I

needs

my
i.

help most at this moment, and to


(p.
e.

whom

have the power"

222).

"Man

toils
is

not only for


the true in-

himself but also for others,

for society.

This

wardness of righteousness.
able to do for others"

Working

for oneself

in

order to be

(p. 223).
life

Although recognizing the worth of each individual


right

and the
each
sepideal

of

every individual to
receives his

develop his

own
from

powers,
society.

still

individual

strongest impulses
his environment,

To
and

arate an individual
relationships,
is

from

from

his real

to

separate
itself,

him
is

from himself.
a

An

individual

per

se,

a personality by

mere

abstraction, yes, a

mere

fiction.

What
It
is

man

is,

he owes largely to society, and he can develop

properly only by maintaining a living, active relationship to society.


here that the significance of the "law" that holds so large

a place in Jewish life appears. ual

The

natural egoism of the individ-

must be curbed for the good of others; individualism must be


this
is
;

conquered for the benefit of the general good;


through the law.
all
:

achieved
it

The law
it

is

by

its

very nature universal

is

for

and

at the

same time

is

for every individual the strongest tie

ciety.

By submission
the

to the

law which others must also obey,


of the whole (p. 305).

every individual becomes a

member
of

The

all-

important point
individual
society
in

is

spirit

law and the recognition by the

of his duty to observe the law for the welfare of the

which he
with
the

lives.

Still

special

laws

may

fall

into disob-

servance

change of conditions and circumstances.

For

LAZARUS ETHICS
example,
that
in

OF.

JUDAISM

PHIUPSON
strangers,

75

speaking- of

the treatment of
laid

Lazarus

there are prescriptions


little

down

in

the

Talmud which we

to-day can observe as


of the Mosaic law on

as in talmudic times all the

commands
But,

this

subject could be observed.

and
so

here

is

the

all

important

consideration,

"the

ethical

content

characteristic of the old law and which reappears in the talmudic

ordinances

we

too must retain in our


is

modern
in

application."

The

social ideal

strongly apparent

charitable effort.
in

The

underlying principle has continued the same


the ages and

Judaism through

remains the same to-day although the methods are


laid,

changing.

Emphasis should be

however, on the unique feature


viz.
:

of the Jewish conception of philanthropy,

that

it

should be

combined with the idea of


concept.
the
In

Justice,

the

underlying Jewish social

the dispensing of charity,

mere emotion may not be


the

guiding principle:

consideration

of

circumstances
in

in

the

case

and regard for others must also weigh


(p.

the

scale.

This

section

224

ff.)

sets

forth

the

many

provisions for the help

of the needy

among

the Jews.
in the

The

principles of

Jewish philan-

thropy as developed

course of the centuries are remarkable

for their sanity and their true grasp of the problems.

The mention
reminds us that
work.

of justice as the underlying Jewish social conccept


this

runs as a red thread throughout the whole


in

The theme was developed

the

first

volume and appears

constantly in this second volume as determining the Jewish ethical viewpoint.


In the eleventh

chapter of the work, the author touches on


as,

such interesting themes

marriage

(p.

265

ff.),

the position of
ff.)

woman
(p.

(p.

268

ff.),

the rearing of children


(p.

(p.

275

hospitality

277), the treatment of employes

288), the attitude toward


like.

the stranger (p. 283), kindness to animals (p. 287), and the

In his chapter on education, he defines the school as the link

between the individual and

society.

Here he has much

that

is

interesting to say on the relation of teacher to pupil.

In view of

the difference

among
is

educational experts as to the advisability and


schools,
it

method of
that

ethical

instruction in

is

interesting to note

Lazarus

an advocate of systematic, yea. even catechistic


as

ethical

intruction,

against

the

occasional

and

unsystematized

176
inculcation

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


of
ethical
virtues.
in

"If

the true

connection of fundaif

mental ethical principles, or

other words,

ethics as a science

has been so assimilated by the teacher as to have become a very


part of himself, the ethical viewpoint will appear in every hour of
his

instruction"

(p.

289).

The
fashion.

closing section of the

book

treats of the state, the nation,


in

humanity,

and

messianic

hopes,

however,

very

fragmentary

Since the political conditions under which Jews are living

to-day are so different from what they were in the biblical and
post-biblical periods of Jewish antiquity, the political regulations of

the ancient Jewish


us.

commonwealths have merely


little

historical value for

and can exert but

influence on our political thinking.


;

For

these political forms were transient


to us are the ethical

what

is

of value and interest


in the political
is

maxims which were contained


state

regulations. able

Lazarus contends that the idea of the state

insepar-

from

just.'ce.

The

must serve the idea of


is

justice.

Right-

eousness

is

the ideal, the state

the means

for attaining this ideal.

He

here quotes the biblical (Prov.


14,

utterance,

"Righteousness exalteth a

people"

34).

The book

closes appropriately with a fine appreciation of the

messianic forecasts of the ancient prophets of Israel and a confident assertion that these messianic

hopes are neither dreams nor

phantoms.
ized
live

Redemption
in that

will

come, the messianic ideal will be realtribes, nations,

when
in

coming time "men,

and

states will

consecrated and loving union,

when

the

words

'justice

and

love' will be not

merely

lip

expressions, not mere breath and smoke,

but the guiding force in the hearts of

men

!"

The book contains, as has been abundantly indicated above, many tine thoughts: true some of these are restatements and reiterations of similar thoughts in the
able perhaps in a
first

volume.

This was unavoid-

work of

this kind,

which
to

sets forth the application

of

certain

fundamental
Lazarus was

principles
fully

many branches

of

life's

activities.

equipped for the task, for he com-

bined, as have few others, a full acquaintance with the rabbinical

sources

with

thorough
final

modern

scientific

method.

Had

the
its

author lived to give


predecessor,

shape to this volume, as he did to


in

we would have had

his

work

magnum

opus of

LAZARUS ETHICS OF JUDAISM


Jewish thinking and research.
the book
is

PHILIPSON
in its unfinished

177
form,

As

it

is,

even

unique

the author has systematized the unsystematic


;

individual teachings of rabbis and sages


scattered thoughts of

he has co-ordinated the


he has shown- the under;

many

generations

lying unity in a great and varied multiplicity

he has demonstrated
spirit

with great wealth of detail the mighty truth that the ethical

has been the moving force of Jewish

life

from the days of Moses

and the prophets through


ism"
is

all

the ages.

Lazarus' "Ethics of Juda-

one of the great works of modern Jewish scholarship

even

in the unfinished

form

in

which we have

it,

this

work demonethical

strates

as

do few others the eternal value of the Jewish

viewpoint
ethical ations.

and the adaptability of


the

the

fundamentals

of

Jewish

teaching to

changing conditions of successive gener-

To
lies
if

close with the author's significant

words

"The modern
;

element

only in the form

it

is

mere appearance
it

the kernel
out."

is

the same,

one

will only take the trouble to pick

Cincinnati

David Philipsox

NOTE ON "A MOSES LEGEND" BY PROFESSOR KRAUSS


In his article on

"A Moses Legend" (JQR., N.


to

S..

II,

339

ff.).

Professor Krauss deals at very great length with a


in

set

of stories

which Moses

is

made

perceive the

just,

though outwardly
have no doubt

incomprehensible ways of Providence.


their original source in the
is

These

stories

Jewish haggadah, but Professor Krauss

right in pointing out that the

form

in

which they appear

in later

Hebrew
missing

literature goes back to an Arabic


p.

medium.
I

As

far as the

story discussed on
link.

350

ff.

is

concerned,

am

able to supply the

The Arabic
in

writer Kazwini

(died 1283) of

Kazwin

in Persia narrates

the preface to his cosmography


I,

('ajaib al-

makhhlkat, ed. Wustenfeld,

4)

the

following

story
355.

which

is

piactically identical with the version quoted

on

p.

"One day
his

Moses passed

a well on the
it

slope

of a

mountain.

He made

religious ablutions in

and then ascended the mountain


drank

to pray.

Suddenly a horseman approached who


dropped near
after
it

from the well and


shepherd

a purse full of dirhems.


it

who came
came
a

him saw the purse, took

and went.

Then

there

poor old man carrying a bundle of wood and. having thrown down
the bundle, lay

down

to

rest.

After a short while the horseman

returned, looking for his purse.


to the old man,

Not having found


his purse,

it,

he went up

demanding from him


he
killed him."

and

finally

began

to beat
scene,

him

till

When
man had

Moses,

who
the

witnessed this

marveled

at the injustice implied in the incident, he received

the

explanation

that
at the

the

old

killed

father of the

horseman,
e:\actly the

who
is

same time owed the father of the shepherd

same amount which was picked up by the shepherd.


narrated by Kazwini in an incidental manner and
in a
is

The

story

introduced by him

way which

suggests that

't

was

well

known.
(died

Kazwini lived two centuries before the Persian poet Jami

179

l8o
1492)
story.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

whom
source.

Professor Krauss quotes as the earliest source of this


is
is

But there
It

no doubt that Kazwini took


in
all

it

from a much

older

probability

derived

from one of the

numerous
tirely

collections of

"prophetic stories"

which are almost en-

based on the Jewish haggadah.


for
p.

As

the

well-known
f.,

Koran

story

discussed by

Professor

Krauss on
it

356

neither the analysis nor the deductions

from

can be accepted.
in

Verses 50-63 have nothing to do with the story


I

contained

verses 64-81.

have dealt with

this

Koran passage

and

its

presumably Jewish source in the Archiv fur Religionswis(1910),


p.

senschaft, XIII

98

f.

and 221

ff.,

to

which the reader

is

herewith referred.
Finally
I

should

like to
(p.

add to Professor Krauss' remarks that


344
in
f.)

the

"speaking

birds"

appear

frequently

in

the

Alexander legend, not only


Pseudo-Callisthenes, ed.
also in Josippon
(c.

the
II,

Greek recension (the so-called


c.

Muller,

40, 41,

and elsewhere), but

10),

and

in

many

other Oriental versions.

Jewish Theological Seminary


of America

Israel FriEdlaender

FTELALTERS.

3RD ED.

GOTHA

1880.

EUROPA

NO.

IV.

AN UNKNOWN KHAZAR DOCUMENT


By
S.

Schkchtkr, Jewish Theological Seminary of


America
INTRODUCTION

One: of the most interesting episodes


is

in

Jewish history

the

story

of

the

conversion

of

the
to

Khazars

to

the

faith

of

Israel,

which,

according

some
the

au-

thorities,

took
eighth
first

place

some

time

about
to

middle
early

of
in

the

century,

according
seventh
it

others,

the

half

of

the

century.

Important,

however,
in

as

the

event

was,

left

very

few

traces to
it

mediaeval

Jewish

literature.
it

The
is

references

are rare, casual and short; and


for the

safe to say that, but

famous Dialogue of R. Judah Halevi, known under


of the

the

title

"Book Kuzari"

(nmn

ISD

),

the very

name

Khazar would have disappeared from the pages of Jewish


annals.

But the "Kuzari"

is

so overwhelmingly theological
historical nature

in its contents, that the

few sentences of an

hardly
In this

left

any impression upon the mind of the student.


it

way

came about

that even the

meager

facts re-

corded there by R. Judah Halevi of the country of the


Khazars, such as their independence as a nation, their search
after a religion

and

their final conversion to

Judaism were

Full

lists

of authorities on the subject are given both in the Jewish

Encyclopedia and in the Encyclopedia Britannica at the end of the article

Chazars and Khazars respectively.

181

82

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

heeded only by a few, and even these few were not agreed
as to the authenticity of the story

on which the Dialogue

is

based,

some thinking

it

mere

fiction,

serving as a backin the disputation.

ground for the dramatis personae engaged


It

was only
Akrish,

in

the

sixteenth century
as a collector
travels

when

Isaac

b.

Abraham
books,

known
in

and publisher of
Constanti-

recovered

his

between

nople and Egypt (?) the correspondence between Hasdai

Ibn

Shaprut,

minister

at

the

court

of

Abdulrahman

III, caliph

of Cordova, and Joseph, the king of the Khazars,

that the

kingdom of the Khazars was transferred from the


This correspondence not
conversion
of
a

region of fable to that of fact.

only contained the

story

of the

whole
Ibn

kingdom

to the

creed of Judaism

(which

crested

Shaprut most), but offered also a great deal


as to the origin of the Khazars, their ethnolo
;

information
al

pedigree,

the geographical position of their country, th the neighboring tribes, and their diplomatic
the larger

feuds with
ations with

powers then dominant.


continued
for
a

The

scepfr
it

of

some
disap-

scholars

still

time,

but
in

irly

peared through subsequent researches


chronicles

various ancient
those

and books of travel

(especially

coming

from Arabic sources) revealing a large mass of material

unknown
Thus, at
has been
2

or unnoticed before, and confirming

more or

less
2

the account brought to light by the discovery of Akrish.


last,

the

Khazars have come


for their

into their
all

own room
;

made

country
cli.

in

historical

maps,

Menahem Man
speaks
of

in

his 7X*^t^,, rVINt?,

10,

which deals with Khazar


translation

history,

D"2*iy

pS p*W
really

BH.

The Hebrew
to

has

here mciNPl 'D^PI.

Has Man

had access

Arabic sources?

About

the attitude of the various scholars in different ages towards this correspondence,
see Harkavy, Russische Revue,
shall
vol.

XI,

p.

143,

seq.

In the following

notes we

quote this periodical as R. R.

UNKNOWN KHAZAR DOCUMENT SCIIECHTER

183

whilst accounts are given of their origin, their conversion,

and ultimate disappearance from the stage of history

in

almost every encyclopedia or mediaeval history having any


claim to completeness.

The discovery
to

of

Akrish,

forming the only Hebrew

source of the history of the Khazars, was


the

made

accessible

world by him

in his
It

work

("1BDD

^P), published
separately,

at Constantinople in 1577.

was then reprinted

but more frequently together with the "Kuzari," representing a sort of prologue to the theological dialogue following
it.

new

edition of a part of this correspondence, the


to

answer of the king of the Khazars


sometimes better readings and
particularly in
its

Shaprut, offering

in

some cases new matter,

geographical parts, was published by Dr.


periodical,
St.

Harkavy

in
8,

the

D'mj

*idn

("Measeph Nida-

him"), No.
ovitsch

from a

Petersburg MS., brought by Firkalso a full

from Egypt, while he gave


it,

German
especially

translation of

with

critical notes, in the sixth

volume of

the Russische Revue, pp. 69-97.

The Orient and


the

Egypt

having

thus

far

proved

most
it

important

source of material bearing on the Khazars,

would have

been strange
harvest in
history,
all

if

the

Genizah, which yielded such a rich

departments of Jewish literature and Jewish


least,

should not have given us one fragment, at


to
this

relating

great

conversion

episode.

My

ex-

pectations in this regard were fulfilled, the Genizah furnishing us with a fragment bearing on the

Khazar

story,

affording quite

new

matter.

It

was discovered several

years ago, but was only properly examined within the last

few months.

We

shall

now

present

it

to the readers of this

Review.

184

THE)

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

The fragment measures 20 x 15 cm. (7^4 x 5^ in.) and consists of one quire numbering two leaves or four
pages.
a
it

The

original folding

when discovered was

in

such

way

as to give the pagination 209, 211, 205


it

and 207, and

was only by re-folding was made

in the

manner reproduced here


It is

that continuity
tiful

possible.

written in a beau-

hand, in square characters, but not without a certain

turn toward cursive.

There

is

further the combination of


8

Aleph and Lamed


written
if

in

S, chiefly in bfcOP\

It

was probably

somewhere
noun

in the Orient about the twelfth century

not earlier.

The combination
in
K"nTpi?2>

of the particle, h&, with

the following

into

one word

(1.

41) also
is

points to an early date.

Quite peculiar to the

MS.

the

way

of writing

"iTp

or Knrp with a p instead of 3 used with-

out an exception in
the Khazars
is

Hebrew
4

literature

wherever mention of

made.

It should,

however, be noted that


little

the writer or the copyist had very


his reproduction of
"lip

consistency even in

names.

Thus, he speaks indifferently of


5

and

K'HTp

(11.

7,
it

n,

18, 54, etc.).


(1.

In mentioning Byzan|V (1.

tium, he alternates
for

with }Mpv

16) and
(1.

37), whilst
(1.

Turkey he has both WjmB


style,

57)

and
is

>pi1B
in

92).
clear

The
and
(see

though

not

entirely

biblical,

fair
11.

Hebrew,

with

occasional

rabbinical

phrases

13, 19, 29, 36, 43, 79).

Of

paitanic diction, either in


it is

the vocabulary or in the allusive epithets,

entirely free,

This combination

is

by no means a sign of a

late date.

We

have in the

C.enizah a

MS.

written in Jerusalem and dated 1036, in which this combination

constantly occurs.
4

The

spelling

^X^*tt3

and

iO*1TD

occurs in the Itinerary of Benjamin, ed.

Adler, pp. 14 and 68 (see notes), whilst The Travels of Petahiah (ed. Grunhut)
writes
8

H1T3,

p.

3-

See

Griitz,

Geschichte der Juden, 4th

ed.,

vol.

V,

p.

197,

note

1.

Cf.

also

Hebrew

translation of Griitz, vol. V, p.

199, note IE.

UNKNOWN KHAZAR DOCUMENT SCHECHTER


except
in

185
of

one

case

when

it

refers
(1.

to

the

covenant

Abraham

as the

pon 3K nnq

38).

We

shall

now attempt
showing

to give
at the

some

analysis of the conits

tents of our text,

same time

relation to,

as well as

its

deviation from, the

Khazar correspondence
to
citations

known
the

before.

Our

references

from king
edition in

Joseph's letter will be given from the

Harkavy

"Measeph Nidahim" mentioned


its

before, which has also

the advantage of having

lines
it

numbered.
as A.

For the sake

of brevity,
letter

we

shall designate

In the case of the

of Ibn Shaprut,
(

we

shall cite the

Wilna
is

edition of

the "Kuzari"
accessible.

'imn

-isd )

of

1904, which

the

most

To

be noted at

first is

the fact that our text, not less


is

than A, professes to present a correspondence. This


dent enough from the phrase

evi-

wxb

JHIO

*M*l

(Behold, "I

make
came

it

known

to

my

lord"

1.

83 and 84)/ and from

the reference to the sea "through which thy messengers


to Constantinople"
(1.

87).

Who

the person

was

to

whom
is

the letter

was addressed,

it is

impossible to say with

certainty in the defective state of the

MS. The

probability

very strong in favor of Ibn Shaprut, as no other record

of a

Jew

is left

who showed such an

interest in the

Khazars

as to send there a special expedition.

The

possibility of

another Jewish grandee, likewise a contemporary of King


Joseph, betraying the same curiosity as the Vizier of the

Caliph of Cordova, and possessed of the means enabling

him

to

fit

out expeditions

which expedition also makes

its

way
*

first to

Constantinople
17,
4. p.
6,

such a
my
115)

possibility
attention
to

is

so remote
Diwan des

See

Gen.

Mr.

Halper drew

the

Abraham Ibn
7

Esra,
"|S

where we have a hymn beginning with pDfl 2X.


(11.

has

<:S JPTIB

30,

and never

3VW

professing to

be

written by the king.

86
it

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


cannot
be

that

taken
to

seriously

into

consideration.

But

in

contradistinction

A,

our

letter

makes
is

no

claim to have been written by royalty.


subject of king Joseph,

The

writer

mere
(1.

whom

he describes as

"my

lord"

62).
of A,

I
it

need hardly remind the reader that also

in the case

was suggested by some

authorities that the letter


secretaries.
8

was written by one of the King's

But the
deeper.
is

dif-

ference between the two documents goes

much

The

central event of the correspondence

naturally

the story of the conversion.

Now,

there

is

a certain agree-

ment between the two documents.


same, Jews, Christians and

The champions

are the
so
is

Mohammedans, and

in

both documents the consent of the three sects as regards


the truth of the
in

Hebrew
lines,

Scriptures,
(see

which proves decisive


11.

favor of the Jewish creed

16-31

and A,

11.

65-100).

The

first

again, of our text, speaking of

the ancestors

who would

not or could not bear the yoke

of the worshipers of idols, wherefore they fled to Khazaria


(11.
1

and 2) imply a

partial or preliminary conversion


9

on

the part of the Khazars preceding the one described in the

sequel and corresponding


in

more or

less

with that of Bulan


(1.

A.
1.

The
36),

expression 31^6, "to


suggests
a
revival
also

return,."

18;

see

also

that

we have

to

deal here

more
with
that
to
8

with

of

Judaism,

or repentance, than

an
in

initial

conversion.

We
there

may
was
the
K.,

thus
a

assume
reference
equal
2)

the
sort

missing
of
ibid.,

pages

some
See

conversion
348.

of
A'.

Khazars,
VI,
p.

Gratz,

p.

Cf.

ITarkavy,

75

(n.

and

p.

92.
9

See notes

1,

and

to

the

Hebrew

text.

must remark, however,


refers

that I

am

not

quite

certain

whether llNtl^l

in

1.

exactly
all

to

the

Jewish immigrants, as
he

CD

D.3

was only supplied by me.


D'E
1
,

For

we know,

may perhaps have had

2^2*1

or

some similar expression.

UNKNOWN

KIIAZAR DOCUMENT

SCIIECIITKR
it

187

to that narrated by A.

On

the other hand,


final

is

clear that

the author of our text attributes the

and

real conversion

of the Khazars and the Judaization of Khazaria, or a part of


it,

not to any supernatural agency, but to the proselytiz-

ing activity of a band of Jews or


(11.

DmiT

(see

1.

9) or

Snv^

35 and 36)

among

the natives, or the

"men

of Khazaria."

According

to him, the course of events

may

be described

somewhat
or
a

as follows

At some

time, the people of Khazaria,

certain

number among them, embraced Judaism,


case without any

but a relapse came, so that they remained without Torah


(1.

3),

which practically means


though
they
did

in

this

religion,

not

entirely

return
left

to

their

ancient paganism.

This fact of their having

paganism

was enough
heathen
material

to induce a

number
these
one,

of

Jews
to

living before in

countries

to

immigrate

Khazaria.

The
apset

condition
a
in

of

new
but

immigrants
spiritual

was
decay

parently
in,

satisfactory

and
their

the

course

of time they became neglectful


so that
(11.

in

religious

duties,

they
3-4)

too

"were
they

without
still

Torah

and

Scripture"

though

observed the Covenant of


10

Abraham and

a few also kept

the Sabbath

(11.

6-7).

But they were threatened with

complete assimilation owing to their intermarrying with the


inhabitants of the land with
ciated
(1.

whom
of

they constantly assoaffairs


lasted

4).

This

condition

"many
At
last

days"

which means a long time had

(see

1.

12).

God
(1.

mercy

upon

them

and

the

revival

came

13),

brought about by Serah, a Jewish woman, the

wife of a Jewish general who, together with her father,


turned his heart and "taught him the ways of life"
13-16^
.

(11.

But

this

was not
a
to

a conversion, as
'"nrp
(1.
text.

it

is

distinctly

stated that he
111

was
7

Jew
the

10), and what Serah

See notes 4 and

Hebrew

88

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


to

and her father had

overcome was not the prejudices of

a gentile, but the indifference of an indolent, easy-going

Jew.

But

as he

was one of the most successful generals of


10 and 11), his renewed zeal for the

the Khazars in his time, having on one occasion put the

enemy
Jewish
to

to flight

(11.

9,

creed of his

ancestors

apparently
also

not
fresh

only

affected

his

brethren, but native


that

gave
It

religious

impetus
it

the

population.

was

then,

as

would
the

seem,
people
kings

the

work
(or

of

proselytizing
the

among
of

began,
of

which

provoked
Greece

jealousy
1.

the

Macedon

Christians;
1.

16) and

the kings of Arabia

(= Mohammedans;
in that,

17).

The main
(1.

danger lay evidently

by their "blasphemies"

18),

they also influenced the princes of Khazaria, whose hearts they turned to evil
(11.

18,

20, 21).

These princes probstill

ably consisted of the proselytes


their minds.
tion,

who were

wavering

in

Thereupon, they had recourse to the disputain favor of the

which resulted

Jews and caused both


or the
(1.

the

Jews

as

well

as

the

new

proselytes,

men

of

Khazaria to return in "perfect repentance"


these were added fresh immigrations

36).

To

from Bagdad, Khora-

san (|DTD), and from Greece, who strengthened the hands n The primary cause of the conof the natives (11. 37-38).
version was thus the zeal of a pious Jewess for the faith of
Israel, whilst the

immediate cause was the victory of the


11.

11

has no distinct reference to these facts (see


is

ioo and 105).

The

best

parallel

Masudi
all

(translation

Sprenger),

I,

p.

404,

where he speaks

of "the Jews from

the

Muslim

districts

and from the Byzantine Empire,"


II, p. 8.
JR.,

who came
ibid.,
p.

to Khazaria.

See also Paris edition,


as well as

Cf. Gratz, Geschichte,

198, text

and note,

Harkavy, R.
first

X, 314-

According to

our text this immigration under Sabriel, the


took place long (perhaps centuries)
note
22).

real

Jewish king of Khazaria,


of
the

before
in

the

persecution
to

Jews by
differing
p.
6.

Romanus
cf.

(see

The

text

Masudi seems

allow

of
etc.,
p.

explanations.
also

See Chwolson Achtzchn Hebraische Grabschriften,


Osteuropiiische

101;

Marquart,

und Ostasiatische

Streifziige,

UNKNOWN KHAZAR DOCUMENT SCHKCH'l T.k


Jewish general, which gave him
for the creation of a
all

189

the authority required


things, raising

new order of

Judaism

to the dignity of the established religion of the court

and of

the bulk of the


election of a

Khazar population, and


king.
it

resulting in the

new

On
rulers
:

the other hand,

should be remembered that, ac-

cording to the historians, Khazaria was governed by two


the one bearing the
title

of grand Khagan,

who

occupied a position somewhat similar to that held by the

Mikado
coming

a generation ago

looked upon as a
strictly

sort of divinity
life,

by the population, leading a


into

secluded

and never
the

direct
title

contact

with his

subjects;

other

possessing the

of

Peg or Peh, who represented a kind of


all

vice-Khagan or vice-king, but possessing

authority by
12

reason of his being the real governor of the country.


thus

It is

not impossible that

the

constitutional

changes

just

indicated only affected the office of the vice-king.


case,
(11.

In this

we
7,

shall,

of course, have to take the expression *]7B


rather loose sense, referring to the vice13

42)

in a

Khagan
in

or Peg.

If

we

could

some way an equivalent

now assume that Sabriel is to Obadiah, we might then


as

recognize in our text the supplement to the story of this

king

whom A
See
Cassel,
ibid.,
p.

also

considers

the

real

founder

of

12

Magyarische
198.

Alterthiimer,

p.

206,

note

and

Gratz,

Geschichte,
13

L.

of our

text

states

N'lTp

pN2

"I^E PPfl ufal*

"and there was no


is

king in the land of Khazaria."

As

to

Sabriel, before his election he


it

called
(1.

N2 1
which
is

or general

(11.

11,

12)

and again as

seems HirPH

hwt\

"Itril

21)

identical with

K**ttpSw
is

StUH

"NT

(1.

41).

The

old versions,

Wilna

ed. 4a,
II, 1).

have also hvtXI 1BT1 (who


Cf.

the

same as the 1X2V

ItT of the Kitzari,


is

Cassel as above.
clerical

1.

51

has

'3lSE StT omitting SvMFl which

probably

a mere

error.

1<;0

TJI1-;

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Judaism

in

Khazaria, but on whose political activity he

dwells no further."

But even

this

interpretataion

would not remove the


For, apart from

discrepancies between our text and A.

other considerations, according to this latter, the disputation


falls

under Bulan, who reigned long before Obadiah.


is

Further, according to A, this pious king


of Bulan
(1.

a great-grandson

106), whilst, according to our text, he


a

must
That

have
he ed

been

descendant of a Jewish immigrant.


his

only
the

assumed
throne

Jewish

name

when

he

ascendin

would

merely

prove

that
\\

the

assimilation times they adopted

Khazar names.

nen the

author of our text further volunteers the information (of

which
cestors

knows nothing)

that they maintain that their an-

were of the

tribe of

Simeon, but that they cannot


(11.

probe the truth of the matter

43-44),

it is

only consistent
is

with the whole trend of his narrative which

chiefly con-

cerned with the nucleus of the old Jewish population of


that country,
in

who, according

to him,
15

were the mainspring

this

whole Judaizing movement.


of
the
title

Very peculiar
(p3),

is

his

explanation

of

Khagan
it

losing

with him
14

its

historical significance, as

is

not confined to

The name ^N'l^D


it

is

not

known

to

me from Jewish
(Jer.
30,

literature.

If

we could
Chron.

assume that
5,

is

corruption of
in

^Niny

26)

or S**H2y (I

15)

we might recognize
of

him
to

n*"131J?

(the

meaning of both being the

servant
creed
in

God)

generally

held

the

king

who
to

introduced
the

the

Jewish

Khazaria.

Bulan belongs more or


J"IN

less

domain of legend.

has the words


regeneration

HSlSon

BHn Nim

(1.

106) but he does not explain

how
in

this

was brought about nor the impulse actuating Obadiah

his zeal
18

for the proselityzing work.


this

Sec about

point

Abraham

Epstein,

Eldad ha-Dani,

pp.

XXVIII,

and

25.

All the parallels have the tribe

Simeon and the half of Manassch.


-|ET

It is
all

remarkable

that

Carmoly

in

his

Spjp

]N^p"
^2ti>

(justly
(pp.

considered

by

scholars to be a forgery)

speaks only of

,1^0^

10

and

12).

UNKNOWN KHAZAR DOCUMENT SCHECHTER


royalty but

[OJ

marks
I

mere judge chosen from among

the

wise men.

16

hardly need indicate


is

bow

all

this, as well as
all

other points in our account,

at

variance with

tbat

is

known about
sources.

the

history

of

the

Khazars

from

other
in

Another peculiar

feature

worth noting
is

the

presentation of the conversion story of our text,


the cave in the valley of the

tbat of

Sim

from which they brought


(11.

Holy Book

to be explained by the sages of Israel


is
it

32-35).

This story

entirely missing in A. but


in the Letter of
it

we have

some reminiscence of
as in the "Kuzari,"

Ibn Shaprut as well

which shows that


1
'

formed an

essential

feature in the conversion story.

Next

in

importance to the story of the conversion


political complications
lists

in
it.

our text are the

following upon

A, which gives whole


the

of nations and tribes subject to

Khazars (A,

11.

18-130). never enters upon details of

war.

He

is

satisfied

with such a general statement as "from

the day that our ancestors

came under
all

the wings of the

Shekinah,
all

He

subjected to us

our enemies and humiliated


11.

the nations and tongues around us" (A,

103-105).
to

In
the

another
Russians,
of
the

place

he

has

a
the

special

reference

against

whom
with

Khazars guard the mouth


they

river

and

whom
far

had

hard
of

battles,

or

they

would

exterminate
as
is is

the
as

whole

the
11.

Mo131,

hammedan
T

country
t ext

Bagdad
in
(

(A.
this

35^in

O ur

more

complete
of the Alani

respect.
),

Thus
18

A, mention

made

D": S N

with a

have not found

this explanation of the


p.

term

]*D

in

any other work,


,C

Slucki, in his edition of the Kuzari,

47, says
(1.

D2n Uvh
whether
it

21*1"
is

?1N*

have

some doubt
used, and
17

as

to

the

word D'EEIETI

40)

not indifferently

may

thus perhaps stand for regents or some other high dignitaries.


letter,
p.

See Ibn Shaprut's

3b and Kuzari, II,

1.

The

valley of

7*T , n

could not identify.

192
single

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


word, the name occurring
(1.

in the list of the

subjected
nation

nations

124),
(11.

whilst

our text devotes to

this

several lines

44-60).

18

The

defective state of the

MS.

makes

it

impossible to form a clear notion of the story our

author intended to give us, but a few facts


nevertheless.

may

be gleaned

The most important


reads always

is

that the conversion

1S

Our

text

pX.

The Itinerary

of

Benjamin,

ed.

Asher,
but

speaks of the land of


ed.

iT37X

and of the nation called


p. 485.
off,

]X7X T

(p.

62),
1,

Adler

(p.

41) has pX.

See also Marquart,

Cf. Jossippon, ch.

about
the

the ten families into which


first.

Togarmah branched
is

of which

Khazar

is

The

third in this
I

list

Dlip'Sx, which gave great difficulties to the

commentators.

understand that Dr. Harkavy suggests in his Russian book


.

on the Khazars the reading DIJX77X

This emendation
p.

is

greatly supported
in this list is

by Dr. Gaster's Chronicles of Jcrachmeel,

67,

where the third

pX
p.

(Alan).
lxxvii.

See also Dr. Gaster's remarks to the passage in his Introduction,

The

following

extracts

from

Constantinus
I

Porphyrogenete's
entirely indebted
relations

De Administrando
to

Imperio, chs.

and XI, for which


help
to

am

my

friend

Dr.

Max
the

Radin,

will

illustrate

the

between
is

the

Khazars

and

Alani:

"About

Khazaria:

How
a

war

to

be

made
war
the

upon upon
chief

them
the

and

by

whom.
inasmuch
the the

The
as

Uzi
they

are

in

position

to

make

Khazari,
Alania,
to

border

on

them.
of
wish,

Likewise,

of

because

nine

frontier

provinces
if

Khazaria
plunder

are

adjacent

Alania,

and

Alani
to

can,

they

them and can cause great harm and want

the

Khazari by so doing, for


all

from these nine frontier provinces the Khazars derive


life

the necessaries of

and

all

their wealth.

Chapter XI.
is

About the Fort Cherson and the Fort


not at peace with the Khazars, but
as

Bosporus:

Since the chief of Alania

regards the friendship of the


are
(the

Roman Emperor

preferable,

if

the Khazari

not

willing

to

maintain peace

and friendship towards the Emperor, he


in wait

Alan chief) can injure them greatly, by lying

on the roads and


Sarkel

attacking
frontier

them

unexpectedly

when

they
if

proceed
the

against

and
(of

the

provinces and
takes

Cherson.
bar
their

For,
passage,

afore-mentioned chief

the

Alani)
will

care

to

Cherson and the frontier provinces


fear

enjoy

profound
have

peace.

For since the Khazari


of

an inroad of the

Alani

and

no

opi>ortunity

attacking

Cherson

and

the

frontier

provinces with an army, because they cannot

make war with


p.

both, they will


Cf.

be forced to
r's

be at peacej."
Zeitschrift,

Migne, Patr.
III

113,
PP-

177-178.

Harkavy

in

Judische

(1864-5),

291-292.

UNKNOWN KHAZAR DOCUMENT SCHECHTKR


(perhaps even more the election of a
not taken in a
there

193

new "King") was


parties, so that

meek

spirit

by the defeated

was

the fear of a combination of the nations around


it

them.

This made

necessary on the part of the Khazars

to terminate the feud

and conclude peace with

their neigh-

bor, the king of the Alani, lest he join their enemies

when
long

they rise up to
this

war

against

them

(11.

44-47).

How

we have no means of determining, as we do not know how many kings intervened between Sabriel and Benjamin. Nor is it quite certain how far, considering the abrupt manner of our author, we have a right to refer the D'TPiH "and he (the king) made peace" to (1. 44)
peace lasted,
Sabriel; but this
is

clear,

that in the time of king Ben-

jamin, the peace

was broken

(see

11.

49-55), an alliance

having been formed against the Khazars, consisting of the


king of Asia, the king of Turkey, the
of

>WD, and
19

the king

Macedon (Constantinople
it
20

11.

50-52 ).

Only the king

of the Alani, who,


jects
(1.

would seem, had himself Jewish suballies

53),

remained loyal and, whilst the

fought
in their

against the Khazars, he attacked

them successfully
that

own country and

the

result

was

they were utterly

defeated by king Benjamin

(11.

52-55).

The amity between

the king of the Alani and the king

of the Khazars does not seem to have been of long du19

See note 26 to the Hebrew


tribes. I

text.

By JODN

(11.

51,

92)
I,

are
p.

perhaps

meant certain Caucasian


3).

See Kohut, Aruch Completion,


unable to identify.

179 ({ODN

The name

S'i^B

am

Perhaps

it

is

a corruption

of )N'7B

(=

Polianes)

who

paid tribute to the Khazars.


p.

See Chronique dite

de Nestor, traduite, par Louis Leger, Paris 1884,


20

12.

DHirvn

min Dnoi DnSpO

<Z3

(1.

53),

which
line,

take to refer to the

Alani,

though the missing words just before this See also Gratz, Geschichte,

make
p.

it

impossible to

speak with certainty.

ibid.,

200,

where

it

is

maintained on the authority of some Arabic sources that some of the vassals
of the Khazars accepted the religion of their Jewish masters.

194
ration.

THK JEWISH QUARTERLY RKVIKW


For our author proceeds
to

record

that

in

the

time

of

King Aaron

(the

successor of

Benjamin), the

king of Greece (Constantinople) succceeded in persuading


the king of
the

Alani to
a

fight the

Khazars
in

(11.

55-56).

Aaron then made


Turkey
have several gaps

counter-move

hiring
(1.

the king of

(to attack the king of the Alani)


in the

57).

Here we
see, that
fol-

MS., but so much we can

Aaron came out

victorious,
:

and that the victory was

lowed by a marital alliance


ries the

Joseph, the son of Aaron, marthis latter

daughter of the king of the Alani and

takes the oath of fealty to Aaron, and the happy result of


all

this

was

that

from that day the fear of the Khazars


(11.

"fell

upon the nations which surrounded them"

56-61

21

).

Of more importance

are the complications of the


is

Khain

zars in wars with Russia, which, as

well-known, had

the end the most disastrous results


this,

for the former.

Of

however, our writer gives no indication as he finishes


report

his

with the words

"Then

the

Russians became
(1.

subdued under the hand of the Khazar"

83).

A, as

al-

ready mentioned, has only a general reference to these wars.

The author
the matter.

of our text gives the following presentation of

According to
with the Russians

him,
fell
it

the
in

first

clash

of

the

Khazars

the time of king Joseph.

The

cause of
the

it

was, as

seems, a persecution of the Jews in


(of Constantinople),
(11.

days of the "wicked Romanus"

leading to retaliation on the part of Joseph


21

61-63)"

The Aaron mentioned


(1.

in

our text

is

probably Aaron the second, the son


(1.

of

Benjamin

55)

and the father of Joseph


to

59).

Note that
Jewish

all

these

wars

accordingly
<>f

belong

the

times

of

the

last

three

Kings of

Khazaria
note
22

which A records not


in

less than

thirteen

(A

110-112.)

Cf. Ilarkavy,
p.

t2",

the

Hebrew
.\7

translation of Cratz's Geschichtc, ibid.,

121.

Sec
of

notes
the

and
see

3H
the

to

the

Hebrew

text.
to

About
above,

Romanus'
note
11.

perse-

cution

Jews,

authorities

referred

Gratz'i

UNKNOWN KHAZAR DOCUMENT


who
"trod

SCHECHTER
1

[95

down many
inflict

of the uncircumcised."
to

Romanus
he sent

then persuaded
great gifts, to
1JS"i

U?n, the king of Russia,


evil

whom
(11.

upon the Khazars


""QD

64-65).

then surprised the country of the

in the night.
it.

during the

absence of the

commander, and captured


to

When
of

the matter
riDS

became known

'VBvia

(whose Hebrew

name was

Pesah), he attacked

in retaliation the cities

Romanus of which he captured three, apart from many hamlets. From there, he marched against UPW M (11.
.
.

64-69).

Here come
is

several lines, the

first

half of each of

which

torn

off,

but

we can

read so much, that Pesah


in the

was victorious
i;

in his

march, and turned


(11.

end against
then threatthe
latter

sn

whom

he also defeated

73-75).

He

ened to continue the war against 1J?n

unless

would consent
hostilities
(11.

to

attack

Romanus,
ttpH

the

instigator

of the

72-79).

then

reluctantly

marches

against Constantinople, where he wages

war on

the sea for


fire

four months, but he

is

defeated by the Greek

of the

Macedonians and

loses all his

mighty men.

Being ashamed

to return to his land, he fled

by way of the sea to Persia,


(11.

where he and

his host perished

79-82).
all

Hebrew
and
it

records

know nothing about

these

facts,

is

to

non-Jewish sources that we have to turn for

matter corroborative of our story, but these sources again


objection
is

to

the

date,

so

that he

thinks Masudi confused

Romanus
to

with Leo

not convincing.

As remarked above, we have probably

deal

here with

different immigrations, whilst the fact that no other source speaks of a perse-

cution under

Romanus (who reigned from 919


Masudi refers

to to

945)

does not prove much.


II,
is

The
me.
-

assertion of Sprenger that

Romanus

not clear to

D*T1J?

D3*l

FD*D.

See Lamen.

1,

15.

hardly need draw attention statements in the text lack

again to the state of the


in

MS., which makes

my

certainty.
-4

See note 41

to the

Hebrew

text.

196
offer so

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

many

statements at variance with our text, as to


entirely irreconcilable.

make

the

two accounts

Thus, there

can hardly be any doubt that


the famous chieftain with

ubn

is

identical with Oleg,

whom

the Russian nation


25

makes
Like-

almost

its

first

appearance on the stage of history.

wise, we may identify the ""nD with the Seviri or Sewerians of

whom we know from


to

Russian sources that they


26

were vassals of the Khazars and were subsequently attacked


by Oleg who forbade them
pay tribute
to the

Khazars.

But here we meet with the


Russian authorities,
it

difficulty that,

according to the

this event

took place in 884 and that


2
'

was Oleg who bore the victory over the Khazars.

Our

text apparently places the event during the reign of

king Joseph,

who

flourished about 940, while the death of


all

Oleg occurred, according to


28

authorities, in

the

year
in

912.

the

The same chronological part which Romanus plays


one

difficulty presents

itself

in

our story.

For the

fact

that there
his reign

was a persecution of the Jews of Greece during

may

perhaps refer to Masudi.

29

That, further,

the Russians invaded Constantinople under

Romanus and
30

were beaten

off

by the means of the Greek

fire is sufficiently

corroborated by the testimony of Byzantine writers.


25

But
of

The works mainly used by me


are:

in

connection with this


the

part
(ed.

our

text,

Gibbon,

Decline

and

Fall

of

Roman Empire
Livland,
Berlin

Bury),

Theodor

Schiemann,

Russland

Polen

und
19.

1886,

and

the Nestor Chronicle, mentioned above, note


26

See Nestor, pp.

18

and

22,

and Schiemann,

I,

pp.

48 and 49.

How
33 and

far these Sewerians can be identified with the

1nD

or 1N1D of
p.

(11.

118) I
2T

am

not able to say.

See Harkavy R. R., VI,


ibid.,
cf.

93-

See Schiemann and Nestor,

also the

Index

to

Nestor by the

editor Leger,
28

under the names Kozares, Oleg, and Severiens.


p.

See Nestor,

33,

and Schiemann,

p.

51.

29

See above, note 21.

80

See Gibbon, VI, pp. 155 and 156, and Schiemann,

p.

53.

UNKNOWN KHAZAR DOCUMENT SCHKCIITKR


according to these Greek sources,
of Oleg,
tinople
it

\~
1

was

Igor, the suco

who

led the Russian expedition against Constanat


31

and suffered defeat

the hands of

Romanus

at

some time in the year 941.

Of

Oleg's expedition the

Byzantine writers have nothing to record, while, according to the Russian sources, the expedition by Oleg occurred
in the

year 907, long before

Romanus ascended
32

the throne,

and

it

was the Russians who defeated the Greeks and forced


to their advantage.

on them a treaty of peace

Such contra-

dictory statements cannot well be reconciled and

we must

accordingly accept the view that the writer of our text had
his information only

from secondary sources and confused


33

both persons

and

dates.

On

the

other

hand, our text

shows
date.

at least
It
is

one criterion which speaks for a very early

that

we have

here the only document which

comes nearest to the Scandinavian form of the name of


this

Russian hero,

labn

(Scandinavian Helgi), instead of

:6k or :i6k

(Oleg), thus testifying to the theory of the

Norse origin of the founders of the Russian Empire.


affinity

This

of names was long ago suggested by


it

all

modern

authorities on this subject, but

is

our text which really


the

gives

the

form

resembling
a

most

one

surmised
that

by

these

authorities,
his

fact

indicating

our

author

derived

information
sources,

from very
the

ancient or
of
the

even

contemporary

when

heroes

31

See Gibbon and Schiemann,


See Nestor,
seq.
p.

ibid.

32

22, seq.;

Gibbon,

p.

155, text

and

notes,

and Schiemann,

p.

49,
33

One might perhaps

suspect

that

we have here

a confusion between

Oleg and Olga (or Helgi and Helga), who played an important part in the
reign of her husband Igor, but
it

does not seem probable.

198
earliest

THK JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


period
in

Russian

history
34

were

still

called

by

their

Scandinavian

names.

His

reference

again

to the escape of a portion of the

Russian army to Persia


is

after

its

defeat by

Romanus, which
is

mentioned by very

few

authorities,

but
also

nevertheless testified to by
for the

some
our
other

writers,

would

speak

acquaintance

of

author with the history of those times.


hand,
it

On

the

would seem

that the

whole story of Oleg, as given

by Russian historians, entirely based on the chronicle of


Nestor,
its
is

not beyond

all

doubt, and that both

its

facts

and

dates

may

be questioned.
I

However,

do not wish to
this, as

press this point.


as

must leave the decision of

well
to

any other question connected with Russian history,


in

Russian scholars and specialists


geography,

Russian history and

my

knowledge of these subjects being derived

only from second or even third-hand sources.

The

last

lines

of our

MS.

are geographical, and en-

tirely differ

from A.

In giving the
(11.

name of
84-85
),

his country,
it

the writer has recourse to books

which named

DupiX Arkanos.

In this

we may

recognize the ancient


35

name
af-

of the Caspian Sea, designated as

Mare Hyrcanum and


But
still

terwards called the Sea of the Khazars.

his appeal to

books makes
his

it

doubtful whether

it

was
tells

the

name of name
Atel

country
the

in his time.
is

He
lip

further

us that the
the
river

of

metropolis

divided

by

''

See

about

this
p.

point

Bury

in in

liis

Appendix

to

Gibbon,
p.

VI,

p.

-.53,

seq.,

Schiemann,

48,

and Leger

the Index to Nestor,

344.
p.

M See
Marquart,
in

Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus,


p.

map

I:

Ilarkavy, R. R., XI,


is

162,

and

9,

note

1.

But the land of the Khazars

never called D13p1N

Hebrew

literature.

UNKNOWN KHAZAR DOCUMENT SC


which passes through
writers.'"
it.

K.C

I'lT.k

[99

This

is

also confirmed by other

But

his description of the river as


Jflfl

being "south

of the sea which comes from ....

through which thy


86-87)
LS

messengers came to Constantinople"


telligible

(11.

unin-

to

me.
is

3
'

Atel, as

we know,

is

identical with the

Volga and

thus in the north of any sea in the direction

of Constantinople.
lieve that
it

His additional explanation "And

be-

starts

from the Great Sea"

(1.

87-88), does not

improve matters.
Mediterranean, but

By

the Great Sea


is

is

usually meant the

this

the very

sea

which Shaprut's
voyage

messengers

must have traversed on

their

from

3,i

See A,

11.

116 and

136;
to

Cassel,

Magyarischc AltertJtiimer

n.

217,
pp.

lexr
15

and notes (giving references


and
23,

Arabic writers); Carmoly,


p.

Itiiicraircs,

and Harkavy, R.

R.,

XI,
cf.

380, as to the situation of the capital of the


R.,

Khazars.

As

to

its

name,

Harkavy, R.

X,

p.

324, the quotation he

gives there from a

Persian author according to which the


p.
3.

name
it

of

the
in

city-

was Chasar.

See also Marquart,

close parallel to

,ve

have

the

Sx^B" rinse* of Man.

There he says:

cxp OE-i;nn pa
B1K13JM

;it

ti ins)

ij?

bh djmt
~S2
ny
JJT1

;a
*3

ZX^V J8
:

1J?

E3n

HI

kAkM
pi

"\nzh

|vnpj
;t:3ixn

jjjdju

"x:

on

o? pax

tpa

"2 xi
.

tt:nsj

en pSxe en
*1

J?!

JWBBWp

P*

The Hebrew
37

translation

is

incorrect.

See

note

47

of

Hebrew

text.

Possibly there

is

some confusion here


to

between the

Volga and the Don


little

which
north

were supposed by some


and
which
latter

mingle
into

somewhere a

higher

in

the

emptied

the

Maeotis (Azoff).

But even

this

would hardly justify the expression


p.

pD'D.

See also "Die Chazaren," by Kutschera (Wien, 1910)

121,

and

his hypothesis

regarding the position of the river by which the Khazar capital was situated.

200
Spain
to

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Constantinople.
88

The
and

description

again
of

of the

the distance
writer, as

between that sea

the

country

2160

on

(ris),

is

also not clear to me, as this

would only amount

to 72 parasangs.

And

so are his other

distances between his country and Constantinople which are

given as 9 days on sea and 28 days on land, whilst the extent


of the dominion of the Khazars he gives as 50 days.
these geographical points are obscure to
All

me and
them

do not
in

consider myself competent

to

deal

with

any

adequate way.

39

The

last line,

which abruptly ends


list

in the

middle of a sentence, gives a


with them, two of which
I

of the nations fighting


4*

am

unable to identify.

We

shall

now

try to give a
It

summary

of the results of

the preceding remarks.

must be evident from what we


and our text represent two docto the

have said thus far that

uments addressed probably


posed

same person, but comgives

by

different

writers.

us

document

professing to be written

by the king who was a direct

38

See however Ibn

Shaprut's letter where he describes the situation of

Cordova as being bl 321D1 SVMfl DH f

KSVH D3n Sx
1*K

"^flOn
D*

D^

SxEtTQ

y^Xn. He speaks further of the


b"\7Xn
W>
is

ZW

Vin

1PK WlXfl
text

(2b).

The term
D'fl

thus

the

ocean.

The words of our


DPI
]fi

"]B>1Q

SnJin

JO

would then correspond with STUn


3:'

KSVPl of Ibn Shaprut.


that

Ibn

Shaprut

in

his

Letter
is

says

between

the

kingdom

cf

the

Khazars and Constantinople


on
land.

15

days on sea, but does not give the distance

Whether the words ijVJK nStPEB


the
tributaries,
I

pX

(1.

91)

also

includes
It
is

the
also

vassals
difficult

and
to

have
writer

no

means of determining.
by
D'l
exactly

say

whether

the

understood
it.

the

same

measure which the Talmud meant by


40

These are
(

DIS'T
]*3SlS

and
)

ViTlS.

Perhaps the

latter

might be identified
p.

with the Lusinin

of the "Chronicles of Jerachmeel,"


p.

68.

See

also

Gaster's remarks in the Introduction,

LXXVII.

UNKNOWN KHAZAR DOCUMENT SCH KC

ITl'.R

201

descendant of the Khazar dynasty and derived his pedigree

from Japheth, whilst our


no such claims;
again
is,
it is

text,

as

is

clear enough,

raises

written by a mere subject.

The

writer

if

we

are not quite mistaken in our interpretation,


the

more concerned about

Jewish than

about the

native

population of that country, the former of which gave the

Khazars
in
style.

their first

Jewish king.

41

They

differ also largely

They

differ

further in the subject matter,

omitting features characteristic of our text


story of the wars with the Alani
in

(such as the

and the Russians), whilst


at

some points they


whole,
it

are

distinctly

variance.
that
in

On
the
in

the

may
the

perhaps
is

be

said

theological

tendency
it

more

predominant,
element

whilst
is

our
inent.

text
42

is

narrative
text

which
have

proma

Thus

our

can

never

formed

part of A, or represented a different version of the same

document, as was the case with Harkavy's edition of the

Khazar

letter,

which formed only a completer and more


discovery.
It
is

correct text of Akrish's

not likely that

the king of the Khazars caused his secretaries to write


letters

two

or that

somebody would have had

the courage to

write a different letter after the king had sent the one writ-

41

am

not

unaware

that

the

terms HIPP or DHliT occurring in our text

could be strained to apply to the original proselytes or semi-proselytes of the

Khazari population.

But

do not see the necessity

to

force

this

meaning

upon
to a

a term otherwise plain

enough whilst the whole

drift of our text points

tendency of emphasizing the importance of a Jewish nucleus working as a

leaven
42

among
The

the Khazars.

best

way
of

to
(11.

realize

this

difference
text

is
(11.

to

compare the

story
*

of

the disputation

64-96)

and our

16-35).

O ur

text

not

only

shorter,
to

the

writer

hurrying over the theological arguments as of no

consequence

him, but has also a different vocabulary.

202

Till-

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

ten or dictated by him.


is.

The question now confronting us


authentic?

Which

of the

two

is

This question,

think,

cannot he answered with any amount of certainty as long as

our text

is

not completed by other

new

finds,

which

will

give us not only the beginning of the document, but


reveal to us
the

may

more matter and

a fuller text relating both to

geography and

to the history of the time.

In

its

present

shape, one cannot suppress the feeling that us events which extended over
into too
list

we have

before

many
it

generations, crowded

narrow

a compass,

and

is

not impossible that the

of nations fighting against the Khazars, in the middle

of which our fragment breaks up,


to

was only an introduction


matter, connecting in
at least

more

historical

and chronolc

ical

some way the preceding statements, or


ing them.

supplement-

In any case, our text,

am

sure,

forms an im-

portant contribution to the history of the Khazars, and as

such

am

certain

it

will be

welcome

to students especially
will enable

to those

whose Russian and Arabic knowledge

them
ning

to continue their researches of


is

which a humble begin-

made

in the

preceding pages.
44

The

facsimile,

map

43

and English translation


will,
I

accompanying the Hebrew text

hope, prove helpful to the student.


conclusion,
I

In

take

the

opportunity

of

record-

ing

my sincerest thanks to my friend, Dr. Max whom had occasion to consult many a time whilst
I

Radin,
writing

this

article,

particularly

in

matters relating to Byzantine

48

This

map

is

taken

from
3d
ed.,

the

Spruner
[880.

Menke

Hand-Atlas
IV.
[bn

fur

die

Geschichte des Mittelalters, " For an

Gotha

Europa, No.

English translation of the correspondence between

Shaprut

and King Joseph as published by Akrish, sec Miscellany of Hebrew Literature,


I,

7.1,

seq.

UNKNOWN KHAZAR DOCUMENT SCHECHTER


history.
I

203

am

also

under great indebtedness


in

to

Mr. Ben

Zion Halper of Dropsie College, for his aid

reading the
also

MS. and

for various valuable suggestions.

am

under

obligation to several gentlemen for their readiness in help-

ing

me

to

procure the necessary books.

My

special thanks

are due to Mr. Frederic \Y.

Erb of the Columbia University

Library,

who

spared no trouble in providing

me

with books,

periodicals and

maps connected with

this subject,

otherwise

inaccessible to me.

204

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

HEBREW TEXT
h
2>
s

^nuK on^ao
Dibapn

in-iTi

^*in

c
3

o
4

D^ba

n3iy

biv nNK>b

2
3

ab3
an
.

ikb^ nmn xb3 nb'nn vn nrp


. s
. .

pan ucrb unnm


3

anaoi

mm
nob^i

4
5

Ton
t,Sio

ddj; ikv*i

onws
6

7
. . .

poi 13EDJ

n^o nn33

pi

inx ayb vm

6
7

8
. .

^3

anrp

pan

n\n &61 ri3^n

na

onow

npb Dn'by

iniK>

nuinvj nsnbco

mny

n s n -ipk

ayaa norten D*nrrn onoy

inw

aya ny N3V

9
10

nx nnim laina nna niiT


ne>b
D'3*1
-irp

"oa
-iTp

avn imi Dys3


by D^aan
9

*bok

Dn^y miosn

an^n

n
12
13

D^

n^NH DH3-I3
3i>b
s

1W

|1fc>aon

DD2^3 N3
pn
ib>k ny
intsn ^3

nnupna
Kin dji
10

n^n 3b ns inim

yinb imobni nc^ hid m^at

14
15

in3 pnv ek rnwn


jnpD *ab
yi>3 \ti

as dji n\n bin id >3 nar:

inb^i nan onb


1

mn

nbxn

na6 bans? by D^aiTj

imm Kinn onmn na* 3iy *abi nan xnrp np bx D^abo


a^nn *pn
b3 t

16
17
18

nnn DH3yiB> on^ DHin\n rmoao 3i^b D3b no


na*

19

itn naob ub

pp onan naTi mix


ntyn naoi ynb
1

20
21

lib

no mn^n bn:n

Dncrn 3b

|V oanDi

bane* 3n lam* on:i roannb

22
23

Dno
1

nna* b3 oa^sbi

i^ab
nS

mm
'3.

any ^oanoi

Perhaps we should supply

lSj
'3

3 or iS^^

Perhaps

it

read
is

here *tr[3]

S[ntp W] DlSapn

The

*B>

at the

end of the
3

line

doubtful.

Supply here

N^S

[D.1

DJ

l]"lKBl.
Cf. Ps.
106, 35-

Supply

Dil[DJ?

W"lJn]'l.

The

,1

before the

final

is

very doubtful.
5

Line

9,

below,
7

would suggest

[nf3n7?3]2.
8

Read
Read

mn.

Read
10

[nns]pBl.
See
Isai.

Supply [d].
17.

DDBWM.

48,

UNKNOWN KHAZAR DOCUMENT

SCHECHTEB

205

Asp} Qhhft *pp


4tM

'

:?mh

y& imm pw.

Mm

^$^^

...

tits

206

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

nb^i

ltrjn

wnnx

Kit.,
p
. .
.

24
25

\xtj" 'oan izmnrn any "abo u

Tynb

lnnsn an?p b> nn&o "la'Tanb D^anym Dnvrn i^nnn "


.

own

l3

Kin

26
27

n.
. .

lnna nnxi
bant^

owm DHirrn amam


ny

l6

28

mby av

wma *o
lTyn
18

nwo
px
a:i

b "
bx

29
nyi

Dwn

napu

awa

Dnvoo

3
31
32

npibno onira nbsa

aipn^m nos a^aiym


w~\ip

Mb lwsin biPn nypaa nnyo njn


wa^i

np now
linn
s

icyn MMab msnsi


nspo

a^nan

ac mino anaa dp nam nnyon


ntrx

anaan ns

33

34
35

b*i nan n^K

dhihm
*bjk

ibrpi no^bs?
}r

T3 ipnnm

D"W*nn anana b*nc oan nawra unrp swk ay b&OB poi jama pi ttJ3 |o siab
iprnnn
|D
oaifc'b

36
37 38

wk D.Tbyiow "pen ax nnaa


p^ba iop panipi
a^oann
i*opj

nns

pan psn
nip

39

nns

iopp D'oawn

mop

iop n^an Nnrpbcr bn:n

p by pa npm dvh ny

40
41

pa

M'vnKa onoiao "jbob D.Tby ima^bon bxnao

42 43

onoiy

wtk

bax vn pyop oa^o irmaK a


s

MMap
U'ma'ao

;ba

ibo ay n,bon

D^m
}a

nann
jb>x

nnox

by
a *a

44
45

ns?K

mown
T\&,

bas nppi nry

mabo

nonbob moixn M'by miyrp


11

a^oann
S,

no

46

Of
is

the
still

word coming
discernible.

after

beginning with

the

upper stroke

of a b

We

should thus perhaps supply

DPPPlSjN

ncfjTB]

lnnnx
r-

[nxn:i.

The remaining

letters

and the context suggest: DX\

D'SX^B

jl['

"pB?]

abaft.
33

Supply

[']tr[3K

n"UJ,*S]

Knf]

However,
before the

the

of

'V3M
is

is

very
very

doubtful.
14

The

traces

of

two or three

letters

PI

which
torn

also

doubtful,

are too faint to suggest anything.

The

rest

is

off.

r Read ,,;

CSnUPlS, as below, 28.


letters

The

>1

are

very doubtful,

though

to

judge

from the context

it

must have
17

read

here D*3*iyn H'^H.


'B3PI].

Supply

S[1B
to

u See
See Gen.

I'',x().l.

16,
3.

35.

u Allusion

Abraham.

17,

J\.NUV\

.>

JS.n.AZ-.\K.

UKJ\^yj iV/ l>

i.

ov,ul,v.m n.i\

^
V

U ^BSh

*\*j&?*%\

**wr *}***** f*wli

^30

t^w..?^* *w? ni ova t>

208

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


21

p
-itp

by

20

u\x;tr by Kin dj ^diji

47 48

'-"-'

n nnn \-n
'-'

mxa vnx nN
ba

b*k

:!

mate
by

by lKa abi i^nirno

49
50
51

"hpnm
'-

24

mown

nmyn:

ibt:n

,fi

Ei

n^dn ibo nonbb iNan pipe ibn

sr?

mrya
2s
. .
.

nvi [b ibo pi jnpoi


ib

b^ai ....
a

52
53

Mben
*i

Dmn^n min DnoiP vn onvpo


pD^a
ddjpi
:ho

ny

2i,

D v-in by -|Sn }b ^boi n?p by inbj


*"ibn
'jab

54
55

pn ^D'a
"iiacn
~lbo bisn
:!
'-'

dji

ketie

px

p s ~\bv

won ^
nn

irp by
s

|b "|b Dnb^ ibian


*ibn

56
57

n^tio
t\

n pn vby
jba

npn in

33

imaan
ib
:u

imabn pn ^ab
*)Dvb

58

miiDK ib ibn

tn

nBwb

uab ina n
\~\nx innbtrn

59

dcpn nbsj

35

Ninn

annm
*D"a

n
.

ib^n

60
61

lbn

?idv na*a dji

oma^aD nvna n

"ipn rnftiNn by nrp


36

jnsnn dudti

nwn

wk

62
63

Duan on

b"iy

D^ai nb^D

wb

3T

ann

lrron &0DV1 lbs ubnb rnbnj

nun nbc> w
nrno
by

64
lny-ib
s

na^ja

mabn

nb s b "laoD
an
by

not

65

wbiab nain ynm "JiBB>n in pin pina oun 40 n<y


DHinan nab nrpy
rrby
20 21 22

Tpen d^
nabn

nvi Nb

66
67

Nan "hp^on nDD nvi

nbp

n^N

nyi

b*kd

68 69

onbn

wnw
[lITJ^
5

by Na dpi

ine nain

See

Exod.

1,

10.

Probably there

followed

here:

1J?

Dtfo]n.
1.

Cf.

1.

44.

The
I.

biblical

reference:

Gen. 35,

and below,

45,

suggest supplying

below,
23

45

[ipk
a

ni&IMR ty D\-|V|K.
a

Only

trace of

or

,1

is

visible.

Eine 55 would suggest that

we had here pDJ3 '0^2 blX.


24

Here

is

just
\vc-

space

for X^ITp.

25

Perhaps

should

supply
rest

n^"2

CiT?.
is

20

Read
next

K*p*VK91.
is

The

of the line

torn off whilst the beginning


1.

of the

obliterated,

which might possibly be supplied by

92.

(Continued on page 212)

UNKNOWN KHAZAR DOCUMENTSCHECHTER

2Q<)

&

;*3?

210

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


D^ybins

pNn

;o

im

70
71

b*

dw*i cn^
dpie

imo*i bane*

b^i i3iy Dob ddb> b3x n

72

d^xvom
K

ba

nw

4:l

pi

idp

t
41

73

on in nsnbsb
s i

ij^n by
"jdS

ibn dl-oi an

74
75

nDD

Dnb

inywi
ntrx bbc?

Dnn
45
4C

rnaon

'3

"ONi riaDDo npb


|3

76

DWOn

by lb

DN HDD

"IBX"! a

nN

^K'PPI

77

he xb d*o "rbyo lbi

nnronb:

n^N2

ia

Dnbm

78
79

imi3 by3

ib*i

'nopj Dip:s ny rpna is


nya-ix *o*tMBDip by
b>3 D'JHpo 113: *a

mox
nnbn
imaa

dp

ibs'i

ds3

win
on
nip

80
81

bx y\wb nby\

vono
*jan

bai Kin dct

bEn orn did ba 1^1

in*
tk

82
83

*t nnn D^jrua

D^on vn

onsDa wksd i^Ka


iaiyn inan
-ipk
4T
.

una dp wab

jnio

84
85

on

n?p

vino san

nabn^n Ty wb pen mi

dpi Dupis

b*OK n3ina
13

86
87

|D

^n nonoai

NrtsjDDipb -pnibp

nay

Kinn

dm

npim

i:n:noi n,nn bvun

dm
d*3

88
89

w*tMBDipb

una

pai

Dn

d*ppi nDi D"abN

dv onpyi hjdp npa'Qi

d^
%

nypn

9
91

uoy D'onbjn run dv

D"trn

^nw nbpo

pw

nnbl 1P11B1 D13TI 3N13N Sn 3N3! N^DN


4-

92
re-

One

or

two

letters

are

visible

before

the

PI,

which may be the

mainder of a 7
43

or a

D.

The T

is

most probably the remainder of


p
is
still

TB.

After the

following

IDn The

the leg of a

discernible, thus suggesting

Plpl, followed by PIS.

1D11 stands for D^Dll.


44

Probably

it

was T\H.

Supply

<bS D3l.
JJ,

,:'

Before ^BP, signs resembling an


SStr[Pl

possibly also a

PI

are seen.

Perhaps

we should Bupply
40

my]...

Traces

of T^ are visible, the


it

making
torn

it

likely that

it

read P1ST?.

47

The end of

word
is

is

off,

whilst the letter preceding the hole


is

is

illegible.

Perhaps

a
If

h.

But there

no certainty about the other


that the letters looking like SI

letters either, save the

0.

we could assume

are a clerical error for a O, then

we would have

the remainder of

[niS^DPIO.

UNKNOWN KHAZAR DOCUMENTSCHECHTEK

211

^.Stevwai

^vuw^*; iifcvn&r%

^v#s ^-m^

m^ ^sawflBi nuk

212

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

-'29

>WK.
expect

28

Supply 0^13.

We

should

liere

n[22

D3]*l.

must

also

remark that the

traces after

look somewhat like E\


31,
1

See II Chron.
-

8.

81

This word can also be read


is

iPD.

After

n>r\

a faint trace of an S

visible.

The

rest is illegible.

Per-

haps we had here [TS 13m]M.


33

The

rest is obliterated.

Perhaps we should supply here ns[0"I" "pOPl]


at the

34

Read ^[-2*-]50.

Perhaps we should read

end of the

line

rt31?2N2.

Cf. Ps. 89,


35

After

the

"^an

traces

of

various
all

letters

are

visible,

which

suggest

supplying
36

f|[fl*3n].

But they are

doubtful to me.

Perhaps we should read

the last

word n[?JD].

The other

letters

are

too faint to suggest anything to me.


CT

The context would suggest supplying


3 at the beginning of the faded place

["l]-"in
is
still

[jHU IIMO]. Some


to

trace

of a

be seen, but

it

is

very

doubtful.
38

Supply

at

the

beginning of the line


certain,
it

J,'t!Hn

as

above

1.

62.
it

39

Reading

fairly

but

it

gives no

sense.

Perhaps

means "the

Rcverer."
40

Perhaps

was irVCn.

This word can also be read

nc.
look somewhat
like
"13

41

The
for

letters

following

"icnit?

but there

is

still

room

one or two

letters.

UNKNOWN KHAZAR DOCUMENT SCHECHTER


TRANSLATION*

213

Armenia bear

and our ancestors

fled

from them

[for

they could not]


2 the yoke of the worshipers of idols.

princes of Khazaria] received


3

them

[for

And [the the men of]


[they too]

Khazaria Torah
[to the

were

first

without Torah.

And

remained without
4

and Scriptures and made marriage with the

inhabitants of the land [and mingled with them.]


5

And they
And
enant
of

learned their deeds and went out with them


continually.]

war

they became [one] people.

Only upon the cov-

circumcision

they

relied.

And [some

of

them]
7

observed

the Sabbath.

And

there

was no king

in the

land of Khazaria.

Only
would appoint

him who won


of
the army.

victories in the battle they

over them as general


9

Now

(it

happened)

at

one time when

the Jews went forth into the battle with 10

them

as

was
the of
*The

their

wont

that on that day a


flight

Jew proved mighty


Then
the

with his sword and put to


11

enemies

who came
in

against Khazaria.

people of Khazaria appointed him over them as general


12

the

army

accordance with their ancient custom.

And
Hebrew
ter,

such was the state of their affairs for


by numbers correspond, as far as

many days
with the

lines preceded

possible,

lines

of the text.

Words

in

square brackets indicate supplied matto

and thus cannot claim certainty and for which the notes

the

Hebrew

text should be consulted.

j 14

TIN:

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

13

un til the Lord had mercy and awakened the heart of


the prince to do repentance.

14

For

his wife,

whose name was Serah, turned him and

taught him profitably.


15

And

he also

consented,
of the
tion,

for he

was circumcised.
a righteous

But

also the father


in that

young woman,

man

genera-

16

taught him the


when

the kings of

way of life. Macedon

And

it

came

to pass that

17

and

the kings of Arabia heard of these things, they

waxed exceeding wroth.


18

And

they sent

messengers
who

to the princes of

Khazaria with words of

blasphemy against

Israel, saying:

"What mean ye by returning 19


are subject under

to the belief of the

Jews

20

the
the

hands of

all

the nations?"
to
tell.

which are not for us


21

And they spake words And they turned the


said the great prince,

heart of the princes


Jew
:

to evil.

Then

"To what
words?

end,

22

increase
men

Let there come (men) of the wise

of Israel and of the wise

men

of Greece,

23

and
them

of the wise
tell

men

of Arabia.

And

let

everyone of

before us and before you.


his

24

[the work of [messengers


oi

God and we
sent

shall see] the end."

And

they did so and 25

lie

to the kings of Greece]

and to the kings

Arabia.

But the wise men of

Israel also offered

themselves

26

[to

come

to the aid of the

men

of] Khazaria.

There-

upon the Greeks opened with

their testimony

UNKNOWN KHAZAS DOCUMENT SCHECHTER


27

215

and the Jews and the


Arabians began to contradict them.

And

after this

28

[the
[the from

Arabians bore witness]

and the Jews and the


then opened

Greeks contradicted them.


29
wise

And

men

of Israel their testimony! telling from

the days of the creation, until the day

when

the chil-

dren of Israel came up 30


Egypt, and until they arrived at an inhabited

country.
31

(To

the truth of this), the Greeks


it,

as

well as the Arabians bore witness and confirmed

but there arose also dissension amongst them.

32

Then
the
And

said the princes of Khazaria, "Behold, there


t>im.

is

a cave in the valley of Tizul

Bring forth for us

33

books which are there and explain them to us."


they did so and went

34

into the cave.

And

behold, there were there

Books of

the

Law

of Moses, and the wise

men

of Israel ex-

plained them

35

in

accordance with the words which they spake

first.

Then
36
Israel,

together with the


repentance.

men

of Khazaria, returned

in perfect

But

also the

Jews began
JDTiD

37

to

come from Bagdad, from Khorasan

and from

the land of Greece

and strengthened the hands of the

men
38

of
land,

the

and encouraged themselves

in

the covenant

of the Father of the Multitude.

And

the

men

of the

land appointed over

them

39

one of the wise men as judge.


in the

And

they

call his

name

tongue of

2l6
40

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Khagan,
pa.
Therefore, the judges

Khazaria,
Khagan
Sabriel

who

arose after him


41

are called

by the

name

pD, even unto this day.

prince of Khazaria, they turned his

As name

to

the great

into

42

and they made him king over them.

Now

they say in our land

43

that our
we

ancestors

came from

the tribe of Simeon, but

are not able to probe


truth

44

the

of

the

matter.

Now
is

the

king

made

peace with our neighbor, the king of the Alani, 45

because the

kingdom of the Alani


all

the strongest

and

the hardest of

the nations that surround us.


said,

46

For
rise

the wise

men

"Lest when the nations shall

up

to

wage war

against us

47

He

also join unto our enemies."

Therefore [he con-

cluded peace with him to help]

48

one

another in distress.

And

there

was

the terror of

God [upon
49

the nations which]

surround

all

us.

And
[But

they came not against the kingdom


in the

of Khazaria.

day of] the king [Benjamin]


[the

50

the nations rose

up against
into

men

of Khazaria]
to

and brought them


counsel]
51

straits

[according

the

of

the king of Macedon.

And
Painil

there

went

to

battle

the king of Asia [and

Turkey]
^3B

52

and

and
in

Macedon.
support
of

Only

the

king

of

the

Alani

was

[Khazaria.] 53

For

some of them observed the Torah of the Jews.

[All] these kings

UNKNOWN
54

KIIAZAR DOCUMENT

SCHEXlI'lT.R

2iy

waged

war against Khazaria.

But the king of the

Alani went against their land [and smote them with


slaughter,] so

55

that they could not recover.


before
the

And
But

the
it

Lord smote them


happened also
in

king

Benjamin.

the days of king

Aaron
for

56

that the king of the Alani fought against Khazaria,


the king of Greece incited him.

57

But Aaron hired against him the king of


he was then his friend.]

Turkey

[for

And
who

the king of the


alive.

58

Alani
his

fell

before Aaron

caught him

But

[the king]

honored him [very much] and took

59

daughter as wife for his son Joseph.

Thereupon

the king of the Alani swore unto

him

in truth.

60

and
of

And

Aaron

the king sent


fell

him

[to his

house].

And,

from that day there


61

the fear

Khazaria upon the nations which surrounded them.


also in the days of

my

lord, the

king Joseph

62

when
the persecution in

there

was

the days of the wicked Romanus.

63

[And
trod

the

matter

became

known]

to

my

lord

he

down many

of the uncircumcised.

But Romanus,

[the wicked,] also

64

sent for

great gifts to Helgu, the king of Russia,

and

enticed

him

65

his

own

evil,

and he came

in the night

upon the
it

province of the Sewerians


ception.

M "UD and took

by de-

66

For

the

commander, the head of the

princes,

was not

there.

But when the matter became known

to Bulshazi

2l8

HIK JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Pesah, the Reverer, he marched against the cities

67 or
of

Romanus

in

fierce

anger and smote

68both man 69very


~~

and woman.

And

he took three

cities

be-

sides the hamlets

many.

And from

there

he
it.

marched against

Shorshu

and fought against

And
the earth like

there

came out of

worms
Israel

71

and

there

died

ninety

men

of them

/2

But he made them serve


under tribute and saved

73 ~~
Russia.
"

[from]

the

hands

of

[And he took]

all

those to be found of them

[sword] and from there he went out to battle against Helgu and he fought

^~

months and God subdued him before Pesah and he found


of the plunder which he took

76

from the

Sewerians, but he said,

"Romanus
Then Pesah
said to him.

77 beguiled me 78 and
and

(to do)

this."

"If this be so,

march against Romanus


him
as thou didst fight against me,
if

fight against
I

will

depart from thee, but


I

not, here

79

'i

shall die or live until

shall

have taken vengenance,"

And

thus he marched against his

own

will

80and
sea.

fought

against

Constantinople
fell

four

months on

And

his

mighty men

81 there.
lire.

For the Macedonians prevailed over him by And he fled but was ashamed to return to

UNKNOWN KHAZAR DOCUMENTSCHECHTEH


82

2\()

his land.
fell

And

he went to Persia by the sea and he


all

there, he

and

his

camp.

83

Then

the Russian became subdued under the hands of

the Khazar.

Behold,
to
in

84

make
as

it

known
it

my

lord that the


is

name

of our land

we found

books

85

Arkanus,

and the name of the royal

city

is

Khazar,

and the name of the river that passes


86

through
sea that

its

midst

is

Atel S'CS and

it

is

south of the

comes from

through which
to Constantinople.

87

thy messengers came


that

And

believe

88

it

starts

from the Great Sea.


that

But our province

is

distant

from

sea
ris,

89

two
is

thousand and one hundred and sixty

and be-

tween our land and Constantinople


90

nine days by sea and twenty-eight days by 91 and the land of the dominion of my lord
Behold, (these are) those

land.

is fifty

days.

who

fight against us.

92

Asia,

Bab

al

abwab, Zibus, Turkey, and Luznu.

ARABISMS IN RABBINIC LITERATURE


By
A. Cohen, Manchester

In the Talmud and Midrashim, fourteen words occur

which purport
R. Levi,
1

to be Arabic.

They

are quoted, usually by

for the purpose of explaining

words of the Bible

the meaning of which had become forgotten, or as a basis


for a homiletic interpretation.
2

The

following

is

list

of

them.

For reasons

to be afterwards explained, they are

divided into two classes.


Class

xSnv ni^nS pip &ropa

u
(2
(3

KDnb

mwib pip tfnjD


pip
fcrmyn
iraijft sin "2iv

r6oi>DB Kpnoo^J
s-3D x^jS

pip

jwi

C4
C5

xmy xnr^
R^y
KftTnp

pmis raijn

wpi^b pip

Kmya

(6 (7
[8

Nn^nn^

piip N^-ijn

kw
^lae*

Npirb pniiv iwnya

xBtrtr tnypb

pmp K<niD (9 KnbunrA pnns irttiya 0


13.

To

R. Levi are ascribed

all b.

but Nos. 12 and

No.

is

also quoted

as an

'Arabism' by R.

Eleazar
is

Simeon.

Akiba quotes No.

as used in

O^H

*3*13,

and No.

10
]p.

quoted by Resh Laskish as a word found in the

language of
-

WW2
7, 8,

To
3,

the former class belong Nos.


5,

1,

2,

6,

9,

10,

12,

13,

14; to the latter

Nos.

4,

11.

221

222

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Class II
Kin
12ri'

*my

pi"S

nm

(u

bipw "ion [^znin fcoan] kj^b (12


*a

noaio

nx no idn ^ny
Kin
s

(13

my

pe6 yap Cm
In
to
;

These words

raise

perplexing problem.

very
the

few eases can they be referred with confidence


Arabic
in
;

in

some

cases a resemblance can be detected

but

the majority of instances, the

words are Aramaic or

altogether

unknown.
theories
it

Two
facts.

have been advanced to explain these


is

Firstly,
is

suggested that
identified

W2~\y

does not

mean

Arabia, but

to be
8

with Arrabeh, a Galilean


this
it

town near Sepphoris.

Against

might be urged that

no reason can be assigned why an insignificant town should


be specially mentioned for
its

dialect,
4

and not the country

or district in which

it

is

situated.

Further, how, on this


to be accounted for?
is

theory, are the genuine Arabic

words

The second theory


dialect

is
r

that

the

language referred to

of Arabic
5

w hich
were

contained a large admixture of

Aramaic.

If this

correct,

we

see

from the instances

preserved for us in rabbinical literature that the predomin-

ance of Aramaic in this dialect over Arabic was truly


markable.
Adolf Brull, Fremdsprachliche Redensarten

re-

(Leipzig
r.,

1869),
26,

p.
7.

29.

Thus

the Galilean dialect

is

mentioned

in

Gen.

ch.

Bacher

declares,
sich

"Wir horen

nicht dass er

[R. Levi]
pal.

ausserhalb des heiligen Landes


II,

aufgehalten

hatte,"

Agada der
ed.
to

Amoracr,

303.

It

is

nowhere
and

expressly stated that he traveled to Arabia.

But
p.

his

knowledge of Arabian
r.

customs (see Lam.

r.,

Proem.
leads

23,

Buber,

20;

Eccles.

on

12,

8,

Tanhuma, vhw}
country.
6

11)

one

suppose that he had journeyed to that

So Brull,

/.

c,

p.

40; Kohut, Arnch,

s.

v.

~\Q

(p.

48); Bacher,

/.

c.

ARABISMS IN RABBINIC LITERATURE)

COHEN
to

223
suppose

Would
that

it

not, therefore, be

more probable
colony

there

was

an

Aramaic-speaking

settled in

Arabia?

Modern

discoveries have

shown us how widely


all

spread was the Aramaic language in

parts of the Eastern

World.
tracts,

Endorsements on Assyrian and Babylonian conpapyri from Egypt, and Aramaic inscriptions from
this in
6

Arabia testify to

ample manner.

The Assuan

papyri

disclose the existence of a Jewish colony in

Egypt using

the

Aramaic language.

There

is

consequently nothing a

priori

improbable in the supposition that there was a Jew-

ish colony, settled in Arabia,

which preserved the Aramaic

tongue of the mother-country.


urally

Such a

dialect

would

nat-

continue

to

use

many words which had become


7

obsolete elsewhere, since the rate of change in a language


is

much slower
facts,

in the provincial districts.

It

would

also

incorporate

words from the vernacular of the country.


added to the usual differences of pronunci-

These two

ation to be found in dialects, will account for practically


all

the 'Arabisms' in the rabbinic literature.

One important
traces of an

indication that the 'Arabisms' are really


dialect
is

Aramaic
There

spoken

in

Arabia has hitherto

escaped notice.

marked

difference in the phrase-

ology which contains an 'Arabism' and that which contains


a reference to another language.

In Class they

we have
8

uni-

formly

pTip

KU"ijO

"In

Arabia

call,

etc."

This
is

need not necessarily mean that the word which follows


Arabic.

When,

for instance, the


56,

Talmud

declares

pip 2233
infer

ton Kpwb (Sukkah


6

Hagigah 13&), we do not


II,

See Lidzbarski, Ephemeris fur semitische Epigraphik,

200

ff.,

and

Cooke,
7

North

Semitic
e.

Inscriptions,

pp.

195

ff.

Comp.

g.

the

French spoken by Canadian colonists with that of

France.
8

The only exception

is

No.

4,

which

will

be discussed below.

224
that ITCH
is

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


a

genuine Babylonian word.


that,

The statement
in Palestinian

merely means

whereas
usual

KpW was
in

used

Aramaic, 6031
similar
that

was

Babylonian

Aramaic.
only

In

manner &6nV ICWlA ]^p IWHJ& may &&3T was the word employed for 'lamb'
9

mean
the

by

Aramaic-speaking Tews of Arabia.


Further, despite the
fact

that

the

rabbinic

literature

contains over twenty references to the Greek language,

we

do not once find the formula


call,

]^)? jvn

"In Greece, they

etc."

Instead

we meet with such


ch. 81, 5) ch. 40, 4)

expressions as:

(Gen.

r.,

Kin Kin

nw

pe6 pto
J1K6

(Gen.

r.,

DDK
p6a

(Shabbat

63/?)
IV)

onb J?A imp


!IW>
24/?
)

(Tanhuma,

K3t3p

'DD^K

p6

(Abodah zarah

T31 jnaob ^dis np

(Abodah zarah 24M wnen rrubwiDVip


In
all

these instances, the phraseology indicates beyond


is

doubt that a Greek or Persian word


are to be compared with
in

intended.

These

some

of the Arabisms contained

Class Class

IT,
T.

but are quite distinct from those enumerated

in

Hence,

with

few exceptions, the 'Arabisms'

in

the

colony rabbinic literature presuppose the settlement of a hold its of lew-" in Arabia, where Aramaic continued to took place own against the vernacular. That the migration
the

two

statements

RB*Vp

npO*?

(Roah ha-shanah
(Sanhedrin
is

pip vn pHBlA mSw3 M'py 26a) and ne D'ntf ^n22 BB K3py


in

"l "l

10

1QX

D*npnBHa
African Jews
10

i'0.

In the former case a Hebrew word used by


the
latter

clearly

intended,

native

word.

Thai

they

idenced

by

the

presence of

Hebrew words

in

Aramaic

form.

ARABISMS IN RABBINIC LITERATURE


at

COHEN

225

an early date, long before the commencement of the

current era,

may

be inferred from the presence of words


in Palestinian
is

which had passed out of use


Aramaic.

and Babylonian

Especially interesting

the apparent survival in


obsolete,

Aramaic form of Hebrew words which had become


tibir,

nboboD, X^iy, and tfHB.


is

The following

a detailed discussion of the

words

Class

vhiv
(p.

(1)

Berakot

9,

end)

sSnv KTO16

\"\)p

W2W2

^b '31 TON

"R. Levi said, In Arabia they


to explain

call a

lamb

tobla."

Quoted
yetro

iarn 11PD3
,m
\

'nabnto xypv
bnv
iranf)

idk

mm (Josh. 6, 5). om mn tram


?

Comp.
*os$*b

KD

i6av \xm

imp vn
is

wyqh "How

do we know that the

word

tobla

an expression for 'lamb'?

For
I

it

has been
to Arabia,

taught in a Baraita, R. Akiba says,


they were calling a 'lamb' tobla'

when

went

(Rosh ha-shanah 26a).


is

Kohut

refers to uabilat(un)

which

sometimes used
of 'camels.'
.

in the

sense of 'lambs/ but

more commonly

But the
meet
it it

word is obviously the Hebrew 5w We among an Aramaic-speaking colony in Arabia,


been
discovered

here

just as

has

on

an

inscription belonging probably to


at

Carthage,

which has been unearthed


p.

Marseilles

(see

Cooke, North Semitic Inscriptions,


only uses the

112).

The Targum
(see Levy,
is

word
I,

in the

meaning of

'Jubilee'

Chald. Wortcrb.,

325).

In Syriac, the meaning 'lamb'


b^V
is

not found, but in the Syrohexaplar


in Josh. 6, 4;

used for D^avn


loprfl
(i.

but that merely represents Greek


in transliteration)

e.

Hebrew

blV

which Origen took over

from Aquila.

226

T11K

JEWISH quarterly review


KDnb
i

-i
I

ib

^"N
_^

,ibbn

d^ s ;d

-p-j'io

d-il"3

rrm inrup ,D*b^3


their
flesh
slain,

ooinSi

^55^ p^p
i.

K ^-iy2

"

'And
they

as

dung
their

(Zeph.
flesh

17)
cast

because

were
like

and
R.

was
In

upon the
they

ground
'flesh'

dung.

Levi
i\,

said,
cli.

Arabia

call

lahma"
of
is
is

(Exod.
Din?

42. 4).

The explanation here given


Ktii

agrees
in

with the

LXX

raq

oapnai;

avruv.

Df"6
it

not

found

Aramaic
as a
It
is

in the sense of 'flesh.'

Here

to be explained

loan-word from Arabic, or rather a loan-signification.


not strange that a colony speaking the Aramaic lanin

guage

Arabia should have adopted that


as

signification,

especially
erally.

lahm and
ntrx DnS
is

Dl"6

frequently denote 'food' gen3,

Comp.

Lev.

11-16,

where the

flesh of

the burnt-offering

intended.

hSdSdD
*b

(3)
1,

V'n

,pp"id

102

hSd

"'i

,(Lam.

15) are

'n

n^s
In

ba nbo

ri^D^DO NpnOD^J
plain
silla

pip K'TilQ

"There
R.

some
said,

who
loc).

ex-

to

mean
means

'comb.'

Levi

Arabia
In

they

call

'comb'

mesalsela"
'to

(Midrash,

ad

Arabic
of
'a

salla

extract,'

and there
find

is

no trace

the
piece

meaning
of
cloth
'a

'to

comb.'

We

musalsal(itn)
or
lines'

figured
piece

with
cloth

stripes

and

mutasalsil(nn)
p.

of

woven

badly'

(Lane,

1398),

which

are

probably
p.

borrowed

from Aramaic
where

(Frankel, Fretndworter,

76).

Comp.

Gittin 59a

n^D^D

is is

used for a linen garment.


to
1,

hSdSdo
hair'

Xazir

The explanation of be found in the Hebrew ^D^D 'to curl the 1 (comp. 3a). The following passage from
is

Rosh ha-shanah 26a


x-qj KinnS

instructive

n^D^D 'NO pyi


rnyo&r

'JH' tin

xb

moK nnm

'3-1

on Nnoxb
n'S

in not ,Toonm

TW3

^dSdo nnx 'no ny

mox ,n*wa

nonop

mm

ARABISMS IN RABBINIC LITERATURE

COHEN

227

did not know the meaning of I"6dSd in Prov. One day they heard the maid in Rabbi's house saying to someone who was combing (curling) his hair, 'How long The fact that the Rabbis were wilt thou ^D^DO thy hair?' "

"The Rabbis
4, 8.

ignorant of

its

meaning shows
in the

that the

word was

obsolete

and only used


the

country villages, from one of which


It is

maid possibly came.

consequently interesting to

find the

word survive among


N'3D

the

Jews of Arabia.

(4)

"ion *b *an ,enipn

nna

midp d^3j
iraab
(I

bp frpax
""a-im

wnw
Kin
;

,i3iK>

^n
|ib6

(Lev.
"

r.,

ch.

i,

3)

n*3d

pip

*niy

'The

father

of

Soco'

Chron.

4,

18)

(so

called)

because he was the father of prophets


future) through the aid of the
It is

who

look (into the

Holy

Spirit.

R. Levi said,
call

an Arabic expression

in

Arabia they
in Arabic.
;

a 'prophet'

sakm"
the root

There
'to

is

no such root

In Syriac

we
use

have sakkl
is

look out for, await'

and

in

Jewish Aramaic

very
in

common

in the sense of 'to look.'

The

of the
rtNl3D

word
(I

Aramaic for

'prophet'

is

paralleled by ?K1DP
(ibid., 29,

Chron. 26, 28) and


Worterb.,
II,

n13D "U
162.

29), see

Levy,
riNn,
60 n

Cliald.

Comp.

the use of

nnn,

and naiv
'my

in the Bible.

The presence

of the words

pt6, as already indicated, presents a grave dif-

ficulty to

our theory.

It should,

however, be noticed that


occurs

the formula

pip

'B3

Kin

'B

f\\ffb

nowhere

else

in

the Midrashim.

Unfortunately there are no parallel passbut possibly the original version read simply
"6
*3"1.

ages to aid us

pip

J03-Ij?3 "ION

amy
D3^
\-in:

(5)

nira nea "ion


2,

pw

"i

,"6 no"iN

no

"|tj;k

no

(Midrash

to

Lam.

13)

army

Km*3*>

pniiv K^aijo

nb

VK

228

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

"R. Jonathan explains

fW

as

"How many
to

spoils

have

given thee." R. Levi said, In Arabia they

call 'spoil' 'adita."

The lexicographers
the biblical

refer the

word
'spoil.'

'adduat(un) which,

however, means 'enmity,' not


*iy

Nearer to hand are


16,

'prey/ and the


33, 23, etc.

Targumic Nrvny Prov.

19

and

HJJ

Isai.

t6ny

(6)

xiny Npi:^ p-np iptto


r..

'ib

vx

.jirppw

,'on^p |xvd

ir6fc

(Gen.
their

ch. 36,

r,

Lev.

r.,

ch. 5, 1)
:

'"They send forth

little

ones like a
said, In

flock'

(Job 21, 11)


call

'ami means 'young.'

R.

Levi

Arabia they

a 'child' 'auila" Although one

naturally thinks of 'ital(un)

and

auil(iin),

it

is

doubtful

whether we have here a true Arabism.

For the Arabic

word means
dren'
7\V

'the

persons
it

fed,'

and can refer equally well


than
'chil-

to a wife or a slave;

signifies 'family' rather

(see Lane).

The
is

root

is,

of course, different from

'to suckle'

which

found

in

that corresponds to the Arabic gala.


to

be a
in

survival

in

Aramaic of
(where the

occurs
21,
II.

Job

19,

18

Hebrew and Syriac, for The word xb^V I take the Hebrew b*\V which Targum has WpV) and

Nrrrny

(7j

S^s

vnx

sy

-mm

nw
-inin

m!>b

\ib

Shpo

no*

,'n iS

inn

iwija
the
21).

pp ,pmo
was
Levi
his

nn d^sho
r.,

-irnn

m mm
63,

nn? b& ihDi>

xnmny xnmnnS
Lord
R.

p-np

(Gen.

ch.

5)

"'And
25,

intreated
said,
It
is

('//-)

of
the

him'
case

(Gen.
of
a

like

prince
for a

who,

with
of

father,

was

digging
within
call

(htr)

pound

gold.

One dug from


in

and the other


'attrta."

from without; for

Arabia they
the

'digging'

The

following

are

variants:

pyp

*i

-q

whit

ARABISMS IN RABBINIC LITERATURE


Nrrvny KJTvnnb pmre joaiya "iok (Lev.
r.,

COHEN
30
3
) ;

220,

ch.

in the

name
on
2,

of R. Levi
14)
;

nvny nTnn? prmv


in the

N'aiya

(Ruth
b.

r.,

ch. 5

and

name of R. Eleazar
(p.

Simeon
There
'to

nmny nmnnb
is

prmv

N'anya

Sanhedrin

10, 2).

no Arabic word resembling

this
this

with the meaning


:

dig.'

The explanation
difference

offer

dialectal

of

we have here merely pronunciation. The Aramaicis

speaking Jews of Arabia pronounced the

like

an

y.
r.

We
on

may compare
2,

K3J|

K3"r6

pnrfiPl

K"n
r.,

WX

(Lam.

1).

ipim

&nr6 pmi* fctWaa (Gen.

ch. 26, 7),

and

fcWan 'adder' with

may.
K*na
(8)

npnrh

prmv

x^aiya *6
r.,

"i

tok
1)
;

,Dn3arn

Ak

,DKnaa

nini
the

XTIS (Gen.

ch.

87,
7,

"

'And

beheld

among

simple ones' (Prov.


of Israel].
ns
-iyab
r.,

7)

these are the tribes [the children


call a 'child' patia."

R. Levi said, In Arabia they


piip

raiya pe>
1)

-iyj

via inn

,nan

^aS

potr

Tie

(Exod.
(Prov.

ch. 3,

"'The simple

believeth every word'

14,

15);

how know we
call

that peti

means

a 'child'?
it

Since in Arabia they


stated in the

a 'child' peti."

Elsewhere

is

name

of R. Akiba, KV1B Kpi?6


11

DM oiaa pip pp
identified
It
is,

(Sanhedrin
with fata (71)

nob).
'a

The

word
via

is

usually

youth' or fatin(un) 'youthful.'

how-

ever, possible that the

Hebrew
first

translated 'simple' also

means

'youthful.'

In the

passage quoted from the


is

Book
11

of Proverbs the parallel


By O'n
times.
'2*12
is

word

D'Ja

and the
which
is

LXX
being

meant Asia Minor, the


cases

dialect of

mentioned
as

several

In

two

genuine

Arabic

words

are

quoted

used there, probably loan-words. T1QV PITH


is

DTI

OIM

V> R31B

pM
is

"There
clearly

a precious stone in Asia


'pearl';

Minor, called
DPI

mV

(Megillah 12a), which


B|iy

durrat(un)
in Asia

and

IOC ppi

'3122 BH tHM
is

"There

is

bird

Minor, called p*p"


'crow, raven'

(Shabbat 21a), which


(Dozy, Supplement,
II,

probably to be identified

with k&k(un)

420).

2 3

THi:

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


is

render >>-.

The root-meaning

'to

be spacious/ and

as applied to the intellect 'open-minded, simple.'

The word

who are simple in mind; and, as pointed out above, there are passages in the Old Testament where the rendering
'youthful'

was then referred,

as in Arabic, to the 'young'

would be quite suitable for


able that in our

Tl>. is

Therefore

it is

not improb'MS.
12

word KTIS
I

to be traced the

Hebrew
(col.

On

the other hand,

notice that

Payne Smith

3333)
it

gives

my*

-ins

'multiplicatae sunt proles ejus';

and

is

just possible that KVlfi

was used

in

Aramaic

for 'increase,

progeny.'
KBB*B> (9)

pip iraiw
KfitW

"b
"

"1

Di-n

paon pwrr h npa ,n^n

*|bb6 aba <e

wb

'Who

hath cleft a channel for each hair [sic;


R. Joshua of
call

Eng. vers. tfe waterflood]?' (Job 38, 25).


Siknin said in the
'hair' sitfa

name of R. Levi, In Arabia they (Tanhuma, Tazri'a, 8).


mypt,
p
said,

(Lev.

r.,

ch. 15, 3) Mfi gtp

mm |nnN n ^ n ^ n ^ 1DN%
call

"Rabbi Berechiah
'hair' sitfa."

There are places where people

This explanation of P|BP

is

based on a passage

in

the

Talmud (Baba
is

batra 160), where mj?Drt

ayK

nx

ni,T fin

God answered Job by the example of the hair" NE\3i x^ 5>31 D1a nma |D*j nain '131 ntDXP 'Jfia ndu nS *nma "Numerous hairs have I created in a man but for each hair have I created a separate
;

taken

to

mean

"And

follicle

(from which

it

has growth)."

This word KDB"B>

'hair'

is

otherwise unknown.

Kohut conjectures

a connection with

Arabic
12

sbt,

with transposition of

letters.

But sabit(un)

It is not denied that *on C and fata(n) are the same word. This, however, does not necessarily imply borrowing, since they occur in kirc* *J

languages.

ARABISMS IN RABBINIC LITERATURE

COHEN
More
of

23

means

iank,' and

its

connection with
'a

'hair' is limited to the

phrase sabitu-s-sa'ri
ably the
root
locks.
'hair,'

man
it

having lank

hair.'

prob-

word
'to

is

to be referred to the

Hebrew and Aramaic


'flowing*

*1DB>

overflow,'

being

descriptive

We
lit.

might, perhaps, compare

rPW
.

'storm' and

~\W
is

that

which

is

tossed about by the wind.

It

true the

Oxford Lexicon
'hairy
p.

distinguishes the roots, but the

Assyrian sarin
Assyr. Handwb.,
root.

skin'

and saru 'wind'


in

(Delitzsch.

635) seem to be
y

favor of a

common

The Arabic sa'r(un)

'liair

is

to be considered a loan-

word.

prms trnipa

*h

~i'\s

,xn^:jin

sin

,nra

natfb

;n:

ns

ik

&W3P Knbunflb "Or who hath given understanding


sekut (Job 38, 36)
?'

to the

That

is,

the cock.
r.,

R. Levi said, In
ch. 25, 5).
is

Arabia they

call the

cock sekueia (Lev.


1,

In p. Berakot 9,

near end, the reading


(

prmv

01ia
else-

^3^ K^UTinb
where
it is

"In

Rome

?)

they

call,

etc."

And

stated,
]"\)?
is

Knw
*13B>

jp

mnr6 'ro^nea

v*\h

p Wi
in

idn
rabit

nap ^unnb

vn (Rosh ha-shanah 26a).

Only

binic writings

found
in

in the sense of 'cock,'

and

seems to have been

use in certain provincial dialects.

Here we

find

it

in

an Aramaized form.
Class II

*on
b

^
1)

nriN intra rvb "V2 pa ,sin 'any

n^

'"h

Vk woth
veil'

nyao

nyao
:

1E1N

"'Behind
said.
It

(mibba'ad)
is

thy
If

(Cant.

4,

R.

Levi

Arabic.

one wishes to

say 'make

room

for me,' he says "iya for me.' " (Midrash,

ad

loc.)

R. Levi would render the passage in Canticles "take

232

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


veil."

away, remove thy

The

reference

is,

of course, to

Arabic

b'd.

an" (12)

kdv njn in na nan idk


hpe>
,Li

,-qrv

n Sy

-*n ^> pan

yr

inn

*6

idki Kara

wm

mn wro wnn nna


Rabbis
the did

KaVtK

mn

in
the

i6d

nw
of

larv
'cast

"The
upon

not
thy
I

know
tehaV

meaning
55, 23).

Lord

(Ps.

Said Rabba bar bar Hana,


I

One day

was journeyload.

ing together with an Arab, and

he said to

me

'take

was carrying a thy tchdb and cast it upon

And

my

camel"

(Rosh ha-shanah

26ft).
is
it

The
is

reference

to ijahb(un).

Since the

word KJTD

used for 'Arab,'

might signify one of the Southern


instead of uahb.

Arabs,

who

said

mhb

pb*o

prw

anabn
|

-in

pjw
,^5J

11

nn

pjw

11

nan K"n

*i

rv^p
*ipd

$w
arv

,pn

rrnteb

^a-ijn

rr*o

pjw

arr

man mr6 pnw mnnn p n ^ n rmanb im


Rabbi, and R. Simeon

"R. Hiyya the Elder, R. Simeon


1).

b.

the Halafta forgot the meaning of certain words of Targum and went to a merchant from Arabia to learn it

from him.
tahba

They heard him say


ch. 79, 7).

to

somebody, 'Place

this

upon me'; whence they learnt that


r.,

rnhbd means

'burden'" (Gen.

The merchant who


have been an Arab.

mentioned need not necessarily Possibly he was a Jewish merchant


is
it is

from Arabia.
'aijn.

Note

that in the continuation,

rrSp

W&

DD (13)

iab

rran rwii >n

nono nx nn nnani
,'3

nom

'aisn rrtp j>dp

mm
He

DW1

DniDin a'nai

WW ns

no "They

further

heard

an Arab say to someone 'why dost thou mckasse me?'

ARABISMS IN RABBINIC LITERATURE

COHEN
As

233
it

meant

to say

'why dost thou crush (mc'asse) me?'

is

written 'And ye shall tread


3,

down

ss) the

wicked'" (Mai.

21)

(Midrash Gen.,
is

ibid.).
'to

The word
pounded.'
similar.
2,

kassa

grind,'

maksiis(un) 'bruised,

The pronunciation
Comp.
N3"y

of the 3 and y

was somewhat
r.

NTnS prmm &ODK n\s (Lam.

on

I).

V2P (14)

oy

rwnb *o
nxn

"yiy

.Kin

^-ly
iS

pe6
"id^

*i!>

Vk

,d\-6k a

din*

jnp\n

wjmp

u*bro

men
3,

rvnn

" 'Will
It is

man

rob

(&') God?' (Mai.

8).

R. Levi said,

Arabic.

When

an Arab holds conversation with another and wishes to say


to

him 'Art thou he who defrauds

us?' he says to him, 'Art


7).

thou our kdbca'V" (Tanhuma, Terumah,

Comp.

the

following: }yip n^b 1DN ,rvnps xin: Nns sins


\bn tS

now xvmn
[b. Sisi]

'i

b'xw khk

n^

-ixp \xo

mnnb vb^x "b yT mn xb .km^s


stepped up

"Levi
to

came

to a certain place.

A man

him and

said to

him 'So and


said.

so

is

a kab'an!

He

did not

understand what he
school they said,
'It

When

he went and asked at the

means thief " (Rosh ha-shanah 2a-b).


I

The Arabic
that the

W
kb
c

has quite another signification.


is

suggest

word intended here


like

kbh, which

was

either pro-

nounced
it

(comp. No. 7), or was used dialectally for

(see Wright. Comparative


is

Grammar,

p.

48).

The

refer-

ence

perhaps to the

common

phrase kabahahu-Uahu "God


R. Levi

deprived him of the attainment of his desires."


accordingly explains
of this

'can
He

D\"6x DIN V2p^n as being the reverse


deprive

man

God

of anything' in the same

way

as

can deprive

man?

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
By Israel FriedlaEnder, Jewish
America
I.

Theological Seminary of

Shiitic

Elements in Jewish Sectarianism.*


3.

The One True Prophet


now engage our
It

The

doctrine which will

attention has

been of tremendous importance in the development of the


religious thought of the East.

would widely exceed the

scope of our present enquiry, were

we

to treat of this far-

reaching as well as fascinating doctrine with any amount


of
detail.

We
it

must perforce

limit

ourselves

to

those

aspects of

which afford points of contact with similar

teachings within Judaism.

Perhaps

we

shall best illustrate the character

and

at

the same time the inexhaustible vitality of this conception


if

we reproduce

side

by side

its

most ancient and

its

most

modern formulation, widely removed from one another


both in time and in space.

What
doctrine
is

is

believed to be the oldest exposition of our


in the so-called

found

Pseudo-Clementine writin the sec-

ings which were

composed

in

Northern Syria
171

ond century of the Christian


*Continued from

era.
481
ff.

"The aim
ff.

of mankind,
instal-

New
(New
II.

Series, vol.
Series,
I,

II,

The
II,

two preceding
ff.)

ments of

this

article

183

and

481

are quoted as

Shiitic Eleicnts I
171

and

On

the

Pseudo-Clementines see F.

Ch.

Baur,

Kirchcngeschichtc

der

235

236

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


is

according to the teaching of the Pseudo-Clementines,


attainment of the Supreme Good,
of God.
i.

the

e.

of the recognition

Man
is

by reason of his sin

is

unable to attain this

end by himself and he must therefore be aided by revelation

which
-,<
i.

transmitted through the True Prophet


lias

(a^%
a)id

The True Prophet


in

not manifested himself

in

one,

but

different persons and, changing

names

appearances, traverses the different periods of the zvorld's


career
till

in

his time he will be at rest.

Just as the True

Prophet returns as the same,


by him
is

so, too, the religion


is

revealed

the same.

There

no development but merely

a constant repetition
primitive revelation in
ity

of the one and

same

religion.

The

Adam, pure Mosaism and


172

Christian-

are

in

consequence identical."
this
is

And
of the

the formulation
or, as

which the representatives

modern Babis

they are

now commonly

called,
1'3

the Bahais, give to this essential doctrine of their faith.


drei
erst en
I,

Jahrhunderte
294
ff.,

(Tubingen
in

1863),
3
.,

218

ff

Harnack,

Dogmenge-

schichte*,
172

and Uhlhorn

PRE

IV, 171

ff.

Uhlhorn's analysis ibidem.

n3

As

Babism has been

repeatedly

referred

to

in

this

article

and

will

even more largely be drawn upon in the following, a few words about the
origin

of

this

sect

may be welcome

to

the the

reader.

Mirza 'AH Mohammed,


presently)

of

Shiraz in Persia

subsequently
At

called

Bab

(see

manifested
23,

himself in his native town in the year 1260 of the Hegira


exactly
a

(May

1844),
b.
al-

millennium after the birth of the Shiitic Mahdi


first

Mohammed

(above, note 62).

he claimed to be merely the Bab ("Gate,"

"Entrance"),

i.

e.

the mediator

and forerunner of the Mahdi, but afterwards

ntained to be himself not only the


exei
ited

Mahdi but

also a Divine incarnation.

on July
cruelty
the

9,

1850 and his followers the Babis were persecuted

with
in

indescribable

by

the
set

Persian
forth
in
I

Government.
the
text,

The Bab
that
his

insisted,

accordance
i

with
thai
a

theory

mission

was

Greater

One

by him as

man yuehiruhu

'llahu

"Hi
as

whom
Ins
.

Allah shall manifest") would appear after him.

The Bab appointed


revealed

successor,

more coin
bu1
in

rt

as

his

vicegerent (Khalifa, see later under


half-brother

Subb-i-Ezel,
as

[868

Bid's

Baha'ullah

the

Greater

One

predicted by the

Bab.

He was acknowledged

by

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES

FRIEDLAENDKR
is

237

"The
God.

object for which

man

exists

that he should knowhis unassisted

Now

this is impossible

by means of

reason.

It is

therefore necessary that prophets should be

sent to instruct

him concerning
for
his

spiritual truths

and

to lay

down

ordinances

guidance.

From

time to time
is

therefore a prophet appears in the world.

There

no

dis-

agreement between the prophets


but in such measure as

all

teach the same truth,


it.

men

can receive
174

One

spirit

indeed speaks through

all

the prophets."

"The
in

reality of

God

in

them never varies; only the garment


is clothed
is different,

which the
to the

Primal Reality

according

time

and place of

their

appearance and declaration

to the

world.

One day

it

is

the

garment of Abraham, then Moses, then

Jesus, then Bahaullah.

Knowledge of

this

oneness

is

true

enlightenment."

175

nearly
in

all

Babis

who
the

since then prefer to be called Bahais.

Baha'ullah died

1892 and was succeeded by his eldest son 'Abbas Effendi


the

who

still

resides

as

head

of

sect

in
this
J.]

Acco.

[Since the

above

was written, 'Abbas

Effendi has come over to

country where, according to the newspapers,

he resides in Montclair, X.

The spread
all
is

of

Babism has been astonishing


nationalities,

and

its

adepts are

recruited

from

faiths
its

and

both of Asia

and Europe.
there
are
a

Especially noteworthy

propagation in this country where

number

of

well-organized
of
G.

Babi

communities.
with
a

A
full

succinct

and

comprehensive

presentation

Babism,

together
in

bibliography,

has been given by

Edward

Browne,

Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religion


will

and Ethics,
in

II,

299-308.

A
ff.,

profound analysis of Babism

also be

found
Berlin

Goldziher's presentation of Islam in Die Orient alischen Religionen,


p.

and Leipzig 1906,


will

128

and

in his

Vorlesungen, 295
article.

ff.

Further details

be touched upon in the course of this


174

E.
a

G.

Browne,

Year amongst the Persians, London 1893,


of of the

p.

302

f.,

from on

conversation

author

wi*h

two representatives of Babism.


by the

See

the

formulation

the
p.

same
40
ff.

doctrine

Bab himself

F.

C.

Andreas, Die Babis in Persien,


175

Eric

Hammond,

The

Splendor

of

God,

being
p.

extracts
see also p.

from
33-

the

Sacred Writings of the Bahais, with introduction,


author appears to be a convinced
Bahai.

15;

The

238

THE JEWISH or A RTKRLV REVIEW


Between these two
poles,

represented,

with

certain

modifications,*

by the ancient Clementine dogma and the


lie

teachings of present clay Babism,


tions of the doctrine of the

innumerable applicaProphet.

One True

A
chaeism.

striking formulation of this


is

dogma which deserves


teachings
of

our special attention

found

in

the

Mani-

Giving a nationalistic coloring to

this essentially

universalistic doctrine.

Mam
God

declares

"Wisdom and

deeds

have always from time to time been brought to mankind


by
the

messenger

of

called

Buddha

to

India,

in

another by Zoroaster in Persia, in another by Jesus in the

West.

Thereafter

this

revelation

has

come down,

this

prophecy
of the
It

in this last age,

through

me
177

Mani, the messenger

God

of Truth to Babylonia."

was probably through the medium of Manichseism


profound conception gained access
It

that this

into

Moham-

medanism.

has fundamentally affected the prophetology

of orthodox Islam in which the belief in a series of dispen-

176

According

to

the

Clementines, there

is

final
to

manifestation in which

the

True Prophet
is

will

be "at rest."

According
have

the Babis, the

number

of
in

manifestations

unlimited:

"there

been
(E. G.

endless

numbers of them

the past, as there will be in the future"


9r 4).

Browne, JRAS.,
all

XXI

(1889),

Again,

according
is

to

the

Clementine

doctrine,

manifestations

are

identical;

"there

no development but merely a constant repetition of the


(comp.
above),
while,

one
is

and

same

religion"

according

to

Babism,

there

constant upward development from manifestation to manifestation; "a


is

new

prophet

not
(

sent

until

tin-

development

of

the

human
303).

race

renders this
difference.

ry"

Browne,

Year

amongst
but

the

Persians,
affect

This

far-reaching
1

importance,

docs

not

the

particular

phase

dis-

in

the

text.

IT7

I'.iruni,

207;

Sacliau's

translation,

190.
is

See
also
in

also

p.

192.

The
fact

Babylonian
that

particularism
sect

of

the

Manich.eans
to

evident

from

the

the

head of the
105.

was obliged

reside

Babylonia,

Flugel,

Mani,

97

and

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
178

ERIEDEAENDER

239

sations,

1 the recognition of their transitory value, and the

admission at the same time of the prophetic, hence Godinspired, character of their representatives clearly point to
this source.
in

But

it

became of
is

infinitely greater significance

heterodox Islam which

not only more generous in the

recognition of the relative truth of the dispensations pre-

ceding

Mohammed,

180

but,

denying the fundamental Islamic


181

dogma
of

of the finality of his message,

consistently admits

an endless
182

chain

of

prophetic

manifestations

after

him.

In this form the conception of the

phet has been in constant operation in

One True ProMohammedan sectar-

ianism and has found expression in innumberable move-

ments and doctrines.


178

The

five

prophets

who

are believed to are

have appeared as founders of

new
Jesus.
time,

religions

before

These with

Mohammed Mohammed and


later.

Adam, Noah,
Mahdi who
is

Abraham,
to

Moses,

and

the

appear in fulness of

make
This

seven,
is

see

179

involved in the naskh doctrine, according to which the previous

revelations have been abrogated and superseded by the Koran.


in
Orientalisclie
180

Comp. Goldziher

Religionen,

98. to

This

applies

particularly

Zoroaster.

When

asked by Professor

Browne, whether Babism regarded Zoroaster as a prophet, one of the Babi


preachers replied:
true,"

"Assuredly"

(A Year amongst the Persians,


told

327).

"It

is

Professor

Browne was

on

another

occasion,

"we do recognize
(/.

Zoroaster and others,

whom
was

the

Musulmans
and
had

reject,

as prophets"

c, 305).

Ishak "the Turk" declared that

Abu Muslim was

a prophet sent

by Zoroaster

and that
According

Zoroaster
to

alive
(d.

never died (Browne, Persia, 315)otherwise orthodox


I,

Ibn

Hazm

1064),

many

Mohammedans
6).

believed in the prophecy of Zoroaster (Milal wa'n-nihal,


1S1

113,

Compare
Perhaps
is

later

p.

247 and 277


striking

f.

is2

the the

most
one

formulation

of
(see

this

doctrine
173)
I

of

infinite

manifestations
epistles

given

by the Bab

note

in

one

of

his

(Browne, JRAS., 1892, 473): "In the time of Noah,


of

was Noah,
in

In

the

time

Abraham Abraham,
in

in

the

time

of

Moses Moses,

the

time
'All

of Jesus Jesus,

the

time of

Muhammed
med).

(the

name

of the Bab)

Muhammed Muhammed, in the time of 'All Muhammed (this is undoubtedly


the numerical equivalent

the

meaning of 'AU-kabla-nabll,

nabll being

of

Muham"the

In the time of "the

Greater

One

to

Come"

shall

surely be

24O

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Looked
at in this light, a

fundamental doctrine of the

Jewish sectarian

Abu

'Isa stands out in its full

meaning and

assumes wide

historic significance.

Abu

'Isa

manifested himself in an age and in a land


belief

which were marked by the wide currency of the


characterized above.
the

He

addressed himself exclusively to


free

Jews

whom

he

endeavored to
all

from

political

oppression, and he retained

the fundamental tenets of

Judaism.

Yet, actuated by the conception which recognizes

the relative truth of the various, yet identical, manifestations of the Divine,

Abu

'Isa,

in a

manner which

vividly

reminds us of the formulation of Mani, "acknowledged the

prophecy of Jesus, the son of Mary, and the prophecy of the Master of the Muhammedans, contending that each of
these two

was

sent to his ozun people.

He

advocated the
the
that

study of the Gospels and of the

Koran

as well as

knowledge of
the

their interpretation,

and he maintained

Muhammedans and

Christians were both guided in their

faith by zvhat they possessed, just as the


in their faith by

Jews were guided

what they

possessed!
3

This doctrine of
fully confirmed

Abu

'Isa,

recorded by Kirkisam,
1064),

is

by Ibn

Hazm
time

(d.

who
One
"the

regards this

Greater
"the

One

to

Come,"
to

in

the

of "the
in

Greater
time
still

to

Greater
still

One

Come

Later,"

the

of

Greater
(etc.)

Come Later" One to


until

Come
end of

Later"

"the

Greater

One

to

Come
the

Later"

the

Him who
I

has no end, just as in the beginning of


in

Him who
God

has no
his

beginning
creatures."

was

every

manifestation

proof

of

towards

1M Kirk.

3 T2,

pd^dd^h snxs mai nno


*?

Dy friaaa

dj,

m
]x

ip*o

fteiyoi

pnphn
i

S'j3kSn ftnpa ioki nip

niyao nonaa inxi hi


\h

nyn

dtpt*
DrvTK

xsn

Nomn

ton So nayn np nimfon poSdoSk

ayn KomDDn

b X122 *nrvbtt nayri Nr22.

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
theory of

ERIEDLAENDER
Mohammedan

241
184

Abu

'Isa as the

corner stone of his teachings,

and

is

often referred to by other

theologians

who

take great pains to refute this attempt of the 'Isawiyya

to limit the validity of

Mohammed's message
Ibn Hazm,
186

to the

Arabic

m race.
and
Jesus,

If

we

are to

believe

Abu

'Isa

gave

expression to his reverence for the founders of Christianity

Islam
18,

by

calling

himself

Mohammed,

the

son

of

and went so far as


Abu

to believe in the

immaculate
I,

184

Ibn Hazm's report about

'Isa

(Milal wa'n-Nihal,

99)

contains

little

else

beyond

a statement of the

view mentioned in the


historical

text.

Shahrastani,

on

the

other
this

hand,

who

gives

an elaborate

account of
it

Abu

'Isa,

leaves

particular

doctrine unmentioned
p.

and attributes

to

one of the

subdivisions of the 'Isawiyya (see later

243).

Ibn Hazm's account has been

reproduced in text and German translation by Poznanski in JQR., XVI, 765


ff.

The

'Isawiyya,
as

according
prophet
of

to

Ibn

Hazm, advanced
occupied
the

the

argument
position

that

Mohammed

the

the

Arabs

same

and

deserved the same recognition as Job,


prophets mentioned in the Bible,

Bileam, and the other non-Israelitish


sent to their respective races.

who were

Ibn

Hazm
trine"

winds up

his

account by making the following interesting statement:

"I have met

many
to

distinguished

men among
other
'Isa

the Jews
197)-

who
'Isa

hold the same doc-

(see about this statement later, note

Abu

and the 'Isawiyya

are

referred
(I,

incidentally
penult,
ff.)

in

passages of his Milal.


is

Thus

in

one

passage

112,

Abu

mentioned among

Shiitic

and non-

Mohammedan

pseudo-prophets of

whom
the

miracles are reported, which miracles

however, are worthless, "since miracles can only be relied upon when transmitted by multitudes."
as

He

refutes

'Isawiyya with

the

same arguments

Kirkisani

(in

the polemical chapters mentioned below, note 190). pointing

out their inconsistency in accepting


to

Mohammed

as prophet and yet refusing


(I,
I,

accept his claim that he was sent to the whole world


sects the

114

f.).

As one
and V,

of the Jewish
122,
8.
185

'Isawiyya are briefly referred to

117,

16

See

Poznanski,

JQR.,

XVI, 770 t
ibidem),

According

to

Bagdad! and Ibn


believed
to

Rayyim

al-Jauziyya
to

(Poznanski,

Mohammed was

have

been sent

the whole world, except to the

Jews and such nations as possess

revealed writings.
186

See also

later,

note 194.

Milal,

I,

99.
/.

187

Comp. Poznanski,

c, 770.

may mention

in passing that the passage


ib.,

in Hirschf eld's Arabic Chrestomathy, objected to by Poznanski,


is

note
there.

3.

confirmed by the

MS. and

that Jesus,

and not Abu

'Isa,

is

meant

242

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


188

conception of Christ.

Kirkisani

is

inclined to ascribe the

recognition of Christianity and Islam on the part of


'Isa

Abu

to a selfish motive.

For by acknowledging these two

prophets outside of the canonical range of Jewish prophecy,

he had,

in

the opinion of this author, greater chances of

finding credence for his

own

prophetic pretensions.

189

But

Kirkisani can scarcely have taken his


ously.

own

explanation serithis

For

his

thorough and elaborate refutation of

view of
in his

Abu

'Isa, to

which he devotes two separate chapters

work,

180

distinctly

shows that

this

opinion was not the

freakish fad of an irresponsible sectarian, but the settled

conception of the age.

191

As

a matter of fact, this view

which admits the


found
not

relative truth of Christianity

and Islam

is

only

among

the

sects
192

closely

related to the

Isawiyya, such as the Ra'yaniyya,

the Sharakaniyya

(or

188

Milal,

II,

12:

"The 'isawiyya from among


(Arians),
the

the

Jews agree with


(Paulicians),

us,

and

so

do

the

Aryusiyya

Bulkaniyya

and the was

Makduniyya (Macedonians) from among


a

the Christians, that he

(Jesus)

human
189

being,

created by
9
ff.

God

in the

womb

of

Mary without
Arabic

a male."
117,

Kirk.

312,

Elsewhere

(Hirschfeld,

Chrestomathy,

ff.),

Kirkisani

makes the same charge against Mohammed who pretended

to

believe in Jesus, so that his

own

claim as a prophet might not be denied,

"in the same


i: "'

manner

as mentioned by us of
14,

Abu

'Isa al-Isfahani."

Chapter 13 and
of

MS.

British

Museum
which

Or. 2524,

fol.

zzb-zgb.
is

The
a

refutation

Islam

and

Christianity

follows

immediately

only

part of his polemics against


191

Abu

'Isa

who acknowledged Jesus and Mohammed.


(Kirk.,

This
ff.)

may

also account

for

the answer of Jacob ben Ephraim

312,

which so greatly shocked our author.


Karaites

To

the

Rabbanites of that

period

tin-

who renewed

the ancient vexatious contentions about the

festivals

seemed

less sympathetic

than the 'Isuniyya, in spite of the fact that

the latter "ascribed prophecy to those

who

did not possess


p.

it."

Bagdad!
.
.

(ed.

Mohammed

Badr,

263,

13):

"a/-''Isawiyya

wa'r-

Ra'yaniyya
Ra'yanivya.
.

akarru

bi-nubuwwati

.admit the prophecy of


with
the

Muhammadin" "The 'Isawiyya and the Muhammed." The Ra'yaniyya are problater.

ably identical

Yudgfmiyya, see

EWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
103

FRIEDEAKXDER
1

243
as

Shfulakaniyya)

and the

Mushkaniyya "
5

as
is

well

the

Karaitie faction of the Dusturians, but


to

it

also attributed
it

Anan,
197

196

and we have positive evidence that

was shared

by representative and otherwise irreproachably orthodox


J ews.

It is

evident that a doctrine like this which regards


religions

all

positive

as

nothing but transient forms of the

same Divine

truth, as different
103

garments

in

which the Primal

Reality clothes

itself,

carries within

it

a spirit of toler-

ance which no religion, claiming to be the exclusive and


193

Bagdad!
I,

9,

14;
n.

comp.

Schreiner in

REJ.,

XXIX,

211,

and

SJiiitic

Elements,
194

207,

92.
''It
is

Shahr.,

169:

mentioned of
I,

number among
n.

the

Mushkaniyya

(for variants see Shiitic Elements,

207,

93)

that they firmly believe in

the
rest

prophecy of the
of mankind,
a

Chosen One
the

( Muhammed)
(possessing)

for

the

Arabs and the

with

exception of the Jews, the latter being a people


a

(forming)
British
195

religious

community and

revealed

book"

(MS.

Museum Add.
Kirkisani,

7250 omits -wa-kitabin).


British
S

See above, note 185.


fol.

MS.
xin

Museum

Or. 2524,

356:
the

12

Dip i""inDY?N 'El


are

N!2

WW

}Q SipSx

mpEKl X^Xn^X '-Among


(i.

Dusturians there

people from

among our adherents


this opinion
to

e.

Karaites)

who agree with him

(with

Abu

'Isa)
106

in

a certain extent."
2.

Grata, V, 188, comp. Kirk., 305,

Poznanski, REJ., LX, 308

f.

doubts
of

this

generally

accepted
as of
a

opinion.

In

view,

however

of

the

statements

Kirkisani as well

Arabic authors, his doubts seem scarcely


politician,

justifiable.

Anan may have been


it

but,

considering the facts adduced above,

would be unfair

to

seek political

reasons

(Harkavy, Studien und Mittei-

lungen, VIII, 102, n. 39), or even more objectionable motives (Pinsker, v-ip.,
p.

20;

Weiss,
in

Dor dor
his

zve-dorslww, IV, 51)

for

his
It

advocating a conception,

which was
benefit in a

age widespread in the East.

was scarcely of immediate


Steinschneider's
f.)
is

Mohammedan

state to recognize Jesus as prophet.

harsh judgment
not justified.
197

(Polemische und apologetische Literatur, 343

certainly

Ibn Hazm, above note

184.
I.

In another passage, which seems

to

be

missing in the printed edition,

H. insinuates that the leading Jews were


it

convinced of the truth of Mohammed's claim, but refused to admit


ziher,

(Gold-

Kobak's Jeshurun, VIII, 78).


a distinguished
22,-j.

Ibn Kajjim al-Jauziyya

(d.
/.

1350) reports
f.

the

same view of
198

Egyptian Jew, Goldziher,

c, IX, 22

Above,

p.

244
final

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


manifestation of Divine truth, can afford to exhibit.
tolerance, as Carlyle put
It
is
it,

For
tial.

has to tolerate the unessenthat


in

certainly

not

accidental

the rule of the

Fatiinides,

whose

religion

of

state

the

form of the

Isma'iliyya doctrine hinges on the

dogma

of the

One True
is

Prophet and whose

political

claims are entirely based on

the theory of the periodic manifestations of the Deity,

characterized by unparalleled tolerance.

198

It is

the

immed-

iate consequence of the same basic principle which explains

the all-embracing spirit of tolerance in

modern Bahaism,
to

doctrine

which

addresses

itself

alike

"Buddhist and

Mohammedan, Hindu and Zoroastrian, Jew and Chrisand commands the Bahais to "associate with all the tian" people of the world, with men of all religions, in concord
2 ""

and harmony,

in the spirit of perfect joy


is,
2

and fragrance;"

21

for "intolerance

in the rule of the Bahai, the

one im-

possible word.""

From
faith

this

tolerance

towards other religions

which,

properly considered, removes the boundary lines between

and

faith,

it

is

only one short step to the desertion

of one's
not

own

religion.

The

scantiness of our sources does

enable

us

to

determine whether the

few apostasies

related of early Jewish sectarians, such as the conversion to

Christianity of

Meswi

al-'Okbari,

203

or the repeated changes


are to be traced to this

of faith of David
theory.
1S *
2 "n

al-Mukammas
is

204

205

But there
Persia,

every reason for assuming that this


Dussaud,
Histoire
et

Browne,

399,

religion

des Nofeiris,

49.

Hammond, The Splendor


L.

of God, II.

2,11

c, 37c, 47in

202 ='*
2 "*
: "B

L.

Poznariski
Kirk.,

RE J., XXXIV,
Harkavy's
1064)
b.

p.

180.
ib.,

306;

introduction,

p.

260.
his

Ihn

Hazm

(d.

quotes the view of one of


al-Iaddad
(

Jewish

friends,
all

the

physician

Isma'il

al-Kiarrad),

who

believed that

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
doctrine

I-RlEDLAKXDKR
the

245
Sabbathai

was

in

operation
that

in

case
It

of
is

Zevi

and

those

followed

him.

true,

these

sectarians

were

impostors

and

swindlers

who

were

actuated not by dogmatic principles but by gross selfish


motives.
there
is

Yet, there
little

is

method

in

their

charlatanism, and
Zevi,

doubt

in

my mind

that

when Sabbathai
for the turban,

faced by the punishment of the Turkish authorities, threw

down
his

his

Jewish cap and exchanged

206

it

the

theory of the

One True Prophet


in

lingered in the back of


in

mind

to allay his scruples.

His adherents
207

any event
this

were not slow

adducing philosophical reasons for

treacherous act of their prophet.

But

in its

full

and unrestricted operation our dogma


Jacob Frank

may

be seen in the case of

who
own

raises

the

disloyalty

towards one's religion to a full-fledged philo-

sophic doctrine.

To

justify,

whether

in his

eyes or in

those of his followers, his frequent changes of faith

he
this

had changed

his

religion

no

less

than

five times

208

versatile scoundrel cleverly defends apostasy

on philosophic
it

grounds.
as if one

"When

people change their religion,


oil

is

only,
2'

were pouring out

from one

vessel to another."

religions

were equally
faith.

justifiable

and that every man ought


to

to

adhere

to

his

own

ancestral

When

entreated by our author


is

embrace Islam, he
his

replied:

"To change

one's religion

to play
is

comedy," or "he who leaves

own

religion

and embraces another,


also

impudent and plays comedy with


is

(all)

religions.

He
f.,

disobeys God,

who
120

worshiped by him by means of thai


121;

religion,"

Milal

wa'n-nihal,
f.

V,

and

comp.

Schreiner

in

ZDMG.,

XLII, 616
all

657
a

It

is

not impossible that this belief in the relativity of


of the doctrine mentioned in the text.

religions
2(

is

reflection

* Gratz, X, 220.
Gratz,
/.

2P7

c,

222

f.,

230,

453,

4571

^Z

n*'* TOp,
/.

32b,

38b,

41b.

Sabbathai himself spoke openly of his conversion, Gratz,


208

c, 445.

urcjn p3iE,
lb.,

p.

252.

209

255-

246

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


ye," declares

"Know
made

Frank

to his followers,

210

"that

it

is

impossible for anyone to get to a


a start,

and

this start is

he

of Islam.

After him came the

the mystery of Baptism and to

new place, unless he has who founded the religion second who revealed to us him we shall now revert."
betrayed in another
all

His innermost conviction, which was nothing but a thorough


contempt for
all
:

positive religions,

is

utterance of his

"He who

studies

the religions and

systems and books that have been founded or written until


this day, is like

one

who

turns his face backwards and looks


211

at things that are already dead."

"Your

old books

and
21

systems are bound to be shattered like vessels of clay."

4.

Successive Incarnation

The theory
bottom of both

of the

One True Prophet

is

logically insep-

arable from the doctrine of Successive Incarnation.


lies

At

the

the fundamental Gnostic or rather Neo-

Platonic conception that God, "the unoriginated, inconceivable Father,"

who

is

without material substance,

is

entirely
to

unknowable and therefore can make himself known


only by incarnation, by embodying himself in
i.

man

human
and the

form,

e.

in the prophets.

213

Thus
the

the prophet or the Messiah,

the

"Christ,"

becomes

manifestation,

only

manifestation, of

God on

earth, a

view which logically leads

and has

in the

course of history actually led to the deification


In conjunction with the theory of the
is

of the prophet.

One
to

True Prophet, the doctrine of Incarnation


that of Succcssi7'c Incarnation,

widened

which teaches the periodic

manifestation, or incarnation, of
210

God

in

various ages in

Ib.
ib., ib.,

IOI. 119. 122.


in

211 212
218

Comp. Uhlhorn

PRE.,* IV, 171; comp. also

Shiitcs,

II,

86,

ff.

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
different

Kl

KDLAlCXDKk

247

human
214

personalities who, embodying, as they do,


are,
in
reality,

the

same Divine substance,

one

the

)ne

True Prophet.
persons, in

As

to

the

number and

identity

of

the

whom
the

the Divine has thus been successively

incarnated, a great deal of uncertainty seems to have prevailed

from

very

beginning.

Thus
the

in the

Pseudo-

Clementines the persons in

whom

has revealed himself are specified in

One True Prophet one place as Adam,


in

Enoch, Xoah, Abraham Isaac, Jacob, and Moses,


as
in

another

Adam. Enoch. Xoah. Abraham,

Isaac, Jacob,

and Christ,
210

both the number seven seems to be intended.

Later
in

applications of this

dogma show numerous

variations,

accordance with local and historic requirements.

The theory of Successive Incarnation has had


reaching consequences
Islam.
It

far-

for

the

dogmatic development of

succeeded

in forcing its
is

way

into

orthodox Islam
216

whose prophetology
it

profoundly affected by

it,

but here

was checked

in its course

by the emphasis

laid

on the
217

final

character of

Mohammed's
in
218

prophetic message.
this barrier

In

heterodox Islam, however,


or completely removed,
tion has
214

which

was

partly

the doctrine of Successive Incarnafield

found an almost unlimited


p.

of operation.

Above,
Shiitcs,

236.

215

II,

85

f.

216

See
in

Goldziher's

article

"Xeuplatonische

und

gnostiche

Elemente

im

Hadit"
217

ZA., XXII,
title

324

ff.

The

"Seal of the Prophets" assumed by


is
is

Mohammed (Koran
Shiites,

33,

40)

is

interpreted in this sense and

emphasized by the canonical hadith which

makes Mohammed declare "there


47,

no prophet after me," comp.

I,

and

II,

48.

According

to

BirunT, 207, already


to

Man!
(I,

believed that he
192),

was

"the Seal of the Prophets."

According
(i.

Shahrastani

ManI
to

predicted

that "the Seal of the Prophets"

The

latter is
218

no doubt
p.

Mohammed) would come clumsy Mohammedan fabrication.


e.

the Arabs.

See above

239.

In modern Babism the


is

title

"Seal of the Prophets,"

as applied to

Mohammed,

interpreted as "the seal of the prophets

who have

248

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

We

can observe the march of this conception from the

early devlopment of Shiism

down

to the present day.

The
with

attempt has been

made

to find in the theory of Successive

Incarnation the very


the

germ of Shiism, by

identifying

it

Raj

doctrine enunciated by the founder of Shiism,


b.
its

'Abdallah

Saba.

219

This view can scarcely be upheld, for

Rapa

in

original

meaning excludes incarnation.

220

But

the doctrine of Successive Incarnation begins to appear in


full-rleclged size

among

the

numerous

Shiitic factions

which

sprang up

in 'Irak in the

second century after

Without making the

slightest attempt at completeness,


this doctrine
b.

Mohammed. we
within

may

single out a

few representatives of

heretodox Islam.

The

sectarian

Mugira

Sa'id (d. 737)

of Kufa, whose teachings betray throughout the profound


influence of Gnostic ideas, taught "that the prophets never
differed in anything concerning the laws."
221

His contem222

porary and townsman

Abu Mansur

al-'Ijli

held similarly the


or, as

belief in the uninterrupted succession of apostles,

another report puts

it,

"that the apostles

would never cease


21

and

the

apostleship
the
that

would never cease."


of

'Abdallah

b.

Mu'awiya,
maintained
Spirit

contemporary
he

Abu

'Isa

al-'Isfahani,

was
in

manifested

itself

God and that Adam, then in


to

the

Divine
then

Seth,

gone before and the key of those who are


the Persians,
p.

come," Browne,

Year amongst

327

(I

may mention
Moses by

in

passing that the expression "key of

prophecy"

is

applied to

as-Su'udi, Disputatio pro religione


1890,
p.

Moham-

medanorum
249

contra

Christianas,

Leiden

189).

On

this

fundamental

distinction between orthodox


f.

and heterodox Islam see Goldziher, Vorlesungen,

2,9 220

See AbS.,
Ibidem.

II,

1 1.

In

the

same manner Raj'a

is

to

be distinguished

from the

Transmigration of Souls; below, note 283.


221

Shiites,

I,

60,
13.
5

1.

222 223

L. L.

c.,

I,

62,

c.,

II,

92,

ff.

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
it

l-Rl

KDLAK XDK.R
finally

249
revealed

circled
in

through
4

the

prophets

and
rebel

itself

him.'"

The
(d.

famous
780)

and
in

Pseudothe

Messiah

Mukanna'
that he

asserted

exactly

same manner
Divine

was

a Divine incarnation
itself in

and that the

Spirit, after

having manifested
'All,

Adam, Noah,
settled
in

Abraham, Mohammed,
him.
225

and others,

finally

It is

the

same doctrine for which


b.

in a later

century

the celebrated mystic Husein


influence

Mansur
death
226

al-Hallaj,

whose

survived

long

after

his

and penetrated

beyond the boundaries of Islam.

suffered
227

martyrdom

at

the hands of the 'Abbasid government.

The same theory of prophetic


and
their

cycles,

with a complicated
manifestations
basis

and systematic elaboration of the various

mode

of succession, forms

the

of

the

Isma'iliyya doctrine which, after tremendous upheavals, led


to the establishment of the Fatimid dynasty

and became the


228

acknowledged
It lies at

religion of that

powerful empire.

the bottom of the doctrine of the


in Persia

HurufI

sect

whose founder Fadlallah of Astarabad


224

maintained

L.

c,

II,

45,

n.

8.

225

L. c, II,

120, 30

ff.,

Goldziher in ZA., XXII, 337


(ibidem,
338,
n.

ff.

The number
to

of

manifestations specified by Mukanna'


226

4)

amounts

seven.

Comp. JQR., XIX,


Shiites,
II,

p.

92, n.

and

Shiites, II, 115, n. 2.


ff.

227

114

f.

and Browne, Persia, 428

IJallaj

is

addressed as

"the eternal and luminous Creator


period and in our

who assumes human form

in every age
b.

and

own

time has assumed the form of al-rjusein


1.

Mansur

(=

Hallaj)," Biruni, 212,


228

See the elaborate presentation of the Isma'iliyya doctrine by Browne,


ff.,

/.

c, 405

and Goldziher, Vorlesungen, 247


27
ff.

ff.

For further

literature see

Shiites,

II,

19,

On

the influence of these originally Neo-Platonic ideas


al-nafs,
ff.

on Judaism see Goldziher, Kitab ma'anl on Judah Halevi see the same
in

p.

41

ff.

On

their

effect

REJ., L, 32
1,

Goldziher in ZA., XXII, 329, n.


stance"

according to

The doctrine quoted by which the "Luminous Subto

was transferred from the forehead of


etc.,

Adam

that

of

Seth,

then

Enoch,

and through Ishmael


its

to

the ancestors of

Mohammed,

strikingly

resembles even in

details

Judah Halevi's theory of the HtUD.

25O
that

T1IK

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


in

God manifested himself


in the

him, "after having revealed


Jesus,

himself

person of

Adam. Moses,

and Muhamat the

med," and suffered martyrdom for his belief


<i\

hands

Mlranshah, the son of Timur,

in 1393."

The

doctrine of Successive Incarnation

is

still

widely

represented

among numerous
its

sects in the East, such as the


23
"

Yezidis, Druzes, Mutawile, and Nuseiriyya,


it

but here, too, teachings of

has found

most perfect expression

in the

Babism or Bahaism.
cardinal

We

have already referred to the

importance which Bahaism attaches to the doc-

trine of the
fect

One True

Prophet.

231

It is

therefore with per-

consistency preached in Bahaism that

"Adam, Noah,
in

Moses, David, Jesus, and

Muhammed, though
is

common

parlance spoken of as being distinct, are yet but one, the

Primal Will,"

23
'

and that

it

therefore "correct to say that

Moses

is

identical with Jesus, or Jesus with

Muhammed."

2'

The

Christian adepts of Bahaism have

drawn

the logical

conclusion of this doctrine and consistently declare that the


present head of the Bahais, 'Abbas Effendi,
tion of Christ.
1

is

a reincarna-

234

believe

it

is

not too far-fetched to find a reflection of


in

this
--''

widespread idea

the abrupt notice of Shahrastani


la

235

Textes Pcrsans rclatifs a


p.

sccie

des Houroufis (K.


ff.

J.

W. Gibb Mep.
ff.

morial Series, Vol. IX),


230

xiii,

xvii.

See also ibidem, 30

Comj). Kremer, Geschichte dcr herrschenden Idecn des 1 slams,


Sliiitic

13

f.

On
also

the older

representatives

of

this
p.

doctrine see
126
f.

ib.,

p.

188

See

Coldziher in Orientalise he Religionen,


281

Above
I-.

p.

236

f.

G.

Browne
above
to
f.

in

JRAS.,

XXI
the
to

(1889),

p.

014.
to

The

number
In

ot

prophets enumerated
]i;iss;iL;r

there
in

amount together with the Bab


note
i8_-

seven.

the

quoted

number
seven.

of

manifestations
is

including

"the Greater
later
23S

One
253

come" amounts

This

perhaps not accidental,

p.

Browne, Tarikh,
Browne,
I,

335. 311.

m
235

Persia.
w,
ff.

Oold/.iher
'/.?,;

in

Orientalische
isa.

Religionen,

128.

168,

Instead of

read

.//>

EWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
'Isa al-Isfaha.ni

I-RII-DLAKXDI.U

251

that

"Abu

maintained that he was a pro-

phet and that he was the messenger of the Messiah the Expected One. He also maintained that the Messiah" had
3
'1

five

messengers

who appeared

before him one after


is

the
all

other,"

and "that the Messiah

the most excellent of

the children of

Adam

and higher in station than the preced-

ing prophets."

237

The fragmentary

character of our material unfortun-

ately does not enable us to judge

whether the adoption by

Abu

'Isa of the

theory of Successive Incarnation involved

the consequence of the deification of the Messiah,


radical Shiism.

drawn by

But our doctrine with

all

its

extravagant
in

implications

is

almost without modifications reproduced

the teachings of the Sabbathians.

According to the

belief

of the

Donmeh
life,
. .

sect,

"the soul of the Messiah which forms

a part of the Deity, representing the Deity in the flesh, in

corporeal
perfect

clothes itself in every age in the

body of a

man.

This soul of the Messiah


Jesus and
it

has also

em-

bodied
it

itself in

Mu hammed.
in this

In Sabbathai Zevi
2'

has found, as
236
237

were,

its full

expression."
connection see
'Isa as

On

the

meaning of the word

later,

p.

258

ff.

Shahr., ibidem.

The

conception of
distinction

Abu

the

One

true Prophet
(ca.

probably
1535).
1890,

underlies

the

curious

which

Abu'1-Fadl
contra

as-Su'udi

Disputatio pro religione


p.

Mohammedanorum
al-Isbahani
their

Cliristianos,

Leyden
and
latter

189,

draws between the 'Isawiyya and the Isbahaniyya.


of

The former
Jesus

are

"the

adherents

Abu

'Isa

who maintain
races

that

Muhammed were
are
a

prophets

sent
'Isa

to

respective

only."
that

The

"the adherents of

Abu
to

al-Isbahani
a

who maintain

Abu

'Isa

was

prophet sent prior

Moses,"

view which, as Su'udi polemically points

out, is at variance

with the general Jewish belief that "there was no prophei


latter

prior

to

Moses,

the

being in

their

opinion the key of prophecy and

the first-born of apostleship,"

and

also contradicts the


to

Torah "which expressly


prior
to
is

declares

that

God's commands
to

were given

men

Abu
an

'Isa."

It

would
Su'udi
source.
238

be
or

interesting

know whether
as

this

distinction

invention

of

whether

it

was,

seems more natural,

derived

from an older

Gratz,

Frank

ttnd

die Frankistcn,

14.

2~ 2
?

Tin:

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Jacob Frank who, as was repeatedly stated before, had


in

his

youth come

in

intimate contact with the

Donmeh,
all

held essentially the same belief.

He

declared "that

great

prophets and seers that have arisen in Israel from antiquity


until

now were

all

the

same soul and the same


21

spirit

in
its

different shapes, this soul transmigrating

and changing

forms

in the course of

many

years."

David, Elijah, Jesus,

Mohammed,
latter

Sabbathai Zevi, and his successors,

among

the

specifically

Berachiah (the son of Jacob Querido),

whom

the Sabbathians of Salonika worshiped as a divinity


240

in prayer,

and

finally

Frank himself were one and the same


all

person in different bodily forms, and one and

were the
Christian

same incarnation of the Deity.

241

Just

as

the

Bahais look upon 'Abbas EfTendi as an incarnation of Christ,


so could the adherents of
consistently affirm their

Frank who
belief that

lived

among

Christians
in

Jesus

was hidden

Frank.
It

242

would be

futile to

deny that the blasphemous heresies


243

of these sectarians are intimately related to certain similar


speculations of the Kabbalah

of which these heretics were

passionate admirers and believers.

But when we remember

the fact that, prior to the development of this phase of the

Kabbalah, a doctrine of undoubtedly

Mohammedan
244

origin,

belonging to the same set of ideas, became part and parcel


of the nationalistic philosophy of Judah Halevi,
289
240

we

can

imyi
L.

p:w*iE,

p-

45.

c, 97;

Griitz,

Frank,

p.

14;

compare the prayer

ib.,

Appendix VI,

p.

XXXIII.
241
242

Gratz,

X,

378.

Frank nnd
imp.

die Frankistcn,
f.

26.
ff.

Gratz, X, 209

and 463

244

Abore,
Cor

note

228.

An
p.

interesting

example

of
is

the

influence

of

the

Isma'fliyya
J.

Karmatian) doctrine on the Kabbalah


32.

quoted by Ad. Frank,

Kahbalc, Paris 1889,

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
have but
little

FRIEDLAK

\ hl.k

253

doubt that at

least in the peculiar formulation


at the

which

this conception

assumed

hands of the Sabbath-

ians the theory of Successive Incarnation

was not altogether

dependent on the Kabbalah and must have passed through


the

medium
The

of the non-Jewish influences referred to above.

effect of this

heterodox

Mohammedan dogma may


In spite of the fact that
is

perhaps extend to a specific


the
less,

detail.

number of Divine manifestations


245

unlimited and end-

a view which
246

is

preached with particular emphasis


the

by the Bab,

the

sum of

Divine incarnations

is

fre-

quently fixed at seven, the old sacred figure.


is

This number
247

already discernible in the Pseudo-Clementines

and
249

is

possibly applicable to

Mohammed.

248

It

occurs with aston-

ishing frequency in the history of Shiitic sectarianism

and

forms the basis of the complicated dogmatic system of the


Isma'Iliyya

who
It is

are
still

for

this

reason

called

Sab'iyya

or

Seveners.

250

represented in our
231

own days
252

in the

teachings of the Druzes


in those of the Babis.
245 253

and the Xuseiriyya,

partly also

Above, note

176.
182.
f.

2445

Above,
Shiitcs,

note
II,

247

85
178.

24S

Above,
b.

n.

Perhaps the same applies


to

to

Mohammed's contemporrole, Shiites,

ary
II,

Omayya
28
249 230

Abi Salt who was anxious

assume a prophetic

n.

1.

Comp.
See,
e.

Shiites,
g.,

II,

89

f.,

127.

Browne,

Persia,
ib.,

408

flf.

On

the

same

number

in

the

doctrine of Bihafarid, comp.


relatifs
251

310,
p.

and among the Hurufis Textes persons


xviii.
,

la

secte

des Hourouiis,
Sacy,

Comp. de

Chrestomathie Arabe 2
et

II,

250
42
ff.,

ff.

232 233

Dussaud, Histoire
See note 232.
Effendi,

religion des Noseiris,


also

70

f.,

74

f.

Comp.

Andreas, Die Babis in Pcrsicn,


Bahais,

p.

40.

'Abbas

the

present head of the

speaks in one case


p.

(Some
H.

Answered Questions, translated by Laura


Moses,
Phelps,
Christ,

Clifford Barnay,

189) of

Abraham,

Mohammed,

the

Bab,

Baha'ullah,

in

another

(Myron

Life and Teachings of Abbas Effendi,

Xew York and London

1903,

254
Perhaps

Tm: JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


it

is

not accidental that the

two Jewish

refer-

ences to these periodic manifestations quoted above seem to

imply the number seven.


easily suggests itself.
254

In the ease of Frank this

number

Perhaps

it

is

also applicable to the


255

belief of

Abu
of

'Isa,

recorded by Shahrastani

and vividly

reminiscent

the five
256

anti-Mohammedan dispensations
was preceded by
five

assumed
apostles.

in Islam,

that the Messiah

For

in as

much
all

as,

according to the same author,


the

Abu
seven.

'Isa

considered himself

forerunner of the Mes-

2 siah, " the

sum

of

the manifestations would

amount

to

5.

Tafwid

The unsurpassable

gulf which Neo-Platonism created

between God and the world necessitated the introduction of


a mediating power, a Demiurge, such as found expression
in the

Logos doctrine of Philo and

in the Christology of

orthodox and heterodox Christianity.


necessity
258

The same
in
its

philosophic

prompted similar speculations


In orthodox Islam with

Jewish Mysticism
crude but healthy

of

all

ages.

monotheism there was no room for such extravagant notions.

The

greater
in

is

the force with which they

make

their

appearance

heterodox Islam.

If the prophet or

Imam
was

was conceived
p.

as an incarnation of the Deity, there


254) of Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Christ,
great
to

127, similarly p.

Mohammed, and
In
both
cases
the

Baha'ullah
the

as

the

divine
six.

manifestations

of

the

past.

number amounts

If this

number be not a mere coincidence,


note 2J7.

quoted utterances
is

may darkly

hint at the possibility that 'Abbas Effendi himself

the

seventh
Mx.ve.

manifestation.
p.

Comp.

later,

252. 251.
178.

265

Above

p.

** Above,
*"
238

note
p.

S<c

later,

261

and 268.
in

Comp. Oinzberg
464a.

Jewish Encyclopedia (Article "Cabbala"), III, 462,

illy

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES

FR1 KDI.AKXDl'.k

255

nothing simpler than to follow the example of Christianity

and identify the prophet with the Demiurge who rules the
world on behalf of the unknowable, inconeeivable Father.
289

We

do not refer here to the numerous instances

in

which

mystics and impostors, on the basis of the doctrine of Successive Incarnation or in a


fit

of pantheistic ecstasy, believed

or declared themselves to be divine.

We

have rather
is

in

view those cases

in

which a human being

unequivocally

proclaimed to be a Creator or a Demiurge.

curious exthe theory

ample of
of
the

this Christian influence


b.

within Islam

is

Ahmad
261

Ha'it and

Ahmad

b.

Yanus,

260

the disciples of

famous Mu'tazilite philosopher Nazzam


"that the world had
:

(ninth
is

cen-

tury)

two creators one who

eternal,
is

and
the

this is

God, and the other one


of God, Jesus Christ."
distinct
26

who

is

created and this

Word

Other sectarians, howcoloring to this anti-

ever,

gave a

Mohammedan

Mohammedan doctrine. They taught "that God created Muhammed and 'AH and then turned over the matter (i. e.
the

management) of the world


264

to them, so that

it

is

they
263

who
God

create, sustain, bring to life,

and put

to death,"

or,

as another reliable authority

formulates this theory, "that

created

Muhammed
it is

and turned over the management


created the world, to the excluthe manage-

to him, so that

he

who

sion of God.

Then Muhammed turned over


Abi Talib who
writers
is

ment of
259

the world to 'All b.


this

thus the third


compare the

From

point
of

of

view

Mohammedan
II,

rightly

extravagant

notions

the

ultra-Shiites
Shiitcs,

concerning
101.

'AH with those of the

Christians concerning Christ,


260

See

regarding

the

variations

in

the

forms of their

names

Shiites,

II,

10.
261

lb.,

58.

262

lb.,
lb.,

90
91, 91,

f.

263

16.

2W lb.,

19-

2^^^

TIIK

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


(i. e.

Demiurge.""

This doctrine was called Tafzvid


its

"Turn-

ing over") and

adepts were designated as Mufawwida.*"


able to maintain itself

The same heresy has been


the present day.

down

to

For the catechism of the modern Nuseir-

iyya. in reply to the question,

"Who

created us?," gives the

curt

answer

..
:

Ah.

1-

,'.'2CT

While making
268

full

allowance for the undoubted influits

ence of the Kabbalah with


of the Messiah
being.
2 ""

speculations about the soul

and

its

theories of an intermediary divine

am
is

inclined to believe that the


in the case of

extreme formula-

tion of this

dogma
in

Sabbathai Zevi and his

followers
doctrines

some way connected with the extravagant


Shiism.

of

radical

The

inveterate

Sabbathian
of Israel
the

adventurer Michael Cardoso taught "that the


205

God

In accordance with the same theory, the Rawandiyya

who attacked
believed,

Caliph
their

Mansur
Lord,

in

his

palace

(Shiitic

Elements,
food

II,

503)

"that

who

provided
(Tabari, III,

them
129).

with

and

drink,
b.

was
(ca.

Abu
950)

Ja'far al-Mansur"

The

Karaite Jepheth

'AH
also

mentions
"'that

among

various,

apparently
is

Mohammedan,
alive,

heresies

the

view

the creator of the world

no more

but created the world and


p.

then withdrew and disappeared"


this

(Pinsker,
of

t21pS,

26).

may mention
are

in

connection
in
hi<

that

number

Mohammedan

heterodoxies

quoted

by Hadassi

"1B3M h2VX, Alphabet l"S.


91,
11. 19.

" Shiites,
267

II,

lb.,

II,

127,

Comp.

128,

2.

Already Ibn Teimiyya

(d.

1328), the

famous Mohammedan theologian, attacks the Nuseiriyya, because they believe


that "the creator
their
tics

of heaven

and earth

is

'All,

the son of

Abu

Talib,
et

who

is

god

in

heaven and their

Imam on
is

earth"

(Dussaud, Histoirc

religion

Xosciris, 46).
"I
testify

Their confession of faith which imitates the orthodox form


that

reads:

there

no

other
created

Cod except
by
'AH,

'All,

the

son of

Abu

filth"

(>>'.,

55).

Mohammed was
X,
439.
in

ib.,

59-

Comp.
I

Ciat/,

.in]..

Ginzberg
{Op "
is

few.

line,

III,

461
(ed.

f.

The

designation
300,

of
the

Metatron

at

ascribed
as
a

by
point

Kirkisani
of

Ilarkavy,
the

9)

to

Talmud and used by him


the

attack

against
sec

Rabbanites.

Mohammedan
598.

polemics

against

this

conception

Schreiner,

On ZDMG.,

XIII,

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
is

FRIEDLAKN
is
it

:i>EK

257

not the Cause of

all

Causes which
is

called the infinite

(En-Sof) and Primal Cause, but

necessary that there

should be a second cause which should have end and limit

and

should
270

possess

nature
himself

comprehensible
is

to

human

beings."

Sabbathai

said
;

to

have signed an
the

epistle to his followers

with the words

"I

am

Lord your
by him
is

God, Sabbathai Zevi,"

271

and

in a discourse delivered

after his conversion in the presence of the Sultan he


said to

have declared

in a

manner which
272

is

paralleled by

similar notions within Islam

"that

God was
273

a beautiful

youth bearing resemblance to himself."

But a more striking application of the Tafwid doctrine


is

the belief, enunciated by Jacob Israel

Duchan and
the

repudi-

ated

even

by

rabid

Sabbathians,

274

"that

Holy One,

blessed be He, had ascended on high and that Sabbathai

Zevi went up in his place to become

God"

275

or, as

it

is

put

more

tersely in another source,

"that Sabbathai Zevi de-

clared to be

God and
his
2 6
'

that the

Holy One,
left the

blessed be He,
the

withdrew from
world
270

world and

management of

in

his hand/'

Grate,
lb.,

X,

439. 433.

271

209;
the

272

Thus

Holy

Spirit

(or

human form (Koran,


The
of
Shiitic

53, 8 ff.),

approaches
b.

dogmatist Hisham
proportionate
parallels

who appears to Mohammed in Mary as a perfect man (ib., 19, 17). al-Hakam conceived God as a human figure
Gabriel),
Shiitcs,
II,

the

most

sice,

67.

Other

parallels

they

are

hardly more than


273

are
3S^

not wanting.
iV'npntr, Gratz,
/.

iS

nn

ixiera

inx nina xin

c.,

439.

An

allusion to

it

was found
274

in Cant. 2, 9

HH
/.

PISH

(ib.).

Such as Cardoso, Gratz,


Gratz,

c, 455.
ftSj?

275

439:

Tfhvh

Wpi22

'22 n2Bn ^j

p^DZ n"apSW;

comp.

p.

450:
276

HMpab
lb.,
p.

rfcy

?"w
info?a

nfyru rv^pntr. rhyra n"apriv nnS


(read

439:

wnw

idsjj Sp

ion y

rr

na mefoyn n:n:n bz

mam

n&pD?).

258
It is

UK JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

impossible to assume that such extravagant teachthe


loins
it

ing should have proceeded from


unless

of Judaism,

we assume some
with
the

connection, be

open or subternotions of

ranean,

polytheistic

and

pantheistic

heterodox Islam, the influence of which


been able to discern
in

we have

already

many

other Jewish heresies.

6.

Prophet and Messiah

The Gnostic

doctrine of the successive incarnation of


originally a purely theo-

God

in the

One True Prophet had


It

logical character.

assumed a

political

tendency through

the identification of the "Prophet" with the Messiah (the


''Christ," the

MahdT, or the Imam) who


in
flesh

is

expected not only

to

represent

the

spiritual

and incomprehensible

Divine Being but also to

fill

the earth with justice and to

bring back worldly power to those

who have

lost

it.

The

Prophet par excellence,


festations of Divinity,
is

who

represents the periodic mani-

thus distinguished from and raised


too,

above the prophets commonly so-called, who,


spired by

are in-

God

but

who

are neither charged with a political

mission, nor do they as fully and immediately participate


in the

Divine essence as the Prophet-Messiah.


is

277

This
that the
277

probably the background of


is

Abu

'Isa's.
278

doctrine

Messiah

superior to

all

prophets,

while, with
f.),

In one of his expositions

(Some Answered Questions, 188

'Abbas

Effendi, the head of the Babis, expresses a similar idea by drawing a sharp line
of distinction between these two classes of prophets.

"The independent

pro-

phets are the lawgivers and the founders of a

new

cycle."

"The other prophets

are followers and promoters, for they are branches and not independent."
latter are like the

The The

moon which borrows

its

light.

The former

are like

Abraham,

Moses, Christ,
latter are like
27

Mohammed,

the Bab, Baha'ullah (comp. above, note 253).

Solomon, David, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel.


p.

Above,

251.

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES

FRIEDLAENDER
was

259

the lower rating of the prophets, he

able to place the

Rabbis on the

level of

prophecy.

279

But more
the

specifically the

Hebrew term

nabi

assumes

meaning of

a forerunner or herald of the Messiah, who,

probably under the influence of the role assigned to the

prophet Elijah
dicts

in

Jewish and Christian Messianism,


his return.

280

pre-

and prepares

In this restricted sense of a


political function

lower grade of divinity and a subordinate


the term nabt\ as contrasted with the
sionally
title

Mash% ah

is

occa-

found

in the accounts of
in a

Jewish sectarians.

Thus David Reubeni


Fez who believes
is

conversation with a Kadi of

in the

approaching redemption of the Jews


:

addressed in the following manner


vicinity

"The Jews

of Fez

and
'a

and even the Muhammedans ask what you are


1

prophet or a Messiah?.'"
is

In reply Reubeni emphati-

cally denies that he

a prophet and claims to be a military

commander and

the son of

King Solomon.

282

The appearance of Sabbathai Zevi was

the signal for


in

an outburst of Messianic frenzy which found expression


a host of Messianic or prophetic pretenders.

For, as Jacob

Sasportas, the cool-headed witness of these events, expresses


it,

"the passion of the multitude prevailed upon their imag-

ination

and they fancied the one


n*at?
b

to be

a prophet, the other


Dnaiei

Kirk., 311, 25

orApi

*nn

xij

pxm^N

"IOS TBPl

X23nSn
highly,
280

nsmE2 "He

exalted the station of the Rabbis and respected them

so that he placed

them on

a level similar to that of the prophets."

Comp. Ginzberg, Jewish Encyclopedia, V,


p.

126

f.

Friedmann,

'21 Xift

\ivbx, introduction,
281

21

ff.

Neubauer, Mediaeval Jewish Chronicles,


ik

II,

279: o:n

)*'B2

lt?K

D'lin'n

n'tro
282

K'23

nnx

yn onoiH

on

oSKj?OBrn

n*nia*am.

Ibidem.

26o
t0

REVIEW ,hk JEWISH QUARTERN

Ua
"
i.

Messiah- Nathan
e.

of

Sabbathai Zevi. was

impresario of Gaza, the famous progenerally designated as "the

phet

Messiah. the prophet of the

of the term nObT may This peculiar transformation fore.gn interin Judaism without very well have taken plaee a event interesting to observe
ference.

But

it

is

in

any

c,

.responding development
nabl.

in the

meaning of the Mohamb.

medan term

Thus 'Abdallah
or,

Saba who regarded

Mi

a. the

,ivine

'Mi"'

The

even as according to some authors, the prophet of incarnation;" calls himself Ishak the Turk, agitator revolutionary

Messiah

who
is

appeared

in

the

eighth

century

in

Central

y^

A Asm,
*

287

Zoroaster called the prophet of


return as the

who

was, as he believed,
Hallaj

to

Mahdi
of
the

288

The famous
or
'All

who was
of
assisted,

originally

one

missionaries

"prophets"

the
after

eighth

Shiitic

Imam

ar-Rida
as

289

was

he
9"

had

manifested

himself

God,

by

three

prophets:
in

All the

numerous petty sectarians who arose


were prophets
in this sense,

'Irak in the eighth century

the claim of one for they invariably supported


291

Mahdi

or

another.

Instead
the

of

nabi,

we

find

in

the

same connection
not
in

expression

rasul

"messenger,

apostle,"
n-vsan

the

n^B.
5 6b,

feu iw*.
compare

a'--

*aa

m mm
TO

m mwi
HI

omnn ponn
015*1

also

9 b:

rVVD

Wtb

T*J*

*
p.

BUI,

and elsewhere,
,
,

,,

and elsewhere.

In the same sense Cardoso X, 230.

(above,

256)

declared himself a "prophet,"


IbS.,
I,

Gratz,

96
15.

ff -

" w
>
-""

L.

c,

Hi

Browne, Persia, 3*3

ft-

Nadlm,

Fihrist,

34+

Com*

above, " te

l8 -

Browne, Persia, 429/..


,

c,

431.

r>-

np

/?/ ,v. (

II,

15.

The examples given there can be

multiplied.

-.

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
sense
of
rasTil

E RI

KDEAKXDER
is

261

allah,

as

Mohammed
rasftl

commonly
In

styled, but rather signifying the


this

of the Messiah:'

particular

meaning of the term we must understand


293

the notice of Shahrastani

that

"Abu

'Isa

maintained that

he was a prophet and that he was the messenger (rasftl) of


the Messiah the Expected One.
the Messiah had
five
294

He

also maintained that

messengers who appeared before him,


293

one after the other."

In a similar sense must be inter-

preted the "prophecy," claimed by Yudgan, the successor


of

Abu

296

'Isa,

and so must also be taken the words of


us that the Jews expected the Messiah

Biruni*"
to

who informs
in the

appear

year 1023, "so that

among
like

their sects, such as ar-Ra'I,

298

many pseudo-prophets Abu 'Isa and others


(i.

them, pretended that they were his


ritsiil)

e.

the Messiah's)

messengers (in Arabic

to

them
Da'i

(i. e.

their sects)."

7.

The

The complicated

character of the Messianic idea and

the variety of Messianic forerunners, such as the prophet


292

The Pseudo-Messiah
II,

of

Yemen

is

called

by Maimonides
differ
1.

(Kobez,

ed.

Lichtenberg,
rvtyft

26,

where the

British
/.

Museum MSS.

somewhat)

h&

\Tvh&.

The same expression

c, 7a, second column,


(Shiitic Elements,
II,
12,

from below.
f.)

The modern Yemenite Pseudo-Messiah


designated in exactly the same manner,
293

513

is

often
13.

HoStT mj?Di3,

p.

comp.

11

and

I,

168.

294

zva-za'ama

[Abii]

'isa

annahu

nabiyyun

wo-onnahu
is

rasftl

al-masih

al-

muntaxar.

That Abii
(ed.

'Isa claimed

no more than prophecy


6,

repeatedly asserted

by Kirkisani
295

Harkavy), 284,
anna
li'l-mas'ih

311, 20;

see note 296.

yia-sa'ania

Jjamsatan
p.

min

ar-ritsul

ya'tuna

kablahu

wahidan ba'da wahidin.


296

Comp. above,
16.

251.

Kirk., 284,

14;
like

312,

In another passage, ZfhB., Ill, 176 KirkisanI


al-Isbahani
flic

says:

"and others

Abii

'Isa

who claimed prophecy, and


Similarly

just

as

Yudgan claimed
121,

that

he -was

Messiah."
the

(Hirschfeld, Arabic
that

Chrestomathy,
Messiah."
16.

24):

"Yudgan

Da'i

and

his

claim

he

is

the

The
later,
11.

latter

statement contradicts his


307.

own

words, ed. Harkavy, 312,

See
297 298

note

15,

Undoubtedly the

title

of

Yudgan, see

later

p.

284

f.

J<>-

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Antichrist,

Elijah, the Ephraimitic Messiah, the

gave the

Messianic impostors, as long as they were content with


the subordinate position of a forerunner

and did not aspire

to the supreme post of the Messiah or Mahdi, a choice of


roles.

But a peculiar coloring was given to the idea of

the Messianic forerunner through the identification of the


latter

with the characteristically Persian figure of the Da'i,

or propagandist, a figure which plays so tremendous a role


in all the

Mahdistic movements of Islam.


early

No

one

who

has

studied the history of

Islam can, to quote but one


spirit

example, withhold his admiration from the wonderful

of organization and discipline which characterizes the da'wa

(propaganda) of the 'Abbasides and from the many Dais


representing
it

who

often suffered

death

and

torture

in

executing their mission.

This type of Da'i has survived


in the missionaries of the

down

to the present

day

Babis of

whom

such an authoritative student of Babism as Professor


G.

Edward

Browne speaks
299

in

terms of profound respect

and admiration.

For our present purpose

it

is

necessary to

call special

attention to the political significance of the Da'i

which was

exceedingly great.

The head

of the 'Abbaside propaganda


influence
that
it

Abu Muslim wielded such tremendous


excited

the jealousy of his

sovereign and
influence

resulted in his

assassination.

Abu Muslim's

became even more


as a divine

evident after his death

when he was regarded

incarnation by his adherents and

when

the desire to revenge

him
In

led

to

dangerous insurrections against the Caliphate.

the

Karmatian
working

propaganda

the Chief

Da'is,

though
little

ostensibly

395i

in the interest of

some Mahdi, were

Year amongst the Persians, 210


**

f.,

4 JO

Comp.

also

van
16.

Vloten,

48,

JRAS., XXI, 497; Persia, 236, Blochet Le Messianisme dans

I'hctcrudoxie

Musulmane,

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
less

FRIKDLAI- NDI.R
title

263
by

than the Mahdl himself and the


3n
"

Mans fir home


301

them

had a

distinct Messianic connotation.

Some

of the

Dais were even looked upon


wonder then
and often
if

as Divine incarnations.*"

No

so

many who began


Mahdls

as Da'ls soon realized

their superiority over the


set

for

whom

they worked

themselves up as such.
re-

Perhaps these peculiar notions and conditions are


flected
in

the

report

of
their

Shahrastani about

Abu

'Isa

and

Yudgan.
age
in

Both made

appearance

in a

land and in an

which the Da'i was a familiar and


political
'Isa.
303

at the

same time a
If

prominent figure wielding great


to

power.

we

are

believe

Shahrastani,

Abu

realizing his

mission,
304

went
300 301

to the distant

Band Mtisa behind


27.

the "sand river"

to

Shiitcs,

II,

109,
2.

Ibidem, note
Shiitcs,
I,

Compare

also AbS., II, 30, n. 4.

302

68 and

footnotes.

'"Every

human
is

being,

after having suc-

ceeded in reaching the degree of a Missionary,

able to raise himself to the

rank of the Preexistent (the Mahdi) and


3,3

to substitute

him," Blochet,

/.

c, 60.

I,

168.

3<yi

The

''sand
I,

river"

is

the

Sambation,
of
the

compare

my

remarks

in

JQR.,

New
to

Series,

256.

The
this

liberation

Lost Tribes

was considered an

integral
live

part of the

Messianic redemption and the Messianic candidates had


reason the Pseudo-Messiahs are often brought in

up

to

it.

For

connection with the Lost Tribes, particularly with the Bene Moshe and the

Sambation.
like

The Messianic enthusiast Abraham Abulafia


to

(d.

ca.

1291) claimed,

Abu

'Isa,

have penetrated

to

the Sambation (Gratz, VII, 192).

David

Reubeni's pretensions hinge on his connection with the Lost Tribes and the

Bene Moshe (Gratz, IX, 229).

Among

those

who denied
that

that Sabbathai Zevi

was dead, there were many who maintained


Bene Moshe (rP31B HB^D, VI,
3,

he was hidden
53).

among

the

compare above, note

He was

generally
to

expected to proceed to the Bene Moshe living on the Sambation and


the daughter of Moses,
457.

marry

hlM

nX'S

"ttSp,

\a,

37a,

comp. Gratz, X, 198 and


to attack
II,

The modern Yemenite Pseudo-Messiah was expected

San'a with
fOVI JTUK

an army consisting of Gadites and Reubenites,


rvaCTt
,

TED

\2i<,

151;

37.

Compare

the utterances of this prophet with reference to the ten

Tribes and the Bene


these

Moshe fVUK,
a

p.

6. Undoubtedly under

the influence of
in

Messianic

conceptions

Mohammedan Pseudo-Messiah

Yemen

is

J(>4

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

preach to them after the manner of the Persian Da'is the

word

of the Lord.

He

regarded himself, at least in the

beginning, merely as a forerunner of the Messiah, but he

thought none the

less

highly of the dignity of his station.

"And he maintained
of the children of

that the

Messiah

is is

the most excellent

Adam
was

and that he

superior in station

to all the prophets that

have gone by, and that he (himself)


also the

as his messenger

most excellent of

all.

He
the

demanded

faith in the

Messiah and he magnified the propatoo,


is

ganda of the Dal, maintaining that the Dal,


Messiah.'
In
a

similar

manner Shahrastani 306


30T

relates of

Yudgan,
as the

who

in

all

probability looked
'lsa,

upon himself merely


as the latter

Da'T of

Abu
808

in as

much

was believed
him was the

to be alive,

and was expected to return as the Messiah,


the things which are reported of

that

"among

fact that he magnified the office of the Dal."""

Shahrastani's remarks are none too lucid and perhaps


they ought not to be pressed too strongly.
brought Tornberg,
;

But

if

they are

in

connection

with

the

Banu

Musa, Ibn

al-Athir,

Chronicon, ed.

VIII,

22.

"5

wa-za'ama
also
line

anna'd-dd'iya
10).

aidan

huwa'l-masihu

(Shahr.,

I,

168,

13

ff.

comp.

MS.

British

Museum Add.
is:

7250

puts

more correctly

aidan after -wa-za'ama, so that the meaning


Da'i

"he also maintained that the

waa the Messiah."


"
''

68,

ult.

That he did not consider himself the Messiah


(284,

is

clear

from Kj'rkisanfs
of

13):
also

"It

is

said

that

he

(Yudgan) was a
His pupils

disciple

Abu
16.

'Isa

Obadiah and

claimed

prophecy.

(variant:
is

adherents),

how-

aintain that he 'was the Messiah."

The same

repeated 312,

The

contradictory statement (above, note 296) can scarcely be correct.


Miovc, note 33.
,;
'

Shahr. wa-flmO nufcila 'anhu ta'zlm


as 1),VI. above, note 296.
p.

amr

ad-da'i.

Yudgan

is

designated

by

Kirk-is. nl

This then need not be a misspelling for

Ra'I,

Bee

later,

285.

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
to

FRII'.DI.AI'.XDKK

265
in the

convey any meaning, they can only be understood


Persian Shiitic propaganda.

light of the

8.

Succession

In the course of the above expositions mention has


already been

made

310

of the contrast, based upon the con-

ception of Raj 'a and Docetism, between the Wakifiyya and


Kitti'iyya, a contrast

which invariably reveals

itself

after

the death of a Mahdi.


trate the practical

Two

examples

will suffice to illus-

issue involved in this contrast.


Shiitic

When

Musa, the son of the sixth


died (about 800), there were
that he

Imam
his
''the

Ja'far as-Sfulik,

many who doubted

or denied
as

was dead and who expected

return

the

Mahdi.

They were

called

Wakifiyya

doubtful ones."
assertive

Others, however, termed Kitti'iyya

"the

ones,"

among them some


dignity

of his intimate associates, transferred the


to
his

of

Imam and Mahdi

son 'All

b.

Musa.

311

Again after the death of the eleventh

Shiitic

Imam

al-Hasan

al-'Askari (d. 873), there were people, termed Wakifiyya,

who doubted

or denied the reality of his death and awaited

his return as the

Expected Mahdi.

312

Others, however, styled

Kitti'iyya, asserted that

he was actually dead and accordMessianic


313

ingly

transferred
b.

the

claim

to

his
last

baby

son

Mohammed
are
for
this

al-Hasan,

the twelfth

and

Imam and
who
as

the acknowledged Expected

One

of present day Shiites,


their

reason,

in

addition to

appellations

Ithnaashariyya (Twelvers) and Imamiyya, also designated


as

Kittfiyya
310

Shiitic Elements,

II,

485-

811 312 313 314

Conip.
lb.,
: 2.

Shiites,

II,

51.

Shiitic Elements,
Shiites,
II,

II,
ff-

495

f.

52,

15

2 66

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

An
sianic

exact analogy to this theory and practice of Mesis

succession

afforded by the history of the Sab-

bathian movement.

When

Sabbathai Zevi died, there were


his

many Jewish Wakifiyya who doubted


lieving

death and, be-

him

to be hidden, continued to regard to expect his return.


315

him

as the
still

Messiah and

They were, and

are. called the Izmirlis, after

Izmir

(=

Smyrna), the homewho,

town of Sabbathai.
after the

316

There were

others, however,

manner of the

Kitti'iyya, asserted the reality of

Sabbathai's death and accordingly transferred the Messianic


dignity to Jacob, or Ya'kub, Querido.

They were

called

the Yakublis.

317

This does not preclude that when Querido

died they, in turn, like their

Mohammedan

counterparts,
318

denied his death and believed him to be hidden.


It is clear that

the

Wakifiyya,

those

who deny

the

Messiah's death and believe in his concealment and return,

cannot consistently appoint a permanent successor to one

who

is

but temporarily absent.

They do however need and

are consequently forced to appoint a temporary leader to

take

charge

of

the

affairs

of

the

faithful,

pending the
a
the

Messiah's appearance, in other


1

words,

vice-gerent,

Khalifa."

'''

Thus

when

the
b.

famous

Messiah

of

Keisaniyya sect

Mohammed

al-Hanafiyya disappeared,

his political agent

Mukhtar, whose insurrection shook the

315

Above, note 53 and elsewhere.


Shiitic

""'

Elements,

II,

494.

317

Ibidem.
//,

in
3,0

In

a
'if

measure

this

idea

is

implied

in

the

title

Khalifa

(Caliph),
f.

the

lit

Mohammed, comp. Wellhausen, Das

arabische Reich, 22

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES

FRlEDLAEMM.k
320

267

young Caliphate
Khalifa.
521

in its foundation,

proclaimed himself his

The

notorious Shiitic sectarian

Abu

'1-Khattab

denied the death of the


his

Imam

Ja'far as-Sadik and, pending

return,
322

assumed the

title

and

the
is

functions

of

Khalifa.

somewhat

similar

example

afforded by the
in

history of
323

modern Babism.

The Bab manifested himself

1844,

but he insisted that his manifestation was not final

and was to be followed by that of a Greater One, whose


advent he indefatigably proclaimed.

Before his death, he

appointed Subh-i-Ezel as the Khalifa, the vice-gerent, of


the

new community, pending


324

the appearance of the

new

manifestation.

In 1866 Baha'ullah, one

of

the

disciples

of the Bab and a half-brother of Subh-i-Ezel, revealed himself as the

"Greater One" predicted by his master.

split

immediately followed.

The Babis were


the

divided into two

camps

the Bahais

who acknowledged
bulk of

Baha'ullah as
the sect,

the

Mahdi,
Ezelis

they
who

now form

and the

denied that the

Mahdi had appeared and who

therefore continued to look upon Subh-i-Ezel as the vice-

gerent of the community.


ers of the

325

The

strife

between the follow-

two brothers became

so intense that the Turkish

Government was forced


320

to separate them, the Ezelis being

Shiitic Elements,

II,

487-

321

Abs., II,

15.

322

Ibidem.

Similarly the

Shiitic

pseudo-prophet

Abu Mansur

(see

note

353)

claimed to be the Khalifa of

Mohammed

al-Bakir,

the father of Ja'far

as-Sadik,

Bagdad!, 234,

12.

The successors

of Fadl-allah al-Hurufi,

who was

believed to be hidden, are also designated as Khalifas, JRAS., 1907. 536, 540.
323

Above, note 173.

324

Browne

in

JRAS., XXI,

505, 5'3;

Tarikh,

XVIII; Andreas, Die

Babis,

48.
325

In

1908

Subh-i-Ezel

was

still

living
in

in

Famagusta on the island of

Cyprus, with a

few followers, Browne


303a.

Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religion

and Ethics,

II,

268

Tin:

jewish quarterly revikw


to Acco,

removed

to

Cyprus and the Bahais


till

where
326

their

present head continued to reside

a short time ago.

Such or similar speculations

will

probably have to be

drawn upon
from Abu
terial

to explain the succession of the

Messianic claim

'Isa to

Yudgan, although the paucity of our ma-

can justify nothing beyond vague conjectures.

Abu

'Isa. in this

the sources unanimously agree, considered him-

self

merely the precursor, or the

Da%
When
and,

of the Messiah, which

fact

however did not prevent


as the

his followers

from regarding
split

him

Messiah himself.

he died, a
like

was

inevitable.

There were those who,


his

the

Wakifiyya,

denied the reality of


hidden,

death
327

believing

him

to

be
the

expected
8

his

return.

They
his

were

called

'Isawiyya."

Among them was


329

disciple

Yudgan who,
declared to

assuming temporary charge over the


be his "prophet" or Khalifa.

faithful,

There were

others, however,
'Isa

who,

like the

Kitti'iyya, insisted that

Abu

was dead.

They therefore regarded Yudgan


he died, they expected his
the Yudganiyya.
330

as the Messiah and.


return.

when
called

own
is

They were

Curiously enough, as in the case of the


of course a mere coincidence,
to

Babis, though the analogy


a migration

and a geographical separation appears

have

taken place.

For

it

seems that the 'Isawiyya, those

who
later,

continued to expect

Abu

'Isa's

return,

left

Ispahan and

migrated to Damascus, where KirkisanI, two centuries


still

found remnants of them to the number of twenty or


Browne, ibidem, and elsewhere.

3 -r

'

Move, note

33.

Or

Isuniyya

(Ibn
n.

I.lazm

and

KirkisanI),

also

Isfahaniyya,

comp.

Elements, 203,

73.

Comp. above,
:,:i

i>.

261

and

264.

"

Kirk.,

312,

16.

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
331

FRIEDLAENDER

thirty souls,
in their old

while the Yudganiyya seem to have remained


332

home.

The

careful reader

may have observed

that the

ex-

amples derived from the history of Babism are not perfectly


analogous to the other instances quoted, in as

much

as in

Babism the

belief in

Docetism and

in the

concealment of the

Mahdi seems
lies in

to be entirely eliminated.

The reason

for this

the fact that the Raj 'a doctrine which regulates the

succession in other Shiitic sects, though adopted and emphatically preached by the Babis,
in a sense in
is

interpreted by
is

them

which the original meaning


it

so thoroughly

transformed that

closely approaches the doctrine of reinofficially

carnation and transmigration which


oppose.
331

they violently

333

The comparatively
284,
11:

recent change in the leaderpeiy*


his
5

Kirk.,

rpjiD^Sxn

natenxN
'Isa's)

\a

nptt&i

ptwnai

"In Damascus there are a number of


the

(Abu

adherents,

known

as

'Isuniyya

(var.

'Isawiyya)";
ttpE

317,

'2SnEXJ<Sx

D$>

'2X

2XriX

KBX1

KDB3
of

ptrp
'Isa

Pl*2t?

fNWDia
those

EnJB *p3

hSk

JXB "As for the adherents


in
fol.

Abu

al-Isfahani,

who have remained

Damascus alone are


34a:
p^'

about twenty souls"; MS. British

Museum

Or. 2524,

D7

'fin

KBip ixnsxNn epije byh\


NX'N
thirty

pcom
one

hdsz pniAri \
left

pwpa
except

na vhn
about
also

oruo
or
in

NI'D

"so
in

that

no

was

of

them,

twenty

souls

Damascus.
latter

Perhaps

a
all

few of them can


probability

be

found

Ispahan."
as a

The

statement in

refers
It
is

to

the Yudganiyya

subdivision of the 'Isawiyya

(see next note).


killed,

natural to assume

that,

when Abu

'Isa to

had been defeated and


Syria.

his

adherents,

at

least

some of them,
Persia
is

fled

That there were relations between Syria and


as Ba'lbekki and

shown by such names of Persian-Jewish sectarians

Ramli.
332

Kirk.,

317, 6:

]XnESS2 TD'

1B3

DflJOfl
still

fratmufel W3IO

"As

for

the Yudganiyya, a few persons of


is

them are

to be found in Ispahan."

This

probably the reason

why

the 'Isawiyya are not designated as Isfahaniyya by

Kirkisanl.

The

'Isawiyya

evidently

expected

the

manifestation

of

their

prophet to take place in Damascus.


333

Browne, Tarikh, 335

ff.,

357,

and elsewhere.

See also the expositions

270

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


example of
this

ship of the sect affords a striking

trans-

formation.

The Bab was


himself, and
his

unselfish

enough
to

to insist that he

was

to

be followed by a Greater

One

Come. Buha'ullah revealed


Before
'Abbas

was accepted

as such, by the Babis.


his

death,

Baha'ullah

appointed
884

eldest

son

Effendi to be his successor.

'Abbas who, to judge by the


strikes

utterances and actions reported of him,


personality

one

as

of

acute

intelligence

and commanding power

advances no other claim beyond that of carrying out the


mission of his father
festation

whom
330

he regards as a divine manihis


is

and

address as

whom already in Lord (= God). He

life-time

he used to

content to style as
''the

w ell
r

as to consider himself
('ullah)."*

'Abd al-Baha

servant of Baha

This, however, does not prevent his followers


in a less

from looking upon him


is

humble
is

light.

For there

no doubt

that, in their eyes,

he

gradually moving into

the place, formerly occupied by his father, as an incarnation

of

Divinity.

His
is

sister,

in

relating

his

biography to an

American lady
ulous

anxious to report of him the same miracas

characteristics
in the

of

his

father.

337

His daughters

address him

family circle sometimes as Father, some-

times as Lord, for "they recognize in him the ideal blending


of attributes
of
the

human and

divine,"

338

and

his adherents already

'Abbas

Effendi

on the subject

in

Some Answered
f.

Questions,

318

ff.

In

same way the Imamiyya accept the Raj'a doctrine but emphatically

reject

the transmigration of souls, Shiites, II, 26


:,:

Comp. above, note

220.

"

Browne
with

in

Hastings' Encyclopedia, II, 3040-

On
other
II,

the strife of 'Abbas

Effendi

his brother,

which even spread


of

to

America, see ibidem.

Hammond, The Splendor


of

Cod,

41.

On

Divine
306a.

appelations

Baha'ullah
onip.

see

Browne

in

Hastings' Encyclopedia,

Goldziher,
note
/.

Vorlesungen, 302, and others.

See

later,

374.
\o.

Hammond,

c,

KWISH-ARAIUC STUDIES

FRI

KULAK XDF.K

2J \ by

in

his life-time raise

him above the

level of his father

maintaining that he was appointed by the latter "to inaugurate another larger presentation of the principle of Universal

Peace

and

of

the

Divine

Unity

which
for/'
3:

the

Bab and
inspires

Baha'ullah had preached and prayed

"He

them

so completely with that

immanence

that they are im-

pelled to imitate
being,"***
is

him

in

accepting the dictates of that divine


believers openly declare that he
341

and

his

American

a reincarnation of Jesus Christ.

^Ye have expatiated on

all

these facts, because once

more they

find

an analogy

in the history of

Sabbathianism.

After Sabbathai's death the Sabbathians transferred their


allegiance to Jacob

Querido

whom

they

now regarded
that

as the

true redeemer and as the full incarnation of the soul of


the Messiah,

apparently implying thereby

Sabbathai

had been but an incomplete and preliminary manifestation


of
342

it

\\

nen Querido died, the leadership of the


to his son Berechiah

sect

was transferred
garded
as

who was

in

turn rein

divine

incarnation
343

and

was worshiped

prayer by the Sabbathians.

9.
It

Anointment

would be

a futile task to attempt to penetrate into

the dark recesses

of

the
to

pseudo-Messianic
the
it

consciousness

which

rather

belongs
the

domain of psychology or
found that the Mesclaim than their

pathology.

On

whole

will be

sianic pretenders are

more modest
is

in their

followers,
339

and while the leader

satisfied to be the fore-

Ibidem.
L.

Sin
341

c, 43.

Browne, Persia, 311.


Gratz,
L.

Goldziher in Oricntalischc

Religioncn,

128.

342 343

X,
306.

305;

459

TEX
p.

rPCtt
252.

SWt? WOKni.

c,

See above,

2^2

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


insist that

runner of the Messiah, the believers

he

is

the
is

Messiah himself.
in

Often, indeed, the pretender himself

doubt as to the exact nature of his claim, which will be


to increase

found

with the increase of his influence.

It will

hardly be possible to throw light into this dark domain

and

have touched on the subject merely to show that

this

uncertainty of Messianic pretensions has colored the reports

about our

much quoted

sectarian

Abu

'Isa.

The few
same

existing data clearly suggest that he claimed

to be a precursor or a

messenger of the Messiah.


345

344

At the

time, as Shahrastani

informs

us,

he maintained, or
to

was

said to maintain, that

"God had spoken

him and had


from the
this
at-

charged him to deliver the children of Israel

ungodly nations and wicked rulers," and, as a result of


charge, he headed an
tested both

armed

uprising, a fact

which
It is

is

by Kirkisani and Shahrastani. 346


347

not far-

fetched to assume with Graetz


stock,

that, not

being of Davidic

a condition indispensable
348
349

for a Messianic candidacy,

he

contented himself with the role of the Ephraimitic


while his Jewish opponents,
if

Messiah,
MakrizT,
344

we

are to trust

looked upon him after his defeat as the Antip.

Above,
I,

268.

345

168,

12.

346

To

these

Maimonides might be added,


348.

Shiitic Elements,

I,

206, n. 88.

See,

however,
-' 7

note

V, 462.

:i,s

Speaking

of

the

Pseudo-Messiah
Messiah
10K1).
fact

of

Ispahan,

Maimonides maintains
in

that

he considered
1.

himself the
n'B>0

(Iggeret

Tcman,

Kobez,

II,

7a,

second column,
still

1,

K1W
the

In the Arabic original Maimonides


that
in

more

clearly

emphasizes

he

was of Davidic

origin.

It

can, however, be

shown

that

Maimonides
a

this part of his

account confused
taken

Abu

'Isa

with

David

Alroy,

confusion

which

has been

over

from

Maimonides by Gratz.
349

See note 351.

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
christ,

FRIEDLAKNDKR
in

273
Ispahan.
3 ''

whose manifestation would take place


as
it

Be

this

may,

the

following

notice

preserved

by

MakrTzi seems to point to some such Messianic conception.


''The Isbahaniyya," says Makrizi*" "are the adherents of

Abu
rabb

'Isa al-Isbahani.

He

laid claim to

prophecy and (he

maintained) that he was lifted up to heaven, fa-masaha ar'aid ra'sihi

and that the Lord patted him on

his head,

also that he beheld

Muhammed and
is

believed in him.

The

Jews of Ispahan maintain that he


christ)

the Dajjal (the Antitheir region."


visit

and that he

will

come

forth

from

Curiously enough the identical story of a heavenly


is

reported of the Pseudo-Messiah

a younger contemporary of Abu Tsa.

Abu Mansiir of Kufa, Abu Alansur. who


352

originally
Shiitic

considered

himself the "prophet"

of

the

fifth

Imam Mohammed

al-Bakir (d. 735), but after his


as the

death advanced his

own candidacy
up
to
(i.

Mahdi,

353

main-

tained that "he was lifted


object of his worship
his
e.
;

heaven and beheld the


his

God) who patted

head with

hand

354

and said to him


Ale.'

'My

child,

descend and bring a

message from
350

" 355

That the
by

Dajjal

(Antichrist)

would proceed from Ispahan was


211,

also

believed

Mohammedans,
399.

Biruni,

Ibn

Fakih,

ed.

de
that

Goeje,
this

299,
belief

Mukaddasi,
arose
Tews.

Schreiner
fact

(ZDMG., XLJI,
c,
it

596)
to

suggests

from the

that

Ispahan
/.

was supposed
would seem,
its

have been
that

founded by
Ispahan

From Mukaddasi,
conception

however,

was
and

connected with the Antichrist because of

violent opposition to 'All.


at

Another

widespread

locates

the

Antichrist

Lydda,

Biruni,

ibidem,

many
351

others.

Uitaf,

ed.

Cairo,
I,

IV,

372.
ib.,

352

See Shiites,
lb.,
II, 95,

62 and the sources quoted

II,

89,

14

f.

353

32.

Comp. above, note


IV,
185

322.
Shiites,
I,

334

Ibn

Hazm,

Milal,

(=

62,

7)

masaha ra'sahu
1

biyadihi,

Shahr.

136 fa-masaha bi-yadihi ra'sahu,


bi-yadihi)
'aid
ra'sihi.

Bagdad! 215,

and 234, 13

masaha yadahu (or


355

Alluding

to

Koran

5,

71.

274

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Of
Mansur

course,
the story

both in

the

case of

Abu

"Isa

and Abu
"heavenly

was suggested by the

mi' raj, the

journey" oi

Mohammed,

alluded to in the Koran."

But

apart from the desire of using

Mohammed

as a pattern, In the
is

another tendency was undoubtedly in operation.


case of
to

Abu Mansur the motive seems convey Abu Mansur's familiarity with
30
'

clear: the story

the Almighty who,

according to one source, even condescended to address our


heresiarch in Persian, his native idiom.
the feeling that in the case of
I

have, however,
solid

Abu

'Isa

some more

claim

is

involved.

Masaha
358

in
it

Arabic means generally "to


also signifies "to anoint"

touch, to rub. to pat,"

but

and
term

the

national

lexicographers

explain

properly

the

al-masih
3

"Messiah" as mamsuh bi'd-duhn "anointed with


In the history of the Jewish Pseudo-Messiahs

oil."

''

we
360

often

find

that

they insist on having been miraculously

anointed and in this


356

way
to

fitted

for their Messianic task.

Sura

17,
p.

i.

According
ff.,

Blochet in Revue de I'histoire des religions,


is

XI.

(1899),

19

the

legend

of

Persian

origin.

Man!

as

well

as

Bihafarld claimed to have similarly ascended to heaven, Biruni, 209 and 211.
357

Shiites,

II,

90,

22.

358

In the sense "to touch*' the

Hebrew
48/-,

nti'E

is

used by Hisdai Crescas

in

his

Or Adonai
Tt is

fed.

Vienna),

p.

mp2

JBP1

"lTWoT

vh*

:nptJO

Clw^n.

undoubtedly an Arabism.
s.

I.isan
'''"

al-'arab.

v.

Already Justin Martyr (second century) in his Dialogus cum Tryphone


it

Cell,

vim) reports

as generally accepted that "Christ...

has no power, until


I'orstellungcn,

Klias
62,
n.

come
_'.

to

anoint him," comp. Klausner, Die messianischen


the later history of Jewish

From
doubt

Messianism the following examples,


present
themselves.
that,

which

no
nic

can

be

considerably

multiplied,
(d.

The

enthusiast

Abraham Abulafia

ca.

1291)

pretended

when

in

ecstasy,

"he

felt

as if his

whole body from head

to foot

had been anointed

with anointing oil" (Bernfeld,


Botarel
oil,

DTlSs

JTJH,

p.

381).

The Pseudo-Messiah Moses

(aboul

[409)

claimed that the prophet Elijah anointed him with holy

Gratz, VIII, 98, and

MGWJ.,

1879, p. 80.

Joseph Caro claims of Solomon See


also

Molcho
picture

HNS;'

mil

ntrCS ntron*n (Gratz, IX, 545)-

the

curious
222.

representing the anointment of Sabbathai Zevi, Jew.

Enc, XI,

i:\visii-.\KAr.ic

studies

i'rncdlakndkk

275
'aid

It is

therefore to be assumed that the words fa-masaha


1

ra'sihi

originally"'

meant

to

convey that God had poured

holy

oil

on

his

head and by consecrating him as the Mashla h,

"the Anointed one,"


er of Israel.
3 ""

empowered him

to

become the redeem-

10.

Inspiration
is

Prophecy, in accordance with the Gnostic theory,


incarnation
of
the

the

Divine

essence

in

man.

Hence

the

knowledge possessed by the prophet must be supernatural

and free from human admixture.

The

Shiites have

drawn
as

the full consequences of this conception.

The Imams,

the incarnation of Divinity, are credited with the

knowledge

of "what

is

within the borders of the seven earths below


in

and what

is

the seven heavens above


363

and what

is

on

land and on sea,"


rived

and

this

knowledge

is

immediately de-

from a Divine source, not conveyed by any human


instruction.

means of information or

Shiitic theologian

gives the following explanation of the omniscience of the

Imams: "Their source

is

either a tradition

which every one

of them has received from his father, the latter from his

own

father and so on up to the Prophet, or

it

is

Revelation

and Inspiration.

For

this

reason

it

has never been recorded

of any of them that he has ever gone to a teacher, or studied

under a master, or asked any questions."


361

364

Although

subsequently

masaha may have been taken by the Arabic


'Isa's

authors,
or

who reproduce Abu


pat."

story,

in

its

ordinary meaning "to touch"

"to

This

meets
p.

the

objection
3.

of

Baron

Rosen,

IjCirkisanl

( e d.

Harkavy), Introduction,
362

265, n.

Already

suggested

by

Harkavy,

ibidem,

and Sk1B^3 nifttA milp^,

p.

10.
363

Shiites,

II,

105.

364

L. c,

55-

2^6
It
is

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


in

consequence of

this conception

which regards
is

inspiration as the only true source of

knowledge and

therefore

bound

to

mistrust

all

knowledge transmitted
proudly desigprophet"
305

through a human medium that


nates himself
as

Mohammed
illiterate

nabi

umml
is

''an

and

otherwise boasts of his ignorance.

Whether Mohammed

was
by

able to read
366

and write
it is

mooted point often discussed

scholars,

though

a well-established
is

dogma of
all

Islam.
this

But that he was sorely ignorant

admitted by

and

ignorance, instead of proving a drawback,

was of

effective

assistance in establishing his claim as a prophet.

In

modern Babism the same claim of ignorance

is

re-

peated with almost nauseating persistence.

The

mission-

aries and theologians of Babism are indefatigable in pointing

out that the


unlettered
schools,"
360

Bab was umml


368

367

"illiterate,"

that he

was "an
of
the

youth,

"not
in

trained

in

the

learning
370

"untaught
in

the learning of men,"

"that he

had never studied

any school and had not acquired


31

knowledge from any teacher."


by 'Abbas Effendi
in

The same

claim

is

urged

favor of his father Baha'ullah, the


"It
is

successor of the Bab.

also evident that he has never


372

studied or acquired this learning."

"Baha'ullah had never

studied Arabic; he had not had a tutor or teacher nor had

he entered a school."
305

3
'

From

the same motive the admirers

Koran

7,

156; comp. also 29, 47.

Ummi

(from

umma

"nation") shows

exactly the same development in meaning as

nJ.
his

ZM See

the

material

collected
p.

by Pautz in
257
f.

Muhammed's Lehre von

der Offenbarung, Leipzig 1898,


3,17

Browne, Tarikh,
in

34-?.

*> idem
369
370 371 372

JRAS.,
p.

XXI

903.

Ibidem,
Tarikh,

884.

31. 30.

Some Answered Questions,


L. c, 34L. c, 41.

373

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES

FRIEDLAENDER

277

of 'Abbas Effendi, the present head of the Bahais,

make

much

of the fact that he had never applied himself to study


in a school."
31

and that "he had never been a day

Of
prophets

course,
is

all

this

parading of the ignorance of the


foil

nothing but a

for the glory and the truth

of the writings revealed through them.

Mohammed's

claim

of illiteracy has no other purpose than that of enhancing


the uniqueness of his literary achievement.
the only miracle of
able.

The Koran

is

which

Mohammed
is

professes to be cap-

Every Koran verse

an aya, a sign or a miracle, and


its

the inimitability of the Koran, not only as regards


tents but also as regards
its

con-

Arabic
so
it

diction,
is

is

constantly

appealed to by

Mohammed, and
3

by the

Mohammeargument

dans
for

down

to the present day, as the principal


"

its

divine origin.

In heterodox Islam which rejects the finality of

Mois,

hammed's message
in

the inimitable character of the

Koran

consequence, repudiated.

But the production of new

revealed writings, which, in turn, pretend to be inimitable

and which,

in

accordance with the anti-Arabic tendency of

heterodox Islam, are not confined to the Arabic language,


has remained the principal proof which the prophetic pretenders employ to substantiate their claim..

Thus
in

Salih, the

prophet of the Berber tribe Baragwata


in

the

extreme North-West of Africa, composed

the

eighth century, in furtherance of his prophetic pretensions,


a

new Koran
376

consisting of eighty suras in the Berber lan-

guage.

3:4

Phelps, Life and Teachings of 'Abbas

Effendi,

p.

25

(in

the

name

of

'Abbas' sister).
375

Comp. Schreiner
Shiiies,
II,

in

ZDMC, XLH,

663

ff.

376

49.

2/8

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Fadl-ullahj
377

the

founder

of

the

Hurufi

sect,

(d.
in

1393),

composed the Jazvidan, a new Persian Koran,

which, as the Hurufis believe, the Koran as well as the previous


revelations
find

their

explanation and
is

fulfilment.
this

378

The
Babism.
to

greatest possible emphasis

laid

on

fact in

The

principal

argument which the Babis advance


Bab's message
'

prove the inspired character of


3 9

is

the

sacred Bayan revealed through him.

They triumphantly

point to the fact that while, during the 1260 years which

had elapsed since the revelation of the Koran, "none, however skilled in rhetoric and eloquence, had presumed even
to

make

this attempt,"

an unlettered youth should suddenly


verses

have

revealed

these

which

were

"incomparably

superior to the
that
it
3
'

Koran

in point of eloquence

and beauty so

was impossible

to take exception to

them or deny

them."

When

after the manifestation of Baha'ullah in


split into

1866 the Babis

two

sections, both

by the Bahais
it

who acknowledged
"utmost
stress

his claim
laid

and the Ezelis who rejected

was

upon the verses (ayat) being the

essential sign

and proof of a prophet and that the Lawh-%his prophetic mission,

Naslr

in

which Beha. announced


his,

and

other writings of
tuted
study.'

fulfilled the conditions

which

consti-

Verses,'
" 381

among them 'knowledge unacquired

by

We
full

are

now

sufficiently

prepared to comprehend the


Kirkisani

significance of the
'Isa:
Above,

statement of

regarding

Abu
377

"His miracle of legitimation


p.

in the eyes of his

249

f.

378 379

Textes persons relatifs a

la

sccte

des Houroufis,

XVII.

The Bayan
Tarikh,
p.

exists

in

three
40.

recensions,

two

in

Arabic

and one

in

Persian,
380

Andreas, Die Babis,


41.

Comp.

also

JRAS., XXI, 917 and 925; Some Answered

Questions,
3H1

27.

Browne, A Year amongst the Persians,

515.

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES

FRIEDLAEXDEK

279

adherents consisted in the fact that, although, as they assert, he was by profession a tailor and, according to their assertion, ivas
lie

umml.

illiterate,

and not able

to

write or to read,

brought forth books and writings, without anyone having

instructed him."*
in

The same statement Kirkisani


383

repeats
in

a later passage:

"We
'Isa

have already related

what

has preceded that

Abu

claimed prophecy and that his

miracle of legitimation in the eyes of his adherents consisted


in the fact that

he was umml,

illiterate,

without being able

to write or to read

and then brought forth books and writpossible by

ings

and that

this

was only

means of prophecy."
384

In the special chapter which the same author


the refutation of

devotes to

Abu

'Isa's

doctrine he reverts to the same

claim which he cleverly endeavors to invalidate.


the miracle which they claim in that he
illiterate,
if

"As

to

had been umml,

and then brought forth books and writings, had been as they mention, even then

even
might
to
it

the matter

it

be possible that he

(Abu

'Isa)

had applied himself and


its

from the beginning of

his cause

very start and that


illiteracy, in

he had (merely) simulated ignorance and


to facilitate

order

what he had

in his

mind."

The same
in

claim of ignorance meets us in later times


circles.

heterodox Jewish

382

Kirk.,

284,

9:
\rs

Vh
(sic)

N^K

1DJJP

NB'B

]X21

KDK3

Sj*l

]HS

PUN

nnx nchp

;x na

kbpiksoi Nana ihbkb


173
f->

mp*

kVi ana<
'Isa

This was
well-

misunderstood by Gratz, V,

who

represents

Abu

as being

versed in Bible and Talmud and gifted with literary


stein, ibidem,

ability.

Nor has Eppen-

173, n.

3,

who

points out Gratz's mistake, grasped the underlying

conception of Kirkisani's notice.


383

lb.,

311, 20

ff.

384

MS.

British

Museum

Or.

2524,

fol.

34a.

280

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


The pseudo-prophet who appeared
in

the

thirteenth

385 century in the large community of Avila in Old Castille was credited with the same transformation. His admirers

piously related "that he

was ignorant from

his childhood

and was neither able

to read or to write.
in sleep,

An

angel
in

who

used to appear to him

sometimes also

waking,

endowed him with


work,
of
full

the faculty of composing a voluminous


title

of mystical content, under the


a bulky

"Wonders
386

Wisdom" and
387

commentary

in addition to it."

This fact created a tremendous sensation


temporaries.

among

his con-

The pseudo-Messiah Moses


Spain
in

Botarel,

who appeared

in

the beginning of the fifteenth century, similarly


388

laid claim to ignorance.


It is

probably from the same motive that Jacob Frank


is

constantly harps on the fact that he

an ignoramus. 389
in

The Messiah who appeared


like his

in

Yemen

1868 was,

predecessor at the time of Maimonides. an ignorant

fellow.

But

it

is

characteristic of the influence of the en-

vironment that he nevertheless considered it his duty to compose "verses" which strongly remind one of the old Arabic semi-prophetic rhyme-prose (the so-called saj') and

which

his
31'

opponent the traveler Jacob Saphir very cleverly

ridicules.

3M Gratz,

VII,

96

f.

"
s

Ibidem.
197.
.1/(7/17.,

"* Ibidem,
"

Gratz

in

iR 79>

p.

80:

At the age of twenty-five he did not

know Hebrew,

til]

Elijah
33,

suddenly illumined him.


179,

imjn panne,
rvatwi

232.
56:

iD*nman,
oSirDi

34

161

nn

xh ron
.dj^bs.

anson

nn

f?a

omoai

.ojni

pia

,oj>b

,oyu

nSi

bv

nSi

jewish-arabic studies
1 1
.

friedlaender

28l

Social Position

As

in all revolutionary upheavals, so in sectarian


first

move-

ments the

to

respond are usually the lower

classes,

those that have nothing to lose and

much

to gain

from the

overthrow of the existing order of things.


Messianic, was revolutionary in character. red to Persia,
it

Shiism, being

When

transfer-

became the organized protest of the Persian

nation not only against the political dominion of the Arabic

conquerors but
them.
391

also

against

the

religion

represented by

AYhile, however, the higher Persian classes, in the

expectation of political and financial benefits, hastened to

make

their peace with the

new

masters,

392

the adherents of

Shiism mainly recruited themselves from the lower classes

which expected

their salvation

from the

political

and

social

revolution preached and prepared by Shiism.

This social contrast manifested


great Shiitic uprising of

itself

very early

in the

Mukhtar who pretended

to act on
393

behalf

of

the

expected

Mahdi

Ibn

al-Hanafiyya.

Mukhtar's main support came from the Mawali, the emancipated slaves of Persian origin in Kufa.
position

Their

social

may

be gauged from the fact that, not being able

to afford regular arms, they

had

to content themselves with

clubs and were

for
394

this

reason

nicknamed Khashabiyya

"men

of wood."

This condition becomes even more evident when


call to

we

our mind the professions of some of the Shiitic sec-

tarians which, in accordance with oriental usage, are often

indicated in their names.


391 392 393

Thus we
I,

find

among

the Shiitic

Comp.

Shiites,

Introduction,
20.

2.

Comp. van Vloten,


Shiitic Elements,
Sliiites,

II,

487.
15
ff.

394

II,

93

ff.,

particularly 94,

282

TUK JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


395

Pseudo-Messiahs Bazig the weaver,


fession in the East,
396

the most despised pro-

and

it

is

worthy of mention that one


397

of the authors

who

record the existence of this sectarian

sneeringly implies that the recognition of prophets of such

low social standing


Da'i
the

is

typical of

Shiism.

398

The 'Abbasid
executed

and

"prophet"
SM

Khidash

who
400

was
401

by

Omayyads

in 736,

was

a potter.

The famous
The
The
402

general

and sectarian
1

Abu Muslim was

a saddler.
fuller.
4"3

celebrated

'seudo-Messiah Mukanna' was a

great rebel
Shiitic
404

and beresiarch Babak was a shepherd.


mystic Hallaj was, as his

The famous

name

indicates, a wool-carder.

The
was
395 396

Keisanitic

champion and poet as-Sayyid al-Himyari


ridicule,

was the object of


a cobbler.
405

because his associate in doctrine

lb.,
lb.,

I,

64,

6;

II,
ff.

96,

ff.

II,

96,

15

On

the

odium attaching
/.

to

the weaver trade see, in

addition to the references given


n.
1,

c,

Wellhausen, Das arabische Reich, 146,


ed.

Barhebraeus,

Laughable Stories,
9,
1

Budge,

No.

470

ff.

and already
to

Josephus, Ant.,

XVIII,

(the last

two references were indicated

me

by Professor Joseph Horovitz and Professor Louis Ginzberg).


397

Ibn

Hazm

(d.

1064),
is

Shiites,

I,

64,

7-8.

398

Very

characteristic

the

story told by

Barhebraeus

(/.

c,

No. 471) 'Never


to

of a weaver

who wanted

to

become a prophet.

"The people

told him:

has there been seen a prophet

who was
for
it?'

weaver.'

He, however, replied

them:

'Shepherds with
not

all

their

simplicity
"

have been employed as prophets,


(Budge's
translation

why should
point).
399
40 *
4,11

weavers

be

fit

misses

the

Shiites,

I,

64;
49.

II,

98.

van Vloten,

He was
II,

called

Abu Muslim

as-Sarraj.

The

latter is correctly explained

by D;;rmsteter, 40, and Browne, Persia, 236, as saddler.


to Shiites,
4,2
4 " :i

This

is

to be

added

118, 9.
II,

Shiites,

120,

9.

Browne, Persia,
See
presently.
I,

325.

404
"'

Shiites,

78,

2;

II,

134,

31.

ultra-Shiitic

propagandists

Abu

Zakariyya
IT, 17,

As further examples may be quoted the a\-Khayyat (the tailor) and 'AH
9-

an-Najjar (the carpenter), Shiites,

seem

that

the

famous

heresiarcli

Bihafarid was a

From Shahr., 187, 12, it would khawwaf (shoemaker). But

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
It

FRlEDLAK.MM.k
may
frequently
so,

283

can be easily imagined that the low occupation of the


leader

sectarian

or

pseudo-prophet

have
since,

proved inconvenient to his followers, the more


in

accordance with the oriental custom, the profession often


It is

forms part of the name.

therefore not surprising that


to put a

the attempt should have been

made

more favorable

construction on such uncomplimentary designations.

We
of

have a curious instance of


Hallaj.
this
It

this

tendency

in

the

case

was apparently mortifying

to the admirers of

famous mystic who was believed

to be a divine incarna-

tion and a revealer of sublime truths to have their great

patron styled a
tained "that the

hallaj, a

wool-carder.

Hence

it

was main-

name

al-Hallaj

was metaphorical, and was


secret

given to

him because he could read man's most

thoughts, and extract from their hearts the kernel of their

imaginings as the wool-carder separates the cotton-grains

from the cotton."


case of the

406

An

interesting analogy

is

found

in the

famous Mu'tazilite philosopher an-Nazzam, who


by
this

was
the

called

name because he used

to string pearls in

market of

Basra

(from nazama "to string pearls"),


his admirers to

whose name, however, was interpreted by


convey that he was
407

able

to

string

together

prose

and

poetry.

When we
stantially the

turn to Jewish sectarianism,


state of affairs.

we

find sub-

same

From

the account of

Kirkisani
the

we

gain distinctly the impression, and occasionally


is

correct

reading

Khawaf, the name of a


p.

district

in

Nlsabur

(comp.

Houtsma,
lation,
406

WZKM.,

1889,

30).

Cureton's edition and Haarbriicker's trans-

I,

283, penult., arc to be corrected accordingly.

Browne, Persia, 433.


Shiites,
II,

407

58,

12.

284

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


are

we

expressly

informed,

408

that

the

Jewish sectarians

were people of low standing both

socially

and

intellectually.

We

are, in consequence, not surprised to

hear that the most


perriod,

important
al- Isfahan!,
409

Jewish

heresiarch

of

that

Abu

'Isa

was not only


the

illiterate

but

by profession

tailor.

On

same ground we are


and successor
is

justified in

assuming
410

that, if his disciple

designated as ar-Ra'i,

he was purely and simply a shepherd.


Hadassi.
411

His designation by

in

the

clumsy manner characteristic of that

author, as
412

"pfoj

""Wl,

which was unjustifiably taken


exactly, if

to be
it

sarcastic,

would characterize him more

be

not a mere paraphrase of the Arabic word, as a camel-herd.

The name Ra'yaniyya which


408

is

found
Of
the

in

connection with

Comp.
(or

Shiitic

Elements,

I,

208.

followers

of

the

sectarian

Meshuye) of 'Okbara (near Bagdad) Kirkisani makes the rather uncomplimentary remark that "there has never been seen among them a
scholar or a thinker"
409

Meswi

(Kirk., 285,
372.

18). in

Above,

note

The

modern Pseudo-Messiah
According
"ISlfi,

Yemen was very

poor and engaged


p.

in a

low profession.
skins
II,
is

to

some (rPSBTt JOTl m.3N,


Others report
JliyDO , 13). Of

51),

he was a tailor in

(nillj?

"furrier?").
( PlO^tf

that he

was a potter (VSD pK,


this

149). or a cobbler

course,
general.

low social position


of

characteristic

of

the

Yemenite
in

Jews

in

Morclecai

Eistenstadt

(about

1679)

who had come

contact

with the Sabbathians in the Orient set himself up as the Messiah, maintaining
that Sabbathai Zevi had been his forerunner.

Sabbathai could not bring about

the redemption because he was rich, while the Messiah must needs be poor,
Gratz, X, 303
4.0
f.

BirunI,

15,
all

n, comp. above,
likelihood

p.

261.

A
is

Pseudo-Messiah by the name

ar-Ra'I

who

in

was

Jew

mentioned by a Mohammedan

author
not
his

(ZDMG.,

XX

490)

as having appeared in Tiberias.

He

is

certainly
in

identical

with
p.

ar-Ra'i

mentioned by Biruni (as suggested by Sachau

translation,
laid
4.1

373),

but he affords a good example of another shepherd

who

claim to prophecy.

-IE2H

blVH, alphabet

T:

Piynn

NIPI (read

|aiv)

|M*W

E*1Jn

412

Harkavy

in

Gratz, V, 483:

^W3 niMH

fillips,

p.

19-

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
413

l-RlHDLAi-NDi.u

285

this sect

would lead us
also

to

assume

that

Yudgan's by-name
1

ar-Rai was

pronounced Ra'ya or Ra'yan.

"

Perhaps

the further conjecture

may

be ventured that this designation,

pointing to a low social occupation, was annoying to his

adherents and was therefore interpreted by them,

in

ac-

cordance with the


in

biblical usage,

which

is

occasionally found

Arabic,

415

in a
416

metaphorical meaning as "the shepherd of

the nation."

The above
in

derivation of the

name

of

Yudgan does

not
at

any way militate against the assumption that he was

the

same time

a Da'i of

Abu
417

'Isa and, like his master, held

that office in high esteem.


as a scribal error for Ra'i

The attempt
is

to explain Da'I

418

not convincing, for the im-

portance accorded to the


is

Dai

both by

Abu

'Isa

and Yudgan

in

perfect agreement with the conceptions of their age

and environment.
413

Bagdad! "al-'lsawiyya wa'r-Ra'yaniyya" (above, note 192).

Goldziher's

objections to this reading

(ZDMC, LXV,
Comp.

361) which he regards as an error


also next note.

for "'Yudganiyya" are not justified.


414

Just as

we

find

Mftslika

and Milshka'iyya, alongside of Mushkan and


I,

MusJikaniyya,
adaptation
(instead of
415

Shiitic
Ra'i,

Elements,
while

297,

n.

93.

Ra'yan looks

like

Persian

of

Ra'ya

looks

Aramaic.

Perhaps the reading

X'JH

Jt*J?K*l,

note 416) reflects the same form of the name.


Yazid,

Thus

the
all

Caliph

son of

Mu'awiya,
36.

is

designated

as

"the

ra'i

(shepherd) of
416

religious people,*'
12:

van Vloten,

Kirk.,
lyx-l

284,

Kjfln
(var.

nannsa moo hSx im


X" y"0
,

\hxt\* dj? 'sn ijra jnai

nttxSs

HJX 'X

'"After

Abu

'Isa

came Yudgan,

the

same
>

who
the

is

called by his adherents Ra'i (shepherd, var. Ra'ya? see note 414).

Shepherd of the Nation."


417

Above,

p.

264.
his introduction to Kirkisani, p. 206, n.
1,

41S

Harkavy

is

in Gratz,

V, 477.

ninan nmpb-,

19.

2 86

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


12.

Jihad

one of the Jihad or the fight against unbelievers is duty fundamental precepts of Islam. But apart from the
of fighting unbelief outside the

Mohammedan community,
Koran which
fre-

the faithful Muslim, in obedience to the

quently emphasizes "the


hibition to
injustice
this fight

command
is

to

do right and the proto fight

do wrong,"

419

called

upon

wrong and
in

wherever they meet him.

As

to the

mode

which

ought to be carried on, the view shared by a on variety of sections within orthodox Islam or bordering with the heart and the it is that it is not sufficient to fight
tongue

by conviction and persuasion), "but that appeal 420 The Shiites, however, are of the must be made to arms."
(i. e.

opinion

that
421

the

use

of

arms

is

prohibited.
422

"All the
us,
in
it

Rawafid.
to
it,

so the dogmatist Ibn


killed.
. .

Hazm

informs

hold
(in

though they be

But they believe

the prohibition of arms) only so long as the speaking Imam (= the Mahdl) does not come forth. When he does come
forth,

then the drawing of

swords becomes obligatory."


is

Peculiarly enough this view

quoted

in

an old source

423

as

one of the analogies between Shiism and Judaism.

"The

Jews say, There shall be no fighting for the sake of God, 424 and a until the Messiah, the Expected One, goes forth
herald
419

from

heaven

proclaims

(his

arrival).

The
106,

al-amrn

bi'l-ma'ruf wa'n-nahyu

'ani'l-munkar,

Koran

3,

100,

no,

et

passim.
<

Shiites,

II,

93,

IS-

421

Nickname
Shiites,

for
92,

Shiites.

II,

33

ff-

3 i the anthology of the


Shiites,
II,

Spaniard Ibn 'Abdi Rabbihi


II,

(d.

940), comp.

95,
is

and

Shiitic

Elements,

497,

note 78.

< This

probably a reference to
play so

the

wars with Gog and Magog and


in

the Antichrist which


lations of Judaism.

prominent a part

the later Messianic specu-

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
Rafida
425

FRlEDLAENDER
28

287

say,

There

is

no fighting for the sake of Allah


descends from

until the

Mahdl goes

forth and a herald'

heaven."

This theory which restricts

all

fighting to Mahdistic

movements

places every Mahdistic candidate in the neces-

sity to rise in

arms against the powers that


consequences,
for
his

be,

without any
to
fight

regard to possible

neglect

would immediately disqualify him

as a Messianic candidate.

From
Shiites

this logical but

extremely dangerous conclusion the

were saved by the adoption of the principle of


427

takiyya "fear, precaution."

This principle which acknowl-

edges the claim of practical expediency became of utmost

importance to Shiism which has always been


to the existing order of things

in opposition

and has constantly knocked

up against
to

428

reality.

It

also offered a convenient solution

the

perplexing question which must trouble the con-

science of every faithful Shiite

why

the

Mahdi who must

425

i.

e.,

the

Shiites,

comp. note 421.


1.

426

sabab, comp. Shiites, II, 95, n.

427

Corresponding in

substance

to

the

Talmudic

D31X.
in

Compare

on
213

takiyya Goldziher,
ff.,

"Das Prinzip der takiyya im Islam,"


217
ff.,

ZDMG., LX,

particularly

p.

idem,
Babis,

Vorlesungen,
ib.,

215,

and on the application

of the takiyya
423

among modern

303.

One
note
(i.

is

vividly reminded of this Shiitic principle


justified the apostasy of their
too,

when one reads how


Pharaoh,
also

some of the Sabbathians


above,
207).
e.

Pseudo-Messiah (comp.
with
so

"Moses,
simulate)

who

lived

at

first

used to
Sabbathai

change

to

his

action

change his actions" (Gratz, X, 457).


note 360),
of the
in

(VCV^ i"l3trO), When Abraham


renounced
his

did

Abulafia (comp. above,


beliefs

order

to

escape

death,

in

the

presence

Pope, he claimed that God had endowed him with a "double mouth"

(ibidem,

VII,

195.

Compare
224).

especially

the

Shiitic

examples quoted by
is

Goldziher,
the
1

ZDMG., LX,

clear

reflection of

the takiyya principle

6th rule of the

modern Sabbathians
in this

(the so-called

Donmeh)

in

Salonika

which enjoins upon them "to observe carefully the customs of the Turks,

whose eyes would be blinded


thing which
is

way" and

particularly to practice "every-

visible to the

eye" (Danon, in

niCH 1ED,

I,

169).

288
lie

Til K

K WISH

Q UAR T K R L V R K\' K W
I

cognizant of

all

the

wrong and

injustice

rampant

in this
fill

world yet remains hidden and does not come forth to


the earth with justice.
423

While the saner elements within the Shi'a thus made


peace with
reality, there

were radical sections which repuit

diated this pact with convenience and considered

their

duty to
fate.

fight,

without any regard to their strength or their


per cat
is

Fiat

iitstitia,

mundits became their watchlikelihood the

word.

This view
Shiitic

in

all

source of the
a considerable

terroristic

movements which played


430

part in the eighth century in 'Irak.

One

of these terrorists

was Mugira

b.

Sa'id of Kufa.

431

He

regarded Ja'far as-

Sadik, the sixth 'Alidic


decisive
a small

Imam,

as the

Mahdi.

432

When

the

moment

arrived, he rose in arms,

accompanied by

band of mawalis (emancipated slaves), against the


Kufa.
(in

governor of
exterminated

They were,
433

as

was

to

be

expected,
alto-

737).

Mugira's "army" consisted

gether of twenty men.

According

to Tabarl,

434

they were

no more than seven men.


Perhaps some such notions may have prevailed among
the Jewish sectarians
in

who

arose about the same time and

to fight the

Abu 'Isa considered it his duty Mohammedan power and met his fate. His successor Yuclgan who otherwise upheld his views thought it wiser to keep his peace. One of the followers of Yudgan
similar surroundings.
**

Goldziher,
Shiites,
1,

Vorlesungen,
35,

218
f
.

f.

,::

"

12;

62

II,

92

f.

(=

Jahiz,

Kitab al-hayazvan, ed.

Cairo, II, 97),


' Shiites,
,:
-'

[53.
II,

79.

22

ff.

//'.,

II,

107.

lh..

I.

60,

10

probably not Mugira himself, but his sucff.

are meant, comp.


lh..
//).,

II,

87,

12

"
"

If.

7<)

.36.

t:

"

line

37.

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES

FRIEDLAENDER
35

289
as

was

certain
436

Mushka

or

Mushkan/

He

adhered,

Shahrastani

informs

us, "to the doctrine of


it

Yudgan, with

the exception that he considered


his adversaries

obligatory to rise against

and

to

wage war

against them.

He

rose,

accompanied by nineteen men, and was

killed in the neigh-

borhood of

Kumm."
the reference to the

Whether
all

number

19 which
37

is

the

important sacred number of the Babis'

and already
3 "

figures as such in the ancient Persian religion/

is

a matter to

of

intention
439

or

coincidence,

is

scarcely

possible

determine.

13.
It
is

Tabdil
arguments

well

known
him

that one of the principal

cited in support of

Mohammed's

claim to prophecy are the

references to

in the older sacred writings, notably in

the Bible and the Gospels.

To meet

the obvious objection

that such references are missing, the theory of tabdil ("alter-

ation")
the

is

advanced

which proclaims that the Bible and

Gospels

had been wilfully altered and the passages

predicting the advent of


with.

Withal the

Mohammed maliciously done awav Mohammedan theologians continue to

point to a

number

of biblical passages which even in their

435

See on the variations of the name Shiitic Elements,


I,

I,

207,

n.

93.

436

169,

ff.

437

Browne,

Year

amongst

the

Persians,

320;

JRAS.,

XXI,

499'.

Tarikh, 136; Hastings' Encyclopedia, II, 306b, and others.


438

Browne, Persia, Browne,

98.

In Islam
xin.
in

it

is

signalized

already by Ibn 'Arabi

(d.

1240),
439

Tarikh,

It

may

be

mentioned
(Shiitic

this

connection that the


487).
after

rebel

and pseudo-

prophet Mukhtar

Elements,

II,

having been besieged in

Kufa
in

for four months, finally

made

a sally with nineteen

men and was


86.

killed

687,

Wellhausen, Religios-politische

Oppositionsparteien,

29O

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


opinion,

present form contain, in their


allusion to

an
440

unmistakable

Mohammed's mission and name.


slander
against
visited

This

the

pre-Mohammedan

writings

was soon enough


which the
Shiism.

upon orthodox Islam, against

identical

accusation

was brought forward by

The

Shiites are firmly convinced that the

Koran

originallv contained

an
of

express

reference

to 'All as the

appointed successor

Mohammed

and

they

staunchly

maintain that the divine book had been altered and interpolated by the companions of the Prophet
to
in

who were

hostile

'AH and
its

that, in

consequence,
441

it

cannot be relied upon

present shape.

This view gained wide currency

among

the Shiitic sects and gave rise to extensive polemics

between them and the orthodox.


Just as

Mohammed

claimed that he was foretold in the

Bible and Gospels, so did the Shiitic pseudo-prophets en-

deavor to make themselves and their followers believe that

name and advent had been predicted in Thus the Shiitic sectarian Abu Mansur (early
their

the Koran.

eighth cen-

tury),
that he

nicknamed al-Kisf

(the

"Fragment"), maintained

was alluded

to in the verse: "If they should see a

fragment (kisf) of
442

the

sky

falling

down"

(Koran
b.

52,

44).

His contemporary and fellow-Shiite Bayan


is

Sam'an

pointed to the verse: "This

an

illustration

(bayan) for
reference
to

mankind" (Koran
him.
44

3,

132)

as

containing

Similarly

Ahmad

b. Yanus, a Mu'tazilite heretic,

440

See on this question which figures so prominently in polemical


Steinschneider,
Polor.ische

liter-

ature
7ihcr,
441

und apologctische Literature, 320

ff.,

Goldfr.

ZDMG., XXXII,
Compare
Compare
Shiites,
//>.,

344
II, II,

ff.,

and Schreiner, ibidem,


f.

XLH,

595! 599

Shiites,

61 61

4,1

Shiites,
I,

f.

442

62.

443

1,

6,.

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
pretended to be a prophet,
to in the verse:
444

FRIEDEAENDER
will

29

maintaining that he was alluded

"Announcing an apostle who


will be

come
445

after me,

whose name

Ahmad" (Koran

61, 6).

As

a reflection of the

Mohammedan
century)

tabdil theory

we

may perhaps
Isma'il

regard the doctrine of the Jewish sectarian


(ninth

al-'Okbari

who,

according

to

Kirkisani, "maintained that there are things in the Bible

which were not so as they are

at present written

down."

44

The

illustrations

quoted

by

Kirkisani

447

are

all

textual

emendations which have no dogmatic significance.


is

But
is

it

clear that

such an attitude

towards the Bible

only

possible on the assumption that

human hands had tampered

with

it.

It

is

not

impossible that
to the

the

specimens

of

biblical

criticism,

which belong
448

same period and point

to a to

similar environment,

were not inspired by the attempt

444

ib.,

ii, II,

11.

445

lb.,

88,

30.
tilt.:

448

Kirk.,

314,

<H

HV

>TJ pfl dS K'tTX

SKrO^K

*E

|M DJ?T

PUX

1M1
1**

n2in2?3

'nSx.

In the same passage Kirkisani mentions the

fact

S^'SDN

xs

>hp

|n

a* nxipSx

;x djni

npi

(read anaS?)

rnrSx hzix 'Imj^k


kerc, maintaining that

2in32 in "that

Isma'il al-'Okbari set aside the ketib


is

and

the reading ought to be in accordance with what

written," a view which was


319,
2).

shared

by

some

of

the

Karaites

of

Khorasan
between

(Kirk.,

Kirkisani

himself points out the


in the text.

contradiction

this

view and the one quoted


to suggest that Isma'il

Hadassi (alphabet T,

fol.

41, ult.)

seems
original

considered both the ketib and kere


tention of Isma'il probably

false.

The

meaning of

this

con-

was

that the divergence between the ketib and kerS


altered.

was an indication that the Bible had been wilfully

T
448

3i5,
I

ff-

refer

to

the

"objections"

of
P-

Chivi ha-Balchi

(treated

exhaustively

by

Poznanski

in

pJH, VII

(1907),

"2
ff-

ff-)

and the Genizah fragment


the
literature

published

by Schechter, JQR., XIII,


/.

345

(see

quoted by

Poznanski,

c, 27

ff.).

-2i)2

Till-:

JEWISH QUARTERLY RKVIKW


were rather meant
to

invalidate the Bible as a whole but


discredit
its

present textual form.

44 "

The endeavors of Sabbathai Zevi and


rind

his followers to
400

allusions

to

his

name

in

the

Bible

are scarcely

analogous to the

Mohammedan
is

tendency referred to above.

But a good
Messiah of

parallel

afforded

by the modern

Pseudo-

Yemen who

has been repeatedly mentioned in

these expositions before.

Orthodox though he was, he did

not hesitate to preach that the Bible contained mistakes and


misreadings.
4*1

This theory enabled Shukr


as
it

al

Kuheil,
45
"

who
had

was only half-learned and,


allusions to his

seems, half-witted,
in the Bible.

to find

name and appearance

He
1

the boldness to declare that in the verse Isai. 45,


saith the

("Thus
Cyrus

Lord unto His anointed

one, to Cyrus")
453

(BH13) was an error for Shukr


passage Micah
forth shall be
454

(-DlCT).

In the Messianic

5,

he read, instead of DTp ("his goings


old, or

from of
shall

from the East"), kjnvd ("his


In Gen.
10, 30.

goings
449

forth

be

from San'a").
regard to Chivi
is

he
c.

similar view with


p.

expressed by Poznanski,

/.

(reprint),
450

18.

Sabbathai's second

name
2,

M
4)

was supposed
and
this

to

be the abbreviation of
his iSb,

PPrv

inilEN^

p*TS

OHabak
by

was taken as a proof that

advent
33a,
etc.

was predicted

that

prophet,

^2 S^IJ

n^,

10a,

13a,

17b,

*
from
452

n^vn

jDfi

jvuk,
}12.

36-.

dpd

en

wrap owaa

neo l^ex

pit

"ratal

mx^t?"1

7l2?*n

He

also used to correct the Zohar, ibidem

(in a letter

San'a).

ma,
Ka.

32

(in a letter

from San'a):

S:)S

JJVM HSp W"l

"<Dn

Kin

IN

n*p iy

m m

man,

36 and

TED

pit, IT,

si.

tVUK, 23

(in a letter of the

Messiah himself).

Shukr quotes incorrectly


in

ClpO "PniNXin

"PIT but

he

has

undoubtedly our passage

mind.

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
substituted for DTpn
tain
"in

KRI KDLAKXDKk
name of
the local

293

the Arabic

moun-

Dpj S^.

435

14.

Prohibition
destruction

01-

Meat
the

When

after

the

of

Second Temple
forbid the

certain ascetically

inclined people proposed to

use of meat and wine, because they had been offered on the
altar

which now

lay

in

ruins, they

were checked by the


to

judicious R. Joshua ben


that by the

Hananiah who pointed out


to
456

them

same analogy they would have


life.

renounce many

other eatables indispensable for

This tendency, which


itself,

was thus suppressed


like

in

talmudic Judaism, asserted

many

other austerities of the law disposed of by the


4'7

Rabbis, in Jewish sectarianism,

notably in Karaism.

Al-

ready

Anan forbade

the eating of

meat

in the exile

458

and

he was followed in this prohibition by later Karaite author455


_

Ibidem.

The

latter

reading

is

probably meant more in the nature of

an

identification

than

of

an

emendation.

The

places

mentioned

in
is

that
interII,

biblical

passage were located in


already
2).

Southern Arabia.
equivalent
for

Uzal (verse 27)


San'a

preted
25,
n.
456

by

Saadia

as

an

(compare AbS.,

Tosefta Sotah, end;

b.

Baba batra

dob.

437

Already the Dositheans refrained

from the use of meat, Krauss


ed, Adler,

in

Jen: Enc, IV, 643b.


763)

Benjamin of Tudela (Itinerary,


of
,C

JQR., XVII,
(to

mentions

"'mourners

Zion" among the Jews of Arabia

be dis-

tinguished from the


in

]V

?2X

known from

Karaitic literature, comp.

Marx

ZfhB., XIV, 138)


458

who

refrained from meat and wine.

-|<^

,t,y

nynxm pp
jo

mbufeii

di rvSxJnx

unhhn

onnna mnan
topoDKi

isp^M
"The
in

irin
first to

"xip

rtpwaih

*DDipfo

town

naaptoi

po*aa

forbid meat in exile

was the Exilarch Anan, and he was followed

this

by Benjamin (an-Nahawandi), Isma'Il al-'Okbarl and Daniel al-Kumisi

as well as by a large section of Karaites of this generation" (Kirkisani, quoted

from
1898,

a
p.

MS. by Harkavy
9,

in

the

Russian-Jewish monthly Woshkod, February


of
148,

n.

3).

On

the prohibition
4,

meat by Anan see


and
193.

also

Harkavy,

Studien und Mitteilungen, VIII,

141,

294
459

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


even by those who,
400

ities,

like Isma'il al-'Okbari,

otherwise

violently opposed him.

This

restriction, together

with the

prohibition of wine,

461

became particularly

characteristic of

the

Karaite ascetics

who

settled

in

the

Holy Land and


4e

formed the community of the so-called "Abele Zion."


the time of Kirkisa.nl, as

In
468

we

learn

from

his

own

words,

the bulk of Karaites refrained

from eating meat, and the

wide currency of

this

restriction

may perhaps

be best

in-

ferred from the exceptions quoted by the same author

who

circumstantially relates that one of the Karaitic sectarians

had composed several pamphlets


missible
464

to prove that

meat was per"considered

and that there were Karaites

who

permissible the eating of the flesh of sheep and cattle in the


465

exile."
It

would lead us too far

afield to inquire into the

motives underlying this restriction.


manifold, springing
partly

They were probably

from tendencies of asceticism

which was considered meritorious as long as the Jews were


banished from their land, partly from a
tation of the verse Levit. 17, 3
literal

interpre-

which forbids the slaughter

of animals outside the camp, or from the conception, already

voiced in the presence of Rabbi Joshua ben Hananiah, which

regards the secular use of the animals or substances formerly sacrified

on the holy

altar as

an act of irreverence and

4S9

See previous note.

4,50

Comp.

Kirk.. 284,

27;

315,

12.

4fl1

Anan

also forbade the drinking of

wine

in the exile,

Harkavy, Studien,

4,

21.
4n2
4r 3 '

Gratz,

V, 269;
note
315,
18.

507

f.

Above,

458.
22.

4M Kirk.,
405

lb.,

318,

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
impiety.

FRlEDLAENDER
it
466

295

Be

the motive whatever


its

may, the prohibition of


confined to
it

meat was, as
the
state

formulation clearly indicates,

of the

Jews

in

the

dispersion.

Nor was

prompted

by any vegetarian or humanitrian considerations.


467

For the prohibition of meat by the Karaites was by no

means

absolute.

Anan allowed

the flesh of the deer


468

and

that of the pigeon and turtle-dove among the

birds,

while

the later Karaites distinctly confine the prohibition to the


flesh of

sheep and

469

cattle.

The same
of the Jewish
spirit

prohibition of
sectarians

meat and wine


'Isa

is

reported
470

Abu

and Yudgan.

This

of self-abnegation which was regarded as the only

attitude befitting the unfortunate condition of the

Jews

in

the exile found a particularly favorable soil in these sectarian circles

which believed

in

the

approaching Messianic
it

redemption and partly endeavored to bring


force of arms.
terized

about by the

The Yudganiyya

particularly

were characas

by ascetic tendencies and


471

were

given,

both

KirkisanI and Shahrastani inform us, to


fasting.

much praying and


Yudgan and

The same disparaging

attitude towards the exile

reveals itself in another doctrine, preached by

shared by some Karaites, "that the sabbaths and festivals


466

frfntjfrK

"in exile," above, n. 458, also Kirk., 318, 18, and often

by

later
467

authorities.

Harkavy

in Jew.

Enc.

(article

"Anan"),

I,

555a.

Harkavy does not

indicate his source.


468

See also next note.


155,

Harkavy, Studien, 67;


s,

comp. 188.
(Gratz,

On

the meat of the cock,

ib.,

145,

n.

154,

156,

n.

5.

Elsewhere

V, 477)

Harkavy formulates

Anan's prohibition with a


Geflugel, mit
469

slight difference:

"Vom

Fleische gestattete er bloss

Ausnahme der Hiihner, und den Hirsch."


318,
18,

Kirk.,
Kirk.,

and the passages enumerated


312,
17.

in note 458.

470

311, 24;
ib.,

Shahr.,

I,

168,

ult.

only of Yudgan.
;

471

Kirk.,

{OTIS

ElsSx)

HxSxSk

ptoj?riDl

Shahr.,

ib.,

yahuttu

'alz-zuhdi

wa-taktiri'

s-salati.

296
are no

TlIK

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


in

more
a

valid

this
4

age and are

(to he observed)

merely as

recollection."

"

While the prohibition of meat by these sectarians


thus fully
there
is

is

in

accord with widely current Jewish tendencies,


in

something

the formulation of this prohibition,

as reproduced by Shahrastani, which cannot possibly be

ascribed to these influences.

For, according to this author,


473

Abu Tsa

"prohibited in his book

all

slaughtered animals

and he forbade the eating of any creature endowed with


a living spirit unconditionally, be
it

a bird or

an animal."*'
is

The

contrast to the Karaite, practices discussed above

palpable.
tially

The complete

prohibition of birds differs essen-

from the Karaitic custom and the motive underlying


prohibition

this

seems essentially different as well:

it

is

neither asceticism nor the exile, but the objection to the

destruction of
in

life.

am

therefore inclined to assume that,

addition to Jewish influences,

Abu

'Isa

was swayed

in

his prohibition
1

by foreign non- Jewish conceptions.

believe that the source of

Abu

'Isa's

prohibition

is

to

be found in the doctrines and practices of Manichaeism and


the
sects

emanating

from

it,

whose influence on Jewish

sectarianism has already been proved by other instances.

The
of

prohibition of meat and wine

is

a characteristic feature
his

Manichaeism.

Already before the birth of Manl


r

father Futtak

was repeatedly w arned by


18:

a heavenly voice

472

Kirk.,

312,

"Yiyh*

sin
a

^e rvjpxD
sect

nx^xSxi nxnos^s
related
to

pojmi

IDT
held

fl

KQJitt.

The Shadganiyya,

closely

the

Yudganiyya,

the
473

same opinion, Pinsker,


is

'-lp?, 26.

This

apparently one of the revealed books which he produced, after

the

manner
note
474

of

Mohammedan
168:

sectarians,

in

spite

of

his

ignorance

(comp.

382).
I,

Sbabr.,
rilhiu

iva-harrama H kitdbihi' d-dabaiha kullaha wa-naha 'an


fairan

akli

dl

'alalitlaki

kana an

bahimatan.

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
to refrain
is

FRIKDI.AKXDKR
an
1

297
restriction

from meat and wine


478

4 '5

the

same

one of the essential conditions for admission into the

Manichcaean community.
tersely remarks,

The Manichseans,
in (the

as Ibn

Hazm
relates

"do not believe


is

use of) slaughtered

animals."
that

4
'

The motive
478

supplied by Biruni

who

Man! "forbade

to slaughter living creatures or to cause


is

them pain."

Mazdak, who

dogmatically a lineal de-

scendant of Mani, was prompted by the same motive

when

he forbade the slaughtering of animals until they died a


natural death.
of
479

The

heresiarch Bihafarid,
to

480

a contemporary

Abu

'Isa,

who seems

have been largely influenced by


in

Manichseism and Mazdakism, prohibited,


tion to

contradistinc-

Mazdak.
less

the flesh of dead animals, but that he


is

was

none the
the
fact

actuated by fhe same tendency

shown by

that he allowed

the slaughtering of small cattle


481

when they were


them

enfeebled.

apparently believing that to


to

kill
482

in this state involved

no cruelty

them but

charity.

It is in

doctrines like these which were undoubtedly in

vogue

in the

age and

in the

environment of Abu

'Isa that

we have

to look for

an explanation of his sweeping prohib-

ition of the destruction of life

which
the
old
it

is

both in

its

extent

475

Fliigel,

Mani,

83.

According

to

Persian conception which

is

still

voiced by Firdausi in the tenth century,


people 'from the primitive and
prevailed into
Fliigel,
/.

was the Devil who beguiled


(Browne, Persia, 115).

the

innocent vegetarianism supposed to have

hitherto
476

the
1.

eating of animal

food"

c, 95,

477

Milal iva'n-nihal,

I,

36,

14:

WO-hum
(above,

la

yarauna 'd-dabaiha, the same


of

expression as used by
478

Shahrastani

note 474)

Abu

'Isa.

207,

21.

479

Biruni,

209,

16.

This motive

would meet the

difficulty

pointed

out

by Noldeke, Geschichte der Araber und Perser, 460.


480
481

Comp.
Biruni,

Shiitic Elements, II, 500.

211:

Shahr.,

187..

482

In

addition

Bihafarid,

just

like

Mani, forbade the drinking of wine,

ibidem.

298

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


motive
different
circles.

and

from similar practices current

in

Jewish sectarian

Perhaps

mark

of

may also throw some light on the reKirkisanI: "He (Abu 'Isa) prohibited meat and
this

wine, not on the basis of Scripture but because he maintained that

propliecy"
first

41

God had commanded him to do this through Anan, who is designated by KirkisanI as the
484

who

forbade the eating of meat,

tried to

deduce

this

prohibition

from the

Bible.

485

Abu

'Isa,

however, was con-

scious of the fact that this prohibition


his
in

was an innovation of

own and had no

source in the similar practices current


486

certain Jewish circles hitherto.

15.

Number

oe Prayers
487

According
daily prayers

to

ShahrastanI,

Abu

'Isa

instituted

ten

and he also

specified the time at

which they

should be recited.

KirkisanI, however, reports that he in-

stituted seven daily prayers, in accordance with the

Psalm
be-

verse (119, 164)

"Seven times a day do


488

praise

Thee

cause of thy righteous judgments."


483

It is to

be assumed

311,
"]hl

24:

rhhx

]H djn

mxn
to

S2 nxnuSx jo xS skib^ki nrhhn


Hadassi
(Alphabet

nnm

Hna^Ka
to

mSK.

According

TX

),

he adopted the

prohibition of meat and wine from the Rechabites, but this would only apply

meat.
484
485

Above, note 458.


See
to

Harkavy,
his

Studicn
of

und
wine.

Mitteilungen,

VIII,

193

f.

The same
Gratz, V,

applies
508.

prohibition

For the

later

Karaites comp.

4M Whether Abu 'Isa's prohibition of wine which is characteristic of ManI and Bihafarid is to be ascribed to these influences or to the general

tendency

observable

among Karaites
is

is

difficult

to

determine.
in

It

certainly

was not suggested by the precept of orthodox Islam which


than

Persia more

elsewhere was and


487 488

still

very frequently violated.

I,

168,

16.

311, 23.

Similarly Hadassi.

JEWISH-ARABIC STUDIES
a priori that the smaller number
while
it

FRIEDLAENDER
is

299

the correct one.


'Isa justified the
it

Now
new
likely

may

be possible that
the
it,

Abu

number of prayers by
that he derived
it

Psalm

verse,

is

little

from

particularly

when we remember
he also retained the
re-

that, as Kirkisani further

informs
489

us,

regular prayers of the Jews.

We

have already had

peated occasion to point to the extraordinary prominence

accorded to the number seven in heterodox


circles
It is

Mohammedan

whose

influence on

Abu
it

'Isa

has been traced above.

no wonder therefore that


prayers.
490

should also have influenced


is

the

number of

Thus Man!

said to have instituted


is

seven prayers.

Of

still

greater importance
'Isa,

the fact that

the contemporary of

Abu

the Persian Bihafarid,

who

also in this instance proves himself a follower of Manichaeism

and Mazdakism
twelve,

in the latter the seven, together

with the

looms

most prominently as a sacred number


which
is
492

491

established seven prayers, the character of


specified

thus

by Biruni:

"one

in praise of the

one God, one

relating to death, one relating to the Resurrection

and Last
and what

Judgment, one relating to those in heaven and


is

hell

prepared for them, and one


It

in praise of the people of

Paradise.''

needs no great

stretch

of imagination to

assume that the example of


responsible for the

this or a similar sectarian is

new number

of prayers instituted by

Abu

'Isa.

In the character of the prayers established by


is

Bihafarid there

nothing which a professing Jew could

not with a clear conscience adopt.


the description of Biruni,

They were,

to judge

by

more

in the

nature of supplications

or praises than a collection of liturgies, as in the case of the


459

311,

26.

490
491 492

Flugel, Manx, 41.

See

later,

note 494.

Comp. Shahr.
P.
210.

193. 193.

Sachau's translation

3<X)

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Jewish or
ing

Mohammedan

ritual,

and

their content

is

in strik-

harmony with

the Psalm word by which Abu

'Isa a

posteriori justified them.

The character

of these prayers as

short individual eulogies also


did not replace the regular
as Kirkisani tells us, he

makes us understand why they


'Esrc which.
to retain,

Shma' and ShmCmc


45

was commanded by God

"according to the order of the Rabbanites."


of these facts,

In the light

we

are also able to explain the discrepant

statement of Shahrastani
ten

who

speaks of ten prayers.


of
the

The
the
494

prayers

of

Abu
to

'Isa

consisted

seven

special

prayers

suggested

him by heterodox Islam and


from the Jewish
liturgy.

three regular prayers retained

49t

311,

26.

p er h a p S
to

similar

explanation

applies
Fliigel,

to

the
64,

Manich.-ean
translation,

prayers.
ib.,

According

Nadim's Fihrist

(Text:

Mani.

96),

Man!
four,

instituted

four or seven prayers.

Of

these

Nadim only
Perhaps

deals with

the

describing their contents and the times of their daily recitation


303)-

(comp.
be con-

Fliigel,

Shahrastani only knows of four

(t&.).

it

may

jectured that the four prayers were conceived as regular daily prayers, while
the

seven

prayers were,

after

the

manner

of

those

instituted

by Bihafarid,
difficulty

eulogies to be recited on

special

occasions.

This would remove the

discussed by Fliigel

(/.

c, 311).

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON 'FRAGMENTS OF A

ZADOKITE WORK'
To the History
of

the Sect
and much subtle reasoning,

With

a fine display of erudition

Prof. Schechter has put forward, in his Introduction to the work,

a plausible theory for the identification of our Sect.

The theory
with the
its

may
tory,

be

summed up

as

follows

The
;

Sect
at

is

identical

Zadokites described by Kirkisani


it

and

a later stage of

his-

was absorbed

by,

or amalgamated with, the Dositheans.

Xow, however
origin

useful and interesting the theory


It
still

may

be,

it

does

not carry us very far.


of

leaves us
to

in

the

dark as to the
sects in

our Sect,
its if
it

its

relation
in

the

great historical

Judaism, and
of our Sect,

place

Jewish history.

Kirkisani's knowledge
is

be the same as the followers of his Zadok,


discussion,

derived
in a

from the very document under


form
;

only perhaps

fuller

and as for the Dositheans, we do not yet know


they were, and how, and
that

for certain
I

who

when they

arose.

believe,

however,
if

our

fragments

themselves

contain

material which,
to

properly sifted and elucidated, will enable us


its

determine with some certitude the origin of our Sect and

place in the history of Judaism.

The
origin

text offers us a
will

number of
some very
in the

statements which,

when

rightly interpreted,

yield

important
Sect.

facts

respecting
first

the
to

and early history of the

Let
in

me endeavor

summarize these statements


in

order
their

which they are given

our

text,

and then

to

discuss

bearing upon our enquiry.


Sect arose 390 years after the destruction of the First
(p.
1,
1.

The
Temple

ff.

Bh1B>

is

not an individual, but the original

party which later developed into our Sect.


1

This

is

evident from

See JQR.,

New

Series,

II

(191 1),

133

ff.

301

302
the
etc.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


words which follow
: . .

.1^3*1

;D."I

..D^BOK '3 IJTPI 1V1N*

HN ,VTvb
from

We

must

not,

of course, expect an exact chronology

the writer: but the year given by


in

him points

clearly to

some date

the second century B.

C).

For twenty years (or half a generation), the party remained


without
a

fixed

policy

and without

fixed

principles,
(p.
i,

until
1.

God
ff.).

raised up for

them the Teacher of Righteousness

But there arose also at the same time the

Man

of

Mockery
(p.
I,
1.

who
14

led

Israel

away from

the

paths

of

righteousness

ff.).

The followers
ers of the
1.

of the

Man

of

Mockery persecuted the followwar (= Dy T"v ID^I,


(p.
i,
1.

Teacher and caused


fell

civil

p.

I,

21)

but they
of

by the sword
Sect
1.

17;
to

p.

2,

1.

1).

The

first

members
to

the

became
10
ff

disloyal
S

its

Covenant, and

fell

by the sword
the

(p. 3,

K3

13 n 13, etc.

This cannot
with in
11.

refer
8-10).

ancient

Israelites,

for

they

are

settled

A
with

number

of

these

first

members

remained loyal to the

principles of the Sect,

and they survived the general massacre, and


ever,

them God established His Covenant for


His
secrets
(p.
3,

revealing to

them

respecting
1.

the

Calendar,

His

commandments,

and His

will

12

ff.).

Even

the faithful were not perfect, but


in

God forgave
(p. 3,

their sins,
1.

and established them

an enduring organization

17 ff.),

under the guidance of leaders who emigrated from Judea, and

whose names and

histories are

still

extant (p.

4,

1.

ff.).

From
p. 8. 8,

this

time onwards, the Sect must keep


(p. 4,
1.

itself

completely
1.

separated from the Jews in Judea


1.

10

comp.
shall

p. 6,

14-15;

16).
5,
1.

He who comes
14
f.).

near

them,

not

remain

guiltless

(p.

The apostasy began

at the

end of the desolation of the land


p.
5,
1.

(caused, presumably, by the Syrian wars;

20).
to

But God raised up wise men


the

who emigrated from Judea

land of

Damascus,

and who dug up the well


Damascus
34;
20,

of the Torah

i.

e.

Syria,
p.

not
8,
1.

tlie

City of
11,

as stated by the editor, Introd.,

p.

xin.

Comp.

2i,

19,

12

NOTES ON "FRAGMENTS OF A ZADOKITE WORK"

SEGAE 303
(p.
6,

by following the rules of the 'Expounder of the Torah'


1.

3,

ff.)-

Those

who
but
to

entered

the

New
its

Covenant

bound

themselves,

among

other promises, not to enter the Jerusalem Sanctuary with


seek
to

sacrifices,

close

doors,

as

long as
'until

its

ritual

remained contrary to the teaching of the Sect,


wickedness'
11-14.
(i.

the end of
p.

e.

until

the

resurrection of the Teacher,


the

6,

1.

This

seems

to
I

me

most

probable
:

interpretation
1X31.1
"B>N

of
^31

the passage,

which

quote here in

full

mm

b ids vc\x ninn

Taoo
I

iw

innro

Piraa nicyS

nov

16 dn o:n
supply

Tnb enpon bx ma *nbab ^nmc n\xn &61 inH t3D 022 "
s

y^lH ppb minn. minri DX as a


.
.

lyUD'J

before

TO3P, and regard


22
f.

parenthesis.
in

This explanation clears up also the


p.

meaning of the passage

Text B,
....

20,

1.

T]JB

"IK'

"IPX

^N ly 13^1 BnpDn
force,

riX
13,

1KDD1
8,

tnpn.

1KDB1

has a declarative

comp. Lev.
,

3,

etc.

'They went forth from the Holy

City

and pronounced the Sanctuary unclean, and returned


X.
B.

unto God.'
4,

IDS IPX

'X IC'XD

see

below note on

p.

I 15).

The
but those
the

disloyal

members of

the

Sect were slain by the sword,

who

held fast to
Syria,
p.
7,
1.

its

teachings escaped to the land of


f.,

North

(=

13

21

f.

||

19,

L H-I3)-

The emigration

to Syria

was

effected under the leadership of


7,
1.

the 'Expounder of the Torah' (p.

18 f.).
14,

Forty years
3,

(i.

e.

whole generation, comp. Num.


3

34; Judg.

11,

etc.)

passed from the death of the Teacher

to the complete

disappearance of the fighting section of the party that followed


the

Man

of

Mockery

(p.

20,

1.

13-15).

During

this period the

Sect became entirely disorganized and


its
ff.,

demoralized, until at last

members conferred and reorganized


comp.
p.

themselves

(p.

20,

1.

15

the
;

writer's

note

on

this

passage JQR.,

New
p.

Series,

II,

139)

they left the Holy City

nnV;
!1*T

comp.

19,

1.

35

f-5

P-

3.

I.

3;

p.

6,

1.

11.

It

is

noteworthy
31.

that

occurs as a proper

name
the

in

Chron. 23, 19; 24, 23; 26,


'Teacher'

Is

there

any

connection
title

between

title

and

this

proper

name?

Comp. the

aiorr/p as applied to

Jesus

(=

s J,*ltr ).

3O4

'

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

(=
God

Jerusalem), rejected the Temple as unclean, and returned unto


(ibid.,
'a
11.

22,

23.

}?>

JV20

may perhaps

be the same as
25.

JV3

npl^riD

place of dissension,' comp. Gen.


is

10,

Note that yp

here as often in this document

equivalent to 'period.').
itself

After the

Sect

had established
Judea
(p. 20,

in

Syria,

some of

its

members returned
the

to

in
1.

the
10
f.

company

of

the

followers of

Man

of
let

Mockery

Dim,

etc.).

Now
Our

us endeavor to appreciate the facts revealed by these

statements.

Sect
in

was

an

offshoot

of

a
to

party escape

which was cruelly


this

persecuted

Judea,
It

and
is

which,

persecution,

emigrated to Syria.

evident that this party must have been


a principle

formed for the defense of


uncompromisingly
also
hostile
to

or principles which were

the

ruling

powers of Judea.

It

is

evident that the ruling powers in Syria had nothing to fear


to gain

and possibly something


principles;
settle

from the assertion of the


fugitives
to

party's
to

therefore
in

they

allowed the
territory,

from Judea

freely

Damascene
religious

and

organize themselves

in

the peculiar
It

and

social

organization outlined in our


the

document.

follows,

therefore,

that

ruling

authorities

in

Jerusalem and Damascus respectively were not only not the same,
but that they were actually hostile to each other.
the rise of the combined party and of
its

In other words,

offshoot, our Sect,

must

have taken place

in
i.

a period preceding the


e.

Roman

occupation of

Judea and Syria,

our Sect originated in Hasmonean times.

Now we
rulers

learn
to

from history that there were two Hasmonean


suppress with the sword active opposition to
viz.

who had
in
;

them

Jerusalem,

John Hyrcanus and


opposition

his

son

Alexander
as-

Janaeus

and that

this

was directed against the


office

sumption by these rulers of the


the

ot

the

High

Priest.

As

party

to

which our Sect belonged was persecuted with the


authorities,
it,

sword by the Hasmonean

it

follows that the party, and

our Sect which originated from


of the
fact

were probably the opponents

Hasmonean usurpation
find

of the

High Priesthood.
high esteem

And,

in

we

that

our Sect held Zadok and his descendants, the

rightful heirs of the


p.
4,
1.

High Priesthood,

in

(p.

5,

1.

5;

3;

comp. the editor's Introd., pp. xin, xxi).

And, as we

NOTES ON "FRAGMENTS OF A ZADOKITE WORK"

SEGAL

305

have seen above, the boycott of the Jerusalem Sanctuary was a


necessary condition to the entering into the
Sect.

New

Covenant of our

We

may, therefore, conclude that the parent body of our


that rose up in opposition
to

Sect

was no other than the party

John Hyrcanus and demanded that he should restore the


of the

office

High Priesthood
;

'to

the seed of Aaron'

(i. e.

the descendants
is

of

Zadok

comp.

b.

Kiddushin 66a, where "PDH

^r
in

an obvious

error for

DUpTin pm\).

This party must have contained many

heterogeneous elements.

There must have been

its

ranks the

members and dependents


and
the

of the old disinherited Zadokite families,

descendants

of

the
as

former

Hellenistic

enemies

of

the

Maccabees
of
the

soon

known
their

Sadducees; then the moderate teachers


followers

Law and
Hasidim

the

Pharisees;

the

extreme

Pietists or

who

in

former
Judas

generation

had
;

welcomed
and
finally

the

Zadokite
of

Alcimus
the

against

Maccabaeus

members

Apocalyptic circles and other sectarians.

These

conflicting elements

were for

a time

held together by their comof the Zadokites to their

mon aim

to bring about the restoration

priestly dignities.

But dissension soon broke out within the mixed

ranks of the party.

The Sadducees betrayed

the cause by going

over to the Hasmoneans.

The remaining elements were

divided
leader,

by their divergent religious doctrines and practices.


styled
in

One

our

document the Teacher of

Righteousness,

or

the

Only Teacher, went so far


hood,
ritual,

in his opposition to the official priest-

as
its

to

urge

the

complete
the

rejection

of

the

Temple,

its

Calendar,

and

whole

established

religious

polity

maintained

by

the

Hasmoneans
Another
of

all

of

which

was

based

on

Pharisaic principles.

leader, styled in our

document 'The
extreme

Man
of

of
the

Mockery4 or
Party
behind

Lies,"

who, no doubt, had the majority


strenuously

him,

opposed

the

fanaticism
4

and the schismatic tendencies of the 'Teacher.'


title

And
for

This

would
comp.

suit
p.

admirably
3,

the
5;

Sadducees

who were known


5;

their
22.

mockery;
23
ff.

Hagigah

Abot derabbi Nathan


our document that the
it

Matthew

But from the assertion


of

in

followers of

the

Man

Mockery suffered heavily


to

in the massacre,

is

evident that the

term

refers of

the

Pharisee

leader.
it

As our
possible

text

is,

however,
confusion

merely
has

an

abstract
in

larger

work,
the

is

also

that

arisen
J13,

the

abstract

between

flxS

<CJX

or
to

Sadducees,

and the

pm

or Pharisees, both of

whom were

opposed

our Sect.

306
then

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


broke
out
the
ruthless

suppression
the

of

the

Party,

whose
in

members were slaughtered by


possible that the Teacher,

sword (comp. the Baraita


10, 5 f
is
. ;

Kiddushin cited above; Josephus, Ant. XIII,


It
is

Wars

I,

2,

8).

whose death
massacre.

referred to in our
a

document,

was

slain

in

the

And having become


12; 20,
1.

martyr for his doctrines, he was invested by his followers with


Messianic attributes
a
(p.
6,
1.

10

f.

2,

1.

I,

etc).

After

whole generation of bloody persecution and complete disorgani-

zation, there arose the

minn

nn

or the ppinE (p.

6,

1.

7, 9.)

who

organized the remnants of the Teacher's adherents and emigrated


with them
cordially by
to
its

the

land of

Damascus, where they were received

Seleucidean rulers, as enemies of the hated Hasin

moneans,
villages

and where they established themselves

towns
of

and
the

(=

camps)

in

accordance

with

the principles
ppJft'O.

Teachers, and on a constitution evolved by the

But the
fugitives

members of our Sect were not


Syria.
to

the

only

Judean
5

who made their way to Hasmonean persecution also fled

Other victims of the


just

Syria

as

to

Egypt.

Among them were


over
into
their

followers of the 'Man of Mockery'


their

who

carried

induced

many

of

new home its members

antagonism
it.

to

our Sect, and


fierce

to leave

This explains the

denunciations of apostates, and the threats of

human and Divine


(p.
f.)
.

vengeance against them, to be found


1

in
ff.

our document
;

8,

1.

ff.;

1.

ff.;

18

f.;

p.

19,

1.

13 f

16

p.

20,

1.

8,

25

It

also

explains the
parts

fierceness

of

temper pervading throughout the

hortatory

of

the

document.
(p. 20,
1.

At

later

stage,

we gather

from an incidental remark

10 f.), the

'Man of Mockery'

returned to Judea accompanied by members of the Sect.

The
determine
Sect

text

supplies

us

also

with

dates which

enable us to
of
the

approximately
to

the

chronology

of

the

history

down

the

composition of the original work upon which

our

fragments are based.

We
1.

are

told

that

the

Teacher arose

twenty years after the formation of the parent body from which
our Sect originated
(p.
I,

10).

Further that forty years elapsed


to

from the death of the Teacher


e.

the

final

suppression of the
(b.
2,

g.

Joshua
Tabbai

b.

Perahiah in the time of Hyrcanus


the

Sotah 47a) and


5;

Judah

b.

in

time
I,

of

Jannaeus
f.).

(p.

Hagigah

comp.

Isaac

Halevi, Dorot Harischonim

p.

476

NOTES ON
Sect
(p.

FRAGMENTS OF A ZADOKITK WORK


1.

SKOAL

307

20,

14.

f.,

17

[=

.....

TN]

f.,

22

f.

).

Taking these
generation

figures to

stand

for

half a

generation and a
of
a

whole

respectively,

we

obtain

an

interval

generation

and a half

between

the,

formation of the original party of opposition to the


to
at

Hasmonean High Priesthood, and the emigration of our Sect Syria. We may assume that the opposition party was formed
the beginning of the rule of
it

Hyrcanus

(=

135 B. C. E.).

Nay,

is

even possible that

this opposition arose already in the lifetime

of

Simon, and that his murderer Ptolemy counted upon support


this

from
the
so,

opposition party,
(I

when he
20;
cf.

sent to seize Jerusalem


/.

and
If

Temple

Maccab.

16,

also Halevi,

c,

p.

390).

then the Teacher arose in the middle of the rule of Hyrcanus

(135-105 B.

C), say

after

120 B.

C.

Allowing a few years for

the activity of the Teacher, his death


the end of Hyrcanus' rule,

must have occurred towards

when

the struggle broke out between

the

Hasmonean High

Priest and the opposition

party

(comp.

b.

Berakot 29a).

The emigration of
later,
i.

the Sect

to

Syria occurred a
of
the

whole generation
Jannaeus
final

e.

toward the

end

reign

of
his

(104-78

B.

C),

when
85

the

latter

had

secured

triumph over his Jewish enemies


XIII,
14,

in the civil

war (Josephus,
to

Ant.

2),

say

c.

B. C.

The return from Syria

Jerusalem of the 'Men of Mockery' with members of our Sect,

would therefore have taken place


Alexandra
(78-69
B.

in the peaceful reign of

Salome

C).

And

the

composition of the original


to belong to the to

work upon which our fragments are based seems


year 63 B. C,

when Pompey was


For
it

setting out

from Damascus

invade Jerusalem.

is

this first

Roman
8,
1.

conqueror of Judea

who seems
nnpi

to

be in the mind of the writer


tv

when he
f.
;

says
1.

N1H
f.).

Dm

rwvb snn
may have

obo

b>*o (p.

p.

19,

23

The

writer

actually

been

an eye witness of the


in

suit

brought by the sons of Jannaeus before Pompey


of the subsequent

Damascus, and
to Jerusalem.

march of the Romans from Syria

It

may

be pointed out here that the whole of this undoubtedly original


(p.

and very important passage, beginning DVJ31


7X
(1.

20,

1.

13),

and ending with

24),

is

not

in

its

right

place,

as

it

disturbs

the

connection of the
with
the
fate

preceding
apostates.

and

following

passages,

both

of

which

deal

of

308

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Notes ox the Text

P.

i,

1.

19.

1K1VH

31133

finn.
10, 11.

The

editor suggests to read


it

31D3

*l3iyn.

But the text seems to be correct, as

is

a reminis-

cence of Hosea
i.

'They chose sleekness of the neck/

e.

they preferred worldly comfort to righteousness.

Comp.

Ps. 73, 7;
P.
2.
1.

Job

15,

27.

6.

\2.

The

text

would be greatly improved

if

we

read

T2

'But
all

power and might and great wrath ....by


etc.
:

the

hand of

angels,'
I

L. 9

ff.

suggest to read as follows

DnoyE

JP

J"IK

(JTIV1

=) JH^
1.

DiTSp BTPB1

Drrnm

"1SDB1, and to transfer the

whole sentp. 4,

ence D7iy JTH

to line 12 after

D1HTO
(1.

comp.
as
in

f.

Further, to regard 1EHp

nn

1PP8PE
(1.

12)

apposition

(comp.

p.

6,

1.

1),

and

DEX
1
;

R1H1

12-13) as a parenthetical

ejaculation by the writer to insure the belief of the reader;

comp. Dan.
5
;

8,
I

26

10,

11,

Apoclypse of John

19,

9; 21,
fol7

22,
:

7.

would thus translate the whole passage as


....

low
....

(1.8:
till

3yrvi)

''And

He contemned
(1.

their generation

they were consumed.

11

0^133*1)

But

in all

these

wicked generations

He

raised

up

for

Himself

men

called by
seed.
(1.

name
9
....

....

to

fill

the face of the world with their

y"H) And He has made known


number

the years

of their station and the

of their sufferings and the


all

explanation of their periods unto


out eternity.

that will exist through(sc.

And

the happenings of eternity*


will

He

has

made known), what


all

occur
(1.

in

their periods throughout

the years of eternity.

12

....

Djnvi) Yea, He has

made them known through His Anointed, even the Anointed and also the explanaof His Holy Spirit (and it is true!)
;

tion of their

names 9

(sc.

He

has made known).

But those
25).
4,
1.

whom He
From
T

hated

He
is

led astray"

(comp. Ezek.

20.
p.

The passage
the
latter

thus somewhat parallel to


it

ff.

passage

is

evident that the writer posin

DiTmin;
II,
p.

comp. the writer's note on the passage

this

Review,

New

Series,
8

133.
last
,

See

the

footnote.
as

D^ , n^0C cn*VE1

emended by

the editor.

NOTES ON

FRAGMENTS OF A ZADOKITE WORK


work containing
history a
list

SEGAL

309

sessed a

of the leaders of the Sect

and

of
it

their

lives

and

works.

But from our

present passage,

would appear that that work began with


first

a history of the Teacher, written probably in the

person,

and continued down

to

the time of our author, and hence

our author regarded the work so possessed of a prophetical


character. Iftyft

may perhaps mean


19
;

the office of the


;

D> "'N'Hp;

comp.
"IOJJO

Isa.

22,

Chron.

23,
2,

28
1,

and
etc:

also the expression

*BOK, Mishnah Ta'anit

P.

4,

1.

2 ^X-)Sr 3B>.

The

editor reads *2&


it

'the capitivity of,'

and

further suggests that


of.'
I

may

be pointed "OP* 'the repentants


is *2\y

believe the right reading


10.

'the
1.

Elders of (comp.

Job

15,

Note also the spelling

in

11

and

p.

7,

1.

13).

The

writer interprets
18,

D"Omn
18;

figuratively as 'chief s or elders'

(comp. II Samuel
to

Ps.

no, 4).
in p. 6,
1.

This reading seems


6 of

me proved

Sj&ogt
L.
9I

by the statement

?K

$Op 1E>N

one?

ota n.
1

suggest to insert "1BDE ? after fpT\, as in the following


difficulty

line.

This would remove the grammatical


L.
15-

of the Text.
8,
1.

"ION "IPX read 'K


(

1{^3; comp.
19,

p.

6,

1.

f.,

13; p.

9,

X -l^NDl):

p.

L 11, 26

(=

'

TOOI).
all

This slight
the

emendation removes the


cited.

difficulties

from

passages

L.

16.

take

Di"PJB

DJm

(better

jm)

to

refer,

like

ann,

to

the three nets, the


set

meaning being that


in opposition

'he

(=

Sin, Belial)

up these three nets


(

over against the three

virtues'

pTVH O'D).

The

three virtues seem to have been

so well

known

that they required no special mention.


is

The

second suggestion of the editor on this passage


untenable by the use of the verb >Dn in
L. 20. D^nGJO.
1.

rendered

18,

below.

The
is

editor regards this as anticipatory of D'C'J 'TIB'S.

But

this

altogether

improbable

and unnecessary.

The

word simply means

'by two' of the three nets, viz. fornication


(p.
5,
1.

and pollution of the Sanctuary

6).
6,
1.

The pnn

^U

are not specially accused of robbery.


the promises

P.

15 only gives

made on entering

the

New

Covenant, and we

310

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


should supply there innSl before blW^li nVi"6; comp. above
P-

3035.

P.

7.

1.

nn3 HID

1
.

would emend

JVO mail
p.

,ta

nD.

'In

accordance with
the

all

the Foundations of the Covenant, then


etc.;

Covenant of"

comp.

io,

1.

6 and the editor's

Introd., p. xvi.
L. 21. ;il"X-in

rmpsn The

massacre of the parent body of the Sect

of the Hasmoneans, as opposed to the 'second visitation' at


the Resurrection of the Teacher; comp.
1.

p.

8,

1.

p.

19,

14
8.

f.

and particularly
ritt

1.

10.

P.

8,

1.

DyD

xSl viz. from the bulk of the Jews.

Contrast

1.

16 below,

and

cf.

p.

4,
1.

1.

11.

As

is

proved by the more

correct text in

(p.
is

19,

16), the

whole passage beginning

here with line 4

directed against apostates


to

from the

Sect.

But owing probably

some defect

in the text, the denuncia-

tion against apostates passes into a denunciation against the

original opponents of the


L. 13.
... "IC'N.

Sect

(1.

12 f.).
if this

The

editor translates as
It
is

was the substance


words
as a

of the false prophecy.


causal clause (-IC'N

better to take the

= "iCX
p.

}JP> 1B>K1 in the next line


4,
1.

1^X31

(comp. above note on

15),

the

writer desiring to

prove the sinfulness of his contemporaries from the words


of Moses.
L. 20-21.

lljn

Kin.

This

is

evidently a gloss which disturbs


p.

the context, as seen from the parallel in B,


glosses occur in
p.
;

19,
)
;

1.

33.
5,
.

Other
1.

4,
p.

1.

19
16,

(
1.

pB*B'
2-4

1VH

p.
. .

17-19
"a).

(nawmn
1.

....

u)

(Drprorara
p.

ra

They belong
21

to

some student of Apocryphal Midrashim.

In

we must
I

supply

before S^ from B,

19,

1.

33.

P.

9,

1-2.

believe that

60H

belongs to the preceding rvr6,

and

that

the

following

1^'Nl

with the verse quoted, forms


is

an introduction to the
verse.
1.

new law which


verses
f.

derived from this

Such
in

introductory
p.

are
1

also

found below

in

8-9 and

16,

1.

6,

Line

will therefore

read as

follows:

'Any man who


is

will

devote a

man by

the statutes

of the (/entiles, he

to be slain.'

NOTES ON "FRAGMENTS OF A ZADOKITE WORK"


L.
14.

SEGAL

31I

The
with
Sect,

lp212 must have been originally the officer entrusted


the

examination of charges against members of the

and also with the examination of neophytes and repentp. 13,


1.

ants; comp.
his

11 ff.

p.

15,

1.

10

f.

Gradually, however,

powers and influence extended,

until

he became the direct


is

ruler of the community.

The

office

of the 1p2J2

thus of

native origin, and has no connection with the


(as supposed by the editor, Introd.,
P.
10,
1.

Roman Censor
note 41).
this

p.

xxiii,

11,

13.

ivjno.

The

editor

emends

^3130, but
is
it

emendation does not give a smooth text; nor


that the

likely

error would have been repeated within two lines,

especially in the case of such a

well-known word.

would

suggest

to

retain

covering up';

TJHO and to translate 'wrapping or comp. mblH 'veils' Isa. 3, 19; ni?iyi, Mishnah
The
to
b.

Shabbat
P.
11,
1.

6,

10.

12.

K"ID\

editor translates

'provoke.'

The

exact

meaning seems

be

'stir

up,

encourage' to

work; comp.
s.

DWfl
P.
16,
1.

JIN

pDO
*

Shabbat 2$b; see Rashi and Kohut,

v.

14-15.

..b

taxD.

Read perhaps

It

may

be that according to the rules of the

VnN ^DN. Sect, a man

could render the consumption of his neighbor's food unlawful

by dedicating

it

to

some holy purpose


to Rabbinic

hence the prohibi-

tion in the text.

According
man's

law one could not


8,
5.

dedicate

another
1

property.

Mishnah 'Arakin

Perhaps

..

stands

for

^^.

10

10

may perhaps

be allowed to correct here a lapsus calami in


II,
p.

my

first

article

(JQK..
is

New

Series,

133-4).

stated that the expression


it

VH

~"

in our text

an Aramaism.
8,

As
Our

a matter of fact, text


is

is

also

found

in biblical
all

Hebrew (Proverbs
Aramaic
influence.

26).

then

entirely

free

from

direct

Xewcastle-on-Tyne

M. H. Segal

England

ADDITIONS

AND CORRECTIONS TO MISCELLANY OF LEXICAL AND TEXTUAL NOTES ON THE BIBLE


(JQR.,
P. 99.

New

Series, II, 97-132)

The same explanation


by
Chajes
(Rivista

of Zech.

6,

3 has already been

proposed

Israelitica,

III,

50;

Giomale

della

Societa Asiatica Italiana, XXIII, 227).


Ibid.,

Rabbinic KYD1K raw meat does not belong to

pDK

but

to
I.

Syriac

'umsa

"bit,"

as

am

informed

simultaneously

by

Low, Th. Noldeke,


Ibid.,
1.

L. Ginzberg.

from below.

R. 383 for 388.


of
T\7\l

P.

102.

The explanation

Arabic uajh

is

already

given by Strack on Prov.


P. 113, P.
I.

17, 22.

16

from below.
I

R.

IHXUn

for

"|riK

UD-

114
286.
115,
1.

(on

Sam.

23,

16).

Comp. already Chajes, GSAL,

XXII,
P.

6.

R.

Kings

15,

13

for 30 and add the

Hebrew

text

of the

verse.

P. 116 (on Isa. 44, 11).


Isr., II,

Chajes proposes to read D^EttNE (Riv.

21).
117,
1.

P.

from below.
18,

R.

r6fK.

P. 118

(on Ez.

7).

Further examples of the ancient case

ending

(waw

cotnpaginis) are
f.

now

to be

found

in the
ff.).

Calendar

of Gezer (Ephenieris

semit. Epigraphik, III, 38


is

My
the

explanation of in?2n

supported

by

the

rendering

of

LXX

(comp.

ZDMG., LX,

267).

313

314
P. 121,
Ibid,
1.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


11.

R.

*vnpD
5,

for

DBHpD.
correction

(on

Mic.

13).

The

"VHP

for

"|ny

has

already been proposed by Halevy (Rev. Sim., XII, 213).


P.

122
is

(on

Zech.

12,

8).

The same explanation


Isr.,

of "|fcODa

DTpK

already given by Chajes (Riv.

Ill,

53).

/&/</.

(on Ps.
in

10,

17).

My

statement that
is

where only
read

a reflective sense

not right.
I

2b pan occurs elseFor I Chr. 29, 18 we

"P7K
10,

Daa?
17.
1.

pm.

Nevertheless

maintain

my
1.

explanation

of Ps.

P. 126, P. 127

11

from below.
3,

R. Prov. 28,

for 25,

(on Cant.

6).

The reading rnbpD was already

pro-

posed by Schlottmann (in conformity with Aquila and Jerome).


P. 131

(on

Chr. 29, 22).

Add: comp.

Kings

1,

34-35.

Konigsberg

Feeix Perles

NOTES ON "THE POLITY OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS," BY JUDGE SULZBERGER


To
the very suggestive Lectures on the "Polity of the Ancient
S.,

Hebrews," (JQR., N.
P. 36.

Ill,

ff.)

the following
is

may

be added:

That Joash was chief of Ophrah


in his

suggested also by

Abrabanel
P. 52.

Commentary on Judg.
is

6,

16,

31.
is

That insulting parents

punished with death

stated
II,

by Philo

(Tischendorf, Philonea, 77)

and Josephus

(c.

Ap.,

27 and 30).

They seem
7,

to

have derived
27,

this anti-traditional

law

(see Sanhedrin
as

8)

from Deut.

16 having interpreted Arur,


52,

suggested

by Judge

Sulzberger

(pp.

61-2,

65),

to

mean

death-sentence.

(That Josephus interpreted Arur to mean death punishment


is

evident also from his statement


takes bribes
is

(c.

Ap.,

II,

27)

that a judge

who

punished with death.


is

It is

generally believed

that this law of Josephus

a conscious deviation

from the Law,


It
is,

intended to glorify the Jewish sense for justice.

however,
27,

more probable
where Arur
is

that Josephus derived this law


stated to be the punishment of
16,

from Deut.
int?
l~!p;>.)

25

The The

Karaites, relying on Deut. 27,


is

hold that every manner


21,

of insulting parents
17.

punished with death; see Mibhar on Ex.


(Intr.

fifteenth

century Karaite Elias Bashyazi

to

his

irv^N

mis)

states:

nrvon

ma

Kin

nn

djjdi.

Abraham Ibn Ezra seems

to

have interpreted Arur as FI1D


(1895-6),
144,
n.
1.

punishment; see M. Friedlander, JQR., VIII

That Arur pronounced against the removal of landmarks

b)2i PDfi
p.

mjn

(Deut.

27,

17)

implies

punishment
also
16).

(Lectures,

62)

is

very probable.

The Romans

permitted the killing of such

an offender

(Plutarch,

Numa

315

3l6
P.
53.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


For
the

interpretation
see

of

nib

in

Deut. 21,

8
:

as

"a

teacher"

(of rebellion)

Sifre ad Joe: "|-n iDVyS


/oc.
:

mbiT
11D

Pllfal

niriS; see also Abrabanel in his commentary ad

iT!"P "IK

N^one

d:

wnp

i6m KBin

Kins? vn

h 5wn

i"n id sincr mfoi

tws
P.

*]-n
56.

onw moi
That HID
is

D;ain ns\
in

Dent.

19,

16 indicates the nature of the

crime (apostasy)

stated also by Ibn Ezra, ad loc.

Ps.-Jon. and

Onkelos who translate


idolatry; see Levy,
P. 67.
s.

mD
v.

by K*DD also seem to take


J.

HID

to

mean

fc^DD, Kohut,

v.

NDD.
36,
;

That by DtTQM -i1DnnBB>D (Num.


is
1.

6)

recognizable

kinsmen are meant


Philos,
II,

also the opinion of Philo

see also

Werke

141,
1.

n.

P. 20,

3,

read 153, 600.

Marietta,

Ohio

Bernard Revel

HEFES

B.

YASLIAH'S LOST BOOK OF PRECEPTS


in

"While engaged

preparing a

descriptive

catalogue

of the
I

Genizah fragments which are now at the Dropsie College,


across
a

came
This

codex

of

36^ paper
in 1891

leaves written in Arabic.

fragment forms part of a collection which came from the Cairo


Genizah.
It
it

was acquired
to the

by Dr. Cyrus Adler

who

recently

presented

Dropsie College.

There are
the

in this

fragment six

fascicles

which are unequal

in

number of
Fascicle
1

their leaves,

and are fastened together by a

string.

has four leaves

Fascicle 2 has six leaves;


Fascicle 3 has three leaves
Fascicle 4 has eight leaves

Fascicle 5 has twelve leaves


Fascicle 6 has three and a half leaves.

The measurements
x 13.5 cm.).
Fascicle
will
1

of the leaves

is

7% x
a

5 rV

ins.

(=

17.6

hangs rather

loosely,

and even

superficial glance

detect that
2.

some

fascicles are missing


fascicle
1,

between

fascicle

and

fascicle

Moreover

although written probably by the

same hand
1)

as the others, differs


is

from the

rest in

two respects
lines

The paper

of
1

lighter

hue; 2)

the

number of
19,

on a page of

fascicle

ranges between 18 and


23,

whereas the

pages of the other fascicles have

24 and 25

lines.

After a careful perusal of

this

MS..

found that

fascicle

is

part of a book of Responsa on widely different subjects, while the

others

form part of the Book of Precepts of Hefes


well known, that Gaon, or

b.

Yasliah.

As

is

^OpX DS1,

as he

is

styled in our

codex, composed a

Book

of Precepts which was quoted with great

respect by the best mediaeval Jewish authorities.

Xo

trace,

how-

317

318
ever,

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


of
this

book has been


Encyclopedia,

found
s.

in

modern times (comp.


S.
I,

L.

Ginzberg,

Jewish
v.; A.

v.;

A.

Poznanski,

"IV1K

Snil \

,,

s.

Marx, JQR.,

New

Series,

439).
safely infer that the

From
Book was
(nXP"H5>.)

the fragment in question

we may

divided into parts O^'D), sections

(DDp), and precepts


8,

Our MS. begins with

the middle of precept

section

3,

part

3.

Section 3 of
6b,
1.

part

contained 9 precepts, and ends on

fol.

22.
fol.

Section 4 of Part 3 contains 11 precepts which end on


1.

I2&,

3.

Part 4 contains 3 sections,


cepts.

all

of which together have 36 pre1.

This part begins on

fol.

12b,

4,

and ends on

fol. 29a,

1.

16.

It bears the superscription

DfcO

^ND yKl^K

|0

i^X

b^N

rvtyv

ran bzbx.

Part 5 contains 9 precepts, and bears a similar superscription.


It

begins on
is
till

fol.

29a,

1.

17.

We
It

only reach as far as precept 3


fol.

which
tinues
blank.

rather a long one.

begins on

31a,

1.

15,

and conis

the end of 360, when the MS. breaks

off.

Fol. 36b

On
the

the whole the

MS.

is

well preserved,

and the writing

is

the

ordinary square with a tendency to cursiveness.

By

all

likelihood

MS.

dates

from the eleventh century.


I

At some future date


fragment, and supply
it

hope

to

prepare an

edition

of

this

with a translation, introduction, and notes.


I

But

for

the

present

thought

it

worth while

to

announce to

scholars interested in this


Precepts,
as
it

subject the existence of this

Book

of
this

may

lead

others to discover

more

leaves of

important work.

Whether
for the

the

Uesponsa belong to Hefes


not prepared to decide.

b.

Yasliah or not

am

moment

No

authorities whatsoever

arc

mentioned.

Dropsie College

B.

Hamper

"MAN BY MAN," JOSHUA


By Max
In
his

7,

17

L.

Margous, Dropsie

College

Lectures on "The Polity of the Ancient He-

brews" (JQR.,
has occasion to

New

Series, III,

ff.)

Judge Sulzberger
16-18

cite the

"classical text" in Josh. 7,

bearing on the subject of the Israelite army organization


and, after giving his
is

own

version, aptly remarks


it

"The

text

slightly defective, but a careful reading of

justifies this

translation."

The
Versions
text as

text in question

is

indeed faulty.

(Authorized,

Revised)

reproduce

The two English the Hebrew

commonly

printed.

As

the differences between the

two Versions are only verbal we may transcribe here the


Revised.

"(16) So Joshua rose up early


Israel near

in the

morning,
tribe of

and brought

by their tribes

and the

Judah was taken: (17) and he brought near the family of Judah
;

and he took the family of the Zerahites

and he

brought near the family of the Zerahites


Zabdi was taken:
hold
of

man by man; and


his

(18) and he brought near

house-

man by man; and Achan,


the

the son of Carmi, the son

Zabdi,

son

of

Zerah,

of the tribe of Judah,

was

taken."

One need
reads
in

only

turn

to

verse
text
is

14 to realize the two


at
fault.

points wherein the

received

Verse

14

the Revised Version

(which again

differs only

verbally

from the Authorized)

"In the morning therefore

319

320

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


:

ye shall be brought near by your tribes


that the tribe which the
families
;

and

it

shall

be,

Lord taketh

shall

come near by
shall

and the family which the Lord taketh


;

come

near by households
shall take shall

and the household which the Lord


Accordingly, the

come near man by man."


tribe
(B3B>),

divisions

are: the

the

family (nnBtr), the

household (rP3), the

man

(122).

We

should therefore ex-

pect verse 17 to have read:

"And

he brought near the tribe

of Judah by families
hites
:

and he took the family of the Zera-

and he brought near the family of the Zerahites houseSuch, in sub-

hold by household; and Zabdi was taken."


stance,
is

the version acceptetd by the learned Judge, and

he

is

sustained by

modern commentators.
17, the sub-

When we
by man)
is

approach the Hebrew of verse

stitution of D^nnS

(household by household) for Dnaib (man

a self-evident
all

remedy.
is

As

for

the beginning

of the verse, of the


first

that

is

required

a change in the pointing


it is

nns^D:

in the received text

pointed
the

nnec'p

(family, in the singular), but

we

should point

word

DhBpv

(families,

in

the

plural).

Accordingly, what the


the
families

author intended was:


of Judah"

"And he brought near

which

is

indeed an abbreviated expression for

the phraseology postulated on the basis of verse 14:

"And

he brought near the tribe of Judah by families."

The two forms


emended, may now
Received Text

of

the

text,

the

received

and the

be placed in juxtaposition:

Emended Text
riN nip^i

bmB*

np33

w.t dspV
VB3b6
rrnrr nhBfcto

3"lpV 7a rni.T

LS3C 13^1

nx 13^1 mirr nnsBto nx

nx -n^i

-MARGOUS
onnjs

321

-mm nnapo
irva
S

dtq^ mTn nnspe


ns mp-i
18

hit 12^1 onajb


nnt

"D

p py

-n^i
n-ir

rmrp nDb

p
we

The Emended Text


Haupt's Bible (1895).
"nhBBto, with some

is

printed as above by Bennett in

In his Notes (page 26)


(g (Septuagint)
J)

read:
;

MSS. and

(Vulgate)

vmb,
(omits)
13)
is

with

(Vulgate) <g (Peshitta)

and some MSS.,


(Septuagint)
A

Dillm(ann),

&c."

He

also

remarks: "(g

176 and irP3 ns in 18; which Hollenberg (Progr.

inclined to follow."
will

As
adduced

be noted, the authority of the Septuagint


the
first

is

for

change (nhs^p), but not for the


because,

second (dto?), obviously


finds verse iyb to

with

Hollenberg, he
Septuagint,

have been wanting

in the

though he

is

not ready to follow Hollenberg in the asis

sumption that the second half of verse 17


in

a late addition

our Hebrew text which should be excised.

Driver in

Kittel's Bible

(second edition, 1909) at least notes that ten


;

manuscripts of the Greek read "by households"


is
still

but that

far

from saying what the

original

Greek translator

read and wrote.

The aim
verse-half
that
in

of

the

present

paper

is

to

show

that the

question

was present

in the Septuagint

and

furthermore the translator read in his Hebrew text

But before the argument


of

is

presented in substantiation
be well to ascertain upon
rests or

my

double contention

it

may

what authority the Received Text


nesses.

who

are

its

wit-

322

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Both Baer and Ginsburg print the two obvious errors:

nrra^D andDnu:6.

Baer has nothing to say on the former;


:

with regard to the latter he remarks


prints faultily

"The Soncino

edition

DTab." The Soncino edition of the Prophets


is

(1485-1486)
ures.

the

first

print of that part of the Script-

According

to

Ginsburg,
print

the

second
entire

print

of

the

Prophets

in the first

of

the

Bible

(Soncino

1488) has likewise D^rab.

The other books (Dnna DnsD)


by
Kennicott
is

which, according to Ginsburg, read nhs^o and D^mb are


certain

manuscripts

enumerated

and Defound not

Rossi.

De-Rossi adds that "by households"

only in the Vulgate and the Syriac Peshitta, but also in the

Aldine

edition

of

the

Septuagint,

on the authority of
8,

Fischer, Prolus.

de

versionibus

Graecis

Leipzig 1772,

page 156,

who

favors this reading, though Masius accepts

the current reading

"man by man."
is

have Fischer before

me; he adds
verse 14.

that the reading

apparently supported by

When

prints

and manuscripts

differ,

recourse must

be had to (a) Masoretic evidence and (b) the testimony of


the Jewish mediaeval commentators.

According

to the

Masorah on Num.

3,

23/ four

in-

stances of nnQ^.o (singular) occur in Leviticus

and Joshua

(or Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, and Joshua), to wit: Levit.


25,

47 and the three

in

Josh.

7,
is

17.

Hence

the pointing

nnEtt'O at the

head of verse 17

recognized by the Masorah

and the reading mna^ro must be pronounced contrary to the


1

mnstyn,
in

so with

vowel
155

letter indicating the plural,


first

Kenn.

182, 250;

548

and 598
D'JIiS

the margin;
257,

hand,

i.

e.

under the subsequent correction;

253,

260,

524,

583 margo,

366 over an erasure,


first

DH237

DTI37

both
erasure,
2

readings together

531;

De-Rossi 305

hand, 20, 174, 663 over an

716

in

the

margin.
letter

See Ginsburg, The Massorah,

S, No.

846,

compare

also

No. 8470.

MAN
Masorah.

BY

MAN

MARGOUS
b, is

323
14, consists

list

in Ginsburg, letter
in
b

No.

of
in

words beginning
Scripture

each of which
ioi
b

found only once


);

(pnmzn rA mi nn
14.

prwm

among them
D
,

figures D^rinb of Josh. 7,

Hence the reading

mS

in
is

verse 17

is

ruled out by the

Masorah and Dnaab

there

substantiated as Masoretic.

As
makes
him,
it

for the Jewish commentators, Kimhi's exposition


plain that he read nna^ip

and ona^.
the

According

to

"the

family of Judah"

is

same

as "the tribe of

Judah"; supply

nWDPsb "by

families."

The

first

U^2ib

he paraphrases by nriBBTDn
is

TO

wm wvb

"man by man who

the head of a household," while the second DnaJ means

rrnn

*BOK the individual

members of the household.


Dnaab
(

But we have
verse
the
17.

earlier evidence for the reading


first

in

In the

place the
first

Targum
nnDPD
Josua,
it

has

it

K*oA;

Targum
ascend

also pointed the

in

the

singular,

rpjrn, Praetorius,

Das Targum zu
higher.

1899).

But we

may

still

We

find

in the Septuagint re-

cension of Origen

which dates from the middle of the

third century of our era.

Origen's recension with

its

critical signs

is

extant in
It

the Syriac translation of Paul

of

Telia

(616-7).

was

published by

Lagarde

(1892)

from a British

Museum

manuscript and the


entirely
4

critical signs

where

faultily placed or

wanting were restored

from the commentary of

Masius who had before him another manuscript which has


since disappeared.
3

plus

found
to

in

the

Hebrew but wanting

in

the

Greek text which


and closed by a

was subjected
metobelus,
4
it
:

revision

was introduced by an

asterisk, *,

or

V.
died
1573-

Andrew Du Maes,

His work on Joshua appeared in 1574;

is

excerpted in the second volume of the Critici Sacri.

324

THE:

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

The
type)

Syriac text of verses 17 and 18 reads as follows


it

(to obviate typographical difficulties


:

is

given in

Hebrew
kdhiq

mpn*o>
}D *

mn

KDmtt

innm
s

^mw
fcoaj

kdHib

tn mpnxi
^
aro:i

maa

n^-i

s;vn nipnxi nnr "innsi *

K*i3J

<mn
lnnNi

Nmvj

mn ma

nan mn

oi3n

mn my

The words enclosed within

< >

are missing in the

manuscript (and are omittted by Lagarde).

Whether the

omission occurred at some stage in the Syriac transmission


of the text or

was present

in

the
is

Greek archetype upon


immaterial.
It is simfirst

which the translation was based

ply a case of aberration of the scribe's

eye from the

mn
ton).

(or

its

Greek equivalent)

to the

second (homoioteleu-

The Greek

for the Syriac as given above

is

extant in

the manuscripts underlying Lagarde's edition of the Greek

Old Testament (1883; one of those manuscripts served as


the basis of the
first

printed edition of the Septuagint in

the Complutensian Polyglot).


start the nature of

There

is

a gap right at the

which escaped Lagarde.


6y]fiovg.

He

prints in

brackets mi -pooyxdy nara

But one more word should

be added: uwda.

The

scribe's eye
l0 v6a

wandered from

wvda with

which verse 16 closes to


text reads
apaet
kcll
I

of verse 17.
^ijfiovg

Hence

the full
(h/fiog

<jcai Trpoajjx^r]
<>

Kara

iov6a^> nut avedeixd//


nat

KpoorjxQi] dijfiog
o

apaet

Kara
nai

avfipa

avedeix^V a(3det
vl0 S

sat

7r/)<)r7/,y(h/

oiKog avrov
r/,r

Kara avdpa
//r

avedeixOy

a-X a P

x a Pi LtL

VL0V

Ca.

>()ii

nor Capa

Or'/

lovdd.

As
two

will be observed, the critical signs are missing.

The

texts

supply

each
:

other's

deficiencies

admirably.
'

Origen accordingly wrote


avedecx^V tyfiog
"

mi

irpomjx^v KaTa fypovg * ""^ a


<>

Kal

^apaet Kat

irpoarfx^V Sy/iog

^apaei

Kara

av6pa(g) # xai

325
avedetxOq ^a,3dei
axcip viog
ko,l

-pnaj/x^n

oiKoq avrov

Kara avdpa
ov'/r/c

k<h

avedtixfifl

x a Pfil

vl0V ^ a }'^ L

viov

apa

....

tijq

tovSa;

It is

obvious that Origen read in his


avrfpa(f),

Hebrew

of verse
1

iy W"\2^b Kara

comp. DH33?

Kara avdpa verse

8.

The

error in the

Hebrew

is

as old as Origen.
all

We

may

take

it

for granted that

such manuscripts
avdpa(g~)

of the Septuagint as exhibit the reading Kara 17 were influenced by Origen's recension.

in verse

Two

such manuscripts are

(Ambrosianus) and n (a

Mount Athos manuscript

hitherto uncollated of which phoIt is

tographs have been secured by the Dropsie College.


related to some twelve manuscripts

grouping around
its

the
di-

Catena Nicephori, but has readings of

own).

They

verge at the end, but otherwise present a text substantially


identical
:

Pn
^apt)

kcli

~poafjx^>? KaTa Srifiovq lovda xai evedetxOi? <h/fioc

^apai

(F reads
narCa)

nai.

-poat/x^V

tiripoq

^apat Kar{a~) avdpac

'

mi

EvedeixOq

(omitted in F)
avtipa{c')
'

oucog a/ippt

mi

^pooiix&l

oiKog

(F adds

avrov)

nai evedeix^ 7? a X a P

viog aufipt

viov

^apa

rov XQ-Pf11 vl0V o-vrov


viov

K
Fn

viog
7-qc

x a PP l
v7.r]c

vl0V Caufipet

^apa

iovda.

Opposite the portion which

is

enclosed above between

two upper points there


asterisk (*).

is

found on the margin of n an


-*-

To

the sign

over

ZapPpt

corresponds in the
first

same manuscript on the margin x a P,ul by the


Both texts have Origen's additions.
telltale
Safifoi
Ka-(a~)

hand.

Both have the


however,
write

avdpag

in

verse

17.

Both

in the place of {apSa.

In this they revert to the form

of the

name
In
I

in the

Greek text antedating Origen, which

form goes back


Hnt.

to a
2,

Hebrew
6 Zimri

variant 'HDT
is

for the received

Chron.

the first-born of Zerah, the

326

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


As
for the divergence at the end, F, bar-

son of Judah.
ring the

form

fafippi,

coincides with Origen, while n text

(not: margin) in

common

with

its

group members

curtails

the pedigree by one and then adds by


that the culprit

way

of rectification

was not
shall

really the son of Zimri, but his son

Carmi's son.

We

meet below

in

one other manuscript

belonging to a different group with the same ending.

The
uncials

Origen

recension

underlies
its

furthermore

the

A
e

(Alexandrinus) and

recently discovered con-

gener

(Washington Codex).

Of

the

two

is

intact,

while the scribe of

e (or a predecessor of his)

made an

omission by homoioteleuton exactly at the place where the


scribe of the Syriac has erred.

Restore e
C,apai

as follows:

mi

TTpQGrjx^f]

Kara

drjfiovg

mi

evedeixOrj 6r/p.og

<Cjiai Trpoarjx^V &VP-OQ

apai^>

mr

avdpag
:

mi

eveo~eixQr) <iX a P Vl0 ^apfipi v/ov C,apa

With which
^apiei
e.

Compare

mi
o

irpoar/x^V Kara 6r}\iovq


C,apiei

mi

evedeix^rj

dr/uog
(i.

mi

Trpoajx 7] dyp-oq

mr

avdpag

mi

eveSeix^V

&xa

Q-X av )

viog ^afifipi viov (,apa.

The
1

differences are trifling (note axav in


text;
2,

Hebrew
Chron.

the

Septuagint

writes

A = \iy as a^ap = -oy,

in

our

comp.

7).

Both have the curtailed pedigree

at the

end

but without the postscript which

we

find in n.

The manner
constructed
text
is

in

which the text of the two uncials was


It is

plain.

an

eclectic text.

pre-Origen

was followed

in the
;

ending (note the curtailed pedigree


otherwise
a
transcript

and the form Zambri)

was made

of Origen's revised text, omitting the additions marked by

an asterisk but retaining a plus where

Origen failed to
in the

mark

it

by signs (perhaps the signs were missing

copy immediately before the scribe which


itself

may have been

a transcript of Origen's text).

"MAN BY MAN"

MARGOUS
it

327

On

the basis of the present case

might be argued that


his

Ae

constitute the text

which Origen made the basis of


second
rf^oc
o

revision.

Hence
evidence

the

{apaet

was unmarked
But when
of

from the
all

start, since it

was found
from a
is

in that text.
critical

the

derived

study

An

throughout the book of Joshua

brought to bear upon the

problem the inference

is

unavoidable that the two uncials


Naturally

have made use of Origen and not the reverse.

Ae
is

retained Origen's

mr

avfyas in

verse 17.
his revision

The
closely
iT/aovg kcii

text

which Origen made the basis of

none other than the famous Vaticanus (B) or a text


related
to
it.

Verses 16-18 read


Kara (pv/ag nai
fy/J-og

in

not updpicev

-poGTjyayev rov z.aov

evedeixOtj V fvhj tovda nai


k-

TtpoorjxQri

Kara

6rjjiovg

nai evedei^dv

(,apaei sat -poa/jx^ 7?

7 rcvdpa

nai evedeixOfj o-X a P vl0 S ^dfi^pei viov ^apa.

Origen, in dealing with this text, proceeded upon the

assumption that
cedes
it

Kara avdpa

goes with what immediately prein verse 17.

and covers ^"oab


Dnaib

and that the

trans-

lator omitted

W3 J1K 3"ip*l

nnt 13^.

He accordingly

filled up the gap just as he made good the other omissions. As was his wont, he did not translate the Hebrew afresh, but made use for the parts missing of one or all of the three

later

Greek translators (Aquila, Symmachus, Theodotion)

dating from the middle of the second post-Christian century.

In

all

such

cases

he

transcribed

them

faithfully

without regard to the disharmony thus produced by welding together incongruous versions.

The

incongruity in the

present case will


ceeds.
It
is,

become manifest

as this investigation pro-

however, possible that Origen recognized that the


Kara avdpa.

gap occurred before and not after


signs,

In placing the
;

Lagarde

relied too confidently

on Masius

it

is

not

328

THE:

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


whether the
latter did

always easy to

tell

not handle the

signs of his Syriac manuscript with considerable freedom

and here and there operated with conjecture.

The

British

Museum
far

manuscript errs when


but, I believe,
avrov.
is

it

places the asterisk too

down,

altogether right in putting the

metobelus after

Accordingly, the asterisk should be


Kara
;

moved

up, against Masius, in front of

avtipa(c).

The
is

Syriac certainly read Kara avdpag in the plural


substantiated by
also below; but

the reading

AFen.
all,

It

is

true,

reads the plural


in

n has correctly the singular

agreement

with B.
singular.

In verse 14
It

with exception of nsz, have the


ac-

would seem, therefore, that the singular

cords with the style of the original Septuagint, while the


plural

which

is

a bit

more

literal

squares with the manner

of the source from which Origen supplied the omission.


If this

be

so,

the error U^2:b in verse 17

is

shown

to be as

old as the times of


pal

Akiba

in

which period the three


the

princi-

Greek

translators

after

Septuagint

flourished.

Origen's text in verses 17 and 18 will then have read as


follows
I

nai

irpooTixQv

nara

drjfiovq

tovda

nai

avedeixQy

fi'ip-'K

^apaei nai rcpoarix^i] dyfiog o apaei ^ Kara avfipaq nat ave(Seix^V ^afidet nai

KpoatJX^V
a(3det

oiKog
,

avrov
k
r>jr

Kara

avdpa nai avedetxtiv

o-X a P vl0 S

X aPV- u

vl0V

viov in pa

0r/>/c tovda:

But even as corrected Origen's text


chanical

rests

upon a me-

procedure.

In

saying

this,

we

are not finding

fault with Origen.

His aim was to square the Greek with


found
it,

the
task

Hebrew
is

as he

the

"Hebrew

truth."

But our

a different one.
is

If B, the text underlying Origen's


in

revision,

faulty,

and we are
it

accord with the Church


to correct
it.

Father on that score,

becomes our business


it

We

are in a position to correct

by consulting other texts

which

are

its

congeners

and by a careful study of the

MAN
manner

BY

MAN

MARGOUS

329
the author of

of translation which

was adopted by

the oldest Greek version of our book.

We
pure,

are in a position to confront


it.

B
all

with three texts

which normally go with

They

are

more or

less

im-

contaminated with matter borrowed from Origen's

revision.
it

But the

basis

is

a text very

much

like B.

Into

they work Origenic additions, but in a manner of their

own.

The

three texts are h (55 in Holmes-Parsons), the

Ethiopic translation (codices


recently published by

FH), and

the Coptic version

Thompson.
a mutilated text, the scribe having
I

Of

the three, h

is

been guilty of two omissions due to homoioteleuton.


supply the gaps within

<>

Km

npooTjxfol

Kara

(h/u<>rr
'

mi

evedeix^r] Srjixoc o ^apai <jtai TTpocr/xfy orjfioc o Zapai^> Kar oikovc


e

avedeixOt/

oikoc ^a/i3pi
vioc

<jiai

rcpoat/x^rj oikoc

^au3pi

Kara avdpa

Kai

aveSeixBij

a\ap

\apat

viov

^au3pi^>.
oikovc
is

Deplorable as the omissions are, the significant mr


intact.

(In front of

avedetxOv

the conjunction mi

may have

also

dropped out.)

The Greek underlying


(i) read
apaei
:

the

Coptic
lovda

(()
Kai

and Ethiopic
dryioc

Kai

KpomjX^V

Kara

di/fiovc.

re6ei\H//

[o)
Kat

{^api ^E)

Km

rcpoarjx^il

(h/juoc

<apaei

y^api 3E)

Kar oikovc

evedeixdfj oikoc Z,ap.3pi Kai

~poat/x^
L

oikoc

^ap.3pt Kara
(pv/.//C

avdpa Km

evedei^fiij

axap (axav

^\

vioc

x a y-P

V10V ^ a P a

(+ r,

/'f

tovda ^E).

Both contain the reading mr

oikovc.

Xow

at last

it

becomes an easy matter


read in verses 16-18 as

to restore the

archetype of B.
updpiaev ajaovc Kat
lovda

It

follows:
//

16

mi

rcpooiryayev rov

?aov Kara av/ac Kai evedeixOf)


~apaei

or///
\t)>/

Kai

-poojjxdr) Kara dr/fiovc Kai eveSeix^f/ dtjuoc


L,ap.fipi
18

Km

-pon/,

<^Kar oikovc Kai eveifcixfy oikoc


evedeix^n
a X aP
l7 ?

koi

-po<r//,v^/">

Kara

avdpa koi

^nu3pei vtov

Capa.

330

THE:

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


it

The
leuton.

omission,

is

clearly seen,

was due

to

homoiote-

The archetype

of

B which
now

in this case as in

many
the

others

may

be

identified

with the original text of

Septuagint had the portion

missing and in the form

given above, as shown by the related texts h (gj;.


three (in h, as

For

all

we have
it

seen, the last

two words dropped

out along with what follows) have the portion, and they

could not have derived


above, wrote
fc/ippt,
kcit

from Origen, who,


K(i-

as

was shown
for
oiKog

av6pag for

o/Kovg

and

o otnog

avrov

both in conformity with the received

Hebrew

text.

Internal evidence serves to corroborate

my

conclusions

based upon
translator

the external evidence of correct grouping.


in

The
fol-

had before him verses 16-18


facilitate

somewhat the

lowing form (to


below,
stored)
I
:

an understanding of

my

remarks
re-

reproduce in the parallel column the Greek as

2"1p^1

"")p22

yfc^irP

DSC'l
b&n&5^

16

l6

Kai upOpiaev iTfOovc Kai Trpoor/yayev


'

"13^1

Vt2!2C'^

riX
D36J>

rov

aov Kara
iovda

^- a f

Kal evedeixOq V
irpofftixOv

nnD^E

riN*

np*

1T
!

mVT

or?//

" mi

xara
$apaei

m?n nnBB>
n*r\2h
81

riS

ID^l miiT

drj/wvg

nai evedeixQn

fyfiog

*m?n nnacyo nx
"HDT

mpi
"ID^I
riX

<"

npooyxQv
oinog

KaT
Zafifipt

0iK0V s
18

Km

2"lp^

TV1

evedeixfiv

nai irpo-

^"Q^S

"HOf

TV 2

Gt1XV

KaTa o.v6pa

Kai

evefietxOy
C/> a

mt p no? p
The

"ay 13^1

*/>

c ?<*#'

oy

translator's

fondness

for

condensation
updpioev

reveals

itself at the start. "\p22 D3B1 is

simply mi

"rose up

early" (Origen added

to

irput

"in the morning").

While he
(verse

uses the active voice

(npoffiryayev)

for

the

first T)$*\

16), he proceeds in the sequel with the passive construction


(irpooTixBri,

"was brought near").


what
to

By doing

this

he succeeds
repetition

in getting rid of

him seemed unnecessary

MAN
though such
is

BY

MAX

MARGOLIS

33!

quite in accordance with the style of

He"was

brew

writing.

He

reproduces the subject as in the

Hebrew

with each
taken"
;

new

sub-division introduced by the verb


it

he leaves

to be supplied
is

from the context when

the sub-division "taken"


division.

"brought near" for another subwrites


:

Hence beginning with verse 16b he


of

"and

the tribe

Judah was taken; and


the

it

was brought near

deme by deme; and


and
it

deme of
and

the Zarahites

was taken:
;

was brought near household by household


:

and the

household Zamri was taken

it

was brought near


It

man
sub-

by man; and Achar, ec, was eaken."


sequent texts
(h
(jJjE)

was

left for

to

introduce the

explicit

subject.
is

That
clear

this

is

not to be laid at the door of the translator


in B.

from the nature of the omission form

For with h

(U3E as a basis, the textual


tion of the scribe's eye

after the omission (aberrarrpoorjxfy

from the second

to the third)

would have resulted


omission of

in km

-poarix^i omoc :aulpi Kara avdpa.

The

oiimg fapPpi

in front of Kara avdpa in

proves

my

contention as to the translator's method of condensation.

The
plural

translator pointed the

first

nnsC'O in verse 17 as a

(nhs^o).

In accordance with his method of con-

densation, the clause "and he brought near the denies of

Judah"

became "and

it

(sc.

the

tribe

of

Judah)

was

brought near by demes."

The
tain us.
17.

other variations between the

Hebrew underlying
s

the Septuagint and our received Hebrew text need not de-

Of utmost

importance

is

the reading D nn^ in verse


at the end, the curtail-

As

for the omission of

Carmi

ment may and may not have been found in the Hebrew. Achan's father was omitted because he was of no moment,
each warrior, N. N. son of N. N., ranging himself immediately

under the household

rV2

which comprised a num-

332

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


modern sense of the word.
1895,
;

ber of families in the


Bibcl

Mez

(Die

des Josephus,
is

5 f.)

is

wrong

in

arguing thai
'JTD

Carmi

an interloper
I.

the Septuagint certainly read


axapog
. . .

in verse

Josephus with his

frfiedatov

Tzmc

(Ant.

33) merely condensed the pedigree.

In 43 where he

gives the execution of the divine order

we meet

with the

fourfold order:****
(JT3),
avrjp

(ttnB>

Or ntDD)

(ftparpia

(nn&B>D), wyyeveia

("na)

Though he may have


shall not

written with a view

to verse 14,
if

we

go amiss

in saying that Josephus,


oucovg,

he had the Septuagint open before him, read mr


if

and,

he worked with the


in verse ij D^ra?.

Hebrew

text before him, he

found

The

error in the

Hebrew

accordingly crept in between

the times of Josephus


I will

and the times of Akiba.


further proof for the correctness of

now adduce

my

restoration of the archetype of

B from

still

anofher

quarter.

recension which

is

not Origen's but which a

recent

writer

(Hautsch, Dcr Lukiantext des Oktateuch,

1910) would stamp as that of the martyr Lucian (died 311


or 312)
is

found

in a

group of manuscripts enumerated by

me in XXVIII
edge
it

the

article
1

"The

Text of Joshua"

(AJSL.,

(1911),

ff.).

In the present state of our knowlit

is

perhaps best to forego identifying

with any one

of the three recensions signalized by Jerome and to speak

of

it

as a nameless recension

(see the lucid discussion by

Professor G. F. Moore, in AJSL.,

XXIX

(1912), 37 #)

Be

that as

it

may, the manuscripts constituting that recen-

sion divide themselves in smaller.

two sub-groups, a larger and a


is

The former which


it

not a pure text, contaminis

ated as

is

with Origenic matter,


errors

nevertheless useful as
the

a means for correcting the

of

smaller

group.

The

larger sub-group

may

itself

be subdivided into a larger

'MAN BY MAN"
group of four (u
ulpt)

MARGOUS

333
t

84,

134; p

76;

=
i

74; u

and a smaller group of three (f

Gr. 609 of the Paris National Library; z


z departs in verses
(fi)

= 106; = Cod. = 44; F =


fiz).
its

16-18 considerably from


It

congeners
mi
upOpurev
>l

and must be studied separately.


rrpui
Kcii

reads:
Kai

itjgovc to

irpootfyaye

rov
nai

z.aov

Kara

(pv/ac

evedtixfty
not

or'///

tovda nai
drjuoc

~pocrjx$ri Kara

dr/fiovc

tvedeixfiy o apcu

dr/juoc

Kpooijxdrj

apai

nar

avdpac

nai

evedeixOrj

ax a P

vl0C

Zau3pt

vtov

apa

rov

-?}11

vtov ovtov.

The

text

is

mutilated

but the omission

is

not to be put to

the account of the scribe

who

appears to have transcribed


(it

a mutilated text.

For, barring the end

shares the post17 and

script of n, see above), he gives a text in verses

18 substantially agreeing with Ae.

accordingly steps out


its
i

for our present purposes as a representative of


er or wider group.
nat

narrowit

If
rrptoi

we compare
Kac

the text of
rov
z.aov

reads
ov'/.ac

updpiaev iqaovg

ro
//

poop/aye
Kac

avrov

Kara

avrov Kat avedeixQt]


avedeixdrj
drjuoc

or///

tovda

7rpoorjxQt]Gav

Kara
rov

drifiovc

tovda Kai

C,apa

Kai

-pootp/ayov

rov

(hj/xov

Zapa

Kar

oikovc f

nai avedeixOi] oikoc Kai

^au3pt
ro
rrpui

vtov

^apa

rr/c

ov? i,c rov

tovda

with
tovda

that of

opdpiaev ujaovc
v
C,apa
ov/.)]

Kat rrpocyyaye

?aov Kara ov/ ac avrov k<u


dr/fjtovc

avedeixOq
drjfioc

tov6a

Kat.

~poa?/x^'/ Gav

Ka7a ^apa

km

avedetx^V
avedei%dij

Kai

Trpoci/yayov

rov

d)]fiov

Kar oikovc Kat

oikoc ^a/i t3pi Kai poesy/} a} ov rov oikov C,aji3pi Kar


vioc

avdpa

Kat avedeix&J

ax a P

x aPH-

vl0V fapfiP 1

v/ov

a l' a

Tti c ov/j/c

tovda

we

discover an omission due to homoioteleuton in

i,

the
f

scribe having

wandered from

fc/ippt

first

to :au3pt third,

agrees in every respect


ants) with u, their

(barring, of course, trifling varitext therefore representing one


itself

common
tovda

archetype.
side of h
tovda

The
it

latter

ranges

with

its

Kar oikovc
l

on the
T '^

(JC;

shares

(verse 16) with (5iE an(


j,

or/

(end of verse 18) with

both Origenic additions;

334
but
:ajHi
it

T111

'<

JEWISH QUARTKRLY REVIEW


traits of its

has a

number of

own;

the plural irpoavx^nav

bis (in the genitive), mt Kpoarryayov (active construction)

bis.

With F

it

has the

full

pedigree at the end.


(r; the

As

for

the

parallel

group
is

Old Latin of the


this

Codex Lugdunensis

(JJ)

an additional witness of

group), ro are practically identical.

The

text of verses 17
Kara
drifiovg

and l8 reads as follows: mt


mi
avedeixQq <%>

Trpoarfvexdrfo-av

-arpiuv

^apa

mi wpooqyayov

tov dr/pov rov Capa Kara avfipag


ill

KaievedetxQv (avedeixdv o)

(omitted
vl0V

o) oimg fr^ppi
r//c
(pr'/f/r

nai avedeixdn
S

a\ap

r/uc

\apui VIOV aP a

&p,(5pl KaT OIKOVg

lovda.

haS

suffered an omission

through

homoioteleuton,

the

scribe

wandering from
evedeixdy

avedeixdn

second (as he read with o

for

r) to

avedeixdv

third.

The manuscript goes


mi
axap

its

own
x a mu

way with
ting
1'iov

the reading narptag for dypovs -arpiuv ro and by cutthe end so as to read
it

down
:<ipa.

avedeixdv

viog

rrpon/^ylh/nai'

shares with
| read:

ufi.
kpoarryayov

The Greek underlying


evedeixOf/ dr/fiog

mi

Kara <h/povc

mi

o Z,apa kul Trpoaj/yayev tov dr/pov rov Capa Kara avopciQ

mi

evedetxOr/ o

omog ^ap,3pi

mt

-p<>G//\lh/ o oiko

Kara

avdpag

Kac

evedeixOrj

a\(ip viae xapfu VIOV Capipi VIOV C,apa.

Disregarding unimportant variations, there remain to be


singled out the transposition of ;apa and
$apf$pi

in the pedigree,
it

the omission of

mr

oncovgrw
<>

o>'//jr

n^a

which

shares with
it

s,

and the plus mt

rrpoavx^v

oimq hot avtipac


It is

which

has in com-

mon

with n comp. also

($;.

safe to say that the plus


|
is

was introduced from another recension;


mixed
text.

therefore a

We

must therefore
Rjjj.

fall

back on ro as repre-

sentatives of the sub-group

But ro require correction.


is

The order
Carmi

viov

apa viov Ca/tppt

clearly impossible.
Safifipt

Restore on the basis of J] and ufi:

viov

viov

:apa.

As

neither

(first in

order) nor
it

Zarah

(last in order)

was

a household

(owcoc),

follows

MAN
that

BY

MAN

MARGOLIS
s

335

Mr

oucovg

which was read neither by


place.
it

nor by J} stands

in the

wrong
;

It

apparently entered the text from


koto,

the margin

and

stood there opposite


to rJJ

avdpag

which

is

an old error
at the

common

for *r

oikov^.

Kara avdpaq

belongs

head of verse 18 and

in front thereof there

had drop,

ped out by homoioteleuton


ufi.

kcu Kpoar/yayov rov oikov Zauppt

comp.

Hence

the archetype of rJ} read: mi -poaijvtx^oav Kara


6r]fioq

fypovc.

Tvarpiuv kcu avedeLxQi]


oikov<;^>

o C,apa nai

pocrp/ayov rov

Srjfiov

rov ^apa <^K.ar

Kai avedeixflt] o oiKoq Cafifipt

<jiai Trpootp/ayov rov oikov ^a\i^pi Kara


jLL

avdpaq~^> Kai avedeixdr/

axap

vcog

X a Pf

vtov

<CZ a u fiP l ^> VL0V <is a P a ^> []


l

am somewhat
with

in

doubt as to whether rm

^m

urvda

which

ro have at the end stood in the archetype.


similarity

The

points of

the

archetype

of

ufi

are

unmistakable.

Both represent a revision of


Kar oiKovg in

B and
is

testify to the reading

verse

17.
s

Interesting

the

expression

Sr/fiovg

narpiuv (to; for

which
9,

has simply

irarpiag).

In the parallel

text I

Kingdoms

21 Lagarde's Lucian renders

nnawo by
it

narpia in the place of voXn of the other texts, just as


<j>vAT/

writes

for D3B> in the place of


It

tfiaprrpov

of the vulgar text.


of the Aldina goes

remains to be said that

Kar otmvg

back to the text of the group

15. 18. 64.

128 which
tofippi.

is

of a

mixed

character, comp. the

form
I

;a36u for

By way
umns

of

recapitulation,

subjoin in parallel col-

(a) the reconstructed original

Hebrew

text; (b) the

reconstructed original Septuagint; (c) the recension underlying

rufU;
text.

(d) the recension of Origen; (e) the received

Hebrew

336

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


a

INQUIRY INTO THE SOURCES OF KARAITE

HALAKAH*
By Bernard Revel,
I

Tulsa,

Oklahoma

will

now

turn to the differences

known

or supposed

to have existed between the Sadducees and the Pharisees

and examine Karaite halakah on these disputed

points.

The

interpretation of Lev.

16,

12-14 constituted one

of the earliest differences between the Pharisees and the

Sadducees.

The
1,

Sadducean
7)
to

view

and

practice

was

(Tosefta
vessel
(v.

Yoma

that the kindling of incense in the

13) was entered the Holy of


high-priest

take place before the high-priest

Holies, maintaining that otherwise the


it

when

entering
bv n&riK

would
*a

see

the Ark,
49

which

contravenes

mean

pya

(v. 2).
is

The

Pharisaic

ruling and practice


the coals in the

was

that the incense


itself

to be put on

Holy of Holies
1,

(T. K. Ahare Mot,


p. ib., 1, 5

3; Tosefta

Yoma

7;

Yoma

igb; 53a;

(39a)).

The

Karaites agree with the

Pharisaic interpretation of
:

these verses.

See Mibhar, ad he. (27a)

inx

131

riK

\ni)
:

mean
nnnon

fikt &6b>

to

lDjan

so also

min

nna, ad loc. (42b)

bv mroa iD^anai

ins ^a *t bv no^ao mropp n&roa.


Megillat Taanit
(ed.

The
ch.

authenticity of

Xeubauer,
of npvi

4),

according

to

which the
vol.
II,

interpretation
ff.

Continued from
**

New

Series,

517

See

min

1PI3,
J3J?3

Lev. 416, for the anti-Sudducean interpretation of this


fKl.

verse:
II,

ITMBpH
ff.,

pi H"IX NStP D?un

Comp. Geiger,
ff.

Jiid.

Zeitschrift,

29

and Oppenheim, Bet Talmud IV, 269

337

33&
rasa

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


(Deut. 25, 9)
constituted a difference between the

Pharisees

and

the

Sadducees,

is

admitted
ib.,

by

Geiger
latter in
1

(Jitdische Zeitschrift, II, 28; comp.


their adherence to the letter of the

95).

The

Law

required the non'

to spit in his face

(k>b) while the Pharisees in case of

halisah caused her to spit before

him (Yebamot 106b). The

Karaites agree with the Pharisees in the interpretation of

naa
hvm

npvi.

See Mibhar, ad
i

loc.

(22a)

p&o
at/

V0D2

npTl

^M
The

^ //v

orn

1JJ3.

Comp. spa htb,

/oc.

responsibility of a master for

damage caused

to

others by his servants constituted, as already recorded in

Mishnah (Yadaim
and Sadducees.
also to

4,

7), an issue between the Pharisees


latter applied the

The

law of Ex.

21, 35

damage done by
Pharisees

one's servants.
like

The Karaites agree


them.

with

the

and reason

See

py p
nay
<p?j

(i8oc): on bix rzbwn anna Dipnn ib>k trs


...

new

pin

in

byan

jna^
nyn

p
^

ir

po&wi

tw

n^a ^ax

....

onion

naS

i;tb> -icbki

nayn

ob^o Der Sadduzaismus (Leipzig 1906), 30


nvo^i onriK
;

po TDQn

^ Ti^n pm nayn *p?j sspni pro nnso comp. G. Holscher,


ff.
;

Geiger,

Ur-

schrift,

143

ff.

The Pharisees and


of inheritance.

the Sadducees differed on the law


27, 8

According to Num.
sons

when

there are
if

sons and daughters, the

are the

heirs.

But

the

son died before his father, the son leaving a daughter, the

Sadducees held that the daughter shares with her brother's


daughter the inheritance.

The Pharisees
of
inheritance

held that the son

and

all

his

descendants, male or female, should precede

the daughter in the right


60

(Meg. Taanit
11
ff.;

5,

See
2.

Rapoport, fiBtn

DlStT
8,

*W
23)

(Prag.

1861),

Weiss,

I,

117,

note

Josephus {Ant. IV,


See,

translates

with

the

Sadducees

V3D3

literally.

however,

Anan (Harkavy,

116):

JTBX2 Kpl'l,

KARAITE
(Neubauer,
1 1

HAUKAH REVEL
2,

339
20; Baba Batra

II,

10)

Tosefta Yadaim
61

56-1 6a; p.

ib., 8,

i).

The Karaite law of


confess
ion exists

inheritance,

as

they

themselves

(py p, 165&), is confused, and difference of opinamong them on essential points. The prominent
Karaite,

ninth

century

Daniel

al

Kumsi, held that the


82

daughter when sons are


ance (Pinsker,
II,

left receives a third of the inherit-

85; comp.

in^mis,

101a).

Joseph

b.

Abraham ha-Kohen was


right to inheritance
165*/)
;

of the opinion that the daughter's


(ib.,

is

equal to the son's


in the

101c;
b.

py p

this,

he reports

name
53

of David

Boaz, was

also the view of

many

others.

These views disagree with


Rechtsbiicher

51

See

V.

Aptowitzer,

Die

syrischen
82.

und

das

Mosaisch-

Talmudische Recht, Wien 1909,


quoted
there
is

His assertion that the law of Timotheos

Sadducean

is

mistaken.

The equal

rights

of

daughter's

son and another daughter's


the Pharisees and
62

daughter

never

constituted

an

issue

between

the

Sadducees.
it

Wreschner,

41, suggests that

was taken by some of the Karaites from


give the daughter,

the Samaritans,

who

follow the

Mohammedan law and

when

there

is

a son, a third of the inheritance.

The Karaite

law: 17

]^HV 73 ]100

BTIpOn
2d;
so

mtron
also

bllin

paS

Kin falMl Slip (Benjamin Nahawendi, ]*032 nXtPO,


might have also been borrowed from the

Hadassi,

Alph. 369)

Samaritans (see Wreschner, 42).


Sectaries,
of
5, I,

For a similar view, see Schechter, Jewish


Tradition makes
it

p.

9,

lines

14-15.

no provision for the case


impossible
(Sifre
to

a
8;

man

dying without heirs and considers

Num.

Baba kamma 109a).

According

to

Philo (II, 291) the tribe inherits his

property.
68

An

opinion
8,
1

identical
in the

with
of

that

of

Joseph

b.

Abraham
b.

is

quoted

in

p.

Baba batra
that by

name

D'U *D3M.
b.

Aaron

EHas (pj? p, 166a)


D? H2 tPI'H 101161 73

states

"many others" David


17

Boaz meant the Sadducees and reads


Kt?3 frftM

in

Baba batra 115b


of

J^OltP |

7X1^2

pn

instead
edition

pn n2

DJ?

H2

tri'D 1D1KPI 72;


(/.

see also

the reading in Neubauer's

of Megillat Taanit

c.)

comp. Hoffmann, ZfhB.,


see

IX
256

(1905).

UScomp.

For the view of Anan on n2PI


Gratz,

ntm\

Hadassi,

Alph.

(98b)

Geschichte,
31.

V4

187;

D. H. Muller, Syrisch-rbmische

Rechtbsiicher u.

Hamurabi,

The opinion

of Wreschner,

39,

that

U^H 'ODn

refers to

the

Samaritans

340
the

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Sadduccan as well as with the
Pharisaic
practice.

Those Karaites who do accept the

traditional

view

that
this

daughters do not share with sons in inheritance,


is

and
to

the view

of nearly

all

later

Karaites

(Hadassi, Alph.

252, 256;
27,

py p,
also

166a,

and -im and

min inD

Num.
Sad-

8)

agree

with

the Pharisees against

the

ducees, that the son's children, female as well as male, are


the sole heirs even

when

the deceased has left daughters.


)b

See Hadassi, Alph. 252 and 256 :DK omayni


D*Tip

?x

}!)

"ioki

i?B>

idvkvv

bai

nib ni)p

nn^; so also in^x


so also

rmx

io2<i:

p unnD": irnina imbinbm nan jd rump pn m m ^...5


pm
-or

min

-ma,

Num.

416: nnpj

pa

\in

*msi...

nan

|d ;-np.

Hadassi
"absolutely
p.

(Alph. 97)

informs us that the Sadducees


Geiger
{Zeitschrift,

forbade divorce."

1836,

99) doubted the authenticity of this report.


it

Kirkisani
(ed.

reports

in the

name
1.

of David
1.

b.

Merwan Almukames
S.

Harkavy, 304,

3; 305,
p.

12).
ff.)

Holdheim

in his "iK

nWKn
Geiger,

(Berlin 1861,

43

finds support for this asser-

tion in the fact that the Karaites,

who, as he believes with


also

descend

from

Sadducees,

prohibit
in

divorce

except in case of suspicion of adultery


quotes (p. 53, note)
stated the
facts.
irp5>K

the wife, and

miN.

Holdheim, however, mis-

The author
on Deut.

of ln^X

miK

(96c) as well
;

as

all

the other later Karaites (Hadassi, Alph. 366 (141c)


"in 3

innD and min

24,
d.

Gan Eden

154a?

and

ma^D nnS (A. Neubauer, Aus


54)
"\2l
),

Petersburger Bibliothek,
(Gittin 90a) take

does not like the School of


( 1

Shammai

nny

)eut.

24,

1 )

to

mean

sexual immorality, but an


overlooked
,

is

forced.

He
refer

and Aptowitzer

(JQR., XIX, 609)


see

Shabbat

116&.

For

the
also

expression
to

^nc2
EL

K'tW lSE,
II

pSnn
the

VIII,

78; Sintr*3

N'tM

may

Gamaliel

who was

supposed litigant

(Shabbat

1166).

KARAITE HALAKAH
"intolerable

REVEL
the wife's

34

thing'

as,

for

instance,

becoming
in-

(after the marriage)

deaf or blind or contracting an


is

curable

disease;

anything of such a nature

legitimate

cause for divorce.

But even

this

view was rather an innoto

vation of later Karaites.

As we now know, according


at the

Anan, marriage may be dissolved


the parties, by a writ of divorce.
avy, 119)
:

wish of either of

See

his

mvon

"isd

(Hark-

nun

rvh nitj bi
fcras

nny na kvo ^ vrya \n nvdh n^ dk mm nek Npi snoo "!v na na>Kn mrya anac? *<b *tn 121
in pai sin

iw ma

av in pa n? c^njD. 54
(pD'Oa HKBTD,

Benjamin
the right of

Nahawendi
to be

5&),

considered

divorce

vested in

the

husband alone.

Samuel

al

Magrebi

tells

us of the following three opinions

among

the Karaites as to the husband's right of divorce.

He
;n

says

(MS. 97b)
D.iDi

isSnnn
aifc
s

yn
no

nan
d.id

rmy na nse
kso
ba

^a

kvdd xb uoyi nnnb


'2

ion
s

ios

irn ma D^ann

rosoa rope x\n

^a

na

new
|n

vryn

areon

a pitn

y^
d^

ne>x ffiPita b*kh

wk

Wa* idxoh
ne\xn
D^iyn
s

020 dn
'Kjn

mn
1

*rm odd Dion


xb
*

"ici<r:n n?

mm ns dhdi mwn
dji

Snan p*n
in

wro

mnpn 020

wi

in lb no**"

[vie>x

n] vi&ut? ok nc*o tke onyna a

ma oonn
auun.

odt

wk

n MVn

menjni nb^ nniKDn

en a a nmon

54

See Harkavy in Gratz, Geschichte,

V4

487.
72.

This view of
It
is

Anan seems

to

have escaped Poznanski, ZfhB., XI (1907),


this

possible that

Anan

in

law raised
a

to

the

dignity of

biblical

law the
Gaon,

rmiD

rijpH enacted
ed.

about
35,
1.

century
id.,

before

Anan.
Resp.

See

Sherira

Epistle,

Neubauer,

11;
9,

MT13J

man,

140; comp.
b.

Gratz, V*,

129-130; Weiss, Dor,

IV,

5,

37; A.

Schwarz, Moses

Maimon, Leipzig

1908, 342-345.

Hadassi
suffici-

(Alph.

335)

stands alone in his opinion that


divorce.

^CHp

*inX7 DID

is

not

ent cause

for

For the Samaritan interpretation of 12T nil J? comp.

MGU'J., LIV (1910), 433; Philo and Josephus agree with the view of Beth
Hillel
(Ritter,
70,
n.
1).

342

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW The


practice of the Karaites of his day thus coincided
55

with the opinion of R. Akiba

(Gittin 90a)

mriN NE l^QK

The preparation

of the

Red Heifer was, according

to

Num.
llflB.

19, 9, to

be done by one ceremonially clean: B*K

fjDKi

The

interpretation of Tina

wx

constituted one of the

essential differences

between the Pharisees and Sadducees.


the unclean

The Pharisees considered


in the
11 hd

man who
in

has bathed

day time, and awaits sunset,


7,

accordance with

Lev. 22,
of the

to be

and

eligible

to prepare the ashes

Red

Heifer.

The

Sadducees considered him unclean

55

Still

more erroneous

is

the

assertion of

Holdheim
to

(/.

c,

57

ff.),

that

the Karaites considering the marital

bond similar
take

that of

God and
wife,

Israel

allow the

husband

to

forgive

and

back

an

adulterous

while

Tradition demands the dissolution of the marriage by a writ of divorce.


reverse
defiled
is

The

true.

According
to

to the

Karaite law, even the

-|D13S<

js

considered
requires

and forbidden

her

husband

whereas the

talmudic

law

divorce only in case the husband be a priest


the opinion of SiOBttH ni3K
22,
(/.

(Ketubbot 51b; the reason of


;

c.)

is

Jim

HB1D KBIT

for Ps.-Jon. on Deut.


9;

26:

KDU3

n3*0
IV,

mn*BB
4,

K13JI

nSk, see Chayes, PU2 *1K,

comp.

also
l

p"I **1JNP,

4).

See

Benjamin Nahawendi

(pO'JD flNCO 50):


K*n

y ;miDN
"ItPN

nSj?2 Sy

bzx neniKo bv ioa nan


also

noum

bn ntrx dki

rWOBIPI

'in*;

so

Hadassi,
also
47.

Alph.
Alph.

329: I1D13K

^3 nOK ?*3 S*3PD

nSyn Sy minx nnico pa; comp.


I.tSk flTM, 93&; niaSo 13S,
of
ipso

364 (1356);
b.

py p
held
the

1526; 155a;
in

Jepheth
is

Ali

that

case
is
5.

defilement
facto
(/.

no

writ

of

divorce
]3,

necessary;

for

marriage
Alph.

dissolved
c,

(py

155a);

but

see

Hadassi,

Holdheim

112) contends that the Sadducees did not consider a captive


]i"lb

(nnatP) even when

mat?
(14K/).

&
(/.

HCK

defiled.

Yet the Karaites hold that even an


husband.

ntTK

is

forbidden to

her
I,

See

Hadassi,

Alph.

36s

Josephus (Contra
c,
53,

A pionem
states

7) agrees with Tradition

(Ketubbot 27a).

Holdheim

note)

that while the

Karaites consider
3,

man and
women

woman

equal in their spiritual duties, the Mishnah (Berakot

2) confines the

duty of prayer to man.


are

The very Mishnah which he quotes


prayer.

states that

included

in

the

obligation of

KARAITE HAEAKAH
and barred him from

REVEL

343
M
it.

assisting in the preparation of


nua*> if we interpret mean "from the time

This issue could have arisen only


0*03

n*P!1

pnv

my

in

Deut. 23, 12 to

that

the sun begins to decline" allowing the unclean to take the

ablution after midday," a period thus intervening between

the purification bath and sunset, during which he

was con-

sidered by the Pharisees clean and suitable to prepare the

ma

ia.

Most of

the Karaites, however, take

my

nuab

to

mean
"idd

the last part of the day and assign the ablution to the hour

which immediately precedes sunset (see Harkavy, mDn

1 ),

143, n. 9)

see also

min

iriD,

ad

loc.

(27a)

rwab nvn
:

nytD Dyent?

nbapn ^in ny-n vb

"pa

nuab pi 3iyb tied


njtfp-

my

dv ^ud nn avn ba

pmb

^ijo rrrr

myn

See &., Lev.

39ft; Hadassi, Alph. 295


y\r\2

(nor): So also in^N nmtf, yid\

-mo

2ivb ~\V2D nvnb


...

my
....

nuae> a*ann intra

"pD nvnb ""p*


aiyb-

0^3
also
s

D^is

na dhw ninam d*3 pnT my rtoA nvn np 5>y33 D'KDBn mnDenpoa pS ... myb Iiod
ynx
*a

D'oann

So
Kin

Samuel

al

Magrabi (MS., igib


...

ff.)

nyi

myn anpa
Dnnn
0*03
pn-11

3 antm noxi

D'nsnn is^nnn

my nua
also

*b>ki by jro^niD

ayo ikb*i k^i

man

prrow "mwa Nim


Comp.
(ed. Friedlaender,

niONO inx

myn

ny kdbi 3in3n idned.

the anti-Karaite ordinance of

Maimonides

MGWJ
115
28.
c,

.,

1909, 476)

pr

}K

33D^n irina 'aannn

Drooi
e,

d^-c6k nspnyK 3Dnn rnPDKi pa; see also py p 110&,


J;

d;
II,

comp.

also

Sahl

b.

Masliah,
state

Pinsker,

According to them,

such

of

uncleanness

as

58

Parah
447
ff.

3,

7;

Tosefta,

ib.,

3,

8;

Yoma

2a and parallels;
1906,

comp. Gratz,
20-21

III 4,

G.
this

Holscher,

Der Sadduz'dismus, Leipzig

wholly

misunderstood
8T

controversy.

Comp. Geiger, ZDMG., XX, 567; Maim.,


loc.

mKipn

*1,

I,

6,

and 1*3111

and B"3 ad

344
DV butt
time

TH E JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

one

who

has bathed (for purification) in the day


all;

does

not exist at

the Karaites thus differ in the


the Sadducees as they

question of UV butt as

much from

do from the Pharisees.

The law
earliest

of

false

witnesses

constituted

one of the

differences

between the Pharisees and the SadDeut.


19,

ducees.

The

latter restricted the application of

19 to the case
in

when

the accused has already been executed


false

consequence of their

testimony.

The

Pharisaic
liable to

view and practice were that false witnesses are

equal punishment after the judgment had been passed but

not carried out (Sifre, ad


kot, 6;

loc., ed.

Friedmann,
ib.,

109ft;

Mak-

Tosefta Sanhedrin

6.

6; p.

6,

3
(I,

and

parallels).

Geiger (Urschrift, 140) and Weiss

138) consider
5ft

apocryphal the report of the Baraita Makkot

that the

Pharisees did not apply the law of false witnesses in case


the wrongly accused

was already executed.

The

issue be-

tween the Pharisees and Sadducees was, according to them,


the case

where the testimony was found


58

to be false before

the execution of the alleged offender.

Most of

the Karaite exegetes and codifiers agree with

the Pharisees in this disputed point; see Mibhar, ad loc.

(15&)
18

pmowinK; DnB>N3ib nwrwm;


also

comp. ^ddi-ite,

Comp.

Pineles,

mm hv
III,
Briill,

rOYT, 172; Friedmann, Beth Talmud, V,


387;

233

ff.;

Herzfeld,

Geschichte,
to

Graetz,
III

IIP,
(1877),
as

99.

The Book of
ff.

Susannah was according

Jahrbiicher,

63

(comp. also
against
1.

Hoffmann, Magazin, IV
Sadducean
accepts the
Intro., p.

(1877),

157

ff.)

written

protest
26,
n.

this

practice.

For the view of Philo see


(Weyl, 85).

Ritter,

Josephub

Pharisaic view
5.

For the Samaritans see Wreschner,


view
the
)

VIII, note
Geiger,

For attempts
140,

to explain the talmudic

1J1H
of

D'^nna (see
the

Urschrift,
b.

note),

which

is

also

view

Karaite

Aaron

Joseph

(Mibhar,
'13*7,

Deut.
p.
7.

16a)
L.

see

Magazin,
I,

XX
284,

(1893), 88
is

ff.;

Rapoport,

n?2Kl DlStP

Low, Ges. Sch.,

to

be

corrected

accordingly.

KARAITE HALAKAH
ad
loc.
(let.

REVEL
nriwP
'B

345
^y
:

95)

nyiD.n

Jin:

xS D'corn

W
nn

nipyb
:

pin

lDorrw n"3 to GOTn tap* comp. py p, 194a? nox pi idjjp -iriN i&M pnnj poowi onyn pa xiwn ^yn
*>

onoix oni p&> Sd xS onoiN pmpn *oani pavw p win pnna


....

pin

;o

N3^ p:i px

comp. also Hadassi, Alph. 357, and


1
:

rrnn nriD, Deut. 26a,


see,

1.

sin

nrr nox

rrn dms>

fW;

however, py p 177^:^610

D^n

orx nna n^

dki ...

The two
offerings,

daily burnt offerings

(Ton nbw) being pubic


expense of the public,

had to be provided
89

at the

from
Sifre

the rpe6n
I,

singular
daily

nonnof the half-shekel tax (Shekalim 4, 1 The Sadducees claimed (basing it on the 142). form n^yn ins Boan n in Num. 28, 4) that the
offerings

burnt

are to be

offered by
1 1
(

individuals.

Menahot 65a and Megillat Taanit,


Jewish Chronicles, or
II,

Neubauer, Mediaeval

3)

DHWI DW3.B
kue nn nns

Dnnix D^pm vnp


tit hwo;

d^p trac an nvne


The

ti^

nae> s n nr

comp. Geiger, Urschrift, 136.


Karaites, in agreement with the Pharisees, con-

sider the burnt offering a public sacrifice to be offered at

the expense of the people, though they hold that, in


duties incumbent on the people at large,
anticipates
it,

all

if

an individual

the duty

is

discharged.

See Mibhar to Ex.


II,
6.

M So
considers

also

Josephus, Ant. Ill,


"PQfi

10,

and Contra Ap.,


(II,

Philo also

the

|2ip

public

sacrifice

239).

Comp.

M.

Zipser,

Flavius

Josephus'

"Ueber
113.

das

hohe

Alter

des

Judischen

Volkes

gegen

Apion," Wien 1871,


of the

The

fact that

King Hezekiah defrayed the expense


II,
I,

"VCn

(II

Chron. 31, 3; comp. Schtirer,

284,

Engl, transl.)
is

is

not against this view, as even according to Tradition an individual


to bring the

allowed
7a)',

Ton,

if

he

first
8,

turns
7:

it

over to the people (Rosh hashanah

see

Maim.,

onpon

^3,

^trn "pro

jm* aiamv
loc.

ii3*n

ni:np
to

S3

e]K

112'^S DIDO'tr "12S2I nnt?3, comp. "jSnS natPO, ad

and P'n

Parah

2, 3.

This escaped Ratner, l2Vft "1E0 in honor of N. Sokolow,

Warsaw

1904. 5 2 -

346
27,

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


20 (57a)
:

bmtr

ba tied:

ID
to

nm

msoi d^djhi nSiyn


19,

nm^
,

"ins

mp
wnv

dn mson

in

nfeni D'TDnn pi.

Similarly
^y
*i
...

Num.
p*k

2; comp.
Sy
1

*1DZ>

rrVD

ad

loc.\

mx

nrooro
fur*" ba

p^dd^

in*

be>

pooo mt^ynb merino

Dnmn

<r IN*

DniDDvm;

see also

mm
I,

ina, Ex.

95b, and ln^K

mix,

ioifr.

The view

of Geiger (Jiidische Zeitschrift,


;

24; Nach-

gelassene Schr., V, Heb., 161

where; comp. Poznanski,

ZDMG., XX, 560 and elseRBJ XLV, 63) that the Sam.,

aritan interpretation of Deut. 25, 5

ff.,

which was also held


,

by some early Karaites, goes back to the Sadducees


be accepted.
adjective,

cannot

The Samaritans took mnnn (v. 5) to be an referring to riDn n^X translating it "the outer
the betrothed

wife,"

i.

e.

who had

not as yet entered her

husband's house, and restricted the law of levirate marriage


to the betrothed
issue

woman whose husband


p.

died without living


1,

(Kiddushin 75^-760 ;

Yebamot

6 and Gittin
If the

1,

4; comp. Frankel, Vorstudien, 197, note b).


ducees, like the Samaritans,

Sad-

would have applied the law

of

yibbum only

to the betrothed, but not to the

widowed
as

wife, marriage

would have been prohibited with them,


Samaritans

the cause of the exclusion of the

from the

Jewish community and of marriage being prohibited with


them, was that they referred the law of levirate marriage to
the betrothed only.
60

See Kiddushin 75&.

An

agreement of great importance, as Geiger thinks,


is

between the Sadducees and the Karaites


of the device

their rejection

known

as 'crub,

by which restraint on walkLow, Gesammelte Schrxften, of the Pharisees were


see, to
/.

Against

this

view of Geiger see also


(Urschrift,

L,.

III,

162;

Geiger's opinion

148)
is

that

many

against

intermarriage

with

Sadducees

not
1894,

proved;
65;

the

contrary,
160.

N.

Krochmal,

pTH

'3133

mi, Warsaw

L.

Low,

c,

KARAITE HALAKAH
ing
sees

REVEL
is

347
61

and carrying on the sabbath


in

lightened.

Geiger

the

institution

of

'erub

a result of the Pharisaic

desire to imitate the priestly sacerdotal meals eaten in

nnnn.
afford

The

sacrificial

meals constituted a religious

act.

To

the priests an opportunity to assemble

for such

repasts,

which were usually held on holidays and sabbath, the regulations

concerning walking distances


to

and carrying food


were
disre-

from one precinct


garded.

another
also

(niBJnb rwsnD)

The

Pharisees

instituted

common

repasts

(originally of companies of ten peoople, as in the eating of

the Paschal
fvin,

Lamb).

These meals, though of profane food,


JT>nt3 by

were eaten KHpn


rites

and

in connection

with them

were practised

and observances usually associated with


i.

sacerdotal meals.
ticipation

by those

To facilitate such gatherings, who lived outside the city limits

e.

par-

in such

consecrated meals (usually held on holy days), they devised


the
fiction

of 'erub, through which

members could come


to

from distances and food be carried from one precinct


another on sabbath.

(Erubin

6,

2;

ib.,

68b).

The Sadducees opposed this device The rejection of this "evasion law"

by the Samaritans (Erubin 31&) and the Karaites (Hadassi,


Alphabeta 182, 183, 242, see also authors quoted below) thus
goes back to their

common
is

source

the
;

Sadducees.

This

hypothesis of Geiger

due to misunderstanding the above


I.

quoted Mishnah.

As has been shown by


(ic, pp.

Halevy

in his

Dorot
I,

Ha
82

Rishonim

436

ff.

so also Weiss, Dor,

119),
61 Jiid.

the Sadducees are mentioned there as


Zeitschr., II, 24, Nachg. Schriften, III, 290:

rmo

irx> id
ff.

V, Heb., 145

and
to

elsewhere.

Against the view of Geiger concerning rn*112n of ten people

which he ascribes much importance (see references above and Urschrift, 121
ff.;

Nachg.
2;
62

Sciir.,

IV, 107), see A. Buchler,


for
Ps.-Jon.

Der
4,

Galilaische

Amhaare$, 208,
1846,

n.

comp.

also,

on Exod.

12,

Frankel,

MGWJ.,

114.
n

i"b r- n, "3 n2 ^ 2 niwiri nio*

nwiarn an*ya

[cpmn]
also

dhio

xh

/;

I3

Weiss overlooked, however, Horayot 40; comp.

Geiger himself,

34-8

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


,

ayvjD
of

which means "one who does not believe


i.

in the device

'erub"

e.

one

injunctions against Dinr6


bath.
nfcttPin

who ignores as invalid the rabbinic pn PI6W and "ism riKVin on sabthem and
reject the

Thus, while the Sadducees did not consider iiKT and


forbidden, the Karaites prohibit
/.
63

"evasion law" of 'erub (Hadassi,

c,

and authors quoted

below).

The

early Karaites

Anan,

Benjamin Nahawendi
(/.
c.

(py p, 31a
bade
64

ft".)

and Sahl
16,

b.

Masliah

and

irrbtf

rms,
for-

29c) interpreting Ex.

296

mnn
147,

B*S ntr

literally,

leaving the house on sabbath save for physical needs


147-8;

Urschrifi,

Nachg.
111113

Schr.,

V,

Heb.,
in

11.

ff.

*This

is

also

the

meaning of
tans).
15;

31VJJ3

12'Nt? *0

Erubin 316
s.

(concerning the Samarialso

See Niddah 57a and Rashi, ad toe,


S.

v.

"IDnS; see

Wreschner,
ibn
II,

comp.

Hanover, Das
1904,
21.

Festgesetz

d.

Samaritaner
comp. also

nach

Ibrahim
Div.

Jakiib,
vol.

Berlin
(Engl,

For the
37,
n.

Sadducees,

Schiirer,

II
63

transl.),

102.

See pj>
1;

p, 31&; MvbH
3.

mi,
also the

29c;

comp.

also

Harkavy,

pyS

CiV'D,

129, n.

139, n.

This

is

view of Hadassi; see Alph. 144 (54c)

and 247
ner,
15),

(94d).

Some

Karaites forbade, like the later Samaritans

(Wresch-

leaving the house on sabbath even for physical need or a religious

object;

see

Hadassi,

Alph.

144.

See also
121.

Reifmann, Beth Talmud,

I,

385;

Harkavy, Magazin,
64

VI

(1879),

The

later

Karaites,

including

Levi
b.

b.

Jepheth

ha-Eevi,

Joshua

b.

Judah,

Samuel al-Magrabi, and Aaron


16,

EHas,
to

accepted the

rabbinic

(see

Mekilta to Exod.
17b,
s.

29;

Alfasi
27,

and Asheri
1)

Erubin
of
the

1,

end; Tosafot ib

v.

lxS;

Maim., nStf,

restriction

sabbath

way

to

two

thousand yards outside the


ordinance.
It

city

limits,

mi?

Dinn, making thereof a

biblical

may

also

be

pointed

out here that only


to

R.

Akiba,
153
is
ff.

the

champion of
(Sotah

the
is

New Halakah

according

Gciger

(Urschrift,

and elsewhere),
5,

of the opinion that the restriction of


I,

HEK D^bSs
p.

biblical
11,
1.

3)!

See also Schechter, Jewish Sectaries,


It

10,

1.

21;

p.

6.

was

also

R.
to

Akiba,
Geiger,

the

antagonist
held
the

of

the

Sadducean-Samart'fa*
to

halakah
verts,

according
n?3K

who
75k;

Samaritans

be genuine con245),

n;
R.

(fciddushin

comp.

Frankel,
to
this

Einfluss,

while

R.
the

EHezer and

Ishmael

who, according
held
c. ;

view,
to

partly adhered to

Sadducean-Samaritan

halakah,
/.

the

Samaritans
8,

be only lion-converts,

mn

1J:

see

Kiddushin,

Shebiit

10; p.

ib.,

and ntW3 *JD

ad

loc.

KARAITE HAEAKAH
or some religious object.
65

REVEL

349

Geiger

(Jiid.

Zeitschr./ll (1863), 43

ff.)

holds that

the Sadducees prohibited the sacrifice of the Paschal

Lamb
I,

(nD2
ff.),

\2"\p)

on sabbath.

Derenbourg {Orientalia,
ff.),

184

Holdheim (JWKmtMtD, 160


Christi,

Chwolson (Das
ff.,

letzte

Passamahl

Leipzig 1908, 28
ff.

140,

161

comp.
claim

Bacher, JQR., VI, 680

and RBJ.,

XLV,

176

ff.)

that the similar view held by

Anan and some


Sadducees.

other early
this

Karaites

goes

back to the

See against

view A. Schwarz, Die Controversen der Schammaiten mid


Hilleliten,
I,
it

Wien
is

1893, p. 17, note.

It

may
the

also be pointed

out

that

hardly

probable
(/.

that

Sadducees
(/.

dis-

tinguished, as Geiger
n.

c.)

and Chwolson

c, 21; 29,

43,

140)

claim,

between the "perpetual offering"

(Tn |mp)

as a public offering

(inv

\2~)p),

and the pip

nDB as a private offering Sadducees themselves, the

(TT fmp); since, according to the Ton |mp was also to be offered
Moreover, many early Karaite

by an individual.
schrift
136,

See Menahot 65a; comp. Geiger, Ur-

and above.
agree

authorities

with

Tradition that the

riD2 \2ip takes

precedence over the

sabbath.

So

Benjamin

Nahawendi
al

(py^D"riD, 153; comp. also the views of Daniel

Kumsi
b.

and Jepheth
Joseph
68

b.

Ali,

Harkavy,
16b)
;

/.

c.).

So
al

also

Aaron

(Mibhar,

Exod.

Samuel
also
II,

Magrabi
source
of
al

(ed.

The Karaites
sabbath.

differ

among themselves
b.

on
21)
it

the

11DK
Basir

PlXXin on

Jepheth
ff.)

Ali

(Pinsker,

and Joseph
to
is

(I.tSn

mix,

2gd

follow

Tradition
thinks

and consider
that

be a ros'-E and not


22
b.
(

therefore
its

forbidden.
is

Kirkisani

carrying

nrs?f2
pj?
]Z
,

and
26b;
*J,

prohibition
also

traditional

and attested by Jerem.


b.

17,

coran.
/.

the

views of Joshua
b.

Judah and of Aaron


in
his

Elias,

pJJ

c).

Levi
is

Jepheth

stands

alone

opinion that the carrying of

light

things

not forbidden

(IPpSn

mtX,

29c).

350

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


d.

Junowicz, Fast-und Fcstgcsetze


Elias Bashyazi
(lfV^H

Karder, Berlin 1904, 6)

rmx,

riDS 'y, ch. 8). III,

Geiger (Nachgel. Schriften,

315; V, Heb., 149

ff.;

ZDMG., XVI,
holds
that

717

ff.;

comp. Cohn,

ZDMG., XLVII,
iiy,

678)
"ifcO,

the

Karaite view that rfaj

like r6n:

communicates uncleanness goes back to Sadducean Tradition.


It

escaped

Geiger that the earliest Karaites,

the

Ananites, were of the opinion that no separate part of the


carcass
irr^N
is

capable
nNDit:
*iijn

of

communicating uncleanness.
niXFE*

See

mm,

beg.: nioan

Sy ip^nj D^oann djex

djek non

bba bv "iond

Moa n!&j
....

D"::yn oni
K-ip
s

n dhd

nnx -ok ma' dx Dnyn


nbi: anpn n^ nonaro.

^
So
;

rum
also

nbi:

b non *pbn

}iy

p,

99^

end; comp. also

JQR., XIX,

151,

1.

11

for Anan's opinion see also Jacob b.

Reuben
n. 12;

(Pinsker,

II,

84); Harkavy, pyb "riD 59; 153,


II,

Schechter, Jewish Sectaries,


56, n. 4.

23; comp. also RBJ.,

XLV,

See also Geiger, Urschrift, 135, that the


niTITEl

Boethusians allowed

p^sn DnsD
their
.

to

be

written

on

nNDB norm
tion that

"iiy

which proves

agreement with Tradi-

n$OJ

my

is

not
S.,

ndqo
V,

Geiger's interpretation of

Shabbat

108a

(N.

Heb.,

151)

is

forced;

comp.

also Schorr,

pbnn, IV,

33.
I,

The view
III,

of Geiger (Jud. Zeitschr,


ff.;

51

II,

27; N. S.f

316; V, Heb., 138

163

ff.)

that the Samaritan

and

Karaite interpretation of Lev.


to the Sadducees
in
is

12, 4, 5

(mntD^)

goes back
/.

not proved.
it

See Wreschner,

c, 38,

favor of whose view

may

be pointed out that the

Book of
a

Jubilees (3, 13) seems to agree with Tradition that

woman
The

during rrima n^

is

excluded only from BHpO ntT3


/.

and D^-ip n^3K; see also Schwarz,


only view

c.,

94

ff.

common

to the Boethusians
is

(a latter-

day Sadduceeism) and the Karaites

the interpretation of

KARAITE HALAKAH

REVEL

35

men mnoo
Feast
of

and the time of the Feast of Weeks.


is,

The

Weeks

according

to

Lev. 23, 15-16, to be

observed on the

fiftieth

day after the waving of the sheaf.


is

The "wave-sheaf,"
after the sabbath" prets
i.

ioiy,

to be offered

"on the morrow


Tradition inter-

pn U&T

men mnoo.

nnen nnnDE "from

the day after the holy convocation,"

e.

from Nisan the


to

sixteenth.

The Boethusians

interpreted

m&n mnoo
Pentecost
is

mean

the day after the weekly sabbath that

occurs during the feast of the unleavened bread, so that


celebrated always on the
1,

first

day of the week


68 67

(Menahot 65a; Megillat Taanit


and
parallels).

2; Sifra on Lev. 23, 15

This

is

also the Samaritan

and Karaite

interpretation of

FDOTl

mnoo.
Karaite view as evidence of the
is

But

to

adduce

this

Karaite descent from the Sadducees

hardly

justifiable.

As Geiger

himself {Urschrift, 138-139); Wellhausen {Die


ff.)
;

Pharisaer und die Sadduc'der, 59

Schiirer (II, 334)

Poznanski {Abraham Geiger, Leben u Lebenswerk, 365) pointed out, this Boethusian interpretation of rDBTl mnoo
does not go back to Sadducean tradition but originated in
the animosity of the Boethusian priests-aristocrats against

the Pharisees after having been deprived by them of their


66

See

Wreschner,

Intr.,

XXIII;
Ja'kiib,

S.

Hanover,
1904,

Das
p.

Festgesetz

der
ib.,

Samaritaner nach Ibrahim ibn


62-63;
differ,
if

Berlin

text,

VII; comp.

Geiger, Nachg.

Schr.,

Ill, 294-296.

The Samaritans and


question,

the Karaites
to

however,
fifteenth

in

the

following essential

namely, when

count
it

the

of Nisan occurs

on Sunday.

The Karaites begin on


the

to

count the seven weeks.


of the next

The Samaritans would begin counting on


offer
164.

first
/.

week and thus

the

TD1JJ

post

festum.

See Geiger,

c,

296; Hoffmann, Leviticus, II,

For the Falashas, see A. Epstein, Eldad


(1891),
13
ff.

ha-Dani,
97

154

ff.;

id.,

REJ.,

XXII

See on

it

lastly

Poznanski, Gedenkb. zur Erin, an D. Kaufmann,

173

ff.

Some Karaites
Jair.

trace their interpretation


II,

b.

See

Pinsker,

16-7;

comp.

natm mnOO Frankl, MGWJ.,


of

to

R. Phinehas 115
ff.;

1876,

Epstein,

Eldad

ha-Dani,

158,

note.

352

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


was never
carried

prerogative to regulate the calendar and

out in practice.

The
Karaites

only agreement between the Sadducees and the

known
II,

to us

is

their rejection of "water libation,"


68

D-on iiDj. on the Feast of the Tabernacles.

See Jefeth

b.

AH

(Pinsker,

23)

D^an &6 D*arpn

nspv

nw

xb Dnsn -pco
:

mi

wn no^D
'n

by l^Din

o^on "no: nivon onoixn

nwn

*6

...nan xb
arf /or.

ncrs;

see also Mibhar,

Num.

28b,

and

*idd rwtD,

Thus, as we have seen, in


the

all

the differences between


in

Sadducees

and Pharisees recorded


Karaite halakah
(as

Talmud and
as

Megillat Taanit the

far

Karaite

opinion

is

known
,

to us), with the exception of rDB>n

mriDO

and D*n

TiDJ

either agrees with the Pharisees against the


is

Sadducees, or
vergent views

in

itself

undetermined by reason of
69

di-

among

the Karaites themselves.

The mention by
Mashiah of
70

the Karaites Kirkisani and

Hassan

b.

work (or works) composed by Zadok the


is

founder of the Sadducean party,


scholars

considered by

many

proof of some relation existing between Sad-

duceeism and Karaism.


Schechter has established close relation of "Fragments
of a
ish
88

Z ado kite

zvork" discovered and published by him {Jew-

Sectaries,
Sukkah 48b;
it

Cambridge
Yoma

1910,

vol.

I.)

with the 3N
4,

m
9.

266; comp.

Maim. Commentary on Sukkah


191
1,

See on
89

lastly

Feuchtwang,
Gratz,
to

MGWJ.,
This

49

ff.

See

also

V4

495.

examination

of

the

relation

of

the

Karaite

halakah
are
the

the

Sadducean views
of

known
d.

to

us

discloses

how un(Aus der


13
ff.);

founded

assertions

Weiss

{Dor, IV, 85); Neubauer

Pelersburger Bibliothek,

2);

Fiirst

{Geschichte

Kar'derthums,

I,

Harkavy
(1902),
the

(Gratz, Geschichte

4
,

477 and elsewhere); Poznanski {REJ.,


follow
Geiger,
that

XLIV
with

173)

and
in

others

who

the

Karaites

agree

Sadducees
70

the differences
/.

between the

latter
I.

and the Pharisees.


176-7",

See Harkavy,

c,

776; Poznanski, REJ.,

c,
u.

V. Aptowitzer,
8.

Die

Rechtsbiicher der

nestorianischen

Patriarchen

ihre

Quellen,

KARAITE HALAKAH
Tpnv^K
Karaites.

REVEL
tenth
:

353
century

mentioned

by

the

above-named

As Schechter

himself says

"The term Zakokites

naturally suggests the Sadducees; but the present state of

knowledge of the
offer

latter's

doctrine and practices does not


to justify the identifica-

enough points of resemblance

tion of

them with our

sect"

(Intr.,

XXI).

However,

if

these fragments do contain Sadducean traditions and practices/


1

they afford no support of the Sadducean-Karaite

theory, but rather disclose further proof that in seeking

for the origin of

Karaism and

its

halakah
it

we must

cut adrift

from any theory that would

link

with Sadduceeism.

One
which
all

of the two main and specfic accusations of this


is

Sect against their antagonists


the Karaites allow

polygamy
it

(p. 4,

11.

20

ff.)

if

does not interfere with


is

the husband's duties to his

first

wife and

not

TTW ."

See

71

See Israel Levi, REJ., 1911,


191
1,
1,

162

ff.

K. Kohler, American Journal of

Theology.
view, 191

432; comp.,

however, G. F. Moore, Harvard Theological Re-

358, 270,

and Poznaiiski, Jewish Review, September 191 1.


of

The suggestion
resent
a

Bacher

(ZfhB.,
priests

1911,

19)

that

these

Zadokites

rep-

group of
in

Sadducean

who, not long before the destruction


left

of the Temple,
tine,
is

consequence of the victory of the Pharisees,


until

Pales-

based
the

on the theory of Btichler-Chwolson that not


catastrophe
did
is

decade
life

before
of
the

national

the
still
(/.

Pharisees
to

control

the

national

people

theory
1

which

be

proved;

comp.

A.

Epstein,

MGWJ., XL
of a Zadokite of

(1896),

39- 1 40.

Kohler

c, 43

states that

"The Fragments
to

Work"
as

discovered by Schechter "strongly confirms the theory


to

Abraham Geiger

the

relationship

of

Samaritanism and Karaism


has
light

Sadduceeism"
if

and that "Professor

Schechter
to

not certain, that the

Document brought

made it highly by him formed


Document
the

probable,
the very

source of Anan's system, which, as Kirkisani


-

relates,
this

was founded upon the


connecting

books of Zadok"

and:

"We

thus

possess

in

the doctrines link between the ancient Sadducean and Samaritan lore and and Harkavy could Of the Karaites in a far more direct form than Geiger

expect"
in
this

(/.

c, 432-3).
will

The following examination

of the halakah contained


are.

Document

show how erroneous these assertions


to

" Comp. Lekah Tob


16.

Deut. 21,

referred to by Schechter,
Berlin
1904,

XVII,
is

n.

Gittelsohn,

Civil-Gesetze

der Karaer,

".

n-

9,

to

be

corrected

accordingly.

354

TH E JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


]:v^

Harkavy,

"no,

105,

109,

127; Hadassi

(Alph. 324
;

(119c?); comp. also Alph. 321-2, 365 (135&))

Aaron

b.

Joseph
214/O
;

(Mibhar,

Lev. 33b)
Elias

Samuel

al

Magrabi

(MS..

Aaron

b.

(py p, 146^
present

154&; nnin 1*D, Lev.


ch.

49a); Elias Bashyazi (in^N twin,


Troki (|maK, 46).

W3,

5); Solomon

day

Karaite,

Samuel
)b#2

b.
...

Shemariah
px
3

Pigit,
riNT

Hazzan

in Ekaterinoslav, writes:

d5>ipd

no

b on
-d

,nnw

nnpb vidk

n"s;

wmti

innin etn rrn6ob

D^Timn

^y

nM n

nn pi

|wu wyi
St.

Din i:bvx

n:un niD3 ikc irm re>j tjjq


1894,
I,

6kidp <m: man,


/.

Petersburg
n. 22.
if

176)

comp. also Schechter,


to this Sect

c, p.

XIX,

According
still

"Fish
split

may be

eaten only

while
their

alive they
12,

have been
11.

open and drained of

blood" (p.

13-14; comp. p. LI, n. 23), not requiring

that the fish be caught

by an

Israelite.

Anan {JQR., XIX,


73

143;

comp.

ib.,

138)

and many other early Karaites


(89 d)
;

(Hadassi, Alph. 235


5]DD

Jacob
lett.

b.

Reuben quoted

in

JYVE to Mibhar;

Num.

10&,

55) held, in agreement


fish

with the Samaritans (Wreschner, 51), that only


Schechter
hibited
(pp.

caught
Sect proof

XVII, XIX, XXXVI,


regarded
a

n.

3)

believes that this

divorce

and

second

marriage
as

during

the

life-time

the
191

first
1,

husband or wife,
This view
341.
is

even
as

after

divorce,

fornication

(comp.

JQR.,

138).
p.

foreign to the Karaite halakah as to Tradition;


decries
this

see above

This

Sect
of

also

the

Pharisaic

regulation

of

the

calendar.

If

the

calendar
/.

Sect was a solar one

(comp.

Schechter,

XVI,
from
73

XX
this
It
r.,

and Kohler,
Sect
as

c, 429), the Karaites differ in this important point


as

much
pointed

the

Rabbanites.
that

may be
7,

out

similar

view

is

quoted
"IBD

in

Midrash

(Gen.
to

and parallels)

in the

name

of Jacob of
r.

N'm^J
7,

who seems
XIV,
15&:

have been suspected of some

mj'D

(comp. Eccl.

47; "P,3J2n, vol


,

245).

The

later

Karaites

rejected this view.

See
:

min 1H3

Num.

nc^cxriD xb

ir\:vn

an

*ts o:na he^dx

mana

t\ow on Jn bz n dm
dne siuHiirii
/.

na

ne^DN nSi
pjj

mtwo bnv
ioife;

nc*DN nvnS ins

p
it

Dipo[n];

so also that

p,
IJ,

comp. also Samuel al-Magrabi,

c.

The requirement
eaten
suggests, as

the

blood
p.

be
n.

drained
23,

from

the

fish

before

is

Schechter

points

out,

that

this

Sect prohibited

the

eating

of

KARAITE HALAKAH
by an Israelite
fish

REVEL

355

may

be eaten.

Moreover, "splitting open the


is-

while

still

alive,"

which

required by this Sect,

is

expressly forbidden by most of the Karaites.


al

See Samuel

Magrabi,
el

ed.

M. Lorge, Die

Speisegcsetze der Kar'der von


;

Samuel
(89*0
ch.
;

Margrebi, Berlin 1907, 21

Hadassi, Alph. 234

comp. also JQR., XIX, 145:

\rA* mrm,

TOW

'tf,

23.

Schechter (pp. XVIII,

XLIX,
details

notes 16, 24,

LX)

point-

ed out several agreements between the Karaite halakah


that

and

of

this

Sect

in

the
is,

of

sabbath-observance.

Extreme Sabbatarianism
propensity.

however, a general sectarian


differ

Moreover, the Karaites


laws of the sabbath.
11.

from

this

Sect

in the following

According
falls

to this Sect (p. 11,

16-17) "if any person

into a gathering of water or unto a place of .... he

shall not bring

him up by
This
is

a ladder or a cord or any instruview of Daniel al-Kumsi (Kirkisani, ed.


b.

the blood of

fish.

also the

Harkavy, 316).
93c; mifi iro,
raites,

So also Hadassi, Alph. 234, end and Aaron


Lev.
19a).

EHas

Comp. Bacher, MGWJ.,

1874,

272.

( P> P, Many Ka-

however, oppose this view.


65;

See Mibhar, Lev. 12a, and HDD HTtS, ad


/.

\oc, that

lett.

Samuel

al

Magrabi,

c,

16.

Kohler's contention

(/.

c, 427)

the
is

Book

of Jubilees

agrees on this point with Tradition against this


Jubilees,
6,

Sect

not proved; see

Book of

10;

7,

28.
12,
11.

The Karaites
Reuben
nTTK,

agree, however, with the law of this Sect (p.

14-15)
;

that locusts are to be killed in water.


b.

See Hadassi, Alph. 235


/.

(Sgd)
fTJ?

Jacob
,

(ZfthB., IV, 73); Samuel al-Magrabi,


PIUntr
'J?,

c,

9,

21;

]i

101c;

"irvSi*

ch.

24.
to

Schechter
be TIPI jD

(XXIV,
13M and
,C

LI, n. 20) therefore


(p.

believes that

this
It

Sect considered

honey

prohibited
12)
refers,

it.

is,

however, more probable that


himself
(/.

D'imn
to

?.JyE

12,

1.

as

Schechter

c.)

suggests,

the

particles

of

the

bees

which are
.

mixed

up

with

the

honey

and

is,

perhaps, to read
'S^l

D>112"in

'JJl'TO

See
PIQn

Asheri, on

Aboda Zarah, 686:


The

Sttffl

NSm CilH pflK UK "K'H


honey
(

in pSHtyD.
It
is,

later Karaites allowed the use of


this

JTJ7

p,

92d, 93<0-

however, doubtful whether


of
(89c)

was
as

also the

view of the earlier Karaites


"12X
;

many
232

whom

prohibited

even
(114c).

eggs

Tin

]I3

see

Hadassi,

Alph.

and Alph. 308

-6

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

ment." (See Schechter,


10S. n. 14:
is

XLIX,

n.

39;
/.

Levi, REJ., I

e.

Moore,

/.

c, 365; Kohler,

c, 425).

This law

The
84
the

well as against Tradition. against the Karaite halakah as 74 (Shabbat 18, 3; Yoma Karaites agree with Tradition
ft'.;

parallels) that for Mekilta on Exod. 31, 14 and is to be desecrated. saving of a human life the sabbath

Mibhar, Exod. 38a; See Hadassi, Alph. 148; 179; pnen, p. 934a; in^N nrm, nne> 'V, ch. 21;
This Sect,
75

p,

like the

Book of

Jubilees (50, 12, comp. v.

9)

prohibited

fasting on sabbath.

Most of the
fasting on

Karaites,
the
sab-

however, allow and even See Hadassi, Alph. bath.

commend
150
al

(56**);

comp. Alph. 244

and 264.
iiber

So

also

Samuel
bet

Magrabi, ed. Weisz, Traktat

in his DISH mand in comp. alsopy P, 36a; Elias Bashyazi It may also in^rm, IWP-, ch. 11, but see ITW, P. 8. important Karaite deviabe pointed out that the two most
states

den Sabbat

den Kardern, Pressburg 1907,

H5

Gratz

{Geschichte, V*.
I

186)

that

Anan

prohibited medical treat-

ment on the sabbath.

do not

know

his

authority for this statement.

See

and Levi b. Jepheth Hadassi, Alph. 3 ox, letters 3, P (**) Anan relying on Exod. 15, 26 prohibited Harkavy ):>;b fllVoH 1BD, 13physicians (Sirkisani, quoted by the use of medicine and of
altogether

quoted

by

Harkavy
case
of

in Gratz, V*.
fffiS

Alph. 4 8 7 ; comp. Hadassi,


that

2o7

(8aa)).
it

It is only

rnpB
Alph.

pDD

some

Karaites

hold

that

is

not
b.

fW WW.
Abraham

See

Hadassi,

179.

and
in

Alph.

364

(>Uf)

and

Joseph

quoted in

p* 1*
2,
3.

34,

and

Vl* WPW, W -

ch. a; see,

however,

Ma im

.,

na

'n,

Aaron
rttV

b.

Joseph

(Mibhar, Exod. 38a) quotes I Sam. 21, This verse


II,
is

as proof that
12,

WOT

tTE2

mpB.

adduced also in Matthew


connection.

4 and in

Yelamdenu

(Yalkut,
to

30)

in

this

This seems
H.

be the meaning of
n.

n202 lAWTO BK 3T*ff S


'>

(p.

Il,

4-ss

comp.

p.

XLIX,
/.

19;

L !**_***'reading

c-

Wi
!

Bacher,
comp.,

ZfhB.,

XV,

is;

Kohler,

c,

424.)

3JW

*>r 51*1*

however,

Moor.,
the

7/anW
of

Theological Review, 19x1, 246.


it

The Falashas postpone even

Day

Atonement when

occurs on

sabbath.

KARAITE HALAKAH
tions

REVEL

357

from Tradition

in the

laws of the sabbath, namely, the

prohibition to have prohibition

fire in the

house on the sabbath and the

of

cohabitation

on
III,

the

sabbath-day,
ff.)

which

Geiger

(Nachgel. Schriften,

288
79

and Harkavy

(Gratz, Geschkhte,

4
,

478)

believe,

go back to Sadducean

Tradition, are not shared by this Sect.

The law

of this Sect that water in a rock not sufficient


is

for immersion

contaminated, like water in a vessel,


(p.
10,
11.

when

touched by an unclean person

13-14)

is

against

the Karaite principle that water does not contract uncleanness.

See

Kirkisani
4
,

(quoted
states

by
that

Harkavy,
this

Gratz,

Ge-

schkhte,

488)

who

was the view of


;

Anan.
2Sd;
72.
78

So

also Hadassi, Alph. 235, 286, 295

Mibhar, Lev.

}iv

P, gSd and 105c; iron nna, Lev. 28a; iri^K

mix

See also

Fiirst,

Geschichte

d.

Karaerihums,

I,

n.

While the opinion


justified

that

the

Sadducees also prohibited cohabitation on sabbath may be


Geiger that
the early

on the hypothesis of
which
is

any

divergence

from

traditional

halakah

common

to

Samaritans and the Karaites goes back to a


since

pre-Pharisaic

(Sadducean)
(Frankel,

tradition,

we

find

the

early

Samaritans

holding this view


this

Einfluss,

253,

stands alone in his opinion that

prohibition

was adopted by the Samaritans from the Karaites; comp.


there
is

Wreschner,

18-19),

no

reason

to

assume

that

already

the

early

Samaritans prohibited having light in the house on sabbath.

The arguments
and Ibrahim
b.

adduced by the Samaritans Manugga

(Wreschner,

16,

17)
S.,

Ja'kub (who knew the Karaite view; comp. Geiger, N.


prohibition

III.

289) for this

show

that

this

which are borrowed from the Karaites (Wreschner, 18) tend to prohibition was accepted by the later Samaritans from the
is
it

Karaites.

Nor

probable that this prohibition resulted from the ancient

interpretation

of
in

the

concept PI3kS (Geiger,

/.

c; comp. Poznanski,
existence of a
as
to

RE J.,
more

XLIV
Karaite

174

ff.

connection with which see the claim of the tenth century


like

Ibn Saquie, who,


(JQR.,
1,

Geiger,

believed
I,

in

the

ancient Halakah
in

XIII, 664;
23;

mpn,

1908,
\>*\

125),

the
I.

reading
c,

Tosefta
/.

Shabbat
120).

JB'A D0

J'pniB

comp.

JQR.,

662;

mpn,
77

c,

See, however, the view of Joseph

b.

Abraham (quoted
The
view
of

in Mibhar,
this'

/.

c.)

that

^mSn

D<?3

contract

uncleanness.

Sect

agrees

358

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


According
to
this

Sect

(p.

10,

11.

11-12)

no man

ritually
vessel.

unclean shall cleanse himself in the water of a

As Schechter (XL VI II,


D'SIMP
D s 0.

n.

3) remarks, this law

is

directed against

The

Karaites, however, not


1909, 469) but, as
/.

only allow

D'3)KP D^O (comp.

MGWJ.,

Kirkisani

informs us

(quoted by Harkavy,

c),

it

was

the view of

Anan
78

that one

who

does not bathe in a vessel

remains unclean.

The two laws contained


Schechter
(p.

in

p.

12,

11.

15-19 are, as
the

LI,

n.

27)

remarks,

against

Tradi-

tional view that only "6a and C"6n are capable of contracting

and communicating Levitical uncleanness.


agree with Tradition against this Sect.
rraKD
idj abi

79

The Karaites

See

Anan

Nip

pTi

x:xe bai ijruxb Dia 13*60

nw

i^n anai

K^tt'B xb xnTTji rra


partially with

iay^
ff.

Cpyb "nD, ed. Harkavy, p. 51;


to

Mikwaot

i,

(according

the
15,

interpretation
1)

of

Maim.

in

his

commentary ad

loc.

and

J731H ntfClU,
"HM*i
if

that

water less than


also

HSD
than
-

Dy31H

[^jnb
contract

12

V*

P.

10,

U.

12-13

may

mean

less

HMD

'?2)

uncleanness
11,

ri3132

even when

721110.
1*3131 is against

Ps.-Jon's

rendering of Lev.
It

36: pj?2J

f" nit?32 n3

our halakah.
Sect,
78

may
is

also

be pointed out that the Dositheans held,

like this

that water

ilKOltt

72"0; comp. Kirchheim,


to
p.

N701P '072,
Zarah
5,

25.

The
on

Samaritans,
D'21Nt?

according
comp.,

Abodah
IT""!

4,
8,

agree
1.

with

Tradition
79

D*0;

however,

to

Mikwaot,

It

must,

however,

be pointed

out that the law of this


05?

Sect

(p.

12,

11.

17-18):
,L,

nKOiM
inn
the
(
r.

iKOBi n'22

non

vtv itr 7ni22 irv is iodo Sa^ai

HCyO
that

FlKDltaa) agrees with the view of Hadassi, Alph. 290, 292, of

in

case

Num.

19,

18

(170

iKOltt)
is

I1N01t2

is

contracted

and communicated even when


Karaites.

721110.
10b;
20.

This view
7J72,
in

not shared by the other


122c;

See Mibhar,

Num.
";,

iTHfl

Num. 29b; pj? p,

D77N
35;

Ulfa, mnBl
see

n01B

ch.

Even

case of 0"V21

713J1 (Lev.
15,

n,

Rashi
to

and Nahm. ad loc,


D^Ss
s,

Shabbat 125a; Maim.,

0*73,

and comit

mentary

1)

it

is

the opinion of most of the Karaites that

is

not

rWOlta Srpr2

when 72ino.

See

mm ma,

ad

loc.

(280);

pp

p,

1060; but

see Hadassi, Alph. 292 and Mibhar, Lev. 18a.

KARAITE HALAKAH
comp.
Lev.
ib.,

REVEL
Alph.

359
286;

p.

58 and 133;

Hadassi,

Mibhar,
1036,
ff.

17a,

20a;

mm

ina,

Lev. 26b, 28b;

py p

in^N m-UN, Jib;

|V1DN, p. 21).

The Influence

of the

Works

of Philo upon the

Karaite Halakah

penal laws
1
.

In the laws of homicide the Karaites widely deviate

from Tradition.
ishable only

According to Tradition, murder


felonious intent to
80

is

pun-

when

kill

has been proved

(Sanhedrin 78b

ff.).

Beside intent, antecedent warning


its

immediately before the commission of the crime and

acknowledgment by

the

offender

(n&onn)

are

required

(Mekilta on Ex. 21, 12; Sifre on


22,

Num.

15,

33 and Deut.

24;

Sanhedrin 80b; Makkot 6b and parallels).


81

The
and

Karaites do not require forewarning in any crime

consider murder punishable even in the absence of intent.

See

po'ua

mPD, 2a:

nor

mvn

nniN

p
So

noi
also

nix ruvn

noi B*K

mo

'x:v IJnrA piano pn l^BKI.

Samuel

al-

Magrabi (Gitelsohn, 22).


Karaites only

Intent to

kill is

required by the
killing
,

when

the missile by

which the

has

been effected was not likely to cause death. See py p


....

i76d

pun nx mrw nvn


ik

nibyo

b6b6 ainan npbn D<nsnm


nr papa

itrx nana

warn nab lmanb pa dxe? m>nn

rban avian ik
ia
n?

ana man dk
dk p*u
80

n^

nupa nvn mp nr no mm tt Dyt5^ tt nsn npma h:ej


to

mo^
noi

prr &6
1

ia

mow

According

R.
is

Simeon

(Sanhedrin

79a)

and

Rabbi

(Mekilta,

Mishpatim, 8) murder
intent,
81
i.

not punishable even in case of miscarried felonious

e.

when

man
42a:

intending to

kill

person killed another instead.

Mibhar,

Exod.

pitA n
0ffi;

Si!

J31 13

STtfW T?
p, 177c

V*f\

M*M 11DH pi

pninaiT 1S JO mn
opinion of Philo; see

nxinn
Werke

so also

HJ?

This seems also the


n.
2.

Philos, II

(Breslau 1910), 263,

360

1 1 1:

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


(

mo* n^
rriin
.

in

niD\

Comp.
and
the

also Mibhar,
al

Exod.

32/7

and ina

Numb.
in

496
case

Samuel
offender
all

Magrabi
would,

(Gitelsohn,
to

141

which

according

Tradition, not be punishable at


Sifre to

(Mekilta to Ex. 21, 18;


;

Num.

35, 17 (ed.

Friedmann 61b)
82

Sanhedrin 79a/
punishes
his

Maimonides,
der
the
direct
ally

nvn

3.

1-3. ).

Tradition has has


laid

muron
such
actuto

only
victim

when
and
;

the
the

murderer
death

hand

resulted

from
unless

assault

handing
in

another

poison,

forcing

it

his

mouth,
while

or
a

leading
force

him

place

where

in

short
is

of

nature

or

a beast will
to

kill

him,

thus not punished by death (Sifre


;

Num. 35, 17; Sanhedrin j6b ff. Maim., mm, 2, 2 ff.). The Karaites do not require the death to be the direct result

of the action of the murderer.

The Karaites

accept
in case

the view of R.

Judah

b.

Bathyra (Sanhedrin 78a)

of

murder committed by several people simultaneously. See

po^ariKPD, 2a: nrro D*3"n d^o -inn d^gwx

^k

'"j;

rmam.
,

See also Hadassi, Alph. 152 and Alph. 166; py p 177c; and Samuel al Magrabi, MS., 84a: wz:b mnn DK Vizn p*o
...

nanna D^ino ban


of

...

n?

avna D^zn

in

nna Kin ox; and the


43a)
confl,

opinion

Beth

Shammai

(Kiddushin

cerning murder committed through an agent.


177/;:
82

See py

ire

*T Sy IK lDVya onxn l."W DX nnxi; comp. Hadassi,


in

Nor do the Karaites,


require

case

of

the
guilt.

defendant's

confession

of

any

crime,

witnesses
ic:

to

establish

See

Benjamin

Nahawendi,
Hadassi
see also
*3

po'aa
(Alph.

mcvo
357*1):

d*jkj dhjj

wa re nmn jh
^JJ

na jbVi;
1t?
Nttin

so also

DHJ?
also

W3
isamuel
nri

K1H 1211V

K171

mi'

min

Alph.

370;

so

al-Magrabi

(MS.,

1056):

mn
,

^'2 12T DK

]H
Sy;

oB*Snon njno iena


comp.
also
is

onyS pot* xS pi
50; p}J JJ,
E"!N

p
man

n)r

ijk "in
98a.

itre:

Mihhar,
%
J,

Num.

194J;

lfl'^H

miN
can

The talmudic
himself,

principle

E"i

1CSJ,"

E'tFE

^K.

no

incriminate
9/;

confessing of guilt not being admitted as evidence (Sanhedrin

and parallels;

Maimonides,

piHiO

X,

6;

but

comp. Weiss,

I,

23

ff.).

KARAITE HALAKAII
Alph. 269
sider
ff.
;

REVEL
150.

36

comp. also Weiss,


accomplices,

I,

They

also
to

con-

accessories,

and counselors

murder

punishable equally with the principal.

See Hadassi, Alph.

274:
. .

sin Kin annai

unnb *b*2 pa nnDa pa nar6 pe^on pi


oi>ai

-pn rpaa npnna trim on D'PBn


Exod. 64^-650:

nvnn.
iddd.

See nna

mm,
inbir
...

o^nn

*3B1K

niVD

trwa num

by pa iovya

manna
also
:

nyw

in

wnrrp pa a^nm n*n dik?i Nip^ divdp inn^o aaD^ pa npc nnya pa nion dd "y pa;
s

so

pyp, 1776. See also Samuel a! Magrabi (MS. onxn hht >d onoi .... Ta nxan hod d^sik Sy bisn nannn 846) npfc" *3 Dnoi piA in wob in jScS in na: Dipcc Sis^i inyn hn
...

Dimn Dnpyn
...irunnii

nSna

mnam

*bm
1

in rrn s in
a

dd nan n nnN.n

noiN in
...

nw mjna onxn ban ie>aaa iniN nw onxn dn


naD
nS

Dnsi

...

nnsa

^mn

mi*6

lninan i^n baa enan pro


noin
s

rnmn nxNPoa men orpra


also Mibhar,

nnym

m^yb

inbitb.

So

Exod. 38a.

These Karaite laws approach the view of Philo according to

whom

intent to kill even


(I,

when not

carried out

is

punished by death

314,

Mangey, comp. B.
ff.

Ritter, Philo

und
II,

die Halacha, Leipzig 1879, 23

and Werke Philos,

209, note 3).


83

83

Josephus

{Ant.

XII,
in

9,

1)

agrees with

Tradition
315)

that

only action

is

punishable.

Philo

states

this

connection

(II,

that

those

who with
to

murderous intent prepare poison or any other deadening substance are


be killed instantly poison
(Josephus, Ant.

IV,

8,

34,

considers even the keeping of


p.

punishable
the

by

death

in

which,

as

Weyl,
dc

66

ff.,

has

shown,

he

followed
Ritter
(p.

Roman
Philo

law

{Lex
this

Cornelia

sicariis)).
22,
17.

28),

based

law

on

Exod.

As sugges!ed by The Septuagint

translates
Ritter

nEtt*2a by Qapjuanovc

which has also the meaning of "poisoners."


the
is

fails,

however,
that

to

indicate

source
to

of

Philo's

assertion

that

the

Law commands
peculiar

the

poisoner

be

executed

immediately.

The

expression i"pnn xh instead


loc.)

of

the

usual

man

nia (comp. D"2C*1 and


suffer
is

Nahm., ad
to
live

must have been taken by Philo to


a

mean "do not


of

him
also
that

even

moment."
Karaites.

This

interpretation

mnn

S?

found

among

the

Samuel

al-Magrabi

(MS.,

141^)

says

362
2.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

erty of

Ransom for death caused by the unguarded propa man or through his instrumentality, is required,
21,

according to Tradition, only in the case of the goring ox

(Exod.

29-31),

the

provision not applying to

death

caused by any other property or by any cause of danger


created by

him (Baba kamma

5,

6;

b. ib.,

53b; Maimonides,

p0
(v.

*P?J,

12, 16).

The Karaites

interpret the law of

ransom

30)

to apply to all cases

where a person meets death

through the negligence of the owner of the property or


the creator of the cause of death.
pit

Thus, whether

it

be a

(Ex. 21, 33-35), or a

fire

kindled on one's premises

that spread

beyond

(ib., 22,

5), or failure of the

owner of
f

a house to build a battlement for his roof (Deut. 22 8)

and a person was

killed as a result of

such negligence

in all these cases the

Karaites hold that the owner of the


fire

property or the maker of the

or pit

is

to

pay ransom,

according to Exod. 21, 30.

As Hadassi
:

says:

JWH

mm

npyn npy xb
prima 153

ibw nub noa *6i TOfi ipk nit? ie> bi uvv nnbipa* im nrvo dhd ibwi u:6 (Alph., 274).
84

See

*&.,

Alph.

270 and 370.


*aa

See also

pwa

riK>E, 2c:

poia eojn din

k ona parun bam niivoi nc pooon


dki
'131

bvn

naa jnu ibu

D^pao

DW"i

*ya in^d:

K'nai.

See also
though the

pyp,
Law
is

180c?: >Eoa

pa vrvurun nvD san ptJn obiNi


in case of nBtP2.0

reprieves the

condemned pregnant woman,

the execution

not to be postponed since the

Law

says

rpflfi

xb

xb 10N1
Si

nnno

*innS

Mb

iw
*a

xb a

insnn nrn Mjpun

man

mid io

rvnn

onnn io3 nn
84

maiye

mn

ion dki

nyS nyo.

Comp.,
(II,

however,

Mibhar.,

Exod. 43^.

The Karaites agree

also

with

Philo
(v.

324), against Mekilta ad loc, in the interpretation of 17 fl\T

DO ill

34) as referring to the p'Tft; Philo (323) and Hadassi, Alph. 273, interpret
\b .TiT
2c,

also

nam
1.

in

v.

36 as

punS.

So

also

Benjamin Nahawendi, flKCO


1J13

l'D'33,
JTJJ

1,

but

see

Mibhar,

ad loc;

min

Lev.

74a; comp.

also

p,

181&.

KARAITE HALAKAH
Tain
inrrv-i

REVEL
iS

363

*?vv

"isia

[n1

ib

dxi

w
1213
"iok

D^oioa

pa

nam
"isn

wnorun
dn icki

r\rvr\

bv bi

nsn pdA
n:\

inpn joi

awan
Sy

nov vSy3
v^y

hpo*
i>33

nwn
iraa

ni

nmn
vi>y

nram rmnm
121D j;v

rmr

-itra

pns ;rm

nor

dhd nns3
i&.,

Comp.
Tnrp
DP23

nnj dmp obab pin Kim pp%u nu 178^ 181 c, i&2b and Samuel al Magrabi, GitelFurther
fol.

ph

mm
dki

sohn, 39-40.

133a (not published) he says:

inoi wivai
"12133.

Pn omx

nwm

nitre: in

dwk

dp vn

view similar

to this

Karaite anti-traditional law

that also other cases of criminal negligence are punishable

is

held by Philo.

Expounding
says that
if

the law of Ex. 21, 33


fall into

(II,

324), Philo

man

the pit and die the court shall


is

decide what punishment the digger


fine

to

suffer or

what

he

is

to

pay (on xpv

~a8eiv
8,

mroriwa).

He

also says

about the law of Deut. 22,

that those

who

fail to

make
iau
roig

a battlement to their roof commit a crime equal to that of

one

who

digs a pit,
arofiia

and declares

Ko?.aZeo6uoav

yow

ev

axavTj ra

ruv

opvy/uaruv

Karalenrovoiv

COmp.

Ritter,

and notes.
Philo and the Karaites agree also in the interpretation

of

v.

2gb nor vhyi


if

d:i.

Tradition interprets

it

to

mean

that

the owner,
at the
85

he does not redeem himself,


85

shall suffer death

hand of God

D*OP Ta nn^o (Mekilta, Mishpatim,

X
n.

Frankel (Einfluss,, 93) believes that the translation of the Septuagint


the
ff.

indicates

traditional

interpretation,

against

which

see
hex

Ritter,

48,

and 124
Berlin

and H. Weyl, Die Jiidischen Strafgesetze


153
ff.

Flavins Josephus,

1900,

The view

of

Geiger
DJH

(Urschrift,
as

448

ff.)

that

the

ancient halakah interpreted

nV

1^2

D"W

T*3
(/.

IWD
c,
u.

was already
to

shown by Pineles
unfounded;
378,
n.
1.

mm

St?

Wtt,

193-6)

and Weyl
Geiger,

144-153)

be

comp.

also

Poznanski,

Abraham

Leben

Lebenswerk.

364

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


v.

Sanhedrin 15&; comp. Ps.-Jon. to

29).

The Karaites
DJl(i. e.

uphold the

literal interpretation

of

nor vbyi

D1K 'T3)

and

take vbv ni'T "IBS DK1 (v. 30a) to

mean

that the nearest

kinsmen (Din ^603) of the

killed are to decide

whether to

execute him or to take ransom.

See Benjamin Nahawendi,

po^a

nxtro, 2c

Kin

dix n^ooi nyio vbvi)


dji

[wn]

ynu Kin d*o

bi: dki

nor rbva
by
xt

^pd

wn

k'Tidi

rSjn dj

non

bpD"

nonan -t

nnn ^
.

inyn bxri

jn s

nsa

uoo np^ D^n Din

r^y ntT 122 DX

See

also
"ina,

Hadassi
/oc.

(Alph.

270,
al

370)

py

p.

177^ and

mm

ad

(73&); Samuel

Mag-

rabi (Gitelsohn, 35-36).

Philo holds the


this

same view, and

in

his exposition of
is

law

(II,

323) says that the owner of the goring ox

guilty of the

man's death.

He

shall be put to death or

pay ransom.

The

court shall decide his punishment.

The

Karaites thus agree with Philo and differ only as to the


question with

whom

rests the option of death or

ransom;

while
court

according to
is

Philo

(so

also

Mekilta, ad loc.) the


it

to decide, the Karaites hold that

rests

with the

Din

*>ku.

3.

Tradition interprets the law of Ex. 21, 24-26 and

Lev. 24, 19-21 to


;

mean money indemnity (Mekilta ad

loc,

(Mishpatim 8) Sifra on Emor, 24, 19; Baba kamma 8, 1 Ketubbot 35a and parallels; comp. Maimonides, pnoi bmn
I,
1

ff.).

Philo takes these verses literally and in several places

vigorously advocates the practice of lex talionis.


ter,

See Ritis

Philo und die Halacha,


in all its

p.

18

ff.

The
all

lex talionis

ac-

cepted

severity also

by nearly

the Karaites. Ben-

jamin Nahawendi interprets py nnn ?y

literally.

See Ben-

jamin Nahawendi, p'J3 nxtro, 2d; wir\2

Dioi

nao bl nvyn

KARAITE HALAKAII
)b

REVEL
also

365
a Kar21,

flPjr

p npy

ne>K3 ittNrj'yiEJ.

So

Ben Zuta,

aite

contemporary of Saadia Gaon (Ibn Ezra on Exod.


b.

24); Jepheth
(Alph. 275

Ali

(MGWJ., XLI,
b.

1897, 205); Hadassi

(104c); 370 (146ft); 373 (149O; comp. also


;

Alph. 170)
b.

Aaron

Joseph (Mibhar, Exod. 42a)


;

Aaron

Elias

al

(pp p, 179a ff. min mi, Exod. yib ff.) Samuel Magrabi (Gitelsohn, /. c, 28-9) Abraham b. Josiah
;
;

(fDK
86

nJK,
See also
I,

24ft);

Solomon Troki (pna, 39). 86


H133
,

Rapoport, DTl^n
is

1831,

p.

34.

L.

Low, Gesammclte

Schriften,
believes
Sectaries,
literally

287

to

be corrected accordingly.

Harkavy,

p^S

QlY'D,

198,

that
II,

Anan
7,

also
11.

upheld

lex talionis;

comp. also Schechter, Jewish


also

5-7.

The
ein

Samaritans

interpret

|JJ

nnn
restrict

f'J?

(Klumel,
1,

Mischpatim,
is

samaritanisch-arabischcr

Commentar,

XX;
the

JQR.,

191

210

to

be corrected accordingly).
intentional

Some Karaites
still

application of lex talionis to


it

permanent injury;

others leave

to

the discretion of the court to pronounce sentence of equal punishment

or indemnity;
to

comp. Mibhar, Exod. 53a;


of

7\~\\T\

1113,

Exod. 71b

ff.

According

the

Scholion
II,

Megillat
Gratz,

Ta'anit
III 4
,

ch.

(Neubauer, Mediaeval Jewish


Boethiisians
(Urschrift,

Chronicles,
literalism
to

8;

comp.

693)

the

extended
but see

their
id.,

lex
u.

talionis.

Geiger at one time


22;

148,

Sadducder
(flOKl DlStP
basis
/.

Pharis'der,
,

Nachg.
Ritter
d.

Schriften,

V,
this

Heb.,
report
1885,

162),

Rapoport
historical

n3T

15),

and

(133-4)

deny
I,

any
221;

(comp. Jost,
Bikhler,
c).

Geschichte

Judenthums,

Leipzig

L.

Low,

c, 286;
/.

MGWJ., L
an

(1906), 679, n. and the literature adduced by


difference
It is also

Ritter,

Such

important

would

not

have

been

left

unnoticed in the talmudic literature.

improbable that Josephus, who


all

was an avowed Pharisee

{Vita,

II,

end)

and who in
as
far as

the differences be-

tween the Sadduccees and the


to

Pharisees,

his

opinion
of

is

known

us,

sides

with

the

Pharisees

(except in

the

interpretation

PptPfi

VH2

in
42,

Lev. 31, 9;
44,

see

Olitzki,

Flavius Josephus und die Halacha,

Berlin 1885,

54 and Ritter,

26),
8,

would have accepted the


35)
if
it

literal

interpretation of

]y

nnn py

(Ant.

IV,

were anti-Pharisaic.

Geiger (Xachg. Schriften, V, Heb. 162) claims that the ancient halakah also
interpreted
J'J,

r.nn

J*JJ

literally,

as R.

EHezer held
in

this

view (Baba

kamma

84a;

see

the
to

version

of

R.

EHezer's

opinion

Mibhar,
8,

Exod. 42a, which

he seems

have taken from Mekilta, Mishpatim,


Geiger,
vol.
/.

reading R. EHezer for

pn^

h; comp.

c, and

L.

Low,

/.

c,

287, n. 2).

See

I.

Ilalevy,

D'ilCKin
that of R.

nnn,

lc,

425
S.

ff.

for elucidation of the

traditional
371, n.
1.

view

and

EHezer; comp.

Munk, Guide des tgares,

Philo (II.

366

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Philo (II, 323, end) states that the owner of an animal

that

killed

slave

is

to

pay the

full value of the slave.

Ritter (49) considers this view of Philo to be against


21,

Exod.

32:

WTlA

}JV

D^pP rate.
if

Many
v.

Karaite authorities

agree with Philo and hold that

32 establishes the mini-

mum
slave.

fine

and that

the value of the slave be


is

more than
law

bpP wbtf, the owner

to be paid the
bpfc>

full

value of the
indi-

Other Karaites hold that by

Db6b> the

cates the value of the average slave

and that

in all cases

the

owner of the animal


See
b
-|-iy

is

to pay the full value of the


nr\b

slave.
bpnfj

py

p,

18m:

ainan

nnx
:

r5w now nbpn ^jni .Tarn Dnwnap -ny nnxi D^ninanK'


p^fcop n
.

^
nay
nre>

*ny

rvn

dni

D^pp d^b>
nnx
Tonnbi

nn D^in
pnoi

pan p

b*p s^yx nna&n nay D^Dpi o^na


bix

pnow

vbv *powb

mnsn

-py

Dnoi on

pnain TDini)

sn

^M-ppmy.

So

also rrnnnro,

Exod. y$b-

The Karaites agree with Philo


tion of

also in the interpreta-

Exod.

21, 19 VMflPD

^y

pm

"limnm mp< dk.


6)
;

Tra-

dition

(Mekilta
4,

ad

loc.

(Mishpatim,

Onkelos
loc),

and

Ketubbot

4 (28c; but see Ps.-Jon. ad


interprets
it

taking
the
if in

WW
he
is

by figuratively,
is

to

mean

that

offender

not liable for death consequent on a blow,

the interval the injured


able to

party has
his

so

far

recovered that
i.

walk about "on

own

strength,"

e.

without

others' assistance.

WWD by
313;
21,
Ritter,

literally,

Philo (II, 317; Ritter, 32, note 3) takes namely, that even when the injured party

required the support of a staff or of a


22)

man
9,

the offender

is

holds

(against
is

Mishnah Sanhedrin

1;

Mekilta on Exod.

12)

that

the murderer

to

be killed in the same manner in which he


4,

committed
view
of

the

crime

(so

also

Book of Jubilees
S.

32).

This
der

is

also

the

many

Karaites.
14,
II.

See
13-15;

Gitelsohn,

Civil-Gesetze
flj>

Karaer von
of

Samuel al-Magrebi,
Biichler

see,
n.,

however,
692,

p,

77 c.

The opinion
also

(MGWJ., L
Sadducees
is

(1906),

679

706)

that

this

was

the

view

f the

not supported by any proof.

KARAITE HAEAKAH
to be acquitted.
literally; see

REVEL
lmyPD
bv, like
...

367
Philo,

The Karaites
So

interpret

mm tna,
al

Exod., 71a: r6npn bmi

lruppc bu

H33

WW

1DXP njycrea

1"DK.

also Mibhar, ad loc;

pv

p,

i8o>;

Samuel

Magrabi (Gitelsohn, 23).


interpret also Deut. 25,

The Karaites
ed.

12 nsa

nx

niVpl

against Tradition (Sifre ad loc; comp. Midrash Tannaim.

Hoffmann, 168
-inn

ff.)

literally; see

Mibhar ad

loc.

(22b)

min
cjv

ad loc; Samuel Al Magrabi, (Gitelsohn, 29).


(II,

So

also Philo
ov
de/xig.

328)

Earw

Se

t)

6ik?i

x l PS

o-~oko-t)

r//f

atpa/ievTfi

4.

Philo deviates in his exposition of Exod. 21, 22


refers |1DK in verses 22-23
to

ff.

from Tradition which

the

woman and

holds the

man

guilty of

murder

if

he killed

the mother, but not punishable for the deadly effect of the

blow on the unborn

child,

regarding the foetus only as part

or limb of the mother (pars vise er um matris) and without

an independent existence (Mekilta ad loc; Baba

kamma
Philo

48b
(II,

ff.

see also Ohalot 7,

6 and Ps.-Jon. to
this
:

v.

22).

317 comp. 319, beg.) takes

law to refer to the

embryo and
ried

interprets these verses

If the foetus miscar-

by the blow was not formed


is

at the time of the

blow
if

the offender

not liable for murder (verse 22), but


distinct shape
%

the

embryo has assumed a

and

is

completed the

offender shall die for the death of the child (verse 23).
Philo,

though considering the unborn child to be a part of


(II,

the mother

319), holds that the law of Lev. 22, 28


the

87

Philo

follows

Septuagint

in
8,

the zz)

interpretation

of

these

verses;

see Ritter, 35.

Josephus {Ant., IV,

agrees with Tradition and refers

pDN
the

to

the mother only; comp. Geiger,

Urschrift, 436-7.

Yet he holds, like


be

Karaites

(Hadassi,
II,

Alph.

270

(1036)),

causing abortion to

murder.

See C. Ap.,
Apion,
164.

24;

comp. M. Zipser, Des Flavius Josephus Werk... gegen


Karaites
follow Tradition
in

Some

the

interpretation

of

'TDK.

See Benjamin Nahawendi, pD*33

nNCB,

2d;

miD

"IfO,

Exod. 71b, below.

368

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

includes the prohibition of sacrificing a pregnant animal, a

law unknown to Tradition

(II,

398; comp. Frankel, Ueber

palastinische u. alexandrinische Schriftforschung, 32, n. 6;


Ritter, 109

and notes).

Philo

(/.

c; comp.

Ritter,

/.

c, n.

3)

seems also to

believe,

against Tradition

(Arakin ja;

comp. Ps.-Jan. to Deut.


pregnant
traditional

22, 22), that the

law reprieves a

woman
views

condemned
of

to

death.
also

These

anti-

Philo are

found

among

the

Karaites.

The

Karaites, like Philo, consider the killing of

an embryo murder punishable by death (Hadassi, Alph. 2382, 270s, 275'; see also references given below)
interpret
j"iDN

and

in verses 22,

23 to refer to the embryo or to

the mother and the embryo.


in

See Kirkisani (ed. Poznanski)

Gedenkbuch
1900,

zur
186;

Brinnerung
Hadassi,

an David Kanfmann,
238;

Breslau

Alph.
ff.;

270;
,

Mibhar,

Exod. 42b; min ina, Exod. yib

py p

177a?; lygc-d;

Magrabi, ed. Gitelsohn, 2J ff. They also consider the killing of a pregnant animal violation of Lev. 22,

Samuel

al

28 and go even further than Philo

in prohibiting the

b'bw

a foetus found in a killed animal, for food.


ed.

See Kirkisani,
ff.
;

Harkavy, 291

and
II,
c.
;

ed.

Poznanski,
ib. f

/.

c, 184

Sahl

b. b.
;

Masliah (Pinsker,

28; comp.
;

30,

83); Salmon

Jeruham
360
;

(Poz.,

/.

186-7)

Hadassi, Alph. 238-240; 308

364 (i34d)

Mibhar, Lev. 15b; 39a;


ff.
ff.
;

rmmiD,
ed.

Lev.

24a; 62b;

py p

83a?.

Samuel

al

Magrabi,

Lorge,

10-11; i.t6n dy-ik, 64b

also Ibn Ezra, Mibhar,

and min
13

pnsx, 23; nnte B>nb, 47; comp. "iDD on Gen. 25, 22 and

Lekah Tob on Lev.


88

11,

and

12,

M
8.

Many
III,

Karaites

See also Frankel,


to

MGWJ.,
S'StP;

VIII, 400.
Geiger,

The Samaritans
Geiger's view
(1906),

also apply the

law of Lev. 22, 28


V, Heb.,
Heb.,
112
114;
ff.;

see

Nadhg. Schriften,

263-4;

302;

Wreschner,
comp.
also

Intr.,

XXVII.

(Nachg. Schr., V,
note)
:

Biichler,
is

MGWJ., L
believes,

674,

that

this

Samaritan-Karaite

opinion

based
(/.

upon the principle of

"p*

IxS
the

121J?

ION

a view which, as Geiger

c.)

was held

also

by

ancient

KARAITE HALAKAH
prohibit
also the

REVEL
woman.

369
See
al

execution of a pregnant
22, 22 and
*)D3

Mibhar on Deut.

rvro ad loc"
N\"t

Samuel

Magrabi (MS. 86a)

states:

n-owo

DK noix "IDW dxi

rrawo irm nnn

*\w

v6

"6

tdit ,n-aiyo

wm nnn
m^b
npJl

*a

tboti

dvwi

mm

id

sS dki jnnn

nm^

insi ibnv
*ne>.

nnn&o ^3

rurens nrux

ksj

bw

DBPDm iwbj

5. Tradition interprets: nor

mo

'n

D^

(Lev. 24,

16) to
7,

mean
;"

the cursing of the Divine


loc-;

Name

(Sanhedrin

5; Sifra

ad

comp. Ps-Jon. ad loc. tnaon jKO Din

spnoi)

so also the Septuagint (comp. Frankel, Binfluss,


8,

132) and Josephus (Ant. IV,

6).

Philo (Vita Mosis,

II,

206

ff.)

refers this law to

any disrespectful mention of

the
this

name

of

God

at

an inappropriate occasion or place.


interpretation

To
goes

untraditional

of

2pJ!

by

Philo,

back the view of Philo (Tischendorf, Philonea, 79; comp.


Frankel, Bidesleistung
d.

Juden, Dresden 1840, 21

Ritter,

45-7) that the law punishes a false oath with death. Philo
(/.

As

c, 80) argues, a false oath involves the dishonor

of the Divine
halakah,

Name

therein employed (comp. Lev. 19, 12)


of
to

is

erroneous.

The question

1EX

"|1'

121J?

is

applied

in

the

Talmud

to

animals

and slaves but not

free

persons.
ff.
;

See
L.

also

against

this contention of

Geiger Pineles, nilfi 7 IF H311, 190


122,

Low, Ges. Sdhr.


out
that

Ill,

401;

Gronemann,

note.

It

must

also

be

pointed

most

of the

Karaites mentioned above do not distinguish in the interpretation of

]1DX

between a finished and an unfinished embryo.


Kirkisani
(ed.

agrees

with

Tradition

that

the

execution

is

not

to

be

postponed
185).

Poznanski,

Gedenkbuch sur Erinnerung


(ed.

an

D.

Kaufmann,
reprieves

Samuel al-Magrabi

Gitelsohn,
to

38)

states

that the

Law
83.

even a pregnant animal condemned

death!

See above, note


see

For

Onkelos

ad

loc.

NEC
'1332

tPIBO HI
Christi,

Geiger,

Urschrift,

274.

Chwolson,

Das

letzte

Passamahl

119,
is

overlooked

the

view of

R.

Meir (Sanhedrin 56a) that


Duschack, Josephus Flavins
u.

SSpO

also

punished with death.

(M.

d.

Tradition, 23

is to

be corrected accordingly.)
ed.

See, however, the opinion of R. Levi


...

S3H3 211 xnp'DE


Str

Friedmann, 1840:

op

apiii

'Hiv nno

on n"apn

ibp cnen Kintr

S3.

370

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


it

and he applies to

the law of Lev. 24, 16, according to his

interpretation of this verse.

Most of
'fl

early Karaites agree

with Philo

in the interpretation of

DP

npJI (v. 16).


%

See
...

Anan

(ed.

Harkavy, 13)

|K bin "|jn&6 bbp

*3 n*b
91

DHpKi

K^Dp 3nDl D*Kp aroWpa KJomi nDP imxn.


raites, like Philo, also set the
92

The Kafalse

punishment of death for


,

oath.

See Hadassi, Alph. 346

347

Mibhar, Exod.
al

37a; min ina, Exod. 62b; comp.

ib.,

Deut. 24b; Samuel


6.

Magrabi (MS., 67a)

jirvbtf

nviK, myiar, ch.

They follow

also the reason given

by Philo.
of

As
16.

a false oath involves


is

the dishonor of the

name

God

the penalty therefor


93

death in accordance with Lev. 24,


91

Harkavy's
Karaites

note

to

it

(ib.,

198,

s.

v.

13T)
of

is

unintelligible.

The
Lev.

later

abandoned
Samaritan
401
to
ff.

this

interpretation

2p31

comp.

Mibhar,

44&.

For

the

interpretation

of

2|221

see

Griinbaum,

ZDMG.,

XVI
92

(1862),

According
of
a

Tradition
oath
is

(Tosefta
;

Makkot

4,

5;

b.

Shabuot 20a)
27,
p.

the

penalty

false

fTlp70
there.

comp.,

however,

Nahm. on Lev.
I,

29
16,

and the Yelamdenu quoted


1.

See Schechter, Jewish Sectaries,


to

and

notes,

that

according

the

sect

which

Schechter
to

designates
a

as

Zadokite

(see

above)
at

"one
the
1,

is

to

keep a vow pledging him


death."

particular

commandment even
Journal
of

risk

of

The view

of Kohler

(American

Theology, 191
is

417), that

according to that sect the penalty of

any

false oath

death

is
(/.

not proved.

The Zadokite
See

sect

(/.

c,

p.

15,

11.

1-3)

agrees also with Philo

c; comp. Frankel, Eidesleistung,


Schechter,
/.

19-20)

that oaths as to

are not to be taken by

God's name.

c,

LIV,

the

Samaritan manner of oath, against which see Kohler,


Gcs. Schr.,
98

/.

c; but

see L.

Low,

I,

193

ff.

comp. also Griinbaum,

/.

c, 404.

See

Afendopolo's

appendix

to

lSV^K

nYW
"ibdpi

Odessa

1870,

2090*:

2111

....

nttni n;
a
pit

ip

ix inyints>
...

by isjnp *nb nrva urn

i?db

an*ta:n n03nn
"nS

romn
'3
xtP'

djn ieni

ma
'n

2"n njnawi
Kin

n"y

mi

2nn noi
k*h

uij>

ifaim idimv
njn pi

men
dip

ibbpo

tpnp SSrv <o >2 Bfivsn

rniff 1:21 2in

SSn inim Spoi


onoj?
'PlSxPt.
(/.

nmaai SSn

'n tsnp

oanm n"y nSn nDn


...

njrnp'

1:212
21PI

dVvu onns D'oam n"y San


In Lev.
19,

OnOJ?
Tepheth

pVMin
and

pPJK

n21

8 quoted

by Levi

b.

Samuel al-Magrabi
is

c.)

as
J"l"0

proof that the penalty of the

dishonor of the name of God


t

death only

punishment

is

mentioned.

The

Karaite:

haukah revel
interpretation

371
of

Based
Lev. 24, 16

on
is

this

Philonian-Karaite

the view of the early Karaites that every


is

antinomian utterance or action

punished by death.

See
fNO)

Anan
bs rrb

(orV'D,

/.

c.)

IN pJ'K
"

*VB tab

m*
irn

"id^d

NON1
ib

pom
rioTn

N^>op 3"rvo

kdot

in

td

bmB*; so
inopja

also Hadassi, Alph. 267:


13

m* TBDH Kin mi imso ran jhd no-i T3 tiniBro


n
,

NmiN ^3on TD
.-ct;

comp. also Alph. 372

373", so also Samuel


s

al

Magrabi
*3

(MS., 108&)

Dnb nan

*& new rosea D D3nn labm


*3

jrn

DN D1NH
nr by

*31

niO DBB>D Dnb D^ID


Tin*
1

"ION ^O

DHO
'rv

HD'jXD OBt?0
-icn

n*m iram nmo


nr a iriN
B>ri3
1

nnxa

cm
n\-i *3

iDKDn

-ioni

isn imvo dni

nn

muin mvoa
ppjo Nin

-i^n ^d ^y
1

mow
31 n

mo* donoo nniN D^non rrma


ivonh
nai
'n
*a

"iCNon nr Tin* pj ion in


'n riN

n3i*M hnth piivdh '3 ion^

in

rby ion

jinan

Tn

94

by:

That
court,

this

Karaite

early Karaites,

however, took

J"H3

to

mean death by

D1X H'2 HfVO,

against the traditional interpretation of the concept


tion

ma
13;

as heavenly visita-

(comp. Sifra on Lev. 23, 29; Sifre on


2,

Num.
on

19,

Moed
17,

katan 280;

p.

Bikkurim
Lev.
*va
...

1;

Maim., naitWI,

8,

Ibn Ezra
15,

Gen.

14J

Nahm. on
'3
...

18,

29 and Abrabanel on
:

Num.
'n
:

30).

See Hadassi, Alph. 266:

onion

imina

ros ib*x

EDtrna

o^a^n orpBSiv

Ta

ma

nya

Sa
in

naitwna an nnn
is

onnp <T

onnoiBn dtpbbiv orvata orv:na. Death


Alph. 267).
141, n. 14,

ma punishment
20, 20

by stoning

(ib.,

See also Ibn Ezra on Lev.

and Harkavy, pjjS niSOH


S.

"ISO,

and
ed.

C|D3

m'U

to

Mibhar, Lev.
is

37a, letters 63, 69.

Munk,

Palestine

(German

by M. Levy, 11,438)
with Tradition;

to

be

corrected

accordingly.

The
f

latter

Karaites

agree

see

VD Gen. 47^/ Lev. 566; pyjJ, 125c?; JinEX, 7. M Every antinomian action or utterance involves the dishonor of God's name which is, according to the Karaites, punished by death. See Hadassi,
Mibhar, Lev. 34b; HTMI
Alph.
'1JI1

373

(149c):

ainaa nno xinn c"xn by lmini

'n

otr

hVn

oxi

...

IBfl

lniXD nl
to

ma

'n *ian

nx

'a.
to

See also
pray
is

Book
also

of

Jubilees 30,

8-7.

According
accordance

some Karaites
II

failure
15,

punished by death

(in

with

Chron.

13).

So

Samuel

al-Magrabi

(MS.,

570):

mn puan fn

Syi

p*m
^j?

msa

rrajpi

onjiann

naj? xSi

nSenn nx ariym

nn* a"n o>:e Sa

nnix anyri

^a nsxtr S"t

o'nonno en ,nnB an.

372

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


is
is

view
but

not

due

to

their

fondness

for

exaggeration
Philonian
in-

based

on

the

above-mentioned
16 and

terpretation of Lev. 24,


15.

Num.
is

15,

30 (for

Num.

30,

see

Philo,

II,

252 and 404)


is

evident from the

fact that a similar

view

held by Maimonides who, in dis-

agreement with the talmudic interpretation (Sifre, ad loc;

Horayot

8a;

Keritot

jb;

comp.

Rashi,

Rashbam,
15a;

and
"ina

Nahm., ad loc; comp. also

Mibhar, Num.

rmn

Num. 22M, refers Num. 15, 30 to all antinomian actions. See D^n: miD, III, 41 (Eng. translation by M. Friedlander,
London, 1904, 348-9)
so that in sinning he
if
:

"If a person sins presumptuously

shows impudence and seeks publicity;

he does what

is

prohibited by the

Law, not only because


30) and must
if

of his evil inclination but in order to oppose and resist the

Law, he 'reproacheth the Lord' (Num.


undoubtedly be put to death.
eats
.

15,

Even
wears

an

Israelite

meat

(boiled)
linen,

in

milk
off

or

garments

of

wool and

or rounds

the corners of his head,

in spite against the

Law,
its

in order to

show
him

clearly that he

does not believe in

truth, / apply to

the

words

'he

reproacheth the Lord' and (I

am

of the opinion) that he


. .

must

suffer death as
all

an unbeliever.

According to

my

opinion,

the

members of an

Israelitish

community which

has insolently and presumptously transgressed any of the

Divine precepts must be put to death.'


6.

98

According to Tradition, cursing parents


only when

is

punished

by death (Ex. 21, 17; Lev. 20, 9)


The
fra

the Divine

Karaites, relying on Lev.

4,

2:

HISO ^30..., hold


is

(against Tradition;

ad

loc.)

that

sin-offering

to
II,

be
73

brought for the involuntary


(the

transgression

of

any law.

See Pinsker

meaning of

this

passage

escaped

Poznanski, Karaite Literary Opponents of Saadia Gaon, 66); Mibhar,

Lev., 6b;
85

mm iro,
rils.,

Lev. 90;

py p,
4,

i"6a, end.
Z.

See also Philo,

II,

246.

See
ff.

Maim.,

nsn,

10;

Chajes,

0W33

mm,

Zolkiew 1836,

8/;

KARAITE

HAUKAH
7,

REVEL

373
Striking

name
blow
loc).

is

used (Sanhedrin
is

12; Mekilta ad loc).

parents
is

punished by death (Ex. 21, 15) only when the

mun

na e*P

MD

(Sanhedrin
is

10,

1; Mekilta,

ad
(/.

Death for the


Philo

latter offense

by strangulation

c).

(Tischendorf, Philonea, Jj)

makes death the


and death by
c.

penalty for every

manner of

insult to parents,
(/.

stoning the penalty for striking parents


II,

and Frag.,

629).

The

Karaites'* agree with Philo

and refer Ex.

21, 15 to

any physical violence against parents; see Mibhar,

Exod., 41 b:

mnn
ed.

wv

pa

ma
17.

'yo

bn

idni

vnx naoi

mun
al

na pap pni; so also

mwnna,

Exod., 70& and Samuel

Magrabi,

Gitelsohn,

Nor do

the

Karaites

in

Exod.

21, 17 condition the use of the

Divine Name.

See
"iDD

Hadassi, Alph. 272"

(103c?);
al

Mibhar, Exod. 42a;


Magrabi,
/.

min

Exod. yob, and Samuel


also

c, 19.

They

agree

with

Philo

in

making death by stoning the


See Hadassi, Alph. 267^
Biichler,

penalty for violence to parents.

(102c) and

min

"ina,

Exod. 70b; comp.

MGWJ.,

(1906), 683.
Philo (II, 330; but see Quaest. in Ex.
II,

6) states
insult

that distinction

is

to be

made

in

punishment between

to a public officer

and a private person.

Tradition makes
Mark
this

96

For the
ff.

Samaritan view comp.


15,
5
ff.

ZDMG., XLVII
commentaries)
that every

(1893),

681.

7,

10

and Matthew

(comp.
17:

perhaps

refe* to

older interpretation of Exod. 21,


is

manner of

insult to parent*

punished by death.

The Karaites decry what they


opinion
that

falsely

ascribe

to

the

Rabbanites:
^r

the

punishment
Hadassi,

is

inflicted

only
says:

when

the

curse

blow affected
HDf22 "p
1*1111

both parents;

Alph.,

249,

nOV

fllD 1BN1

V2S

nnx
so
d.

ma

cSSp*rr

ty nSSpa pi nnx nn3 or^aw n n3B* ny kSk n^n


see also

iaie;

also

Alph. 250 D;

Salmon
See

b.

Jeroham

quoted by Neubauer, Aus


85b; Mekilta on Exod. 21,

Petersburger Bxbliothek,
Sifre

in.

Sanhedrin,

17;

on Lev.

20,

9.

374

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


distinction."

no such

This view, however,


b.

is

found among

the Karaites.

Jepheth

Ali

(quoted in Mibhar, Exod.

42b)

punishes cursing ita


d
)

or

K^3 with
Magrabi

death.

Hadassi
is

(Alph. 343

states

that cursing a

righteous Judge

capital crime; so also

Samuel

al

(ed. Gitelsohn,

21)

who

also states (MS., 147&) that even the cursing of


is

the patriarch of a tribe or family

punished by death.

MARRIAGE LAWS
7.

The

issue

of

prohibited

alliance

98

is

bastard

(1TOO) and the law enjoins concerning him:


'fl

bripi i? KIT

b
to

(Deut. 23, 3).


Philo, as

Tradition (Yebamot

8,

3)

refers

it

marriage.

was pointed out by Ritter


note,

(91, n. 5),
SN1B2tP U1HH

w Weiss, Dor,
SlIJI

I,

126,

relying on

Kiddushin 66a:

jmi

-|So nriNl

JOPI

"P,

believes this to have been the S'adduce an


/.

view (the
18,

mpSo

was

not, as

Weiss

c, states, in accordance with Deut. 22,

but because Judah (or Eleazar; see


witness;
see

Josephus,

Ant.

XIII,

10,

5)

was a
C.

single

Pesahim 113b: IWtS PIHJ3

...).
is

See also Josephus,

Ap., II, 23 that disobedience to the high-priest

punished like impiety toward Josephus had in


1;

God (comp. Ant. IV,

8,

14).
17,

It

is,

however,
Gratz,

possible that

mind the law of Deut.


Maim., COiY'B
,

12;
10,

see
5:

IIP,

no, note

comp. Maim.,

Sanhedrin,

tinaS nn* [*n JptS]

mimnan pSl

M Against
54
ff.
;

Geiger's
see

anti-traditional

interpretation
,

of

1TQD

(Urschrift,
see

350)

Rapoport,

miPP nSn3

78

ff.

For the
91,
n.
5.

Septuagint

Frankel, Einfluss, 204,

and for

Philo see

Ritter,

Most of

the

later Karaites agree with the accepted talmudic interpretation of "1T0D (Sifre,
II,

248;

Yebamot
49a,
s.

4,

13;
;

Kiddushin
Maim.,

3,

12;

see

p.

Kiddushin
1;

3,

2;

Tosafot

Yebamot
d.

v.

JlJJOtP

HX'3
5,

'IID* X,

15,

Frankel, Grundlinien

mosaisch-talmudischen Hherechts,
Deut.
19b; so also

n.
,

21

is

to

be corrected accordingly);
"1T Kin HT'iO

see Mibhar,

p)J

149c:

niDK "6l3n
278^
(io5<f)

Minna amO m*iy;


1T0Q by some
Studies in

but

see
1.

Hadassi,
14.

Alph.

and

Samuel

al-

Magrabi, ed. Gitelsohn, n,

For a peculiar interpretation of the concept

early Karaites as referring to the Chazars see Harkavy, Semitic


of Dr.

memory

Kohut, Berlin 1897, 246-7.

KARAITE HALAKAH
interprets this verse, verses
2,

REVEL
261),

375

(II,

and

v.

9 (II

393) to mean that the

"lTOE is

not to mingle with the comto marriage.


icateiv eig

munity of

Israel

and does not refer


(II,

In his
eKKfapiav
evrrarpiSaf

exposition of
nai

v. 9,

393) he says: "...


twf
de/u/g

fieradtdovai ."

Oeu.w XayuVj

rovq

avroxOovag
al

kcu

lepoQav-eiodat

This view, as Samuel

Magrabi informs
"1B>N *3

us,

was held by many Karaites (MS., gib) imnan


"Njn by nb yan
s

yn

nw
nb'yan

onvp rnn
inn
;nj

dji

b"T
a

n^ann an nyn
Kim runs ay"U

by Kin
rrrr ^a

...

nvD rpm nay ynrb


uiyi bas
ia

|W

ma

nsr sb nit ab

a nown

ba

onynai

irani noixn

mbnpai ni^Di D^nn

maim
16

nino^ni

d*u nnx-i

<a

noK

"in

-|b

bnpa

1*13*

numpn mnya wrs nwtnoKDD nnn


See
pyi

nenpo

in.
is

This

also the

view of most of the Karaites.


:

Hadassi, Alph. 365 (140/7)


K*fini>
:

niny

nbun nb bv DBPDn
s

nnj

mb:i

n p?a tidk
tr<

yn

ba^i

mj
ynr

jpi

b^k

wm
1

pi

jnnnnb banfc"e iria pan

dmi

&npn

Dn" DniEKi

on^n

newa nnnnb nvrna DDin"


;

bipbpi

miya anainaa ana" onoy


1

so also Alph. 373* (14805). nso nay |BB>bi aina Aaron b. Joseph (Mibhar, Deut. igb) states that Sahl b.

Masliah

(second

half
"tfOD is

of

the

tenth

century)
:

held

that
*6l

marriage with a
[iTtton

not

forbidden

nanb Dyo TiyT


Sahl
s

ns]

wip

b"i&

pam DKSP

5>nD U3".

b.

Masliah.

evidently, also interpreted

bnpa 1T Na

sb, as

did Philo,

Hadassi, and the Karaites mentioned by Samuel


to

al

Magrabi,

mean
100

that the "ITEE

is

not allowed to mingle in the com7.

munity.

See also Mibhar,


pasani
;

c: nan

baa:
loc.

'n

bnpa K3< t6

nab ptriBUa
99

comp. ^Da nrtD, ad


Mos.
Rccht,
II,

See
247;

Michaelis,

139;
ftSnj
(
,

Ewald,
46.

Alterth.

des

Volkes

Israel,
100

comp.

also

Rapoport,
given

mi!"!'

The

interpretation
is

by

Geiger

"tEnj "IS1X

IV,

21-2)
(/.

to

this

view of Sahl
Sahl's

forced

and unnecessary.
in

Geiger's
6b,

reference

c,

22)

to

opinion

quoted

Mibhar,

Deut.

has

no

bearing

on

his

view

3/6
8.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


In the exposition of the law of Deut. 21, 10-15 con "

cerning marriage with a female captive of war, Tradition

makes no

distinction

between a married

woman and

the

unmarried (Sifre, ad
r\s

he; Kiddushin

21b: 1^X1

n^

WK). So

also Josephus, Ant. IV, 8, 23.

hold that this law refers only to the case


here.
Sahl's

The Karaites when the captive


(Deut.
7,

interpretation

there
6b,
10.

of

EfiX
115)

DOnn Dinn
is

2;

comp.

?rr
e.

fWB
3,

to

Mibhar, Deut.
20,

letter

held by

many
to

Rabbanites; see

g.

Nahm. on Deut.
13; b.
ib.,

The Karaite

anti-traditional

view (see Kida

dushin
Gentile
to
II,

6Sab and parallels) that children born

Jew from

woman

are

considered to be Jews which caused the


in

early Karaites

interpret
23,
n.

H'Slm

Ezra
/.

10,

as referring to the mothers onlv

(Pinsker,

12;

Geiger.

c.;

see also

Benjamin Nahawendi,

]iJ3iJ2

nNEPB, 6b:

'v
D.10
cc*

dpp2n
"Aiam

uv by nSn Dmp:'
D'tW
nr

xb

nv

^a aa

nmoi
Alph.

t"iay
366*

K*3in^;

similarly

Hadassi,

(141**):

maao Sax mtMl

ty Kipai

sin nnotsn

nnaa
D'BU
36s"
1

ntrxi

ntnn rmiyn i nSutr dhiSti


DiriBBI

rUIWl

V2X;

yet he adds:
so also

Sd

X'XmS 2W3

nino:

Syi

Dno iSlMl,

Alph.

(1406))
(p.

goes back to talmudic times and


2,

was held by Jacob of 1*0123 1D3


rab., 7, 3

Yebamot

6; p.

Kiddushin

3,

end; G.

and

parallels)

who seems

to

have been suspected of some ni3iJ3 (see


critic

above,

note 73).
362,
lines

See also the early Bible


22-25,

(ed.

by Schechter), JQR.,

XIII,

an d note on

p.

371.
I,

The
like

assertion of

M. Friedmann {Beth Talmud,


8,
is

106)

that the Karaites,

Tradition
4:

(Yebamot

4,

b.

ib.,

76b

ff.

and

parallels), interpret

Deut.

23,

fVJlDJJ tOl ijlOy

erroneous.
(Pinsker,

All
II,

Karaites attack this traditional


105);
93c;

view.

See

Elias
|j
,

b.
i

Abraham
149c*

Mibhar

and

mm

1fl3

ad loc;

pp

4 6fc;

ff.;

irvSx
to

flllK,

0pHS mix,

17b; A.

Firkowitsch,

nn

Dnin (appendix

the DntP* 11130.

Goslow 1835), 51a;


of David
(de-

comp.,

however, Hadassi, Alph. 323'

(ngb).

The legitimacy

scendant of Ruth the Moabitess) they save by asserting that Deut. 23, 4 refers
only to those

who do not embrace Judaism.


43)
12,

Schorr
sidering
i*DJ3

(piSfin, IV,

claims

that
12,

Maimonides
the law of

is

inconsistent

in

conas

(flK'3 niD>N,

18;
is

not

9)

JVJJDJJ

JOl
8,

JIOJ?

HtrnS naSn as this law

disputed,
v. fl2nT\.

and quotes Yebamot

4;

plS DN1

mitWl
fact

and Tosafot,

ib.,

77b,

s.

Schorr apparently overlooked the


to

that

plS

DN1

and

Tosafot by
to

him quoted refer

the

question
IJIQJ?.

of

rvOHKl

n13tt3

and have nothing

do with the law of n*31y *6l

KARAITE HALAKAH

REVEL
;

377

was unmarried or
har, Lev. 34a,

widow. See Hadassi, Alph. 281

Mib"Via,

and Deut. 17a and *pa rwt:, ad loc; Pnvi


]iy P,

Deut. 24a (but see

147^).

So also l.T^a nvtx, 92b:

ntapn *byi nyi


^ib

*a!>

xb

....

njobs K'nt^

ma^a
b.

iroan vik pbi

JWN pKPnOKP;
|DN hjiok
states
:

so also

Abraham

Josiah Jerushalmi
al

in his

(Goslow 1846), 24a.

(MS. 222a-b)
ioni
nprn
n?

W
*a

Samuel

Magrabi
n? *a

*iwn b
Kin

main rrwa nK
wwi
>w vr:y ns

yn

....moiKno onbno

w mn

*wkd

dx bk nbyn n^ bz iidx

mby avian -naDm in


n:y&

na* ns?Ka
)b -iso
....

nb^ wk

*i

m
'

pa rrbnn nxr

D"na imy ne^a

rr "b)$
'a

by rrvpn

vp *&ma
S3

dji

i:in:

Tpn

it

avian K sn

nw

;yob

mann

nB>Kn Dy

nannn omp

papn.

That

this is also the

view of Philo was shown by

Ritter, 75.

9.

The

penalty of adultery with a married

woman

is

according to Tradition
(ed. Weiss, 92a)

(Sanhedrin

10,

1;

Sifra

D^np, 9

strangulation.

Many

Karaites, however,

hold that the law of Deut. 22, 24 applies not only to the
betrothed, but also to a married

woman;

the punishment

being stoning in both cases.


ing of

So Samuel al-Magrabi speak:

adultery and
nt

its

punishment says (MS., 6a)

DK1

iidnoo

uyr

*a

D :axa
s

Dm** DnbpDi Kinn Tyn

orunn

)b

~\w Dnmn T

"iw

*mw

bx d.tjp hn onNinni neniaon by

ncniKon
B"K

*a

Da#pa neniKDni nbiyan pa

man

ab d inoi o^axa
s

n^s

n*npj; see also L. Cohn,

><?,?

Samuel al-Magrebi
DTD,
dji
...

Abhandlung

ilber die Pflichten d. Priest er u. Richter, Berlin

1907, 10, and

Mibhar on Lev.
nbiya pa

18,

20 (34a), and

*1D:d

ad loc,

letter a5n:

nsxun b*k iwm b*ne naa


;tr:y

b^k nrit njop: neniKon dj nncr nnx


also
is

neniKti pa; comp.

min

Sna,

Lev.

586
is

and py p,

194c?.

That

this

also the view of Philo

evident from the fact that he

378
sets
II,

TIIK

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


101

death by stoning even for the unmarried harlot;


308, where
~

see

lie
...

Says:
"kvfirj

rraTuv iropvrn>

Kara tov tepov foyov oh ~apakoivov fitaafia Kara/veadu. 102

(Jevcra

Q$

ow

icat

fyfiia

icat

See

Ritter's
20,

comment on
which
(by
also

this

law
to

of

Philo

(p.

92);
of

but

see

Book

of

Jubilees

seems
in

punish

unchastity

an unmarried
38,

woman
early

with

death
also

burning,

accordance

with

Gen.
to

24).
;

The
Sal-

Karaites
b.

considered

unchastity of a
II,

iTTSE

be ^1*03
:

see

mon
JO

Jeroham quoted by Pinskcr,


"113
;

62:

nil

^Wty
b.

fttWO

r\HiD *6 77D1

WW

comp.

also

the
is,

opinion of

Saul

Anan quoted

there

(the

authenticity of the
btmVfi,

NETpE

however, disputed; comp. also Poznanski, "ISIN


23,

VI, 88a).
(comp.
39,

See also the Samaritan reading of Deut.


p.

18:

nmn
in

sS
III

HBHp

Klumel, Mischpatim,
n.

VI).

See also
that

Briill,

Jahrbiicher,

(i8/7),

104.

It

is,

however,
adultery,

possible

the

Karaites,
as
in

fixing

stoning
instances
id.,

as

the

penalty

for

were influenced,
d.

many
44),

other
26-7;

(Steinschneider,

Beschneidung
d.

Araber
1;

u.

Mohammedaner,
41,

Polcmischc Literatur

Juden,

398,

n.

Wreschner,

by the

Mohammedan
hill
ia2

law which also punishes adultery with stoning; comp.


161. in
this

ZDMG.,
the

(1899),

Noteworthy
the

connection

is

the

agreement

between

view

held

by

earliest

Karaite

authorities

(Anan and Benjamin Nahawendi)


in

and the practice


B.
4,

in
to

vogue among the Alexandrian Jews


Tosefta Ketubbot
4,

the

first
p.

century

C.
8:

refer

9;

Baba mesi'a 1040;

Ketubbot
>aa ina

ptrn jo
to

PiDBirn

xn

(or

inx)

mx

dim

pvnpa s'-tuddSx
considered

which seems
so

indicate that the

NmiDsSx
1869,
sich
32,

33

betrothal
in

not

binding
u.

as

J'lOCi

(A.

Briill,

Fremdsprachliche
note,

Redensarten

den
this
sie

Talmuden
passage:

Midraschim,
die

Leipzig

wrongly translates

"Wenn
von
der

Alexandriner
weg.").
191

Frauen

angelobten,

nahmen
Israel

sie

gerade

Strasse

Biichler
1,

(Festschrift
n.

zu

Lewy's

siebzigstem

Geburtstag,

Breslau

123,

3)

justly

remarks:
/.

"Vielleicht

war
the
to

hitrin

hellenistischer

Einfluss

wirksam"
were
then,

(Biichler,

c,
the

thinks

that
1t3B>

words

(or naS)

HOWS 'D^nttoS
unbinding.
'-).

inserted

in

H2inD

make

the
of

^Dl^N
the
not

But,

what was the purpose of the


(II,

I'DIIM and

H21P2

Philo

also

states

311)

that

there
to

are

many
linien

who

do

consider
himself

unchastity

with

betrothed

woman
as

be

adultery,
d.

though
mos.-tal.
07>.,

he

agrees

with
ff.)

Tradition
that

(comp.

Frankel,
is

Grandas

Bherechts,
II,

XXIV
ruapn
6

bethrothal
2,

binding
'32
:

marriage
nshTtm

and

229).
ij>
.

See also

p.

Hagigah

2:

D'Scil'

VH

z-:-'

idvim no
(p.

NmsosSKS nSvun D*Svm*o


,

pania

I
le,

Sanhedrin
is

6,

reads: ^-;2
allusion

but see Ilalevy, D'31tPK"in


the

nnn,
'33

\?%,

notci

perhaps

an

to

view of the

XOIiDS^X

KARAITE
io.

HAUKAH REVEL

379

Philo

(II,

310) states that violation of a widow


is

or divorced

woman

a crime approaching adultery and

the court shall decide

upon the punishment whether


108

it

be
as

physical
Ritter

chastisement or pecuniary
observes,

fine.

Tradition,

(90-91)

makes no
a

distinction

between a
has never
is

divorced

woman

or

widow and

woman who

been married.
the Karaites,

view similar

to that of Philo

held by

some of them even making carnal intercourse


or divorced
as

with a

widow
J'DllX

woman
binding.

a capital crime while most


This

concerning

not

being

view

of

the

Alexandrian

Jews was held

also

by the

earliest Karaites

who maintained
See
tt"X

that the betrothed


that,
(

can sever their connections without a writ of divorce and


betrothal

in
f2n
:

general,
/y

does

not

have

the

force

of

marriage.
Htl'X

Anan
Pip'

ed.

Harkavy,

118) "]1S vh

t6^2 xS M XkHh n^21


1BD;
so
also

>:>

X2X xp

mt:fiS nS

KUD DTjm ninna


np< a *3

Benjamin

Nahawendi, nXtt'E

po33,

5b:

mpan
EX;

bjd
so

jm
also

ens vhv anya \n


Hadassi,
Alph.
365

mtmxB mhv
(141a);

nSiya xS
also |TJ?

Km P6yai
p, 154c

."ItrX

comp.

Geiger,

relying on
13, 1),

the

view of Beth
the

Shammai:

niDTIN X^X J'SXEE J'X


in a

(Yebamot

claims

that

older
(Jiid.

halakah distinguished
Zeitschr.,
II,

similar

manner between J'DTIX


Heb.,
only
a 162).

and ]'S1^3
marriage
the
of

97; Nachg. Schr., V,


is

As

the

minor by her
of

mother or brothers

Rabbinic institution,

view

Beth

Shammai concerning
and 334-5 (12306)
to

flX'Q
falsely

does not prove much.


states

Hadassi, Alph. 250 3


the
is

(96b)

that

according to
22,

Rabbanites
to

minor given
her

marriage by her
JIX'E

father

(Deut.
in

16)

free
<2X~

annul

marriage

through
'X
...

and
'X

reads
!

Yebamot

108a:

aiBHpB>
53,

pBTTpa BK
note,
his

JWO
this
'",

Ifll

...

'EXT (Holdheim, nitt"Xn *1EXE,


see
to

erroneously ascribes
IPpSk

view
2).

to

EHas Bashyazi;

the contrary,
of
a

mix,
5.

D'Btt

ch.

For another

misrepresentation

traditional

law

by Hadassi

see

above,

note 96; see also Bacher,


108

MGWJ., XL

(1896), 21, n.

Biichler's

suggestion

{MGWJ., L
of
the

(1906),

674,

note)

that

this

law

of Philo goes back to the

more ancient view (represented by Beth Shammai)


case
to

allowing

divorce

only
to

in

wife's

adultery

and
is
.

considering

the

divorced
it

woman
not

be

still

some extent an K"X DCX,


view
concerning rt3E"?X

not plausible as

does

account

for

Philo's

Moreover,

Philo

and the Karaites do not share the view of Beth Shammai and allow divorce
for

any cause.

See, for Philo, Ritter, 70, note

and, for the Karaites, above.

380
of

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


are, like

them

Philo, satisfied that a special penalty be


best.

imposed on the offender, such as the court may deem


See Hadassi, Alph. 278:

mobxn
...

oy

nairn Kin 'in

pbn nun...
ik

rm5~5stnD vbv on^eno nnvi


:

ibyoi uiiy

bw

ncnin oy

xSi *a |r "in-nn wian ^>aj n^x 'jk> mjopn bk *bo |n <a m new dk ?iKr il s "idkb> pi bi) n^K nn\-i niyi no D m d^b i?aj T'"6k \sjdi iw ^a rvbv aa <a dd Kins? pa ^n whs? pa 'ui ^n nniDN no in bhji bk to "aiba to }n nBTti njobx nxr p

nosn

m,

n b>itki 'ion

^3

jn

nmoni; so

also

py p, 158c: nbwnm
nmbt*
in

in a^ann n^io naiap


...n3 a'lno *ont5>

n^ap

2 by

n&jma nmb>

b*k ntrKa Kan pna frr^y *on


:

jniK; so also
dji

Samuel

al

Magrabi (MS. 866)

^a b"l

D^anns nvp nox

bbyw dk Oi*on *6] mniKn nwa on


h7riD~a^rn p|*o& aalK'n
11.
^a

dj D-D:aj

iwum
Num.

naoircn

inynai
1,

prrrp *6a dm.


1;

Tradition

(Sotah

Sifre

on

5,

13)

makes warning by husband and subsequent nvnD of wife


with the

man
104

against

whom

she has been warned condition

precedent to subjection of the


5,

woman

to

ordeal
(II,

of

Num.,

15

ff.

Philo,

speaking of this law

308), says

that in case the

husband suspects

his wife of adultery they

are to bring the matter before the court in the

Holy City

(comp. Sotah
is

1,

4) and

if

the court
;

is

undecided the

woman
and
See

to submit to the ordeal

Philo, evidently, not considering


)

necessary suspicion of a particular man, warning (*wp

This
Hadassi,

is

also

the

view

of

the

Karaites.

Alph.

328,

end and 239; Mibhar, Num. 5a: nna

mm, Num.
104

ja; so also

py p, 157^

^ya nyna
i,

Dyon pai
The accepted

One

of

these
iltMD,
(pp.

must be before witnesses (Sotah


I,

i).

norm (Maim.,
oi

1-2)

requires

witnesses

for

both.

Ritter
to

81-85)
this

discusses

this

law

as

given

by

Philo;

he

fails,

however,

notice

essential

deviation of Philo

from Tradition.

KARAITE HALAKAH
Hin 'Up

REVEL
mnwp

38

ny

nynw

onoiNi
106

rwa dvvd

noae* niopn

...rnpcrnb i*n rl nvriD.

12.

Tradition takes Deut. 22, 20:


that
in

lain ?pn

noK DK

to

mean

case

adultery during betrothal has been


is

established by the testimony of zvitnesses, penalty


(v.

death

21) in accordance with Deut. 22, 24 (Sifre, ad loc;

Ketubbot 46a; comp. Frankel, Der gerichtliche Beweis, 49).


Philo, in his exposition of this

law

(II,

313), says that

if

the husband's charge be

found

true,

the parents

of the

woman

are guilty of having deceived the husband at the


Philo, evidently, held that the accu-

time of the betrothal.

sation of the husband, whose substantiation involves death,

was unchastity before betrothal


most of the Karaites.
that the

This

is

also the

view of

See Hadassi, Alph. 366 (1416-c)


is

mere absence of the D^im

sufficient to convict

rbw wn bv pnb rhw dni nx D*3*n* injyt:" nbwn ns wnn nyi D^KSoan in asm Dxn iw xb |vd n-\y:b D^mn ^nxvo xb *a nynmn n^ym Taoi pyiv wm myjn srn m^n n^pD3 nxvo: tfn *6i nfopn nx Dwaop my^ D^im ikvdj &6 "ibkct iy& see mjtfn nx urani also Alph. 365 (140c) 1BHB1 n^DP B" DS1 D^nn ibht em"
her: dk

my

....

nDEn

by

D^inn .m ikvdj &6 "inn


pw DNi
106

hm hen

dki

...

itjp

ifxr nr by anyi bine in


the

mo
to

^00

no^m 'ui nbnvn is km ;*y mio dk


this

In

case
to

suspected

woman
i,

refuses
3),

submit to

ordeal

she

is,

according

Tradition

(Sotah

to

be

divorced and forfeits her

dowry.
guilt

Some Karaites
is

consider

such

refusal

prima facie evidence of her


,

and say she


rvntr::

to

be put to death as an adulteress; see inPX n*HX


;

98a:

nnna

fundi nesj? ropa^ nsn ox d:sx

comp.
it

u>.3

98b.

ah
to

Karaites
convict

agree that in case the


her; see Mibhar,

woman
5 a:

confesses her guilt,

is

sufficient

Num.
*3

nXTIM

nn^inZJ

tlTOW
>s:>n

[nnJ'TB>]

HHIH
also

CXI

chv nxss n*B


nmn, Num.
107

paan xim
p, 156^;
Philos,
II,

7b;

py

nnnj o^x-ipn in^X nmx, 98&


207,
n.
3.

nyrri; comp.
82.

ins

and above, note


(p.

See

Werke

Ritter

77)

overlooked this
87,

deviation of Philo from Tradition.


105.

For the view of Josephus, see Weyl,

3S2

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


'

rron pna n ^pD x n na^ine tk xSi nT.

See also Mibhar, Lev.

38^; comp.

*ID3 riTB,

ad /cc:
dxi

pi Sx-icr naa

lrxo
m

nn

D^na
pOTiKn

invdj b
,:,

noxa
2

b&oe

nbina by yi dl

irabn

nra

dm wn S^jdh

rrax n-a nnca

n^pD avian nb a"n my:b


1

"inx IX pBTiKfi

D"np nnrt;
also

so also
al

ife.

to

Mibhar,
:

Dent. 19a, letter JJ.

So

Samuel

Magrabi (Ms., 97a)

idkdd
nt nbl?

pirn nn rvura rrby

any

wa
The

xbx

mnn
is

xb

*a

onvp

-ioki

wr

avian
that

*a

ainan.

later Karaites agree

with
facie

Tradition

negatio
guilt.
.

virginitatis

not
:

prima

evidence of her
tran Kb ex
xb nx

Seeing nnx,
nb

g6ab
onip

nny

x^an DX1

d:dk

mo

px p^nxn

nojxj ix
.

nruw

bsb> nb pxtr

ann Dm nox nnn

D"oann ipbnj
nn:nK>

wan xbe> ror bas? nox Dnspi na^m penxn inx nnr?B> npma
108

x\n

p&nxn inx pnnxn trnp


of

w
to
ff.

nnw
22,
this

n^i
20
is

Related

to

this

Philonian-Karaite
of

interpretation
9.

Deut.

the

Karaite

interpretation

Lev.

21,

Tradition
(Sifra,

refers

law

betrothed or married daughter of a priest


Ps.-Jon.,
in

ad loc; Sanhedrin 50b

ad loc).

The Karaites maintain

that this law

!"ID*1tt>

for unchastity

priest's

daughter

refers
386:

also

to

the

unmarried.

See Hadassi,

Alph.
...;

330
also

(i2id);

Mibhar, Lev.
,

"1310 airOPl 11*1353

D'Xipn njnai
Cohn,
u.

so
al-

rnin

"IfiD

Lev.

58b.
ilber

Samuel
die

al-Magrabi
d.

(L.

Des

Samuel

Magrebi Abhandhtng
asserts

Pflichten
ffl3

Priester
guilty of

Richter, 9)

even

that

this

law applies also to

unchaste conduct with


fi *Vt3

woman married
loc.

or unmarried; comp.

also

Mibhar, Gen. 60a and CjD3


This
is

ad
(?

and

to

Mibhar, Lev. 34a, letter 232.


Leviticus,
II,

also the

view of Philo
8,

Hoffmann,
81;
18,
n.

90)

and

Josephus
bei

(Ant.,

IV,

23;

comp.
Halle

Ritter,

P.
2;

Grunbaum,
Weyl,
zu
106).

Die

Priester gesetze
also

Flavins

Josephus,
d.

1887,

Comp.

B.

Beer,

Das Buck
1856,
58.

Jubilaen u.
of R.
151.

scin

Verhaltniss

den

Midraschim,
681,
n.

Leipzig
that
this

The view
the view
of
I,

Buchler
Eliezer

(MGWJ., L

(1896),
is

2)

was

also

(Sanhedrin 51a)

very improbable; comp. also Weiss, Dor,


in the execution of )PI3
J"I2

For the mode employed


9)

(cpBTl

CN2

Lev. 21,

which,

according
(so
7

to

Rab Joseph
Ant.,
I,

(Sanhedrin
8,

52b),

was

taken by the
Briill,

Sarl-lucees
.

also
ff-;

Josephus,

IV,
151;

23) literally (comp.


/.

rvn
the

IV,

Weiss,

Dor,

Buchler,

c,

549

ff.,

557
/.

ff.)

Karaites
also

disagree

among themselves;
324 p

see

Samuel

al-Magrabi,

c; comp.

Hadassi,

Alph.

KARAITE HALAKAH

REVEL

383

niD BStr; the later Karaites thus disagreeing


selves only as to the

among them-

mode

of proof of the woman's guilt or


1 "9

innocence after betrothal.


13.

Num.
is

36,

6-10 provides that

when

man

dies

without male issue and his daughter inherits his property,


the heiress
to

marry only within her

tribe so that the

allotment of one tribe might not pass over to another.

Acft.;

cording to talmudic interpretation

(Baba batra 120a


xS
'n

comp. Pseudo-Jonathan on verse 6


insSv

Tp21 NEJns an
p*pnjn
v^nib

nnb

;ni?x

xjnN
this

ai^a

-ira

mp

ob

and

Urschrift,

447)

rule applied only to the "generation


b.

of the conquest," while according to Samuel (B.

120a)

even
a

in the case of the

daughters of Zelophehad
y\T)2n

it

was not
nsy

command, but merely counsel:


1,
110

b|PE?n

H31L2

(but comp. Ritter, 97, n.


Philo

and Ibn Ezra, ad loc,

v. 8).
is

states that in case a

daughter inherits she

to
36.

marry one of her

relatives

(based perhaps on

Num.

11), in the absence of

which she must

at least not

marry

out of her tribe, thus applying the law of


to all generations.

Num.

36, 6-10

109

According

to

the scholion of Megillat Taanit (ch.


literally

4)

the Boethusians

interpreted nS?2!rn

ItmSl
148)
I,

flPBO).
ff
.

Rapoport (nOKl
;

wbv **m
/.

14);

Geiger

(Urschrift,

and Ritter (133


117)

comp. Buchler,

c, 680,

note;
is

comp. Weiss, Dor.,


held
also

consider this report unauthentic as this view


b.

by

R.

EHezer

Jacob
\c,

(Sifre,

II,

237;

Ketubbot

46a);

see,

however,
110

Halevy, 0*31911171 mill,

415-18.

See Treitel,

MGWJ.,

XLVH
443;

(1903),

409.

Philo

explains

also

the

law of yibbum (Deut. 25, 5-11) as a means that the allotment of one might
not pass

over to

another

(II,

Ritter,

69,

n.
is

errs

in

asserting that

Philo mentions nowhere the law of

D12')

which

also

the prevailing view

among
also
5;

the later Karaites (comp. Poznariski, REJ.,

XLV

(1902), 62).

Josephus
IV,
7,

considers the law of

Num.

36,

7
is

as applying to all

times

{Ant.,

comp. Ritter, 96-7).

This view

shared also by the author of Tobit


3
ff.

6,

12-13;
F.

comp. M. Rosemann, Studien zum Buche Tobit, Berlin 1S94,


Vier

and

Rosenthal,

apokryphische Biicher,

Leipzig

1885,

116,

note.

384

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


The
Karaites, like Philo, apply the law of
all

Numb.
neni'

36,

6-10 to

times; see Hadassi, Alph. 260 (99a); Mibhar,

ad
iv

loc.

(33a), and

nnimro, Num., 506: nbn:


s

bm
an
P,

rjs^pn

^3

-iidko

r6mn
3
[nii

3iDn 3"ns

fe6

pn nS p ^y nvvnb "mn Tnnb niwS nwownoKP; comp also ]iv


al

171/'; so also
-ibo* k5j

Samuel

Magrabi (MS., 263a)

nun

-O jni

nSn: hl-it jnb nmrv dk nnp^no nnbm


ninrp
k^>

D3e*n nhr
...

mr

jnS

jyob \nhw t33>n nbiro D*-Boi

rn*>

mbvi
14.

nbirb

msun

nbnan

kiwii fnio in** ;niK

Em.

The law

of Lev. 21, 2-3 enjoining the priests not

to defile themselves

by approaching a dead body


(v. 2a),

says,

"But
*3

for his kin that


1*6k rrnpn.

is

near to him. ..."

YHMO DN

The talmudic
1*IKB6
self

interpretation finds in the


is

words

DN

'3

support for the tradition that a priest


111

to defile him-

by approaching the body of his wife

(Sifra, ad loc:
22ft).

Kin

T3X

1KB* 'JP iriCK

k^k

iike*

p; Yebamot

The

Karaites, rejecting this interpretation of

m vw',
nS
NOttO
I,

forbid the

111

See Maim.,

***2K,

2,

7:

D'IBID
16.,

1*13*70

xSx

*i*JiXl

comp.
quotes:
ch.

commentaries and
in*l*J
**;*

PUtTO
...

DPlS,

2,

1.

Weiss
Sifra,

(Dor,

46,

note)

imilD'Bl
that

(Zebahim
of
"IfltrxS

1000;

Emor,

1;

Semahot,

4)

as

proof

the

law

]T12

*1X01U
that

was not universally accepted.


the

Weiss

apparently
a*iya
(/.

overlooked

the

fact

wife

of

|i*|**n

**iD*i*

died

nDEn
in the

c.)

and defilement would have barred him from participation


***D riNO'tt
is,

HDE pip, whereas lncx**


/.

according
v.
PI**-;

to

many, only

mBH;
Der

see

Zebahim,

c; and Tosafot Sotah


and
n.
2.

3a,

s.

comp.

Buchler,

Calilaische Am-ha-Are^, 205


"

Most of the Karaites reject also the talmudic interpretation of


27,
11

V"lNtt

, **<

in

Num.

(Baba batra

8,
L,, ,
,

1;

Sifre,

ad loc; Maim., mSn*l


is

1,

8 accepts

the view (Ketubbot 84a) that the

:n ntyiT
his

only 0**1B1D
see

11**.*7)

and hold that


|*7J7

husband
ff.;

does

not
,

inherit

wife;
]V*1EK,

Mibhar, Num., 370;


**I1D*?0

p,

I70d

niin
.-:-:

*in**

Num. 42a;
/.

28;

BH*J""

50.

Mordecai

BfiaS,

c.)

states:

PI1S0

N*M

JtniN

mil

*10N0 3 7*101

npijjn avian

ii*?nn

nm

men

n civ **yan pjnm no**;

KARAITE HALAKAH

REVEL

385

defilement of a priest in case of wife's death; see Mibhar

ad
*6k

loc.

(38a)

(comp. ^dd nTD, ad


ni>3pn bjnb
;

he: Dnpn niw6 DM


:

nap

p noKB>

n^Di inew nvni piv k^

vb

vwita Kot^b pdS

wnm vwit)
nK

so also

mm ina, a J /oc.

(58a)

m^2

rnKOtrb niDKP

fcnpo

^sm; comp.

also Hadassi,

Alph. 2061 and irr^K JTHK, 171a; Philo (II, 230) speaking
of the law of Lev. 21, 2-3 mentions the six blood-relations,

enumerated
is

in these verses, as those for

whom
like

the priest

to defile himself, evidently excluding

the

Karaites

the wife.
15. Philo

and the Karaites also agree


14.

in

the inter-

pretation of Lev. 21,

Philo (II, 229)

interprets this
his

law to mean that the high-priest must choose

wife

from
(?)

priestly lineage.

113

That

this is also the interpretation


lfpBKl; Benjamin

nT BT1*bS

D'EODB

D3X

D^nnxn nrPOan
EiV'D
,

Nahawendi
36s'"
1

agrees with Tradition (pJ,*S

ed.

Harkavy, 179).

Hadassi (Alph.
if

(140a); 36/ n
children;

(142c)

holds that the husband inherits his wife

they have
3 JTini
:

Samuel

al-Magrabi

(MS.,

269)

states:

leSn:

Dnann
e

n:c?

>:a

Dm

iniem lnStran

nnn

n
S"t

ns

rwxS

nntrTv oir

papa

pa
I,

iki kS S"t uan


note.

main nm onBi
n.

iaDana nspi; comp. Weiss, Dor,

46,
113

See Ritter,

73,

and Hoffmann, Magazin, VIII


recorded
u.
84ft,
d.
s.

(1881),

56.

It

is,

however,
be a law.

possible

that

Philo

here a custom which


Cultus,
v.

he believed

to

Biichler

{Die Priester

88-9;
)

comp. also Berakot


collected

440; Pesahim 49a;

Rashi,

Yebamot
also

*0

has

instances
of

which
priests

tend

to

show that

ordinary
1879,

priests

married

only

daughters

(comp. also Gratz,


to

MGWJ.,

The custom
for
1,

marry within the


and
p.
is

499 and Krauss, JQR., VIII, 671)family was considered praiseworthy even
the

non-priests

commended by
4, 4!

Rabbis;

see

Tosefta

Kiddushin
of Jubi-

2;

Yebamot 62b;

Kiddushin
9,

Gen. rabba

18, 5; see also

Book

lees 4,

15-33; 8, 5-6,

7; but see Kohler, JQR.,

(1893), 406, note); comp.

also Tobit, 6, 12-3

and MGWJ., 1879,

507, 510

ff.

For the view of Josephus sec

M.
73

Zipser,

and P.

Des Flavius Josephus Werk: Gegen Apion, Wien 1871, 30; Ritter, Grunbaum, Die Priestergesetze bei Flavius Josephus, 29-30.
Karaite
authorities

To
(ed.

the

mentioned by Geiger
a priest

(/.

c.)

that

the

high-

priest is to

marry the daughter of


12,
1.

may be added Samuel

al-Magrabi
ist

Cohn,

24

ff.;

Cohn,

ib.,

note ill

remarks: "Diese Ansicht

nur

karaisch,

vielleicht

nur die des Authors"!).

386

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


was already observed by Azariah de Rossi
Wien, 68a)
;

of the Karaites

(UWV

"NKD,
.

ed.
ff.

(comp. Geiger,

ZDMG.,
311-14

XX
V,

56]

Nachgclassene Schriften

III,

Heb., 133

ft.;

Jitd Zeitschr., VI, 265).

CEREMONIAL LAWS
16.
(II,

Philo, speaking of the First of the seventh


it

month

295), says that

is

called

Day

of Trumpets, as trum-

pets are

blown that day


is

at the offering of the sacrifices.

Their sounding

commemoration of the giving of the

Law.
the
ity,

The trumpet being an instrument of war, symbolizes war between the different forces of nature and humanfor the pacification of

which man must be grateful.

Philo makes no mention of the traditional interpretation of

nynn nv (Num.

29,

1),

i.

e.

that the "Shofar" (Sifra on


II,

Lev. 25, 9; see Hoffmann, Leviticus,

247)

is

to

be

sounded everywhere
29b)
in

(except

on sabbath; R. ha-shanah
identified

Israel
in

on that day and seems to have


29,
1

nynn DV
10).

Num.

with

rmyrn

onypni, the blowing of

trumpets every holiday at the offering of sacrifices


4

(Num.

10,

The Karaites
of nynn and
Alph.

also reject the traditional interit

pretation

explain

as

loud praises to

God
or

(Hadassi,

225;

364

(136a) ;py p, 58a ff.;nnmnn3

Lev. 67a; lrp^KrwiK, 48a;


114

pnsK, 13; mate


Ill,
ch.
10,
6.

t?nb, 48-9)

Nor

does

Josephus

(Ant.

2)

mention

the

law of

njPpfl

1BW
reject

comp. also Book of Jubilees,


the traditional

The Samaritans,

like the Karaites,

interpretation

of

n^nn

DV, differing among themselves


570;
pp.

ZDMG., XX,
nach

Hanover, Dds Festgesets

Ibrahim

ibn
to
|*TJJ

Jakub,

text,

X-XI and

ib.,

28,

68.

Some Karaites

tal

<

nyiin DV
I.<
.

mean
JJ|,
/.

the
r.).

blowing of any instrument on

[ibhar,

Samuel al-Magrabi (MS. 41a)

r-;'~~
<1

ha $ of rot by priests and, in absence of


haso$rot.

not to be observed now.

KARAITE HALAKAH
as the

REVEL

387

sounding of

mssn on
also
reject

every holiday (comp.

py

p,

58J; Hadassi, 1360).

The Karaites
tion of

the

traditional
23, 40)

interpreta-

jwton DV3 nib DnnpSi (Lev.


Ill,
10,

(see Josephus,

Ant.
are
in

4)

and

claim
of

that

the

"four

species"

for

the
42,
8,

construction

the
for

"booths"
this

mentioned

verse

deriving
ff.

support

view

from

Nehem.

14

See

py p

56a/?

(where the views of


al

Anan, Benjamin Nahawendi, and Daniel,

Kumsi

are

quoted); Hadassi, Alph. 168 (64b); 225-6; 364 (136a);

Mibhar,

Lev.

43a;

mm "WW,

Lev. 67b; Ifrb*


b.

rm,
;

47/7

(where the opinion of Jepheth


II,

Ali
115

is

quoted)

Pinsker

96; iViSK, 14; rvobo PO^, 34, 49.


(II,

Philo, speaking of

the Feast of Tabernacles the


x

297), makes no mention of


Philo,

law of "four species."

as

Treitel

(MGWJ..
as

93> 5 12 ) suggests,

must have understood verse 40 not


but,
116

a separate

commandment

like the

Karaites, as pre-

scribing material for the booths.


17.

Tradition

(Zebahim

5,

8; Maim.,

nmm

'n

6,

4)

interprets Lev. 27, 32 to


115

mean
with

that the animal-tithe,


in

nna ibto
of

Some
]1J?

Karaites

agree

Tradition

the

interpretation
(/.

EnnpSl

D37; see

p,

55b and the opinion

of Joseph

ha-Kohen

c,

55c/;

IfO

mm,

Lev.

67b;

wb* nms,
and 62

/.

c).
see
2,

The Samaritans agree with


Hanover,
/.

the Karaites;
31,
n.

Geiger,

ZDMG., XX,
the

544;

c,

16

(Hanover,
nK*i

relying on

words of Ibn

Ezra on Lev.
believes
that

23, 40:

nam

warn msio
this

ij?n n'rxrs a

no D'pram,
by
10);

the

Sadducees
to

shared
the
u.

view,
(see

unaware
above,

that

C'pmm
see,

Ibn Ezra refers, as usual,

Karaites
d.

note

how-

M. Duschack, Josephus Flavins


Josephus
agrees with
(Epstein, Eldad ha-Dani, 162).

Tradition, 27 and Gratz, III, note 10).


Ill,
10,

Tradition

{Ant.,

5);

so

also
16,

the

Falashas
B. Beer,

See also Book of Jubilees

and

Buck
118

d.

Jubilden,

47.
(/.

It

must, however, be pointed out that Philo

c), in contradistinc-

tion
25,

to n.

Josephus
31

(comp.
50),

M.

Olitzki,

Flavins

Josephus

und

die

Halacha,

p.

and

p.

does not seem to require the construction of special

booths for the Feast of Tabernacles.

388
like the

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


"second
tithe,'' is

to be eaten

by the owner within

the walls of Jerusalem.

Philo (II, 234, 391; comp. Ritter,


170,

123;

Driver.

Deuteronomy,
states
117

note

is

to be corrected
is

accordingly)
to the priests.

that

the

animal-tithe

to

be given

har, Lev. 51a;


18.

The Karaites agree with min ina, Lev. 76b.

Philo.

See Mib-

Tradition applies the law of Lev. 22, 19 (DWi) to


1,

animal sacrifices only (Sifra to Lev.


parallels).

14;

Menahot 6a and
him

Philo, as

is

evident from the reason given by

for the law of

D^n
.

(II,

238) holds that

D^n

refers also to

mi"

331

Dnm

The Karaites agree with


....

Philo.

See Mib-

har, Lev. 36,


ito

{warn

*mn

pboia

n nnoi?
19.

rowan

i^xcr;

see

]win p nbipn ^]n now also min -ina, Lev., 5a.


Werke
Philos, II, 93, n. 1)

Philo (II, 256; comp.

states that all the lights of the sacred candle-stick

(mu)

were extinguished

in the

morning.
8,

According to Tradition
2; Tosefta, Sotah 13, 7;

(Tamid

6,

1; Sifre
8

on Num.

Yoma, 39a" and


Josephus Flavins
is

parallels;

comp. also Nahm. on Ex. 27,


s.

20 and Tosafot Menahot


u. d.

86fr

v.

mi comp. M. Duschak.
;

Tradition,

Wien

1864, p. 4, which

to be corrected accordingly) one light


s

was

left
t

burning
22) also

the whole day


states
III.
117

rwn
three

"O).

Josephus (C. Ap.

I,

that the lights


3

were never extinguished (see Ant..


lights

8,

that

burned
15

in the

Temple during
Ritter,
9,

So also Book of Jubilees 32,


that

and Tobit
with

1,

6.

123
1)

overalso

looked
in

Philo

(II,

234)
to

disagrees
be
II,

Tradition
all

(Bekorot
animals.

requiring

nr2D2

IVpQ

given
4,
11.

from
13-15;

domestic

See also

Schechtcr, Jewish Sectaries,


205.

comp., however, Hadassi, Alph.

"
pSn
who

See Tosefta

Sotah

13,

7;

Yoma
^a]
I,

39a;

p.

ib.,

6,

3:

B>B>tP T\2V
....

D'JDIK

dojj

tVhi ;n22

[rMn

pbn *siyo
1,

ia

rnm

pi*n pyot*

H22 DD^Bi

but see Weiss, Dor,

82, note

that this refers to


3, 12

^Wl

]!]?

lived about forty C. E.; see

Maim., D'EDini J*TW1,

and D"3 ad loc;

comp.

"2trnn

'n,

ed.

Wien, No. 309.

KARAITE HALAKAH
daytime!)

REVEL
Philo,

389
that

The

Karaites hold, like

no

lights

burned
57a and
20,

in the

Temple during
Lev. 856.

the day.

See Mibhar, Exod.

mm ira,

The Karaites reject the ancient traditional law that vows made and oaths taken without due consideration of the circumstances involved may be annulled by a court as those of a daughter by her father (Num. 30, 5-6) and
that of a wife by her

119

husband
;

(/.

c, v. 7

ff.).

See Hadassi,

Alph. 139-141, 364 (135a)


51
'sb
;

Mibhar,

Num.

29a; rrpta nab,


ch. 10,

comp. also Maim, commentary on Nedarim,


or
bi2
b*i

end
...

D^yo nwne>n
This

-urn

b"~\

ruron nxn winrc


id.,

rw

mron
Philo

D'mn dvd

fro pyrro

p iroijaav; and

rrnn n^po,

miraG? 6n, 12, 12.

seems to be also the view of


his

who seems

to express

objection
(II,
is

to

the law

of

annulment of vows by the statement


Philos, II, 112, n. 2) that "no

273; comp.

Werke
to

man

competent

heal

119

Weiss (Dor,

I,

81)

believes that the law of

D'lt

mnn

was inaugis

urated in the time of Simon the Just.


his

This opinion of Weiss

based on
did not
ff.

view

(/.

c, 80; so also Geiger, Urschrift, 31-2) that

pHSH

pj?0tr
23

favor the making of vows; see, however, Rapoport,

min* mna,

We

do not know whether the law of Dni3


Sadducees;
Sectaries,
sect
I,

mnn
7-8

was even contested by the


3.

comp.

p.

Berakot
ib.,

7,

2;
16,

Gen.
11.

rabba 91,

Schechter (Jewish
that

XVIII; comp.

p.

and notes) believes


held
that

the

which he designates "Zadokite"

(see

above)

vows
1,

cannot
425-6.

be annulled; comp. also K. Kohler, American Journal of Theology, 191


120

The

later
;

Karaites

accepted,

with

slight

modifications,

the

law

of

Dma mnn
227a
ff.

see Kaleb Afendopolo's appendix to 1*tSk


is,

mix,
law

Odessa 1870,
the

It

however,
several

possible

that

in

rejecting

0**1*73

mnn
the

early

Karaites,

as

in

other

instances,

turned into a

general

sentiment

among

the

Babylonian Jews during the Gaonic period against the


Jehudai Gaon (quoted by Nahshon Gaon) states:
*vnn**i *idk**
*2S*7

annulment of vows.
nyirst? xSi

m:
75;

xb na

p*jrr

xhi

cm:

jyrru
120;

vb; see ni****n


HTIj;
***?

mplDE,
Nos.
6,

ed.

Miiller,

No.

122;

comp.
38,

ib.,

Nos.
143.

117,

*T7f2n,

44,

naivn **W,

Nos.

137,

145-6;

c*:irrx*i

*min,

3gO
21.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

The Karaites agree with Philo

also in the inter-

pretation of

ion abna nj bean vb (Exod. 23, 19; 34, 26;

Deut.

14,

21) as prohibiting the seething of a kid or


of any other animal
II,

by

analogy

in the
121

milk of

its

mother.

See Philo

399; comp. Ritter, 128.

See Hadassi, Alph.

240 (gicd); 360"

(132J); Mibhar, Exod. 47b; min ina,

Exod. jgab
22.

The law

of Ex. 13, 13;


firstling of

Num.

18,

15 enjoins the
that.

redemption of the
if

an ass with a lamb, and


firstling is to

the

owner
its

fails to

redeem, the

be killed by

having

neck broken.

According

to Tradition this law


firstling of

refers only to an ass but not to the

any other
18,

unclean animal (Mekilta, ad loc.; Sifre on

Num.
all

15;

Bekorot 56).
ed.

Philo makes this law apply to

domestic

Horowitz,

I,

Nos.

12,

14;

so

also

Sar Shalom Gaon:

]*KB>

13*M1

"13

myiav 3"3i
D^lXJin ni21t?n
No. 48 and D*n
121
,

cm: vnrb b^v


ed.

iSSn

nnna, (nmcn nyp


ib.,

No.

141;
1J,'B%

Lyck, No. 37; see however,


,

No.

end;

mitWl

"N

ad /oc).
i

See Hullin

8,

ff.

Mekilta on Exod. 23, 19; Sifre on Deut.


see

14,

21.

The Samaritans agree with Tradition;


Wreschner,
Geiger,
I.

Geiger,

Nachg. Schr.,
ancient

Ill,

303-4;

Intr.

XXVI.
The

For

the

view

of

the

Samaritans see
see Frankel,

c, 305-6 and Nachg. Schr., IV, 66, 126.


183.

For the
agrees
130,

LXX
with

Vorstudien,
Philo

practice

of

the

Falashas
ha-Dani,

the

view
/.

of

and

the

Karaites
this

(Epstein,

Eldad

173;

Epstein,

c,

129-131
35

believes that

was
ed.

also

the view of Eldad ha-Dani; but see No.


121).

of

Eldad 's

Halakah,
(comp.
in

Epstein. 128^

Against

the

view
"It? 2

of

Rapoport
uni-

|*So "iy,
versally

mid

Ritter,

that

the

law of sSrQ

was not

known
see

Babylonia even long after the destruction of the Second


D* 31

Temple
122

Ilalevy,

Win

mill,
of

1c,

128.

For

Aiian's
152,
n.

interpretation
1.

ION

aSna H3 ^Wfl xb

see

Harkavy,

|3J^ En"D.
Karaites
155)
see

For other interpretations of this verse by


Alph.

some early
/.

Hadassi,

240

(91 cd);
19.
;

Jacob

b.

Reuben
later

(Harkavy,

c,

and Ibn

Ezra on

Exod. 23,
of

Most of the
see

Karaites accept the


Schr.,
Ill,

traditional

interpretation

bV2F\ xS
790;

Geiger,

Nachg.
ed.

303;
20-22;

comp.

also
24.

mm

"in3,

Exod.

Samuel

al-Magrabi,

Lorge,

JV1BH,

KARAITE HALAKAH
animals (II, 233; Ritter, 119
of the Karaites.
12

REVEL
'

39
is

ff.).

This

also the view


11.

See

Anan
vi

(ed. Schechter, p. 7,

8-15)

mon
ltid-i

[loci

avian mcrlD
s

na

bb (Num.
*n

15,

186)

nNDn

"Km

Kp nEn]3 ba byi lynab

waxn <skb

ntra

man
onn

pom

tw

'nan [iion bbaa]

nB nona ban

dic^o iiona

keki nnn nxoo


nonabi me> [nna

[n.naoi

nw

n]nvnB nonao ken nn^nn bai


[? ribba]

mine n]nab

nba "jnona
w ovnin

bai

nnna

Dm

ids ba byn nynsb [-jnonlabai

'wan mc
1.

nna n^Dta
"ion nbsn

D^Np nxnanonan; comp. #.,

p. 8,

15

ff.

So

also Hadassi,
s

Alph. 204;

min
bab

nna,

Exod. 35a:

ab^ n&oj
*a

nbapn ^bya nyn pi nab iin *nos dk

niKOD.n

monao

ipnpn

nKo nona
123

Ppn

nr

onoiK xnpo
IV,
this
4, 4.

^ai.

So

also

Josephus,

/4h*.,

As

Olitzki

suggests

(Flavins

Josephus und
be

die

Halacha,
desire
in
to

29)

anti-traditional

view of Josephus may


that the ass occupied a

due

to

his

remove
law. of

any
This

suspicion

favorable
of
Philo.

position

Jewish
the

may

also

account
13,

for

the

view
Ritter,

Philo

omits

law
178.).

inB"lJ,M

(Exod.

13;

comp.

120; Olitzki, Magazin,

XVI,
;

Nor do
opinion

all

the Karaites accept the literal

interpretation

of

inB*l"l

see

the

of

Sahl

b.

Masliah quoted in
b.

Mibhar,
/.

Exod.

19b

(comp.
17b)

Ibn Ezra, ad loc).


with

Aaron
that

Joseph
ass

(Mibhar,
is

c.

and

Num.

agrees

Tradition

only the

to

be

redeemed.

The
Kin
Lev.
Deut.,
led
S

contradiction

between
15,

Exod.
19-20
(

13,

D1N2 SxiB" '322


'."I

Dm

^2 "IBB

nDil221) and Deut.


26
c.

laSaKD -pnSN
firstling
is

JfiS)

and between
facto)

27,
/.

(iniS tr*K

Vnpi

tib...;

the
is

WHp

ipso

and

(trnpn 12Tn
Karaites to

...; the

1122
15,

to be declared BTip by the owner) to


T1J,*

many

refer

Deut.

19-20
to

1122 of clean animals


is

which, as they believe, in contradistinction

cm

IBB 1122

to

be declared

BMip
within

by the owner and,


the walls
of

like

the

"second tithe," to be consumed by him


or

Jerusalem
"in 3
,

redeemed;
19a
M QT] D

see

Hadassi,

Alph.
12,

204-5;
refers

Mibhar, Deut.. 12b;


to

min
tried

Deut.

(Ibn Ezra on Deut.


,

17

this

Karaite view;

Harkavy, ]}$h
to

142,

n.

16,

is

to

be

corrected

accordingly).

Anan

reconcile

the

above

mentioned

contradictions
its

by claiming that the

firstling
is

whose conception and

birth
to

were while

mother

belonged to an Israelite

PHp
Num.
time

ipso
18,

facto

and

be given to the priests

(Exod.

13,

2;

Lev. 27, 26, only


at

15),
its

whereas the 1122


birth
is

who was owned


the

by an

Israelite

the

of

to

be

made Clip by

392

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


The Philonian halakah,
in general, is a

problem

still

to

be solved.

Philo lived in Egypt where as


in

we now know

from the papyri recently discovered


tine

Assuan and Elephan-

(Sayce-Cowley, Aramaic Papyri discovered in Assuan,

London 1906; Sachau, Drei aramdische Papyrusurkunden


aus Elephantine,
1908),
the

Jews were permanently


124

set-

tled in the sixth century B. C.

(comp. Schiirer, Geschichte

des Judischen Volkes, III

4
,

24 fL).

Alexander

the

Great

transplanted

many Jews
II,

into

Egypt

in

332 B. C. (Josephus, Bell. Jud.


to

18, 7;

Contra

owner and belongs

him

(Deut.
p. 6,
11.

15,

19-20).
2J!

See Anan's Book of ComSj*

mandments
'S

(ed.

Schechter,

7-18):

S^Xl

X1H

>S

XB[x] Xpl
tsnpe x*n

'n

'rn

[iJNxai
'b

Tipaa

ibv

-\vn~\

naan

Sa

an2i

n[n]

iSi

D*p

ja

H^[]n[in]

niaa

Sjn ijhkS ibv ntrx xdx xp -pnSx

xsx xpi nirnpK^


j*a

n^ntn

xin
...

1132 ix 'nai

nann ^nSx ['nS trnpn] x&x xpi 'jmitN jmron mSnxn 1122 "xm (?) *]S [jmxS] -pnSx 'n S nnna enpon naa mSaiu mnxnB 'B* 3a p[iion] ikSi 'bh
fyn ijnt6 'naa
'b
'S

jnn?K na

pi

ii22

122'

-ipx

xd[x xp 122']

ntrx

[' B*np' xSjxax xpi

a*a

pro?*

jrnron 1122 w*rn o*xp

xnOnpa]

nnna2i
nS

ma xnx
jna^
ib.,

x[pi]
'b
8,
11.

"wa SaS

am
p.
9,

ibb Sa

'21

rvempK ins xSn


-\b
ff.

mx

pam
view

[aa
15-26

>j?nn]
and

y-nto
11.

1221
21

xbx
the

xp

nS

n*n;

comp. also
this

p.

9-10,

Kirkisani alludes to
authority
for

of of

this

law

Anan (ed. Harkavy, 248) and states Anan was found in one of Jannai's
u.

that

liturgical
is

compositions.

Harkavy,

Studien

Mittheilungen,

V,

107,

note,

to

be

corrected

accordingly.
124

See also Rapoport,


Ilerzfeld,

miPP nSnj,
463;

128-9;

id.,

,
)

70 "pj?

100b

ff .

Ritter,

6,
id.,

8-9.

Geschichte, III,
40.

Frankel,

Vorstudien, io, and notes;

MGWJ., On the
by

1852,

Egyptian Jews and their relation


/.

to

Palestine see the literature


to

quoted

Schiirer,

c,

147

ff.,

and
3

in
ff.

Sweet's Introduction

the

Old

Testament in Greek, Cambridge 1902,


C.
I-.
I

In the third and fourth centuries


Alexandria;
see
,

there

were
3,

still

some Amoraim
Frankel,
b.

in
l

p.

Erubin
It

3,

9;

Kiddushin
inted

14;

comp.

D WWfl
to

X120
the

77a.
later in

may

also

out
4)
2,

that

Judah
the

Tabbai,

whom

Karaites

(see

note
p.

ascribe
2;
n.
p. 1;

beginning of Karaism,
6,

lived

Alexandria;

see

I.F.igigah

Sanhedrin
Halevy,

6;

comp. Frankel, nation '21T, 34-5;

Weiss, Dor,

12$,

D*31BNin

mill,

Ic,

474

ff.

KARAITE

HAUKAH REVEL
/.

393

Ap., II. 4; comp. Schiirer,

c, 35

ff.

40).

The

city of activity,

Alexandria early became a great center of Jewish


second only to Jerusalem.

The

existence of the

Temple

of Onias did not affect the loyalty of the Jews in Egypt to


the

Sanctuary
/.

in

Jerusalem

(Frankel,

Binfluss,

157;

Schiirer,

c,

147-8).

Palestinian scholars often visited

Alexandria (Rapoport,
interpretation of the

pte "py, 101b).

The

Palestinian

Law and

the practices in vogue there

were not unknown


Septuaginta,

to

them (Frankel, Vorstudien zu der


comp. Halevy.

185-186;

DWOTfl nnn,

Ic,

127, note; 129, note)

and the influence of Palestinian ex-

egesis

is

patent in that great

monument

of the Jews of

Egypt,

the

Septuagint

(Frankel,

Vorstudien

zu

der
d.

Septuaginta; Ueber den Binfluss


alex.

d. paldst.

Bxcgese auf
alex.

H ermenentik

Ueber

paldst.

und
III,

Schriftforff.).

schung; but see Herzfeld, Geschichte,

548

Philo,

the great representative of Egyptian Jewry,

knew
it

of the

existence of an oral tradition and considered


as the Written

as binding

Law

(see the references by Ritter,


d.

14-5;

comp. Neumark, Geschichte

Jiidischen Philosophic des


;

Mittelalters, II, Berlin 1910, 418, note

see,

however, Werke

Philos, II, 289, note).

126

He

also visited Palestine

and there
(Gratz,

saw the people

living according to that Tradition


ff.).

MGWJ.,
from

1877, 436

How

are

we

then to account for

the interpretations and decisions in


traditional halakah?
126

which Philo deviates


subjective

Are such deviations

opinions of Philo?

Do

they reflect the actual practices

128

See

also

Ritter,
10, n.

16-7.

For

Philo's
/.

eruditio

hebraica

see
Iy.

the

refer-

ences by Ritter,
Schr.,
126 I,

and by Schiirer,

c, 699; comp. also

Low, Ges.

7,

303.

See Treitel,

MGWJ.,

1903, 415; but see Ritter,

15-16.

304
in

TH E JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


127

vogue among Egyptian Jewry


128

or do they go back to a

peculiar tradition?

But be

this as

it

may, the
in

fact,

which

have attempted

to demonstrate, that

most of Philo's deviations from

Tradition the Karaites hold the

same view, points

to

some

kind of dependence of the latter on Philo, or to


descent from a particular
in probability

tradition.

common The former view gams

from the following:

The

Hellenic or Alexandrian method of interpretation

of the Scriptures did not remain


ian teachers of the law

unknown

to the Palestin-

and the works and views of Philo


129

found their way

to

the Palestinian schools.

Moreover,
lost

the general belief that Philo and his


the

works were

to

Jews of the Middle Ages


127

until

Azariah dei Rossi, about


90,

So Ritter 16-17; corap.


n.

ib.,
1.

28,

63

ff.,

93;

but see

Werke
u.

Philos,

II,

48,

2;

202, n.

3;

258, n.
32,

Frankel (ttber pal'dstinische


6;

dlexandri-

nische

Schriftforschung,
believes
practice that

nu.

EinYitss,

157

see

ib*,

33. n. 9

and

pp.

190-201)
to

Philo's

exposition

of

the

sacrificial

ritual

goes back
1877,

the

of

the

Temple of Onias; comp.


n.

also

Gratz,

MGWJ.,

436;

but see Ritter,


128

109,

2;

112.
I,

See L.
706;

Cohn,
see

Werke Philos
also

14.

The view
halakah

of Biichler

{MGWJ.,
v.

L
1

(1906),

Lauterbach,

Jewish Encyclopedia,

X,

s.

Philo,
earlier

6b)

that Philo's
(that of

deviations

from traditional
is
still

represent

an

halakah

Beth Shammai)
its

to

be proved.

Geiger who scanned


took no
u.

Jewish literature and that of


account,
as

sects for traces

of ancient halakah

already
n.

remarked
1),

by

Poznanski

(Abraham Geiger, Leben

Lebenswerk, 372,

of Philo.

Philo's deviations

from Tradition cannot

be brought into relation with Sadduceeism and the supposed ancient halakah
related
like
to
it;

comp. Rapoport,
(Frankel,

pSo

"pj,\

1010.

Philo interprets CAVil

mnOO

the

Pharisees

liinfluss,

137).

He
to
1).
I,

considers

(II,

230) like

the Pharisess

(Menahot 650) the


70,
n.

TOn pip
1)

a public offering; allows divorce

without 12T T\V\y (Ritter,


also in the law of
129

and seems

agree with the Pharisees

BD01T DHJJ

(Ritter, 26, n.

See

Freudenthal,

Hellcnistischc

Studien,

68

ff.;

C.

Siegfried,
ff-J

Philo von Alexandria als Anileger des Alten

Testament, Jena 1875, 2 7 8


ff.;

Weinstein,

Zur

Genesis

der
des

Agada,

II,

29
II,

D.
fF.,

Neumark,
84
ff.

Geschichte

dcr Judischen

Philosophie

Mittelalters,

70

KARAITE

HAUKAH REVEL
him
in

395

the end of the sixteenth century, reintroduced


literature,
is

Jewish
tenth

century Karaite,

now proved to be unfounded. The Abu Yusuf al-Kirkisani, in his work


of
a

Kitdb

al-amvar wal-tnarakib (written 937), speaks


Sect

Jewish
says

named

"the Magarites"

(finaOD^K).

This

sect,

Kirkisani, sprang up before the rise of Christianity.

The

ad-

herents of the sect


of attributes of

make

the biblical passages that speak

God

refer to an angel who, according to

them, created the world (ed. Harkavy, 304).


are the works of the "Alexandrine"

Among them
which
283).

(<JM"VU:3Di6k )
(ib.,

are the best of the "Books of the Cave"

The
he

same author, speaking of Benjamin Nahawendi

whom

considers the second founder of Karaism, says that Ben-

jamin's belief that an angel created the world


the

is

similar to

view held by the Alexandrine


suggested
that

(ib.,

314).

Harkavy
are

ingeniously

these

"Magarites"

the

Egyptian Essenes, known as the Therapeutae.


andrine" whose works they so highly estimated
than Philo
(ib.,

The "Alexis

no other

256

ft.)

and Xahawendi's "Angel" goes

back to Philo's "Logos" (comp. Poznanski, RBJ-, L, 1905,


"Philon dans l'ancienne litterature judeo-arabe," where
the material
is

all

collected

and discussed).

The view
Jews

that

some of the works of Philo were known


eighth, ninth,

to the

in the

and tenth centuries

the

period of religious

unrest

among

the Jews and the birth of Jewish religious

philosophy

is

shared

by

many
ib.,

scholars.

See
(1905),

Bacher,

JQR., VII, 701; Hirschfeld,


Poznanski,
stein,
/.

XVII
III,

65

ff.;

c.

(see

id.,

hvrw* TOK,

128a)

Eppen-

MGWL, LIV
133,

(1910), 200; D. Neumark, Geschichte


I,

der jiidischen Philosophic des Mittelalters,


128,

Berlin 1907,
Philo's

560,

568;

II,

372 and 466

ff.

Among

(the "Alexandrine's)

works

which,

as Kirkisani informs

396
us,

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


were eagerly studied,

might

have been those that con-

tain Philo's expositions of biblical laws; Philo thus influ-

encing, not only the theological views of the first Karaite

philosophers
but
also

(Benjamin Nahawendi and


interpretation

his

followers),

their
180

of

biblical

laws

and

their

practices.

1,0

The

allegorical

method of interpretation,
Karaites;
see

characteristic

of

Philo,

was

popular also

among
to

the
1;

Weiss, Dor,
Hirschfeld,

IV,

86

and Poznanski,
b.

MGU'J.,

1897, 208, n.

comp.

also

H.
1,

Jefeth

All's

Arabic
also

Commentary
the
is

Nahum, London
(this

191

8
is

and 10

ff.

The Karaites share


later

view of Philo that the Decalogue


but a

the text on which the whole

Law
in
141

commentary

view
Ges.

is

found also in the


I,

Midrashim; see
is

the references by L.
p.

Low,

Schr.,

42.
I,

similar

view

found

Shekalim
to

6,

1.

Reifmann, nioSn ITS,


Saadia

350 and Weiss, Dor, IV,


to

are

be corrected accordingly).
of

Gaon proved
141)

them by

it

the

possibility

an

oral law

(comp.

Weiss, Dor, IV,

and the Karaites


,

Nissi

b.

Noah

(eleventh century; see lastly Harkavy, }Z$h BiV'D


(twelfth

intr.,

VII)
Philo,

and Judah
according
to

Hadassi
this

century)

arranged

their

works,

like

view.
b.

The Karaite Zerah


interested in the
75,

Nathan

(end of

sixteenth

century)

was

much
in-

works of Philo (Neubauer, Aus der Petersburger Bibliothek,

125).

The famous nineteenth century Karaite Abraham Firkowitsch


that

deed

asserts

Philo

was a Karaite

(preface
(

to

D*lt!"

"IPOO
,

2a),

but,

according to him, Jesus was a Karaite likewise

n'33J"l

DHin

appendix to

DnB
1E1D.1

11130,

54a,

56a;
state

Kirkisani,
that Jesus
18-9.

ed.

Harkavy, 305. 9 and Hadassi, JQR.,


;

VIII (1896), 436


IJtfl,

was a Sadducee)

comp.

I.

B. Levinsohn,

Odessa 1863,

GINZBERG'S "GEONICA"
Geonica.

By Louis Ginzberg.
II.

I.

The Geonim and

their Halakic
title:

Writings.

Genizah Studies [also under the

JTiSn^

DnV03 I^N

nwn
pp.

|0

D^NM
-f-

ttaWltil.

(Texts and Studies


vol.

of the Jewish Theological

Seminary of America,
210; (5)
-f-

I-II).

New York
The

1909.

xn
or,

425, 8.

Gaonic

epoch

more

exactly,

the

period

from the

completion of

the

Babylonian Talmud to the flourishing of an


is

independent Jewish culture in Europe


the history of the

the most

momentous

in

Jews
the

since the dispersion.

To
life,

begin with, the


life,

Talmud then became

norm and
affected

rule of the entire Jewish

not only of the religious but also of the social


life itself

but the religious

was strongly

and new and unknown horizons


vistas.

opened themselves disclosing new


the Karaite, undermined the

Various

sects,

above

all

power of

tradition

and the authority

of

its

official

bearers,
instil

while

mysticism and religious philosophy

endeavored to
the
fact

new

essence into Judaism, not to mention

that

through

contiguity

with

Arabic

culture

profane

science penetrated

more and more


it.

into the Jewish domain, fructi-

fying and fertilizing


the

In addition to these currents there were

Midrash and the Piyyut, the Masorah and philology, secular


and other subjects which although not
all

and synagogal poetry, the fixing of the calendar and the develop-

ment of the
Babylon,
the

liturgy,

all

originating at that time nor


seat

fostered with equal intensity in


still

of

official

Judaism,

were

in

measure

brought to an end in the Gaonic period, so that the latter impressed


its

stamp upon them.

This period, however, was for a long time

most obscure,

chiefly because very

few accounts of

it

had come
all

down

to us,

and hence

it

became the scene of confusion for


on many problems, although
period of this epoch.

kinds of fantastic hypotheses; but also here has the discovery of


the Genizah
finds

thrown a new
chiefly

light

its

stretch

over the

last

Recent

397

398
years

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


have
indeed

brought

us

many

detailed

investigations
in

and
im-

1 minute inquiries concerning the Gaonic age, but superior

portance to
for the very

all

of

them

is

reason that

work mentioned in the besides many new aspects and


the
first

heading,
the

new
quite

treatment of old questions, to which the


it

volume

is

devoted,

offers

in

the

second volume a fulness of


which,
similarly

new

material

unknown

heretofore,

drawn from the Genizah,


to a considerable extent.

enriches our knowledge of the

Geonim
I

The
first

first

volume

is

divided in two uneven parts, of which the

(pp.

1-72)

deals

with

the the

institution

of

the

Gaonate,
the

the

second
literature

(pp.

73-205)
the

on

other

hand
is

with
in

halakic

of

Geonim.

Ginzberg
not
in

right

maintaining
scholastic

that

the

Geonim
(so

were

mere

presidents

of

institutions

Halevy

D^IPNin
and

nvm

whose
but

views

are

combatted
tives

here

frequently
of

successfully),

representa-

of

an

institution

authoritative

standing,

and

that

one misunderstands their essence by considering them as direct


successors to the Babylonian
ever,
it

Amoraim.
Ginzberg

On

the other hand,

howthe

seems to

me

that

emphasizes

too

little

importance of the Geonim

in

perpetuating tradition, chiefly with

regard to the interpretation of the Talmud, which already


b.

Abraham
character-

David of Posquieres pointed out

in a

remark adduced by Ginz(p. 205).

berg himself at the close of this volume


istics

The

of

the

Geonim

as

opposed to the Amoraim are threefold,


In the
first

according to Ginzberg.

place, the

Talmud abounds
schools,

in
in

names of scholars who never were heads of


the Gaonic literature

while

we

find learned

men

only

among

the presidents

of

schools and colleges.

However, Ginzberg compared here two


two
totally different kinds of literature

incommensurable

quantities,

discussions on the one hand, decisions on the other; here differ-

ences of opinion concerning the


there

Mishnah and cognate

questions,

Responsa on

definite,

concrete questions concerning actual


difficult

occurrences in the religious and judicial practice, including


passages in the Talmud;
naturally
1

and with queries of such types people


presidents of schools

turned

to

the

who

alone

were

See the comprehensive account by Liber (REJ., LXI, 297-316).

GINZBERG

GEONICA

POZNANSKI
men who, though
Siddur,
is

399
(p.

competent to solve them.


7, n.

Besides, Ginzberg himself remarks

1) that

we

possess Responsa also from

living

near to the Geonim, were no Geonim themselves.

Thus Nathan,
no doubt
concerning

who

is

mentioned three times


Alluf,
since

in

Amram's
comes

Nathan

from
in

him
the

information
see
fol.

customs which prevailed


'131

Academy,
i:wnj
P&*B>

37a:

ION

'Sill

mn

n 3in ro-n
fol.

-101S

Km"nD3

^n nywwtn
jn* 21 U"3"l

jn* \y>y\

(and also
'131

356:

"IE^

ubvK jn:

1EN 3fH
fc

113X3

fe6t*

nHO m^y

b6b* relates to the custom of the Acade-

my).

He was
is

only called rQ't?* E'SO

pJO because he was desigit is

nated for the position of school president, hence too

probably he
122,

who

meant

in the
|""0

Responsa of Me'ir
31 ).
2

b.

Baruk, Prague, No.

end (where

}1KJ

Hezekiah

b.

Samuel, on the other hand,


is

probably never wrote any Responsa, at any rate he

not identical
I

with

the

writer

of

the
Isr.,

epistle

in
199.

JQR., XVIII,
Eleazar
%

401, as

have
is

demonstrated in Riv.

VI,

Alluf,

however,
23,

necessarily the author of the

Responsum

"W, 26b,
all

No.

because

on any other supposition the


also

latter baffles

understanding (see
point

my

D*01B>

D'J'JJJ,

I,

S3).

The second

of

difference

between the Amoraim and Geonim Ginzberg sees in the fact that
the office of the latter

was

restricted to a
p*1

few families and that


N ?""
1

also other functionaries (as the


ies)

JT3 3X,

*>*">,

and secretar-

were often recruited from these families


2

a fact which the pre640,


fol.

As
No.

to

the

two passages
fol.

in

J**""T

""IX

(I,

No.

1766,

and

III,

p"2,

373,

56b),

which

are

both
iT"***

derived
;nj

from the mySpDfl


'3DS
IT

*1BD,

and the
pKJi

first

of which reads:

'33Y1

Wail U'JYTM
]1K3L

nS'KB*
I

rP33n

TAWM,
73)
for

while

the

second

has: S"ST

]TM

3*1

10K
31

'3PI,

am

inclined to read in the

first

with Muller (against Ginzberg

p.

and

Marx
to

ZfhB.,

XIII,
Alluf,

ninN
the

for

nna
from

and

to

understand the reference likewise


far as
school,

Nathan

mySpDfl IBD,
or

as

we know now, adopted only


hence
of
the
it

Responsa
surprising

from
that

Geonim

their

would have
of

been
b.

we should not know anything


Kairwan,

father

Nathan

Hananiah
changed

of

who was even termed Gaon.


because
VI"
1

mnK
is

was therefore
mentioned in
other hand,

into

i"l**""l,

just

this
(

Nathan
>

b.

IJananiah
"7i"*)

another passage of the


the passage quoted by

*"1H

4 22

">

fo1
I,

On

the

me (D'i'C
see
ib.,

D*3*3J*,

60)

from the

D 4 *n

mix
is

"11-.

566,

is

to

be obliterated, since here the author of the


p.

Mahkim

meant

(ed.

Freimann,

17,

p.

XX).

400
served data
that

Jill-

JEWISH (JIARTERLY REVIEW


The
the
third

attest.

and

last

differentiating

feature

is

the

Geonim drew
in

salaries.

These,
for

however, were probably

ermanent

beginning,

Nathan ha-Babli's remark

concerning Joseph
l.

b.

Jacob, Saadya's rival (Med. Jew. Chron., 11,82,

from below)
is

imy: vb t\tw vxi rrnpa npb mncr pnn 3Dyi


it

HDD

valid only, as

seems, with reference to the last period, and


(see JQR.,

even then the incomes grew less and less

XIX,

399).

Also the change of conditions of

life

during the Gaonate from

those of the Talmudic age should be taken into consideration, as


is

actually done by Joseph

b.

Judah

in his "1D1E>

1SD

(ed.

Bacher,

p.

120)

in

defending the Geonim against Maimonides.

An
Geonim
ever

old but exceedingly important source for the time of the


is
still

the report of
inquiries

Nathan
that

b.

Isaac ha-Babli, and

whothis
It

institutes

into

age

must

fall

back on
22
ff.).

chronicler.

Ginzberg too expatiates upon him

(p.

so

happens that also here the Genizah has furnished new material through the discovery of a fragment of
language.
747
ff.)

this report in the

Arabic

Friedlaender

who

edited this

fragment

(JQR., XVII,

considers the Arabic as the original, and this view, to

my

opinion,

has not been refuted by Ginzberg.


also

bv 1>V
sense
it

is

certainly
"to

good Hebrew, and

IIMO bv 1EJ?
Isr.,

in

the

of
is

stand

over somebody" (comp. Riv.

VII, 93), and

true that in

general Arabisms do not prove that Arabic was the language of


the original, but there
is

additional evidence in favor of an Arabic

prototype, namely the additions which Friedlaender points out as

missing in the
Ginzberg's

Hebrew
that

version.

Wholly unacceptable, however,


had
it

is

view

Nathan

recited

his

story

orally

in

Kairwan and
for
the

his auditors recorded


in

both in Arabic and Hebrew,

differences

the

two versions would then have been


is

much
tain

greater.

Equally improbable
is

the identification with a cera

Nathan of Africa, who


\n:

cited in

Responsum
D'jwjn

of Me'ir

b.

Barak* for KpnBK8


^"T

m natefi
this

nswna

bw

nm^m

d:dn

does not

mean

"in a

Responsum by Nathan" but


effect
is

"in a [Gaonic]

Responsum
*

to

Nathan"; to
this

also the
D^PI

passage quoted
II,

Ginzberg knows
however,
h'ii.f.,
I.,

Responsum only from

flllVlN,

333;

found,

in

the
147

Responsa, ed. Lemberg, No. 193.

Comp.

in addition

Buchler,
p.

ff.;

my

)Nl*Vp tMN, No. 39 and Toledano's 31JN?n *M^

221,

248.

ginzberg's "geonica
by Ginzberg himself from
"|rQ 12
'Oan
is

poznaxski
Q"11K
in

401
p.

nmtm *W,
,

193:

bll

^IWB

l^KBI?

KpnBK

'WJIC 13in bnj "ISD


both places.

and un-

doubtedly the same collection

meant

Vice versa

we

find also JlvKB' in the sense of responsa, as in the passage

quoted by

Ginzberg

(p.

161, n. 2)

from Harkavy,

p.

84:

l"ID

310

&K

HI^N^

As
variance
a

to

the

value
Sherira,

and

reliability

of

Nathan where he

is

at

with

different

views prevail.
to

To mention

but

few discrepancies, according

Sherira the

opponent of the
it

Gaon Kohen-Zedek was


was
b.

the Exilarch
;

David, while to Nathan

his

predecessor

Ukba
b.

furthermore,

Nathan names
no mention

Amram
in
is

Solomon and Hai

Kiyyumi as contemporary Geonim


finally,

Sura

while Sherira ignores them altogether;

by Nathan of Hananiah, Sherira's father and successor to


b.
is

made Zemah

Kafnoi.

Disagreeing with Halevy whose estimate of Nathan

very low,

Ginzberg follows Graetz mostly


historian,

in

endeavoring to

rehabilitate

this

even at the cost of very violent har-

monizing methods and very doubtful combinations.


attempts to prove that
of

Such are the


the revenues
;

Ukba wanted
17)

to

take

away

Khorasan not from Kohen-Zedek but from Mebasser


(p. 79,
1.
:

that

Nathan's words
"OJM5>

m^

B>K"I

JOpiy b& 13Vlp


;

iTW

**&

do not refer to David but to Kohen-Zedek

that the reading in


if

Sherira's text should perhaps be

K^J

"in

in,

as

Sherira would

say in this manner and not rather K s eO


attempts.

TH

bcSMin, and such other

Similarly violent

is

the identification of

Amram

b.

Solo-

mon

with

Yom Tob

b.

Jacob and the assumption that father as well

as son

had double names

(nD^ Spy
The
called

and D"ly

21LD

DV), which

is

improbable in those days. 4


for in
stitutes

analogies quoted prove nothing,

^N

21 "D
title,

"ID,

who was

^DVaB,
very

the

word ID conbe
a

the

and n*BH6?D
.

could

easily

turned
double
as,

into

Moses n^vnty'fi
it

When
to

we

do

find

such

name,

is

mostly
the

due

defective
b.

transmission,

for

instance,
(p-

in

case
b.

of

Joseph
(p.

Abba
and

whom
his

Sherira
followers

37),

Abraham

David

64),

So already Graetz (Gesch., V, fourth


loc),

ed.,

p.

277;

comp. Eppenstein's
b.

remark ad

who,

however,
b.

hy an

error

calls

Jacob

Natronai

the

predecessor of

Yom-Tob

Jacob.

402
Joseph
b.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


b.

Zaddik and Saadya ibn Danan have turned into Joseph


It
is

Judah.

therefore not impossible that

no^ ~\2
is

D1DV had
to a

arisen in

some unknown manner from


W"2.

KJW
Nor

in DIDy, owing

misconception of the abbreviation

the existence of
T'"lN,

Hai

1).

Kivvumi substantiated elsewhere, for the passage from


;.

adduced by Ginzberg,

p.

68:

21 DLM 3

'*S

|1KJ

PIHyD 311
b.

p,N;

'M

may
since
;

as

well

have reference to Hai


DC'a
'^S

b.

David or Hai

Xahshon,

indeed
it

does

not

necessarily

mean

oral

transmission

but

is

more probable

that the reading should be

PXJ

myD
'^"1

21

n&n

"*

p*U "PI ail, for Tosafot Gittin, beginning,


1//

mention

this

explanation as coming from Hai and Saadya

T1

nnyD
ability

D8P31

ptU n an DK>3 J7W), and

this points to the

prob-

that in

the original source

Hai was placed before Saadya

(Mordecai

Gittin,

beginning, has only fc>TS rPlJJD 21), comp. also

Yeroham's
that

mm

D"IX,

XXIV,
since
is

2).

Nor can we
states

say with Ginzberg

Hai

b.

Kiyyumi was not mentioned by Sherira because he was


officially,

not

Gaon
"PE>V

Nathan

expressly

(p.

80,

1.

6)

Vinx

This Hai

only mentioned in the Kabbalistic tra-

ditional chain of Eleazar of

Worms

(Monatsschrift,

XLIX,

697),

but probably here too Nathan served as source.


\\ nile

the rehabilitation of

Nathan may be

said to

have been

unsuccessful in this respect, Ginzberg rightly refutes the perverse

view of Halevy that Nathan's data concerning the superiority of

Sura over Pumbedita had reference to Talmudic and not Gaonic


times.

Ginzberg was

in

a position

even to corroborate

(p.

47)

Nathan's statement that the Gaon of Sura withheld the

title

Gaon
latter,

from
which
tua"n

his equal in

Pumbedita

in his
b.

correspondence with the

through a Responsum of Jacob


is

Mordecai to Joseph

b.

Shela

found

in several

sources and which contains the following:

Nrun nna
(comp.
also

Nna^riD

vm
says

*idv

21 -idi
d.

wn
the

*ab

Kan

a^nai

rp'P
328).

Lewin,

Jahrbuch
only
not not

jud.-lit.

Gesellsch., VIII,

Nathan,
at

however,

that

the

presidents
title

of the

Academy
of

Pumbedita
but
title

were
does
all.

accorded
say

Gaon

by
did

Sura,
that

he
at

that
I

the

former
differ

not

bear

Therefore

must

from

Ginzberg's view that the scholastic heads in Pumbedita bore originally

only the

title

^Sn

(identical with

nS:) B>*n)

and that only

Sherira designated them as

Geonim

as a token of reverence to his

GINZBERG'S "GEONICA"
predecessors.

POZNANSKI
Aha's
b.

403
teacher,
is

Consequently

Samuel

n~>3 E>N~l,

hardly identical with the Gaon Samuel


if

this

were
b.

so,

Hai and

his

followers,

Mar of Pumbedita, for, Abraham b. Isaac and


I,

Solomon
tainly

Adret (see

my

W>2)&
little

D^JJJ,

65),
is

would have
Alluf

cer-

called
b.

him Gaon.
ib.,

As
54)

identical
still

Huna

with

Huna

Joseph (see

and

less so

Judah Alluf

imDT
b.

H"lV21 TlpS

with Jehudai, the pre-predecessor of Samuel


p.

Mar

(and not follower, as Ginzberg,

50,

puts

its

by mistake), for

mSTl
i"ITO

TlpD "in:OT
in

proves that he came from "lips 1PIJ


6

and was

GJ>N"l

Basra,
e.

a city that stood in frequent relations with the


II,

Geonim

(see

g. vol.

33. 212).

The

title

Alluf, however,

was
67).

mostly granted to foreign scholars (see

my

Wi'W DTJJJ

p.

Nor is Academy

it

true

that

in

the

Halakot Gedolot the heads of the

in

Pumbedita are termed Allufim only and never Geonim


in a

(which would indeed be natural

work

of Suran origin), for

we

find

e.

g.

ed.

Hildesheimer,

p.

185. 842:

"3K

"12

^L^S 31

-)1&)

|Utt.

As
as

for details in this part of the


p.
1

book the following


in

is

to be

remarked:

the calendar

was completed not


shows,
in

Palestine but,
see
III,

most

modern

research

Babylonia;

my
118.

art.

Calendar (Jewish) in Hastings' Encycl. of Religions,


2,

p.

n.

Against a Jewish apostolate comp. Pines in the Carlebachp.

Festschrift,
in

187
p.

ff.

p.

8 Hai

was no n;0 GW1 and the passage

Saadyana,

118,

proves nothing.
KB*"I
I,

As
I

to the

words

3713 XTtl

Xvb

Wm K33 G^n
follows

planation (D S

W DT^y,
him

*6

nH

mh,

must adhere

to

my

ex-

61) in opposition to Ginzberg and

Marx

who

{ZfhB.,

XIII,

173).
11, n.

Comp.
2

also Aptowitzer,

Monatsschrift, LV, 634 below.

p.

To

the passages here

mentioned add Sifre, Deut.,


schrift,

162 and Sifre Zuta quoted MonatsSherira's uncle, but his father

LV,

707.

p.

12

Not Amram,

Meshwi was

n~>3 PK"), see Sherira, ed. Neub., p. 41


13

and

my

D^'jy
ib.,

D*W,
and as
LXII,
5

I,

59-~P-

Concerning

HT^H

3X

fnJ 31
b.

comp.

61,

to Israel, the supposed son of


120,

Samuel

Hofni, see REJ.,

In Med. Jew. Chr.

I,

189 (so, not 198)

Samuel cannot

This Jehudai

is

also quoted in Eshkol, II, 67


'y

(comp. Brull's Jahrbiicher,

V,
y

158):

nS npiDD

*nip

\r\2

rroae mpE.nnaan rta


is

en

*nin*

2-1
I,

'ki
56.

131

uSt

y/ SKI C"J SiOtPn B J, which

to

be added in

my

D'ilC

DWd^i

404

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY RKVIEW

be emended into Israel, for the year of decease 134s Sel.


i?

(=

1034)

that of

Samuel: rather should T33TK


last,

jHSH ^NIDP be obliterated

in

the line before the

so that Hofni's year of decease 1324

gel.

(=
16

1013)

would
indeed

be

obtained,

see

RE J.,
the

LXIII,
vacancy

318. at

p.

Sherira

says

expressly

that

Sura occurred not before Moses b. Jacob but after his decease: tons ntro an id mrav p. 41 ptti *bi d*3P Tii- hot M 13"3n JV3 see also ZfhB., XIII, 10.p. 51, Concerning ^333L
.

note.

The expression ^3E>3


5b (Xo. 289)
...

is

not

peculiar
....

to

Natronai

alone,

see Pardes,
'121

^3E>3

n3

*tmm

31 ID

TtW ID

PID^n
II,

JWpC
1.

n^nn

(comp. on this point i?/., LVII, 245), also

vol.

231,

8:
(p.
,

fcOnTT
229)

Nin

^3^3,

Responsum which GinzAlso the Responsum


ed.

berg himself

ascribes to Hai.

Harkavy (p3H IV, 73)- D^3 ^18*3 ^3tP31 probably does not come from Xatronai (see further below), ib., n. 2 Regarding the Responsa of the Geonim to Kairwan comp. my fiOTp ^38, p. 5 # where Hilai b. Mari (792-801) is suggested as the first Gaon who
came
in contact

with that
is
7-

city.

That

also

Saadya sent Responsa to

Kairwan
u.

directly

perhaps to be concluded from Harkavy, Stud.

Mitt., IV, 93. L

The second
the

part of the

first

volume

deals, as already

mentioned,

with the halakic literature of the Geonim, for, as Ginzberg amplifies,

Halakah

in

its

threefold

manifestation: Talmudic exegesis,

Codification,

and Liturgy, was the exclusive domain of the Geonim.


subjects, not because of but

Saadya busied himself also with other


in

spite
least
is

of being Gaon.

Still

also the earlier

Geonim

dealt with

at
it

two more
of the

subjects,

with Midrash and Mysticism.


in
p.

Thus
in

said
I,

Midrash Bsfah

the well-known
104 note):

passage

Yalkut,
pltt

73j5(quoted by Ginzberg,
BPK1
is

Y21D2 DmK Iftb)


to the mystic

PI3!B*
it

|i13

'WW

K33")1 (r.

Nn)X10. As
Geonim

writings

no1

proved that they had


their authority in his

as authors,

and
in

Hai even
D'3pT

rejects
;

well-known Responsum
in these

Dye

the earlier Geonim, however, indulged


(9ee

things
be,

by

all

meanmerit

Weiss,

IV, 49).
lies

However

that

may

the

chief

of the

Geonim

in the

fact that they codified the

Talmud and considered its interpretation eminently as their task. The oldest work of the Gaonic time is the She'eltot by Aha of
Shabha, who. though an offshoot from the school of the Geonim,

GINZBERG

GEONICA
the

POZNAXSKI
work
a whole chapter

405

was not endowed himself with


to

title

Gaon and hence emigrated


(p.

Palestine.

Ginzberg devotes to

this

75-95)

proving against Halevy that the She'eltot came into exist-

ence not before Aha's emigration to Palestine but rather

when he
some
the
Still

was

already

in

that

land,

which

is

substantiated also by
etc.

linguistic

peculiarities,

as

NTTI,

NE^kS,
is

(p.

87).

Babylonian derivation of the author


teristic

borne out by some charac-

features,

and ingenious

is

the

remark that the theme on


in the

the study of the

Torah was incorporated

She'elta to

~p "p

because this was the so-called ''Reception-Sabbath"


in

(tOJm srOBO
use of the Pal-

Babylonia.

Despite the assertion that the She'eltot originated

in Palestine

Ginzberg maintains that

Aha made no

estinian
into

Talmud and
She'eltot
n'pXC'

that all passages to this effect, which


in the

came
comYet

the

and which are mostly registered


X.
Z.
J.
I

mentary
1

pEyn of
remain
in

Berlin,

prove

nothing.
(

believe that
I,

some

passages, which
their
tf

have reduced to seven

D^jy
"XI

D"01K>,

16),

force
:

and cannot be disproved.


feTlAfi
vytftffo
3,

Thus
'131

the passage in She'elta

VI

XX ID^N
by
p.

irb (with

me Xo.

2)

is

after all influenced by p. B. k.


7)

th

one in yirp LI (with


Aptowitzer,
b.

me Xo.
117

Ber.

6,

(comp.

now
85)

also

RE J.,

LXIII, 126), and so on.


I,

Furthermore, Abraham
p.

Isaac in Bshkol,
the

(quoted also by Ginzberg,

cites

expressly

Palestinian
12)
:

Talmud
iffy

as

source

for

(with

me Xo.
$b,

^CflSP

"W

^NIDC? 'lb
in
fcj

XCVI vbpS 3^1 nDK


She'elta

131 nS:rp *6i fffrttrt

xnznm
D13

kdd, and

rftfc#

pvyn

p.

Ber.

(fol.

1.

25)

is

rightly pointed out:

7\TVlb

miDX
Xor
Peah

i*&3
is

^n

131 R**l *131 11313

b&

Ffcfl&fi

^1b^ TlDXl njntr.


I

there

any reason why the source for She'elta


Ginzberg,
p.

on Sabbath garments (with


p. 8,

80; with me, Xo. 1)

should not be

8 but

the late Pesikta rabbeti, since the latter probably


tinian

drew upon the Pales-

Talmud.

ew

light is

thrown upon the composition of the


in

She'eltot
vol.

through the Genizah fragments which are published


will be

II

and which
entirely

mentioned
a

later.

Among
of
(1)

these are also


reveals
(2)

found
original

new

She'eltot,
in

perusal

which

the

ingredients

following

order:

Nn^XL"

D"U

(sometimes, however, 5 stood Y">3 (4) ftyh and (5) before 4, see p. 91, n. 2) and also the fact that the RBHI simply
(3)

W8m

contained

extracts

from the Babylonian Talmud, which were

in

406

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


the
copyists,
itself.

course of time dropped by


obliteration

leading to

the

ultimate

of

the

superscription

Ginzberg believes thus

that the

main purpose of Aha was


in

to introduce

and propagate the

Babylonian Talmud

Palestine.

The
value
is is

first

author

among

the

Geonim was Jehudai, whose high


52-53

illustrated

through a very interesting Genizah fragment


II,

which
ed.

published in vol.
in {"On, IV,

(comp. also the Responsum,

Harkavy,

72 by a pupil of

mX"l who
this
era,

in turn

was

Jehudai's pupil).
in the fact that
activity.
b.

Ginzberg finds the reason for


with Jehudai begins a
it

high esteem

new

an era of literary
cited

An

allusion to

is

found
:

in Hai's

words

by Judah

Barziilai (rmtttrn -ibd, p. 126)

nnx

mx
p.

d^i^*o lmana

nnan
rtaraa

d^i^x"i -oitr&o dib>d invyb vniyio^


b'"\

rnmar na arvop d^idd


74,

pSO

WliT
142).

21

lK>b

DTlp

(quoted

comp. also RBJ.,

XLVII,

However, Jehudai seems

to have been besides that


his

a charming personality, which accounts for


high reputation.
a minute study

great

fame and

Ginzberg devotes to him and the Halakot Gedolot


(p.

95-117), arriving at the following conclusion:

The current
additions.

Hal.

Ged.

or J"n

are

Jehudai's

creation,

which,

like all similar productions,

was

subject to subsequent changes and

Thus

the

pupils

added

Responsa and many

She'eltot passages.

many of their teacher's The work was recast and


Vatican manuscript
'1

remodeled completely about 900 through Simon Kayyara, and a


specimen of this revision
II).
is

found

in the

J'n

Simon's work was called originally

WW

IpDV

r\)b)ll

maSn,

but the last three words were very soon forgotten.


his

Ginzberg bases
vol. II, 85,

argument

chiefly
it

on the fragment published by him in


evident
that

from which

is

already

earlier

Geonim
pupil

credited

Jehudai with the Hal. Ged., since


passage

we read here
Mordecai, a

that the doubtful

was added by Jacob

b.

of

Jehudai
...

Ctbp xSinn nraoa nrrap nb upn bwn


n^
'131

bn

" 6na 'em

'bm pnnatrjo sn^o


mori'M
title
i;5

xm

*rn
-iron

pan

xro^o na arpob ^nt

omo

na apr

kwo
if

the

ni^VM ni3^n has sense only

fcnpwi njS nt3D). But other ma^H already existed

(analogous to D^iy 110, which was afterwards called


in

Km
title

01)]} "VI

contrast to

KBU y"D;
45a, as

that Jehudai

derived the
it,

from the
n.
2,
is

Talmud Shebuot

Ginzberg would have

p.

107,

GINZBERG
improbable)
;

GEONICA

POZNANSKI
this title

407
before

as a matter of fact
III,

nobody knows
It
is

Sherira (see Epstein, pin,


in

54).
first

therefore probable that


place,

the above

fragment, in the
is

(but not the second)

the

word

'11

an addition by the hand of a copyist, to


after the

whom

also

the formula

y"J

name Jacob
in
late

is

to be ascribed, since this


6

formula came into use only

Gaonic times.

Besides,

if

Ginzberg's theory holds true, the


citing the

Geonim who

lived after 900, in

Hal. Ged., should have always indicated which of the


this is not

two they meant, but


p"i,

always the case (comp.

e. g.

nuiKTI
")

No.

152,

end); to assume, however, that the words


is

jpnt^
re-

|UHDB>

have been dropped everywhere


(p. 116) the

improbable.

Ginzberg

views also

Wl

JToSn edited by Schlossberg and the niabn


stating

riUWp
Ged.
It

edited

by

Horovitz,

that

the

former

simply

represent

an abbreviated Hebrew

translation of parts of the Hal.

escaped him, however, that ed. Schlossberg came from an


original,

Aramaic

nor did he observe that he himself published fragment of


this original,

in

vol. II, 382-393 a large

regarding which

see

my

article in

REJ., LXVIII, 232-244 (see also ZfhB.,

XV,
with
in

18-6,

and further below).

The following
chapter:
p.

are

minor

remarks

in

connection

this

96, n.

2 That the Responsa edited by


I

Harkavy

pM,

IV, 71

ff.,

cannot come from Hilai

have shown already

in

ZfhB.,

VII, 130, using the same reasons as Ginzberg; and as to the i"QN"l

mentioned there see Aptowitzer, REJ., LXII, 245

ff.

p.

Ill, n. 2.
itself felt

The

influence of Jehudai's anti-Karaite tendencies

makes

also in the

Responsa just mentioned, whose author was,


comp.
,

as already

stated, a disciple of Jehudai's pupil,


riD Synt?

e. g. p.

72:
is

N7N Tin ptO


same time

mim

"1B31 3rD3S5>

Him niD^

0.

This

at the

to

my knowledge

the

only

pre-Saadyanic

anti-Karaite Gaonic

Responsum (comp. JQR., X, 239; but then this Responsum was not yet known).p. 117, n. 1 SDD pobptf was emended already long
6

It

occurs written in full in a

Worms

inscription

from the year 1091


d.
it

(Zunz,

Zur
p.

Geschichte,

404;

comp.
it

Krim
occurs
well

138),

probably
(ed.

because
Castelli,

Harkavy, Altjiidische Denkmaler aus Furthermore, was yet little known.


p.

in
in

Donnolo

3)

alongside

with h"l
(1.

but
341
;

here
still

as
to

as

Saadya's and Hai's Responsa cited by Zunz


e.

C,

be added

is
it

g.

Stud.

u.

Mitt.

IV, 92)

we never have
is

the certainty as to
translator

whether

was not an interpolation by the copyist or Hebrew

of the Responsa.

At any

rate, the

phrase

not

known

before Saadya.

408

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


my }KWp HMK
on
,

ago into bWlD |KlTp (see

p.

8), but

now

should

not consider this emendation as certain.

After
117-Tio)

short

chapter

''Codification

not

Favoured"
(p.

(p.

follows one on the Siddur of

Amram Gaon

119-154),

which

is

the most instructive and suggestive in the

whole volume.

With profuse
original

erudition

it

is

shown

that the liturgical part of this

Siddur which has come


its

down
text

to us constitutes only a

minimum
fit

of
the

form.

The

was changed

in

every land to

ritual in
in

vogue

there.

The

halakic part of the Siddur

was preserved
all

relatively

better state, but even this

underwent

kinds of

changes and interpolations; thus, apart from subsequent additions,

Responsa of
this is

Amram

were incorporated
only want to

at

different

points.

All

corroborated by numerous examples, to quote which would


I

lead us too far astray.


digressions, above
all

call attention to the


(p.

various

to the

Yozer-Kedushah

130
is

ff.).

Once
in

more

the need for a critical edition of this Siddur

shown, and
his

material

for such

an edition
I,

is

being furnished by

Marx

Vntcrsuchungen
XIII, Q).
7

(vol.

1908; on

which

see

my

review

ZfhB.,

As
prayer

to details in this chapter the following

may

be added;

p.

127 with regard to the insertion of the

DTI nTt? in the morning


372.

comp.

also

Biichler,

OLZ., XIV,

p.

141,

n.

The
at

expression n&Ylpn KnTflft seems to occur always only in connection


with the

Academy

of

Pumbedita

Mahzor

in

manuscript

Hamburg
wnnaoiBi

(see Jellinek's

J"*ln DIDJlp, No. 4) contains:


p.

D^zrn vwnp xra'nm.

148 That the

2pV ptG riT^ was peculiar only to the heads of the Sura and nSu bv F&W B>80 to those at Pumbedita remains out proof. Thus Aaron ibn Sarjado styles himself pjO m^B* 2PT (see nru: mttn, No. 37), while Hai, for instance,
both
titles

nnnTK p&n Academy at


title

with-

&m
bears

(Harkavy, Stud.

u. Mitt.,

IV, 88,

00,

215; in accordance
corrected;

with

this

comp. also
the
title

my conclusions Marx JOk'.. N.


plU
fact
in

in
S.,

RBJ.,
I,

LI, 55 are to be

71).

That

in
in

Maimonides' days
Palestine
is

npJT

n:W

B>K"l

was current

due

perhaps to the
this
title

that the scholastic presidents in that land bore

likewise
useless

the eleventh century


the edition for
its

and even carried

it

with

Equally

is

latest

of

Amram's Siddur by Frumkin


is

(J6rua4ettl

1912),

mere outward form

confusing.

GINZBERG
them
to

GEONICA
see REJ.,
it

POZNANSKI
52.

409
it

Egypt

later on,
;

I.e.,

However,

was

also

current in Babylonia

thus

was borne by Maimonides' antag


ed.
ed.

Samuel

b. Ali,

see

Benjamin of Tudela,

Asher, 60: ^X1B>

'1 3"|p|

npr pKJ
P13B*

riTE" WXT\ *bv


8

^%S"l).

(Pethahya,

Gruenhut,

p.

8 has only
in

p.

149

Nathan
Alluf,

HT^
see

CS"l,

who
150,

is

mentioned

the

Siddur,
in

is

Xathan
Gaonic

see above.

p.

n.

2 Concerning

TJSD'N

the

literature

in

addition ZfhB.,
is

XV,

76,

where the passage from BV'OJ nmKTl, 149

to be added.

From Amram to Saadya there is no eminent halakic author among the Geonim, although some of the intervening Geonim are
credited, justly or unjustly, with various productions
(p.

154-162).

Thus Xahshon

still

poses as the author of the book HDIX"), although

the title-page of this very rare


as the year of composition

work bears

n"2n

i.

e.

5560 (1300)

(comp. also ZfhB.,

XV,

179).

On

the

other hand he
is

is

rightly considered as the author of the 'Icjg ill

which

named after him. It is only remarkable who mentions it first (hence long before
although not by name,
in the

that

Abraham Ibn Ezra


b.

Eliezer

Jacob Belin).

beginning of his TTDXt^ E^B> (ed. Stein,

schneider in JTTTiKOn *MP)

does not indicate the

name

of the author

iop bv bn ,D\nc>io )bn new mrnbn


*\a\

nn

bv mitrsnn
talmudic

nbwn
it

DW

T"D1

bv D M
b.

m
the

Dntr ,D^pinO. A

lexicon

attributed to

Zemah
it

Paltoi, but the only author

who

possessed
;

it

and

quotes

is

the
(p.

relatively

late

Abraham Zacuto
perhaps

Ginzberg

believes

therefore

159)

that

some other Zemah


mistook
not

was
for

the
his

author

of

lexicon

and
if

Zacuto
he

him
have

namesake

the

Gaon.

But

so

would

called

him with the patronymic TOPS 12 PIOX 21.


preserved from the lexicon

Moreover, the

citations

make
is

the impression of an

old product, and a


early days.
that

non-Gaon Zemah

not
is

known from
(see

those

In favor of Gaonic descent

also the circumstance

*ip

TDDOn
title

found

its

place under the letter n

Kohut,
thus;

The

was then abbreviated through ignorance


ed.

to

3^

JWJ

e.

g.,

Benjamin,
,

Asher,

77,

says of David
is

al-Roy:

C*X"i

'3ITJ

...

12*1.
JHH

3pJP pXJ

?y

m*En.
,

That

this

not to be emended into


304)

CX"l
it,

'"7
it

3pjT ]1K^

mB

as

Kaufmann (REJ., XVII,


find similar titles also

would have

proved
Jacob

by the

fact that

we

in the

Diwan

of Eleazar

b.

ha-Babli

(JQR., XI, 683).

410
p.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


also
in

XVII), an analogous procedure being found


in

Saadya,

who

his

biblical

lexicon

recorded |J"P3n

likewise

under

(see Monatsschrift,

XLVI,

366)-

As
also
(p.

in all other

branches of literature Saadya was epoch-making


first

in

Halakah, being the

to

compose halakic compendia


belonged to the
outsider.

162-165).

However, Saadya,
to

strictly speaking,

Geonim but not


That he had

the Gaonic school, since he

was an

also written

commentaries to the Talmud may

now

safely be assumed; on the other

hand the glosses

to Berakot, ed.

Wertheimer, can hardly be attributed to him, the opening words

px: Wfibb
REJ.,
4;

referring
150,

only to

the

first

explanation

(comp.

also
n.

LVIII,
in

and

Monatsschrift,

UI,
38:

304;

LV,
"6

65,
is

more

another

connection).

Deserving
p.

attention
*\T\2

also

Hai's

commentary
]vpb)

on

Toharot,
p-isn

*6l

pNP

^D
pjdj

pre

me> bipvn
rPIJJD 31,

nws nsDD naDim

to...

*])) ^\D2

B>WB

from which we may perhaps infer the ex-

istence of a

commentary by Saadya on
Mitt., IV, 30) or
1)

trary, by Saadya's commentaries

On the conthis tractate. (mjJD T\ ID WJHK *PTP10 WSD


commentary
(b"T
to

V"J PN3,

Stud.

11.

rPiyD
the

Wm

*3

mTD2
meant.

1DX, Lyck, No.

his

commentaries

Bible

are

Some

halakic writings of Saadya pursue an anti-Karaite

tendency, thus probably his


R.

commentary on the

thirteen rules of

Ishmael

(see

REJ., XLVII, 136).

Of

the

ppsn IBD
translation

Fried-

laender thought not long ago that he had found an Arabic frag-

ment, which he edited together with a


Festschrift, p. 62-75), but
schrift,
it

Hebrew
ib.,

(LewyMonats-

belongs to a later
p.

work
66

(see

LV,

501; comp. also Eppenstein,

ff.).

The
b.

three great followers of Saadya: Sherira, Hai, and


all

Samuel

Hofni,

stood, according to Ginzberg,


(p.
is

under the influence of


is

their

predecessor

T67-176),

and the opinion

ventured that

Sherira's Epistle
to be without

unthinkable without Saadya, which seems to

me

foundation.

As

to

Sherira's

Talmud commentaries,
*\)V52,

which tsaac of Vienna


ZfhB.,

cites as

&nnt5> 21
210.

comp.

in addition

XV,

170,

and REJ., LXIV,

Hai's commentary on Berap.

expressly quoted also in Nissim's Mafteah (ed. Goldenthal,


23a above, see further below), in the
DTIJjn IBD,
p. 34, in

the "BTin

m*6n

D"1P1D to

Pesahim

(see

Marx, ZfthB., XIII,

174),

and

in

GINZBERG'S "GEONICA"
nsaipD
nt3B>

POZNANSKI
b*t

411

to

Baba

kamma
'3J

ia

from pB> niBDin fcnsotr dbo


piu
70

nmnb pan*
'131

npaiM
his

nienn pie rna-o3


comp.
Gross,

'n

wi
see

NIpDn

1*103
;

WW;
12
(p.

RE J.,

VII,

and

further below)

commentary on Shabbat
28/7:

likewise in Xissim's

Mafteah
'131),

to Shab.

Vim

iSxi 'KH

UJVTM

''23
s.

TIKVD 13
*110

and

by

Jonah "Ibn Janah


1.

in his dictionary, 'B

v.

(ed.
s.

Neubauer,
-i;y

p. 368,

15:

T\2&b
'b

m'DBn

"KH

1J3"I

bfitpl)

and

v.

(420,5:

mv

tdbh

"n irai ma ids


"ian Tifc6

i^nai), and in the

n-nyn

-isd, p- 222

(nai idk

rop* &6i b"?


niraip

yn^

Sxlm :i
''Bin
is

naimn
'131

worn nnoa lawn wrB3 mk*di


No. 59)
;

tip niaa

na"13j comp. Resp. Lyck,

his

commentary on Hagigah

probably mentioned in a book-list from the Genizah (comp. JQR.,


XIII, 329, No. 77) and
sect.
is

quoted in Joseph

b.

Eliezer's
p.

*)DV

SnN,

rnOB>, No.

11

n:j?2

nJBV,

ed.

Herzog,

193 (Kin
b*T

D^Wffl

max nan
HT

'a ijn i^b>

wan naoo
187)

''B3 "idk

ncx

pw

'*""

l^n
comp.
ed.
|31

1D3 IBn'B

iSl" JTDIBtfll

m^KB*3 DJ
and
in

DH njnO^a X^
HIVDH
'BO

Monatsschrift,
Basel, 21b

XXXIV,

Rekanati's
U'3"1
all

'DtfB,

(DDDO BTPB3
s.

b"? pfiU

"Kn

l!?K

D'*m TIJ3n

1JXni DB' p'P nj'jn) which removes

doubt.

Besides this Ibn

Janah

cites also,

v.

n,

Hai's commentary to Besah (p. 77, 22:

man' k"k>3 njK'iab ^p ''5 b"T "n "\b d'bti'b 'a "IXpJD Ipl^K }K), and perhaps Hai wrote a commentary
nD3'i ipna

min
also

on

Baba

batra,

WrTW"Kn
also

^nn n ''BpnrnjnD^3p3Jn
see

|"3Din

to

fol.

22:

1JB*TB8>

'*Bn ntl

Kin.

The
the

authenticity

of

the

commentary on Toharot

still

remains an open question

(comp.

my

fKTI'p 'B'JK,

p.

47).
to
p.

To
be
52)

halakic
i1B'D&>
is

monographs
DID^n
(see

coming

from

Hai

are

also

added
or,

my Zur

jild.-arab.

Litteratur,

what

more

probable,
also

nt2'nE> 'n (see

Harkavy

in bjTIB"* *11K,

IV, 96ft).

Hai enjoyed

a philosophical education, since he cites, for instance, in his

Hawi

the

Dlbj&K 3KJ13 by al-Farabi (see Harkavy,

D'JB**

DJ D*C"in, VII, 5).


the

and perhaps he
(see
ib.j

also

composed a commentary on

Pentateuch
all his

p.

6).

As

halakist

Hai must have towered above

predecessors, including Saadya.


his

More

similarity with

Saadya has

Suran successor, Samuel


is

b. Ilofni,

a fragment of

whose Arabic
in

introduction
Festschrift,

now

accessible in
It
is

print (ed. Cowley,

Harkavy-

p.

162-163).

surprising that Ginzberg ignored

412
Aaron
ibn

Tine

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Sarjado .completely, of
is

whom

indeed a talmudic com-

mentary on Vebamot

quoted

in vol. II, 67.

Of anonymous
still

halakic writings which, according to Ginzberg,

belong to the Gaonic period he discusses the following suc-

cessively:
in

Lewy-Festschrift

The DWIBK1 D^&wn 11 D on which comp. now Marx (p. 392-399)- The TYiyvpon 1BD and fan 1DD
had been composed
at

he considers likewise as offsprings of the Gaonic period and suggests that they

Kairwan.
in

But how does

it

happen that these two works were only known


oing
with
Eliezer
b.

Germany, beginp.

Nathan

(see

my
as,

J&OTp

^38,

22.

27),

while the other scholars of Kairwan,

for instance, Nissim and


in

Hananel, were known and


is

in

vogue also
b.
JT1

Spain and Italy?

It

to be

remarked here that Hefes


D
S

Yasliah did not correspond

with Hai, since the Responsum in


to Bahlul at
bbr\

D s n No.
,

19

was addressed
2~\

Kairwan
is

(see

ib., p.

14; the reading


iV'lb

Wn2

instead of

W21
p.

Schwarz,

now confirmed through 23). The D^nj l u y -1&2 is


Europe, see hereon
J.

|"3in

ncm

ed.

certainly post-Gaonic and


in Jahrb. d. jiid.-lit.

composed

in

N. Epstein

Gcs., VIII, 447

and ZfhB., XV, 174

Also the
its

doubtedly post-Gaonic; as the place of


Palestine (JQR., N. S.
witzer, REJ.,
I,

86 ff.). As to

nUTIO 1SD is unMarx suggests X31 KfcnB> see now Aptoorigin

LVH,

252 and Marx, ZfhB., XIII, 172.


(p.

At the very end of the volume


the Gaonic Responsa

182-205) Ginzberg discusses

and

their importance, criticising at the

same

time the procedure of Muller,


to the
tain

who had grouped them

according
is
it

individual Geonim, since tradition in this respect

unceroften

and the similarity of names of many Geonim makes

impossible to indicate the authorship.


the
find,

The

first

attempt to collect
in

Responsa was made, according to Ginzberg,


however, that not only the interrogators
M |nt D
in

Kairwan; we

their queries to
it

Sherira and Hai

(not only to Hai, as Ginzberg puts


73:
...

p.

182, see
1

mpiDE mrSn
'i3i

No.

bwm
...

tirb&WW
but

...

pto

ktt m
*b5o

ra*Ba aruonKTi
reference
it
;

wnjx

mc^

mbw? roaiBfc wrap


even
these

give

to

Responsa

collections,

Geonim
fc*1

themselves do

sete vol. II. 231. 1.8. 11:

m*JKP3 DL'niBO nnmtrn


and
in

(one more proof that the Responsa referred to come from Hai).

There was no

fixed

rule

for

the collection,

the collections

GINZBERG
instituted outside of the

GEONICA

POZNANSKI

413

Academy

also non-Gaonic Responsa were

admitted.

The

latter,

according to Ginzberg, only by those

who

were contemporaries of Hai, among


being twenty-five years of age
at

whom
the

Alfasi was the youngest,

death of

Hai.
in

However,
vol.
II,

Ginzberg himself offers a collection of Responsa

36,

where Nathan
the
first

b.

Jehiel

is

quoted as already deceased, hence from

half
in
8,

of

the

twelfth century.
56Z?

On

the

other

hand,

the

Responsa
II, 87,

noScr nSlp, No.

(p. 52-62.

83-89) and in

DTpn

No.

where Hai

is

quoted as already deceased, might have

been composed by his younger contemporaries.

Unjust

is

also the

claim that only halakic Responsa have been preserved.

We

possess

indeed from Hai a very elaborate theologico-philosophical Respon-

sum upon

the problem of the 'Ajal


in his

?3X

),

which was adopted by


38 and which
is 3,

Judah ibn Bal'am

commentary on

Isa.

now

accessible to us completely in the original (riDpSP


in

npnp, No.

comp.

the

same connection

my

remarks Monatsschrift, XLIV, 142).


in the list of the

Moreover, the chronological problems found


sponsa
ib.,

Re-

p.

69 have hardly anything in

common

with similar
201, n. 2).

problems by Hiwi Albalkhi, as Ginzberg maintains

(p.

They were
midrashic

rather modeled after similar questions in the talmudicliterature.

Besides,
is

among Hiwi's

queries

that

have

been preserved there

not even one of a chronological content,

for the question of such a nature found at the end of Saadya's

Eniunot, section
9

III,

does not belong to him (see


lists

my

3?3fl

Tn,

p.

19).
in

Very useful are the


the
b.

on

p.

187-199

of

Gaonic quota-

tions

works of three schools: the Spanish (the writings


Barzilai), the
Italian

of Judah

(t^p^n *?3fc9, and the French


the
places

(*ttM

"WnE)
are

with

an

index
of
for

of

where they occur.


itself,

Here
lists

the great erudition


desirable
also

Ginzberg manifests
other
all

and such
for

works,

particularly

those

of the

German

school (above

ynt TIN).

The volume
which the
9

closes with observations concerning the importance

of the Gaonic Responsa also as


in
spirit of their

monuments of

literature

and history
Although
series
in-

age

is

reflected (p. 202-203).

relation could rather be

found between IJiwi's questions and a


verses,

of

contradictions

between

biblical

such

as

are
13a)-

enumerated,

for

stance, in Sifrc,

Numb.,
LXIII,

42

(ed.

Friedmann,

fol.

On

this

comp.

now

Bacher,

RE J.,

153.

414
sometimes

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


inviting

contradiction

this

volume contains

so

many
it

instructive elements

and reveals so many new aspects that

will

continue to be of lasting value.


II

These new
ant in the
the
first

aspects, to

which

have referred as being abund-

volume, Ginzberg was able to obtain mostly from


of
the

treasures

Genizah,

which he edited

in

vol.

II

and
it

which contain such a plethora of material that even


approximately would require more
elaborate review.
edited
here,

to

sketch

than

the

frame

of

even

an

Altogether 47 larger or

smaller
the

fragments are

of

which the

first

38

(with

exception of

No.

VI. VII. X.

XXXIV. XXXV)
9,

contain Gaonic Responsa (p. 1-345),


(p.

while the last

which form an appendix

347-401), contain
She'eltot,
it

very important pieces


Gedolot,
etc.

from Gaonic works, as


18
in

Halakot

The
to

first

fragments

(p.

1-165),

is

true,

were

published

prior

this

JQR.,

XVI-XX,

but they were very

scattered here
165),

(see the concordance table by


it

Marx, ZfhB., XIII,

and hence
in vol. II

is

fit

and proper that Ginzberg has published

them

once more.

All

these

fragments

come,
Ill,

as

mentioned

above,

from the
(No. (No.
the

Genizah: 35 of them

(No.

IV, VI, VII,

XIII-XXXIV and
Collection,

XXXIX-XLVII) from the Taylor-Schechter VIII-XII and XXXV-XXXVIII) from the


I-II)

Bodleiana, 2

from

the

British

Museum,

and
in

one

(No.

V) from
all

private

collection

of

D.

W. Amram
above-named

Philadelphia.

Ginzberg
the

maintains that

he
in

has incorporated in his


the

work

Gaonic

Responsa found

libraries.

An

exception are
included,

the Responsa written in Arabic (a

Responsum by Hai not


with a Hebrew

which

he

offers

on
is

p.

38 together

translation),

which, however,

to

be regretted very much.

Besides, he also

omitted the Responsa already


they
offered
variants.

known

taking them up only


instructive,

when
and

These variants are very


to

Ginzberg

calls attention

them

chiefly in his learned prefaces to


it

each fragment.
that
a
j^reat

Since
of

we have fragments before us


the

is

natural

part

Responsa contained

in

them should be

imperfect

and also that the authors should be indicated only in


nd
here
again

Ginzberg has proved his great

GINZBERG'S "GEONICA"

POZNANSKI

415

erudition in the above-mentioned prefaces, succeeding often in his

attempt to obtain the names of these authors.


faces contain a brief

Besides, these pre-

and other remarks.

summary of The number

the contents of each fragment

of the Responsa offered here,

both complete and fragmentary, amounts to more than 300, and


of
all

the collections
it

known

heretofore only the one by Harkavy

equals

in value, the difference

being that ours, with the exception

of very few fragments, has not preserved everywhere as Harkavy's


the very interesting introductory and concluding formulae.

Rare

examples are the introductory formula


the concluding formula in Fragm. the introductory formula in

in

Fragm. XVIII
(p. 283),

(p. 214),

XXXVI

and especially
326),

Fragm.

XXXVIII B
b.

(p.

where
b.

not only the date (Adar 1169 Sel.

858), the author

(Amram
that

Sheshna), and the person addressed (Meir


but
also
(

Joseph) are recorded,


Kallah-

the

subject taught
4

at

the

academy during
ID

month
Here
is

}H3
also

lb

K31 D'VJ bttfn

WK

66p

TiXTl 1*1X3

j^nK).
1KB>

found the introductory formula beginning with


is

U)TC\ which

known

also

from other sources and which resembles


at the
ff.,

most closely the one found


(see

beginning of Amram's Siddur


is

my
50-53)

D'JVC D^'Jy,

I,

46

where ours
the

now

to be added).
:

Especially
(p-

interesting

are

following

fragments

Fr.

VI
on

which comes from a Palestinian who was a pupil or


light

younger contemporary of Jehudai and which sheds much


the

dominating influence of the Babylonians in Jerusalem.


is

The
"15*

following passage

especially to be emphasized (p. 52)

WS*3P

nnbn d^id n^'n ia ropa &6k poen bvtp bane*


iy npibnci

pao onow

nnno

pK3P
naba
(on
the

nn*yi

p^bna na v*v nmo bsm rrbn-r? pn nunc ikbg bin nv ban nvwp iib Drrby iba'ptr

iw

D^aira

dw nacra aba mp
comp.
is

anum

pa pabna jna pB> bane*


remarks to
this

subject

Ginzberg's

introductory

fragment).
tion

Here

also

found the above-mentioned high estimahas

of

Jehudai,
(\~\171,

which

an

analogy

in

the Responsum, ed.

Harkavy

IV, 72). Fr. VII

(p. 56-71)

contains indices to

known heretofore only from Here, however, we learn to know quite Wertheimer's TlX&&rf>i\p. new names and entirely new facts, thus, for instance, that
Gaonic Responsa, such as have been

Meshullam
Sherira

b.

Kalonymus of Lucca was


(p.

in

correspondence with

and Hai

57;

comp.

my

D"0H5>

VT&,

I,

64^,

that

416
Aaron
ibn

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Sarjado had written
B>1TB3
talmudic

commentaries

(p.

67:

pHK 310
iSx nyn

WD,

see above), that there

was

in
:

Pumbedita a
IJUlb

residence for the scholastic president of Sura (p. 71

m?N>

wn &mo nyn
is

d"i

nan

id^ mosi>n
XV,

... ftf^icnj
etc., etc.

the passage
Fr.

not altogether clear, see ZfhB.,

169),

(p.

87-88) which contains no

Responsum but an

epistle.

The

writer

was of Bagdad and contemporary of the sons of R. Natira

and the sons of R. Aaron (Aaron ibn Sarjado?) and he wrote


in

the interest of the

D'D3r6 Tin p
114-121)

Academy (see p. 88, 15: p K3tf pX DK "2 D^Tobn DBK31 I^D), but which? Fr. XIII (p. which contains among other things the rFD~n HND "HD
1.

mentioned by
Xatronai
of
the
b.

Amram

at the

beginning of his Siddur and sent by

Hilai to

Lucena (see the learned introductory remarks

author).

Fr.

XXVII
JOtTlp

(p.

239-241)
in
1.

which contains partly


peculiar

Responsa and partly Decisions, but


with the superscription
5,

a quite
23, 31),

form, as
(p- 2 4,
1,

(p. 239,

BTI'B

6,

8;

1.

11

D^liO^N yVlb does not mean "some of Geonim" but

certain

Gaon), etc. Fr.

XXVIII
(comp.
e.

(p.

246-249)

which contains

a kind of

commentary on Eaba kamma


g.

510-820, but in the


p.

form

of
p.

answers to questions
249,
1.

247,

1.

29:

DriPKK'K'l,

23:

Dn^NtT

103

tib).

Such Responsa-like talmudic comadded

mentaries have their analogy in other Gaonic Responsa collections,

and to those mentioned by Ginzberg,


above
in the
all

p.

242 are

still

to be

the

word explanations
Elhanan
b.

year 993 to

Abodah Zarah which Hai sent Shemariah and which are known
to

even as HIT

7MMV ENdSx mtr (Harkavy,


350).

Stud.

u. Mitt.,

IV, 22-24;

comp.

ib.,

p.

Such commentaries are of inestimable value

for the exegesis and textual criticism of the


(

Talmud.

Fr.
1

XXXIV
recto
is

p.

275-276)

which consists of two leaves, of which


1

blank, the

while

verso

contains

only

few

lines

beginning with

words:
an
as

'^pi

D'DJ 'lb HXlin


to

giving

explanation

fining
s.

same

quoted by the 'Aruk,

pID BTPB 'OH *\fiW2 and then p3n nyiPN (Berakot 546), the v. ymx, from a Responsum by

Hai and by the


as
1

nVllpD rtoC\
llai's

as seen above,

from the

pKP

niBDID
leaf

coming
and
2

from
is

commentary on Berakot.

Between

there

lacuna, and

leaf 2 contains the interpretation

of a passage

in

Berakot yjb-6oa.

Ginzberg believes that here we

GINZBERG'S "GEONICA
have
a

POZNANSKI
to

417
in the

fragment of Nissim's nriDn "1BD which was omitted

edition

(where there
It

is

altogether no explanation to Berakot 54

nor to 59-62).

is,

however,

difficult
e.

believe

that
fol.

Nissim,
13a and
(fol.

who
15a)

cites

Hai otherwise (comp.

g.

ed. Goldenthal,

and even quotes expressly


above:
3fl

his

commentary on Berakot
*)"T

23a

main
the

OTPfia 3DD

|1K3

"KH
even

UJVTKl) should
if

not

name

here

originator.

Besides,

we should

admit with Ginzberg that the Hebrew translator had omitted the

Hebrew Gaonic Responsa which

are quoted in the Mafteah,

why
also

did he omit also the explanation to 596-600?

The

latter

is

much more
the

elaborate than the others in the Mafteah, containing


feW?n

phrase

pani
It
is

(p.

275,

1.

10)

which

is

current

only

among
Hai's

the Geonim.

perhaps not venturesome to assume that

the copyist

had erred and that we have before us a fragment of


as

commentary on Berakot, which,


in

may

be

seen

from the
was

quotations

Solomon

b.

Adret's

novellae

to this tractate,

quite elaborate.

Of

especial interest are also:

Fragm.
to

XXXV
b.

(p.

278-279) which

contains a

rhymed

epistle

by Hai

Judah
23.

Joseph of Kairwan
84.

and concerning which see ZfhB., XIV,

82.

115,

and the
is

Fragm.
^rnost

XXXVIII
11-12,

(p.

318-345)
It

already mentioned which


of

the

comprehensive.

consists
fol.

two

parts:

A. MS. Bodl.
from an
are
brief,

2760, fol.

aud 2826,

62-63, contains fifty explanations to

passages in
older

Shabbat 3a-S?a
(perhaps

(with a lacuna to 8b-i/b)

Gaon

Natronai).

The explanations

mostly of a linguistic character, and, as Ginzberg points out, were used assiduously by the 'Aruk.
to the explanations to ^DPIB
7,

Emphasis must
(p. 318,
1.

especially be given
(p. 319,
1.

12

9),

DHflD r6jD

1.

on which comp. Ginzberg's remark


{&.,
i.

p.

295),

DVDDy
1.

(p. 320, (p.

4),
1.

mbrnn
14),

18;
(ib.,

comp. rej., lxi, 206


1.

ff.),

KyWrc
9:

321,

"fcnonn

18),

f^a *6n

(p. 322,

K*D>D*K3

nXDP

i:yCC"l ... fcPn

n:\2p:

this

the

nn'a j^\x vtbn Gaon must have


They
have
Bodl.

heard from Eleazar Alluf, which would be a further proof for Xatronai's authorship, see
in addition

my tPJW DTJy,
Responsa by

I,

52), etc.

all

some bearing on the history of

civilization.

B.

MS.

2826, fol. 64-73, contains 51

Amram

mostly on

JT^Y,

which, as Ginzberg points out, were present before the 'Ittur as


a
collection

and which

exhibit

many

interesting

points.

Thus

4l8
Resp. II
(p.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


328,
1.

9.

p.

330,

1.

14)

on Tosefta,
in
;

Sifra,

and

Sifre,

which was subsequently

incorporated
p.

part

in

the

D'Wn Y1D
(p.

DWIDKI
Samaritans

(see

Ginzberg,

305-308)

Resp.

XXX

340,

1.

8-22) on vrD^L"
in

nSD which goes perhaps


10

to prove the existence of

Babylonia during the Gaonic time, this being subResp.

stantiated also in other places;


1.

XXXIV
KDVD1
11

(p. 341,

18p.

342,

3) where mention

is

made

of the

pm whom

Ginzberg

(p.

315)

identifies

with the Saboraim,


in

etc.

However,

also

the

other

fragments there are here and


I

there very interesting Responsa, of which


Fr. II Resp.

wish to mention a few:

XV

(p. 29,

1.

26p.
17:

31,

1.

25), the well-known Responexhibits here


'JWKl
'131

sum on fcO^T NDTD preserved elsewhehre which


better readings, as p. 30,
1.

some
,

DIEI

dHjk nVpE
p. 32,
1.

(in J"n

15

'"UN

nvpo DBN3P

and the addition


ib.

21

DD^ 3H3 N^HI,


1.

on which see above.


prohibition of
p;in, VI, 69
(p. 33,
1.

Resp.

XX

(p. 32,

1.

28

p. 33,

5)

on the

2^rQ

")tT3

quoted in Pardes, 21b (comp. Epstein in

and Aptowitzer, RBJ., LVII, 249).ib., Resp. XXIII


p. 34,
1.

24

8)

where mention

is

made

of a query by the
to

people of Basra to

Nahshon (a query from Basra


16; Harkavy, Stud.
(p. 35,
I.

Hai

p.

71

comp. also

p. 212,

1.

u.

Mitt. IV, 104. 216


1.

and

above).ib., Resp.
b.

XXVI

I p.
42,
1.

36,

25)

where Nathan

Jehiel
ib.,

is

mentioned

(see above and Aptowitzer, JQR., XVIII;


1.

135).

Resp.

XLI

(p. 40,

12p.
84ft),

21,

uncompleted), an ex-

planation of

mny

(Shabbat

which, to judge by the rough-

ness of the language seems to be a translation

from the Arabic.


?

The preliminary seven premises (pin

It
is

...

TV)

niDDUO Jv^O
ff.)

...

strange

that

Buchler

(REJ.,

Xlylll,

57

does not cite the

Gaonic view concerning T)13 H^O, which he could have adduced from the

Responsum by Jehudai

in

nSltJTl

HJW, No.
Ged. 167a

272.

He

overlooked likewise

the most important passage in Hal.


berg,
p.

(=

Hal. Pesukot, ed. SchlossJ't?t?in

83), where

it

is

expressly stated:
*ia

nH

]'t?npS

BHpW

ni3

hmov
11

21

121

K*nn'

31

Kt9j

pi3*iski

nppe.
times
fol.

There
in

were,

however,

also

in
(

Gaonic

ND1>DT
210,

]32*1

who

are

quoted

Responsum by Zadok
the

piX ^>tT,
;

No.

15)
,

and who
47,

were

properly

NEl'Dl

NTH
LII,

J331
340,

see

my

D'31t? D>3'jy

I,

and

Eppenstein,
irreful

Monatsschrift,

whose

deductions are not

altogether

GINZBERG'S "GEONICA"
. .
.

POZNANSKI
b.

419
manner.

pC'tO)

are

reminiscent
(p. 83,

of

Samuel

Hofni's
b.
is

Fr.

VIII Resp. VI

L 6-1 1)

where Nathan

Shahriar, the

descendant of Bostanai and the Persian princess,


Fr.
in
1.

mentioned.

XII Resp.
a
bill

Ill (p. 98,

1.

15-19) concerning errors to be corrected


p.

of divorce
142,
1.

(comp.

94).

Fr.

XVI

Resp. Ill

(p.

141,

p.

9) on an interesting theological problem


St.

to

which

Ginzberg draws a parallel from


Resp. II (p. 169,
divorce
(
1.

Barnabas

(p.

137).

Fr.
p.
1.

XIX
of

p. 173,

1.

4) on the orthography of the


treatise
in

bill

in

addition to
I,

Epstein's

D"On

cited

424

comp. also "ipinn,

188). Fr.

XXXI

Resp. VIII

(p. 263,

9-13)
fasts,

on the Pentateuch lesson and the Haftarah during the public

which quite deviate from those known heretofore (on which see
Ginzberg,
p.

260),

etc.,

etc.

Many Responsa
Of
of

contain interesting contributions to the history

of civilization in those days and to the customs then prevailing.


historical data the following

may

be mentioned

The burning

Haman
S.,
I,

on Purim
;

(p.

3,

on which comp. Friedlaender JQR.,

N.

257)

the custom to take checks

from the bath-keeper


admission or
p.

or baker in token of having prepaid the price of

purchase,

explaining the talmudic

pft^DN

(ib.,

comp. also

57,

No. 3)

concerning a school preceptor

who

exceeds in chastising
it

small children and the opinion of the

Gaon on

(p.

119)

the

procedure of a bee-keeper

(p. 123)

Jews had frequently associated


comp. also

with non-Jews in business and thus arose various legal questions

concerning the Sabbath and similar things


p.

(p.

194. 196;

81

and 263),

etc.,

etc.

As

to

customs having a bearing on the

history of religion, the following, though

known

heretofore,

may

be dwelt upon:

The usage
(p.

to give a
;

nip DJ

resp. "UTIpE)

DJ had

already ceased then


a
little

101)

for the

erection of

DHVn
last

^wy
day of

flour
(p.

was gathered from each house on the


121)
;

Passover

in

taking an oath no Torah scroll was used


p.

any longer
Biichler,

(p.

154;

comp. also Ginzberg's reference


52,

146 and supple-

REJ.,
;

XLIII,

where much
and

is

still

to

be

mented)

there were especially pious people


tithes

who

also in Babylonia

practiced the laws of iiDVin


purity
(p. 221
;

and observed the tenets of


p.

comp. on
|JD,
p.

this

Ginzberg

217-218 and the passage

from Meiri's

HUN

63 cited by Aptowitzer, Monatsschrift,

LV,

379.

The laws

of purity were also observed by the Karaites,

420
but

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


only
after
to

Anan,

see

REJ.,

XLV,
etc.

197,

and the Rabbanites

endeavored

emphasize that these laws are no more obligatory


of the temple),

after the destruction

The fragments published here are


edition,

often, like those in Harkavy's

remnants of whole collections and numbered at the margin,


us
to

allowing

make some
in

instructive
(i. e.

observations.
exhibit

Thus
from

the

complete Responsa
17-22,

Fr.

II

3-8)

the

numeration

which
in

must

be

original,

since

the

passages

Yoma

explained
p.

them do not follow the order of the Talmud (see

-).

Furthermore, the Resp.

XIX
to

corresponds to

ed.

Harkavy,

No. 30 and Resp.


of
this

XXII

to ed. Hark., No.

31, so that the sources

edition

cannot

claim

be the

prototypes.

It

further

escaped Ginzberg's attention that numbers 20-22 correspond to the

Responsa Xo. 46-48


in Resp.
'131
r.,

in

HD^

fibnp, and hence

it

also follows that

XXI we
lb

are to add the following:

n31 JVB>*mi] BHBB pi


meant therefore
is

pinnj

B*

non

[Wtf.

What

is

Gen.
see

VI, 6 (concerning the various readings of the word


p.

pin^'U
p.

Theodor, ad he,
the indices to Fr.
57 as 3-4,

46) and not the Pesikta, ed. Buber,

186.

In
o.

VII (see above) two Responsa are indicated on


in the

which follow one another

same order

also p. 4 of

our volume.

On

p.

62 correspond again numbers 40-42 to ed. Har-

kavy. Xo. 248-250, 48-50

ed. H., 251-253, 53-56

ed. H., 254-257,

and 58

ed. H., 258.

From
ed.

this

it

results

once

more
5i-5 2

that

the

manuscript which served


another
of
is

Harkavy
the

as original

was copied from


>

which,

still

contained

numbers

43-47,

an d 57
result
at

our

index

and which the copyist omitted.

The same

further

obtained

from Fr.

XIX

which has preserved

the
ed.

margin the numeration 55-57 and where the second Resp.


Hark., Xo. 436 and the fourth

ed.

H., 437,

hence

our third

Responsum was missing The most comprehensive

in

the manuscript underlying ed. Hark.

collection

was the one

to

which Fr. XVII

belonged, this fragment having preserved at the margin the


bers 498-505, 568-577, and 585-593

num-

(the intervening

numbers form

lacunae

in

our

fragment),

whereby the collector recorded also


in
p.

on
but

the
in

margin the corresponding Halakot


an ignorant or superficial
in

Maimonides' Code,
143).

way

(see

The Responsa
DTlVp
as,

arc abbreviated, almost

the
the

manner of

the so-called

ed.

Mantua (although without

words nSsiM and miL'TO,

for

GINZBERG
instance,

GEONICA
No.
504

POZNANSKI
with
iiTUJ
fol.
1

42I
Xo. 55
will

comparison of
letter

mon,
recto

show.

The

at

the

upper end of

designates

perhaps the twentieth layer.

similar numeration with citations


is

from the Halakot of Maimonides


(No. 441-443)
Fr.

also

found

in

Fr.

XXXVII

which descends perhaps from the same codex as


the other hand, Fr.

XVII.

On

XXX

has besides the numera-

tion also the subject of discussion, but not in accordance with the

Halakot of Maimonides

JI^D *D3J bb,

D^Dp nnynb). In
lines

Fr.
that,

XXXVI
despite
pieces

the numeration as well as rhe the

number of
280),
1

prove

same manuscript (see

p.

different,

unconnected

were here put together.

Leaves

and 4 undoubtedly belong


fol.
1

together,

whereby

the
to

Responsum
Judah
b.

on

recto
at

bearing

the

number 26 was
Resp. on leaf
4,

sent

Joseph Alluf

Kairwan, the
Hark.,
288,
1.

however, as a comparison with

ed.
p.

p.

15
is

shows, to Tlemcen (in accordance with this y^ET)


to be

20

emended

into
is

J"T'N

i.

e.

1313 Sel.
in

1002).

Also the Hp"l3

mentioned here

no doubt Barka

northern Africa.

Leaf 2
to Kabes,
2.

contains the end of a

Responsum which was dispatched


is

and the beginning of another which


3 finally contains the end of a

designated as No.

Leaf

Responsum and
likewise, as

the beginning of

another which

is

termed No.

(hence cannot be the continuation

of the preceding one) and

was
All

Ol"DJ JYQIETI, 131-134

shows, sent to Tlemcen.

these
all

Responsa were thus sent to

Northern Africa and probably


despite
all

of

them come from Hai, but

this

they are derived from different collections, manitie

festing once

more the strong


the
intensive

that connected these lands with


in

the

Geonim and
are

activity

forming collections of

the Gaonic Responsa.

Finally also Fragments III.

XV. XVI and


are

XXIX

numbered.
still

But even where the


arrive at

fragments

not

numbered we can

some conclusions from the mere


follow, for instance, in Fr.
as
in

succession of the Responsa.


the second and third

Thus
in

V
the

Resp. one upon another, exactly

fragment published by Harkavy


fragments are derived
tenth
(ritual
in ed.

DpSH,

II,

71-77,

hence both
ninth

from the same


deal
to

original.

The

and

Resp.

in

Fr.

XII which

with quite different matters

and liturgy) correspond

Mantua, only that they are not Aramaic here as

No. 98 and 99 (not 88 and 89) in our

fragment, but Hebrew.

The manuscript underlying our fragment

422

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


for the collector of the original

was therefore perhaps the source


of ed. Mantua,
etc.

All these are minutiae which tend to illumine

more and more

the neglected but important

theme of the origin

of the various Responsa collections.

A
this

great, perhaps the greatest part, of the

Responsa edited

in

volume

contains

explanations

to

various passages in

the

Talmud, as may be seen from the index of these passages


410)

(p. 409-

arranged by Ginzberg in a creditable way.


the

However, not

only

hermeneutics and the exegesis of the

Talmud
but

reaps a
also
its

rich harvest

from

this

newest

Responsa

collection,

textual criticism, for here

we
for

find preserved a

whole

series of rep.

markable readings.
8; p. 91, n. 2; p.

See,
P-

instance,
1
;

Ginzberg's remarks on

93;

129 ,No.

p.

166 and 167, No. 3;


pieces
:

p. 242, etc.

The appendix
XLIII
above).
She'elta
that
offer

contains

the

following

Fr.

XXXIXwork
(sec
to

different

portions

from the

She'eltot

which are of

great importance for the text and composition of this

Thus
43,

Fr.

XL,
is

for

instance,
in

contains
the

the

Derasha

which
part
in

missing
She'elta

editions,

and

besides
different

great

of

44

in

an

essentially

form
the

than

the
fol.

editions.

Furthermore

we

find

here

at

margin
12

of

recto the following very important note:

H.

Tschernowitz
(rHBTI,

(pseud.
191
1,

"P^X 21) who has writtten recently on the


538)

She'eltot

XXV,

p.

refuses to admit that

we

possess this

work
to

in

an incomplete

form,

for

Ginzberg's publication
in

remained unknown
some, even
important,
that

him.

The question already mentioned, why


several

the

She'eltot
less

very important commands, are overlooked, while others, even


are
discussed
times,
is

answered by Tsch.

to

the

effect

Aha

pursued anti-Karaite (properly anti-antitalmudic, since


the

Aha had
especial

written before

appearance of

'Anan)

tendencies,

and hence

laid

emphasis on

such commands as were not acknowledged by the opponents of tradition.


this

But

seems to

me

to

be without foundation, for in the


(as
e.

first
,

place

many such

commands
band
with

are missing

g.

2S1S flS'UJ, 27112


prohibitions

1C2

etc.),

on the other
concur

even
the

such

commands and

wherein

the

Karaites

Talmud
courts

are treated twice,

thus the prohibition to bring cases into

non-Jewish

(comp.

Benjamin

Nahawendi's
b.

]*0'32
Elijah).

HNtt'E,

:a

below;

Tsch. calls here for his support the late Aaron

Besides, of

we hear
The

nothing

of

anti-traditional

sects

in
is

Palestine
attested at

at
first

the

time

Aha.

presence of Karaites in this land


the beginning of the

by Ben Meir

epistles at

tenth

century.

GINZBERG

GEONICA
Sip- (r.

POZNANSKI
DJ1

423

hp
here

on

(r.

Nr6xtr) pr6e>
pjySl
at
y

nin^sc'Ss) npfc^K sin


blp
1

Tmn
is

KEni

'|T

DH
Fr.
(it

p'

DH "p3
the

D"D; thus the Derasha


before
of
the
a quite

altogether

end and
the

not

end

(see

above).
She'elta
print
this

XU
is

contains
to

beginning
that

unknown
did

be

regretted

Ginzberg

not
in

also

the

halakic
see
p.

and
350)

haggadic

extracts

contained

fragment,

and
Kippur,

Fr.
12

XLHI

has

likewise
interis

an unknown She'elta for

Yom
1.

which offers many

esting details, thus a citation


oldest

from Midrash Tehillim which

the

known
,

to us (p. 373,

8; the

word

D^CT, however, belongs to


divi-

CHSDO
schrift,

and no conclusion can be drawn therefrom for the

sion of this

Midrash into Sedarim, comp. also Aptowitzer, Monats634), then the comparison of the repentant to the sinful

LV,

royal son
the

who

returns

home
in

(p.

377,

1.

4)
etc.

which reminds us of
Fr.

well-known parable

the

Gospel,

XLIV

contains,

according to Ginzberg, a piece of the Hal. Ged. in different, characteristic

arrangement.

As

matter of

fact,

however,

we have

here before us, as already mentioned above, a

fragment of the
1

Aramaic

original of the Halakot ed. Schlossberg, fol.


p.

correspond-

ing to ed.
87,
1.
1.

85,
1.

1.

from below
fol.

ff.

p.

86,

1.

21
1.

fol 2-5

ed.
p.

p.

15-p. 90,

9,

and

ed. p. 90,

from
I

bel.

91,

4 (between

fol. 1-2

and 5-6 there are lacunae). and here


I

have treated of

it

specifically in

REJ., LXIII, 232

only wish to single


fePfl
1.

out the following:


'131

pmrQ
386,
1.

bnJn

ITO3 KJKTTIl
Schlossb.

feOBJ

\xn

KJIOTIID

(p.

7) which

ed.

p. 88,

10 corre-

sponds to: im

t\\2>vf

wn bmn p rroa Dvn


mubn
ed.

[bin sin]

mo^n nn

while at the corresponding passage in Hal. Ged. the words

JT23

bnjn
Fr.

are missing (see Ginzberg's

note ad he). Fr. XLVI contains

a piece from nUft'p

Horowitz with a few variants and

XLVII

a leaf which Ginzberg considers to be a piece

from a

quite

unknown

version of the Hal. Ged. and in which he sees Pal(p.

estinian influences

352).

The fragment, however,


it.

is

too small

to enable us to render

judgment upon

The volume

closes

with an index of the material, which

is

arranged according to the order of the Shulhan 'Aruk and where


at the end, as already noted, the

Talmud passages commented on


index with Hebrew catch-

are

recorded

(p.

404-410)

general

424
words
tions
in
(p.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


alphabetic order (p. 411-418)
419-425).
to the
;

and additions and correcwish to add a few single

And now

finally

remarks
P.

whole volume
the

16.

From

words of
which
in

our

Responsum

it

cannot

be

concluded that thehre existed a commentary by Saadya (not translation)

to Chronicles,

is

not

attested

anywhere
d.

else,

see
p.

JQR., X, 248 (so read


67, n. 31, instead

Steinschneider, Arab. Lit.

Juden,

of 246).
in

Saadya could have given

his opinion in
17,
10,

Responsum
perhaps

or
in

his

commentary on Kelim
or

which

was

existence,

somewhere
the
eating
74.

else.

p.

45.

As

regards

Saadya's Responsum
fishes

on

of

dead

locusts

and dead
passage
is
'131

comp. also ZfhB., IV,

Comp.

in addition the

in

Schechter's

Documents,
bsi

I,

12:

mw

K^ DTlfTI
ljnpj

...

cxa
the
the

wty Diwoa Doann D*H DH iy D^Oa (see ib.,


Shema'
in

of
to

the

dei iseoi o^n LI).p. 49. The p. Kedusha to Musaf is also


part
ed.

dn

insertion

referred

persecutions

on

the

of the Persian king Yezdgred

(BpS>fl

'SOP,

48,

comp. also Eshkol,

Albeck,

The custom

to

enter in the Ketubba also the


is

I, p. 39). p. 78. woman's garments,

furniture, etc. in addition to her dowry,

very old, being found

already in the Assuan Papyrus


below.

(ed.

Cowley), see ZfhB., XI, 71

From the Gaonic time I have published such a Ketubba (RE J., XLVIII, 173) from Fostat dated 1029 (not 1030). p. 104
Here not only the
and
(p.

below.

classification
is

of the people according highly interesting from a

to their social

position and vocation

cultural

historical point of view, but also the designation

D^'JX
of

D M JJSDN

105 above)
108.

for people of the middle class

(inst.

D^UO). p.
the

On

the custom of pronouncing a

blessing

over

washing of the hands before the grace after meals on the


see

Passover-night

now

Aptowitzer,
p.

REJ.,
the

LXIII,
of

125

and the
the

passages recorded there.

110.

At

time

Natronai

custom to wear a Tallit was perhaps indeed not universally spread.

Of

interest
,

is

the following

Responsum by
88)
:

this
fltf}

Gaon

(^IfcO niaiCTI

DTO

No. 38; n 2 lL'Ti


nr
(r.

nyv,

DTlS>KW1

'fcOriBi

3T10K Ofll
&np*B>a

Tn
131

ah
Kin

in

xS ix

rnwn

jmx nn&6 "p* v"p


nt xin d^tbStii
p.

mx

nrvpp)

nwrv "pn

D^an

(comp. also
the

my i:n

pKB

D^CHH D"1ED

W,

10). p.

180.

Through

425
Gaonic
reading
in

'Erubin
,

53a

IVIUSP? and TlDvC


is

instead
one,

of
the
to
is

nrrar6

and
of

TQ^C
B.
it

which

also
I,

the

right

hypothesis

Lewin
the

("OlftDnn,

66)
in

who

wanted
Stone,

explain through

enigmatic pX'Tl

the

Mesha

done away with 18 (comp. also Chajes, Riv.


1.

Isr.,

VII, 254).

is

p.

185,

24.

This Responsum (and similarly the following one)


elaborately and with variants in
p.

found

more

D^IN^n ncyE,
n.

ed.

Mekize

Nirdamim,

19 (comp. also

ib.,

p.

X,

14),

where among others


and

miLM tt

stands for pni\


to

p.

188.

On
with

the puzzling decision of the

Gaon who permits


IvV,

thresh

an

ox

donkey, the

ploughing only being forbidden, comp. Aptowitzer, Monatsschrift,


639,

according to

whom

this

has reference only to the case

when

the animals are not

fastened together.

But then the Reit.

sponsum would have mentioned something about

p.

211.

That

Moses Gaon used Persian words


first place,

is

not at

all

surprising, for, in the

they are derived from the Talmud, and, secondly, even


still

the last

Gaon Hai
Bal'am
I,

understood Middle Persian,

i.

e.

Pehlevi.

having used Kalila we-Dimna which was composed in


see

this tongue,

ibn

on

Deut.

28,

21

(in

Fuchs'
in

Studien iiber ibn

Bal'am,

p.

XXI; comp.
u.

Steinschneider

p?nn

II,

62

and

Harkavy, Stud.
Hai's
in

Mitt.,

IV, 371).

On

the other hand,

we have
ed.

own
in

testimony that in his days Jews as well as non-Jews


(see the interesting

Babylonia spoke Aramaic

Responsum,
Isr.,

Harkavy,
In

DTpn,

II,

82; comp. on this Chajes, Riv.

VI, 195).
this
is

our Responsa Persian words occur also outside of


s.

case
to be
in

(see General Index,

v.

"'DIS

noted the very rare name

rivi' 1

P^v). which occurs otherwise only


p.
1.

256,

15.

Here

Hefes

b.

Yazliah and in Solomon

b.

Yazliah in IMS. Bodl. 2876*,


in
biblical
in

see Riv. Isr., VI, 241.

p. 305.

Not only

citations

the

vvords

were abbreviated

in

such a manner, but also


315.

whole Bible

texts, see

JQR., VII, 362. p.


can hardly believe.

That ptJ'N
Walag

is

the prolongation
II,
;

of 'SFK
siders
it

Krauss (Lehnworter,
or

135)

con-

on a par with the Greek

'Aciov

comp. also

Bacher, Monatsschrift,
18

XLVI,
(p.

83.

In the same
a

number

41)

Lewin publishes from


heretofore.

manuscript in
This
as
well

Parma
as

brief

Responsum by Sherira unknown


(D"Ipn,
II,

those

published by Harkavy

82-87)

are

to

my

knowledge

the only Gaonic Responsa that have appeared since Ginzberg's publication.

426
Postscript.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Besides
also,

the

Responsa
the

mentioned

in

note

13

there

has

appeared

since

completion of this review, a

small, tolerably interesting collection

under the

title

Gdoni Responellata

sutnok...

kiadta,

forditotta

es

magyarazatokkal
8.

Kis

Ch.

Henrik, Budapest 1912, 35 pp.

These Responsa were derived


in the possession of

from two Genizah fragments which had been


David Kaufmann and on
his

demise passed into the hands of the

Hungarian Academy.
dissertation

The

editor,

H. Kis, published them as a

for the
is

doctorate of the Budapest University, hence


in the

their elaboration

Hungarian tongue.

The

first

fragment

which consists of two disconnected leaves contains two incomplete

Responsa

in the

domain of
is

civil law,

composed

in the

Arabic

language.

More

interesting

the second fragment which contains

sixteen Responsa.

The

first eight,

which are composed


;

in

Hebrew,
14

are designated on the margin as No. 94-101

they

all

come from
Responsum
pvi
rp

Hai

and

they

were

all

sent

to

one

place, probably to Fostat.


last

This follows from the concluding formula of the

'T3 jnan ntwD nnzn

inyi^a DnriKi

umx

jiidt^

nabo

They have therefore been copied from Hai's autograph, and indeed
through

Menasseh
7

ha-Kohen ben Jacob, whose name we

find

signed under documents of Fostat from the years 1125-35


Bodl. 28/6\ 28;8
P-

(MS.

273)

fact

MS. St. unknown to


;

Petersb.
Kis.

190,

Cat. Harkavy-Strack,

Two

of

these

Responsa have

been

known

for

long

time,

namely Resp. 97

PlOpE? J"6np

No. 23

(comp. Monatsschrift,

XLIV,

143)

and Resp. 101


is

=
p1

ed.

Harkavy 36 (where

the concluding formula

fuller:

...

\"P

vnv^i p:rpm irvn pjarfi wintya dk"6. it is shown thereby that this Responsum does not come from Sherira, and
yc*
dingly the statement in
corrected.

my

D'Olt?

DT^y
98,

I,

28 above

is

to be

Interesting
is

is

also

No.

where the word rVJinn

(Baba batra 1460)


matters:

explained and where

we

find

among

other
*B1

D*npJ nXTl

mem

pHD

*OpJ

D*iSb

nno WHIP
eniao "PK3

"

ni:rru

D'nn n*wbw2 nnSnn noan mx^B:


14

ib>k

nTV mabna

nnnn

Accordingly also these Responsa are to be added to those which were


to

aenl 161
i

by the Geonim

Egypt and which

have registered in REJ., XLVIII,

U,

58.

GINZBERG'S "GEONICA"
This word, however, does not occur
Yesirah.

POZNANSKI
follow
1-8

427

in

our recensions of the Sefer


eight

Immediately
b*t

after

these

Responsa

more,

which are designated on the margin as No.


superscription:
lection of

and bear the

|1W nHJJD

mib

Saadyanic Responsa.

^NDJD fiteJ |D, hence a colThey are all with the exception

of No. 5

in

Arabic and otherwise unknown.


1

The following

de-

serve mention: No.

which treats of rnYlB DDE- The number of


Saadya,
is

strokes, according to

thirteen,

and these are bestowed

on those who transgress a traditional precept, such as hair-cutting


on semi-holidays or wearing shoes during the days of mourning,
etc.
[\r\y\ ...

mptata fbh m
in

-itry

nrbh xnixipn
;o

nmo

nao

*b

mye> naw
nae>K
JP

jd

*6he njD^x s^kd


5>d,*6n

naipy^s
bvr\y
i

*a

jcntaynDJ
be> ibin

l!n

ne

ox\x

<s
lfl

^3
KE
;

ijno
the
in

T^K

nnnX3B NnaSNDQ nJD

comp.
15

on

other

hand Hai's
Jahrbuch
175)d.

Responsum
jud.-liter.

in

i13WJ1 "Hyc* Xo.


VIII,

and

addition

Gesellschaft,

450 and ZfhB.,

XV,

No.

deals

with

the

ajal

problem
ch.

(see above), which


(ed. Slucki, 102), yet

Saadya discusses

also in his

Bmunot,

VI

the end seems to have been omitted by the copyist.

The Responb.

sum makes
xbn bo k
s

reference to the talmudic account of Eleazar


:

Simon
p"IB
S

(Baba mesi'a 85a)

*B Ny^'tt

K33

D^BPI
|k

J1X

lOWn

mb>

&6

;iyB> '113 "i?yi>K 'in

nio^ ^e> \ibia

p-isi?K

^k

pp

}N

3>b nbiK Tin jnd:*6k 5wv


itiao

^y

Wn
22)

Kim n^on
*b

onbipb

*6n

mobx

it

&6

on:x^

Sjxbx
3,

Dnbipa.

In No. 6 Saadya proves that n^NB'l (Exod.

must be con-

strued in the sense of "asking for a present," with reference to


I

Sam.

1,

28;

Mishnah Shabbat

23,

1,

Baba batra

9,

and Berakot

29a (D"0>n ri3"D3 il^KP).

This interpretation, as Kis points out,


loc.
loc.

agrees with his translation in the Pentateuch ad


tifcOO^X
),

and

is

quoted by Bahya
is

b.

Asher ad

in the

2rnnDD t>3 name


hananel

of
in

Hananel. This
his

therefore

an additional proof that

exposition

of

the Pentateuch

was
n.

mostly
1).

dependent

on

Saadya (comp. Monatsschrift, XLI,

209,

Warsaw

Samuel PozNANSKi

SCHECHTER'S "JEWISH SECTARIES"


Documents of Jewish
Zadokite
Cairo
Sectaries.

Volume

I.

Fragments
manuscripts in

of

work.

Edited

from

Hebrew

the

Genizah Collection, Cambridge, and provided with an

English translation, introduction and notes.


M.A., Litt.D.

By

S.

Schechter,

(Cantab.), President of the Jewish Theological

Seminary
pp. lxiv

in

New
20
-

York.

Cambridge: University Press,

1910.

-f-

Numerous gaps
been
partly
filled

of early Jewish history for which

we had no
finds
in

sources and hardly expected ever to unearth any, have since 1898

by

Professor

Schechter's

striking

the Cairo Genizah saved and secured by

him for the Cambridge

University Library.

In 1910 he startled the literary world by his

publication of a large and a small fragment of a book written by

a Zadokite of the

first

century.

The mere
literature,

fact that nothing

what-

ever was
character

known
of
a

of

Sadducee

gave the publication the


elucidate

unique

discovery

promising to

still

obscure period of Jewish history in which Jewish historians and

New
sible

Testament

scholars

are

equally

interested.
difficult

Professor

Schechter has made the sometimes very


to all
full

fragments acces-

readers by a full translation accompanied by learned

notes

of his wide knowledge of

rabbinic

literature

and by

many

valuable emendations.

An

introduction of twenty-nine quarto

pages deals with the two manuscripts of the eleventh and twelfth
century respectively, one of 16 and the other of 2 pages, the latter
partly
parallel,

partly

additional;

it

further

discusses
their

the

script

of the documents, their contents and their

style,

sectarian,
it

Zadokite character, and the apocalyptic sources of the book;


analyses the history

of

the

sect

that

was founded by emigrants

from Jerusalem

in the

second century B. C. in Damascus and the


its

constitution of the sect and

peculiar laws.

They

lead Professor

429

430

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Schechter to a thorough examination of the sects which separated

from Judaism and of the


bring

apocalyptic
that

literature

concerned,

and

him

to

the

conclusion

the

book was written by a

Dosithean.

In spite of the full

commentary and introduction there


still

are. however, as Professor Schechter admits,

many

riddles in
to

the

fragments to

be solved, and
difficult details

he

invites

students

devote

themselves to the

of the unique book.


I

In availing myself of this invitation,


rather extensive review
ter's

venture to offer in this


in

my own

difficulties

Professor Schech-

view of the Zadokite or Dosithean origin and the early date

of the book.

By

a detailed examination especially of the halakic

parts of the fragment which have so far not been studied with the

same

zeal as the narrative, I shall

endeavor to show that neither


of Sadduk's lost book, nor

Kirkisani's references to

some

details

the similar laws and customs in the Dosithean sect which constitute the

foundation

of

Professor

Schechter's

theory,

are

sufficiently

strong to bear the weight of the inferences put upon them.

From
the

some of the
peculiarities to

characteristic

Halakahs
I

of

the

fragment

and

of the style

shall

try,

though with great caution,

prove that our book probably originated in the times of the


in the eighth century.

book of Sadduk and Anan,


relying
to

In continually

on Professor Schechter's interpretation and his parallels


illustrations will be added,
is I

which some Talmudic

shall attempt

to

show

that also
in

the narrative

merely the picture of a sect


in the seventh or eighth

which lived

the district of

Damascus
drawn
to

century, a picture artificially

reflect

assumed conditions

shortly before the destruction of the second Temple.

As

to the

sources of the fragment, while in agreement with Professor Schechter that

our author used the Book of Jubilees and the Testaments of


I

the
in

Twelve Patriarchs,
the

shall

adduce evidence that he used them

form

in

which they
in the ninth

were known

in

the

times

of

the

Babylonian Gaons
to criticise

and tenth centuries.

In venturing
I

Professor Schechter's views of the fragment,


T~>i

follow

the

principle

^N TOMfl
and
first

KTI

mm

and

confidently hope

that the discoverer

interpreter of the unique

book

will

read

my remarks and suggestions with use, as I am offering them.

the

same mind and

in the

SCHECHTER

JEWISH SECTARIES

BUCHI^EK
book
of

431

Professor Schechter's cardinal proof for the Zadokite origin


of
the

fragment

is

Kirkisani's

reference to a

Zadok

which reads: "Zadok was the

first

who exposed

the Rabbanites

and contradicted them

publicly.

He

revealed a part of the truth

and composed books

in

which he frequently denounced the Rab-

banites and criticised them.

But he adduced no proof for anything


in

he

said,

merely saying

it

by way of statement, except

one thing,

namely, in his prohibition against marrying the daughter of the


brother and the daughter of the
sister.

For he adduced

as proof

their being analogous to the paternal

and maternal aunt." 1

Now,
fits

argues Schechter,

this description of the


its

Zadok book well


polemical,

our
its

Text

which,

in

Haggadah,

is

largely

whilst

Halakah affords

little

else than mere statements; a real argument

and refutation of the opposite opinion we have

only, as stated by

Kirkisani, in the case of prohibiting the marriage with one's niece.

zadok's book

Does our fragment


latter

fit

this description of

Zadok's book?
rules

The

was a denunciation of rabbinic laws and

and a dry

statement of the correct laws without arguments.


it

Our fragment,

is

true,

contains strong abuse against nameless opponents, but

objects only to three, expressly enumerated sins.


interpretation,

No method

of

no way

in
all,

deducing new

rules,

no extension of the
in

law

is

referred to at

and our book does

no way look or

pretend to be a general attack of a Zadokite on the basis and the

development of rabbinic law.


of the three sins,
tution of a sect in
it

In addition to abuse and an emphasis

contains the history and the detailed constiis

Damascus which

the main, probably the only

object of the fragment preserved.

general attack on Rabbinism

and the statement of Sadducee law could not possibly have given
an occasion for the representation of a
sect in

Damascus.
it

Again,

the laws in the fragment, covering pp. 9-16, are,

is

true,

merely

enumerated and
arguments.

give, beside frequent references to the

Torah, no

But just as the prohibition against the marriage with


immediately before
XVIII.

the niece, being the third of the three laws discussed by our author,
is

derived from the Bible (p.


1

5,

7-11), so

is

it

Kitab

al

Anwar,

ed.

Harkavy,

p.

283.

p.

432
the

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


second
of
the

three

laws,

the

prohibition

against

marriage

with another woman, whilst the


passages of the Bible

first is alive,

deduced from several

(p. 4, 20-5, 6).


is

Though

no^H,

nor any of

the rules of interpretation

here applied, the presence of arguif

ments cannot be denied; and


could not have said that
It
is
it

this

were Zadok's book, Kirkisani


case.*

gave an argument only in one


is

to

my mind
is

evident that our fragment

not identical with

Zadok's book quoted by Kirkisani.

This
in

further proved by another reference to Zadok's book


b.

an Arabic commentary on Exodus either by Sahl


or

Masliah
4

(950-960)

by

another

Karaite

writer

of the tenth century:

"Our ancestors used


the festivals)
;

to look for the

new moon

(in order to fix


it

concerning this Saadia maintains that

was done

owing

to

(the opposition of)

Sadduk and Boethus.

However, the

books of the Sadducees are generally known, and nothing of what


Saadia
deal,
it

says
is

is

to

be

found

in

them.

For the books of Sadduk

true, with the discussions with the Rabbanites in the

times

of

the

second Temple about sacrifices and other matters;


is

but not one single line


tioned by
statement,

to be testing

found concerning the point menour book by the details of his


differences whatever between

Saadia."

On

we
sects

find that

it

states

no

any two

or sections of the Jews; and as far as the eight

pages containing laws justify the inference, also the lost parts of
the

fragments contained no such differences.

Among
about

these there

were

prominent

in

Sadduk' s book several

sacrifices;
it

our
deals
in

fragment gives no reference to such.

Considering that

exclusively with the colony in Damascus, no space


it

was devoted

to

differences
is

between Sadducees and Pharisees on

sacrifices.
its

The Temple

mentioned twice; but the passage deals with

defilement by a

wrong observance of

the laws of levitical purity

and cannot be interpreted

to refer to sacrifices.
b.

Consequently the

book of Sadduk quoted by Sahl

Masliah was wholly different

from our fragment.

Schechter's remark
as

p.

differed

much from
refer
is

the

XIX, note 22 that, sect of Damascus


he only

as in this point the Karaites


as

the
of

Rabbanites,
the

Kirkisani
of

would

not

to

it,

because

spoke

criticism

the

Rabbanites,

not convincing.
in

Harkavy

Gratz,

Geschichte, V, 4th ed.,

p.

475

ft\

SCHECHTER'S JEWISH SECTARIES


THE ZADOKITE LAWS
But two

BUCHLER

433

single laws, reported by Kirkisani as peculiar to the

Zadokites, were considered by Schechter as proof for the identity

of

our book with that of

Sadduk.

"The Zadokites

absolutely
16 pages

forbade divorce which the Bible permitted." 6


of our fragment contain, as far as
I

Now

the

can

see,

not one single

word

about divorce, neither the

biblical

term nX', nor the rabbinic BHJ,


in the

nor
p.
4,

is

any of the synonyms for divorce alluded to

paragraph

20-5, 5
:

adduced by Schechter as agreeing with the Zadokites.


:

It

reads

"They are ensnared by two

by fornication, taking two

wives during their lifetimes, but the foundation of the creation


is,

'male and female created

He

them.'

And
As

they

who came

into
it

the ark, 'two and


written,
in

two went

into the ark.'

to the prince,

is

'He

shall

not multiply wives unto himself.' "


:

Schechter
is

his

note to the passage remarks

"The argument

evidently

not only directed against polygamy, but also against divorce which
certain Jewish sects forbade."

But

am

unable to see where the

author prohibited or even thought to limit divorce.


deals

He

exclusively

with polygamy and

remarriage after divorce without sugitself.

gesting anything against divorce

Moreover, he takes
that
a

it

for

granted without the slightest objection


his

man may

divorce

wife.

The
proofs,
17,

three

passages adduced by the author from the

Bible deal with polygamy only, and the utmost that could be read
into
his

would be the interpretation possibly given

to

Deuteron.

17: he shall not


first.

marry another wife even


6

after hav-

ing divorced the

As Schechter

points out, the sect of the

Dositheans, as reported by Epiphanius,


rule:

observed exactly the same

"some of them abstain from


7

a second marriage, but others


first

never marry"; this means either after the


divorced.

wife died or was

In no case can

it

be proved that our fragment agreed

with Kirkisani's Zadokites as to the absolute prohibition against


divorce.

Kirkisani,
a 7

p.

304.

311.

Judah Hadassi, Alphabeta

97.

98.

Haeres.

XIII.
Blau,

Though

Die jiidische Ehescheidung,


passage in

p.

59-61

adopts

Schechter's

interpretation

of

the

our book, his proofs only demonstrate the


more.

prohibition

against

polygamy,

not

434
Even
literature;

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


the prohibition against

polygamy has no

parallel in earlier

and neither Kirkisani nor other Karaites quote either


it.

Sadduk. or any earlier authority for


Sahl
it.

But few, as for instance,


it;
8

b.

Masliah, went

as far as to forbid

whence he derived
it.

is

not known, as he mentions no source for

Whether any

authority before the destruction of the


of the prohibition,
is

Temple had any knowledge


For Josephus 9 says that
it

at least doubtful.

was an old custom


this
in

to

have several wives; and though he stated


it
it

connection with marriages in Herod's family,

deserves

special attention.

Of
;

the rabbis only very few thought

necessary

to excuse

polygamy

one

in the

manner of our fragment, proves


is

from the creation of

Adam

and Eve that one wife

sufficient."

As

far as

we know,

the rabbis lived in

monogamy; 11 but nothing


opponents
prohibited

indicates that they or any

of

their

Jewish

See Poznaiiski in
b.

RE J.,
dbo
is

XI, V,
18,

p.

185,

6,

who

also

refers to

2112

npb

by Tobiah

EHezer on Lev.
'ns?2 ijjbw

18, p.

51&:

nillDN

NnSj;2

D'tPJ 'fit? 1I2XBM

nn -p D'tw
...fivnx.
...

'niii

k^n

...

pin xSi

xb onS } pna
p.

Whom

he meant

evident from his words to Deut. 21, 15,

35b:

n*tr: ne> \bn

npn kS nninx Sx

new no
I,

DNipn lyu nvyu noa

where he expressly mentioned the Karaites.


9

Antiq.
ff.

XVII,

1,

2,

15;

Wars

24, 2,

477.

Krauss, Archaeologie,

II,

26
10

R.
"H

Judah
'fitTN

b.

Bethera in Abot R. Nathan, 2nd version,


Blau,
Jiid.

II,

5a:

3K S]N

>phn
I,

(see

Ehescheidung,
II, 246, 2)

p.

56).

In Midrash Samuel

(See Bacher, Palaest, Amor'der,


is

R. Isaac says:

that

Elkanah had two wives,


the

not meant to be a blame;

The statement Hannah herself


as a
fox

expressed

wish that her husband should take another wife, as she had In Genes,
sinful
rab.,

no children.

23,

2,

R. Judah b. R.

Simon describes

it

custom of the
bearing

generation
other
for

of

the flood

to

have two wives, one

children,

the

intercourse.
in

n Otherwise Justin Martyr


have blamed
the
rabbis

Dialogus

cum

Tryphone,

ch.

134

would

not

merely because they encouraged immorality by


the Jews, and by permitting

sanctioning polygamy
fair

among

them

to

lust aftei

women

so that

some of them had even now four or


Krauss

five wives.
if

But he
he had
this

would have reproached them also for their taking several wives,
only

known one
adds:

instance.

(in

JQR., V, 130), when dealing with

"This matrimonial liberty was indeed, as a matter of


of

fact,

painful

characteristic

Talmud

times,"
it

but he gives no

evidence to prove
ff.

tement and has

left

out in his Archaologie, II, 26

SCHECHTER'S JEWISH SECTARIES


polygamy.

BUCHLER
wives,
is

435

But whether the nobles of Jerusalem most of


refrained

whom
not

were

Sadducees
It
is,

from

having

several

known. 12

therefore, for the present not possible to illustrate

the prohibition of our fragment by earlier parallels than by Karaitie

references

13

of the tenth century.


is

The
this:

other law which Kirkisani attributes to the Zadokites


also fixed all the

"They

months

at thirty

days each.

Again,

they excluded the day of the Sabbath from the


of the feast of Passover, so as to
the Sabbath; in the

sum

of the days
besides
14

make them seven days


about
it

same way

also with the feast of Tabernacles."

That our fragment contains nothing

the

last

peculiarity,

could be accounted for by the fact that


festivals.

has nothing about the

But Schechter suggested that our author had adopted

the calendar of the


calendar, for

Book of Jubilees which was probably a solar p. 16, 2 we read nm n^N ^30 SxTj" })"\Vjb DJT'Vp PY1B1 Dmmroeai nrv^nvb D^nyn nip^nE i2D by pipm Kin "as to the
all these,
it

explanation of their ends for a remembrance to Israel of


behold,
is

exactly explained in the

Book

of the Divisions of the

Seasons according to their Jubilees and their weeks."


ence
is

The

refer-

not clear, as the preceding piece


of
it

is

missing; but since the


his

last line

says "a
in

man

should

make up
is
it

mind

to return to

the

Torah of Moses

which everything

clearly explained,"
states that

and

in the line following the passage quoted,

"on the day

on which the man makes up

his

mind

to return to the
if

Torah of
calendar
(p.

Moses, the angel Mastemah will depart from him,


promise,"
it

he keeps his
the

is

difficult to

see

how
two

reference

to

should stand between

those

sentences.

But

Schechter

XVI)
p.
3,

finds a

proof for the different calendar of our fragment in

13-16: "Revealing unto


:

them the hidden things

in

which

all

erred

His holy Sabbaths and His glorious

festivals, the

testimony

of his righteousness, and the ways of His truth, and the desires
12

An

epitropos

of

Agrippa

II

in

Galilee

had two wives,

Sukkah

27a,

bottom.
13

The Samaritans
in

in

the

sixteenth

century

wrote

that

they

took

only

one wife; and

the beginning of the

eighteenth

century they wrote:

JO

nrvmn
Einfl.
34

D'tT3

nt?

KSx

np3
p.

where sSx should be canceled.

See

Frankel.

der

pal.

Exegese,
p.

252.

Kirkisani,

304;

Hadassi,

Alphabeta

97.

98.

436

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


man
shall

oi His will, which a


sees in this passage a

do and

live

by them."

Schechter
all

mere paraphrase of

Jubil. 6, 34:

"And

the

children of
years."
15

Israel
fact,

will

forget and will not find the path of the

In

however, the

two passages

differ

materially.

While Jubilees enumerate years, months, seasons, and conclude by


repeating the order of years, fixing the attention on the calendar,

our book mentions Sabbaths and festivals, nothing

else.

But the

Sabbath does
dar
;

in

no way depend on the arrangement of the calenthe

consequently

point

of

view
p. 6,

is

different.
19,

The

parallel,

pointed out by Schechter himself,

18.

clearly indicates it:

the correct observance of the prohibitions as to the Sabbath and


the festivals headed in
6,

18

HK1
10,

nB>n33 T\2&n
14,

Dro*D3 rv:ynn dv nxi nnjnon


one
line in the

DV HX "UDE^I ntaa^DD mbe>5> iwn by> Not


to the importance of the

book suggests an allusion

calendar so frequently emphasized in the

Book

of Jubilees.
it

As

to

the

Zadokite

months of 30 days,

is

strange that

Josephus knew nothing or failed to mention


ference between the Pharisees and Sadducees
ficult is it that
;

this

important dif-

but even more dif-

the Talmud, in discussing the different dates of the


difference of

omer and Shabuot, says nothing of the far-reaching


a
solar

calendar of the Sadducees.

Does the Book of Jubilees


It
is

and of Enoch prove anything for Jerusalem?

again note-

worthy that only sources referring to the seventh and eighth centuries report of the
specialist

Sadducee calendar.

Poznanski, the well

known
"It is

on Karaite literature and on the calendar, says: 16


b.

recorded by David

Merwan

al-Mikmas, a writer of the ninth

century, that the Sadducees observed

months of 30 days,
Talmudic

i.

e.

solar

months.

This testimony, however, adds the disadvantage of obit

scurity to that of lateness;

finds

no support

in

sources.''

And
sects

elsewhere,

17

he adds: "Earlier sources surely report nothing


it

similar, so that

is

extremely probable that peculiarities of later

were attributed to the Sadducees (just as the reverse could


happened)
;

but

it

shows that such

sects

existed.

Jehuda

haParsi, a heretic otherwise unknown, maintains that the Israelites

Is

path

ITIH

mistake for

-p

length?
117b.

16
,:

Hasting*,

Encyclopedia of Religion, III,


19
ff.;

RBJ.,

I.,

cf.

JQR., X, 265; REJ.,

XUY,

177

S.

SCHECHTER

JEWISH SECTARIES
It
is,

BUCIILKK

437

always counted by solar years." 18


teristic that

in

any
19
;

case, very charac-

one author attributes the same calendar to the whole

nation,

and another merely to the Sadducees

one generalizing the


it

observance of his

own

small sect and projecting


it

into the past,

the other correctly limiting


the time of their existence.

to the Zadokites without indicating

THE MARRIAGE WITH A NIECE


So far there
iliat
is

only one peculiarity of the Zadokite fragment

constitutes a clear parallel to the

book of Sadduk, the proon PpTI


,

hibition against the marriage with a niece based

analogy.

Poznanski, in his usual, thorough way, has incidentally discussed


the
20 same prohibition among the early Karaites and has

collected

the material referring to this interesting question.


that

First

we

learn
his

Anan,

the

founder

of

Karaism,

taught
b.

the

same

in

Fadhalika, and his words preserved by Jeshua


-|En run
as

Judah

in his

1DD

follows:

V3K

|DH

V3N ninK ID^lob

^b

n"6

TDN1

.nbiDso pai rrrooB pa rran |di ion


pai

mnxi .nhoBQ pa
nipib

i-itkoo pa

nwae
for

nbiDBo pa
source

pi maa *nxb *aiDj&6 rrwac pa rvaK pi nx *n*6i


pa raw
this,

nb tdki
Anan's
analogy

.n^iDBD.
the

as

Kirkisani
;

reports,

was

between
fragment.

man and woman


21

exactly the same as in the Zadokite


22

As

also the Samaritans observe this prohibition

and

similarly the sectarian


18 19

Abu Imran
8, 3,

al-Tiflisi

adopted
9.

it,

Poznanski

See Ibn Ezra on Gen.


I

Exod.

12,

1,

Lev. 25,
the

may add
in

here

that

immediately before
97. 98,

passage

quoted

David

Almikmas

Judah Hadassi, Alphab.

reports that the Sadducees took

the words of the Bible literally, and also the anthropomorphistic expressions

about God.
angel
fit

Some who created


the picture

of them took these expressions to refer to angels or an


the world at the

command

of God.

How

do these details

into
20

drawn by Josephus?
p.

In Kaufmann's Gcdcnkbnch,
p.

173 S., REJ.,

XLV,

184

ff .

Harkavy,
<

Anan,
21

93.
b.

Jefeth

Ali also quotes Anan's rule

(REJ.,

XLV,

186), but he adds


18,

that

Anan

interpreted

npn

tfh

nmPIK ^X

RVItl in Lev.

18

to

refer to

the niece and not to the sister.


22

We

have

no evidence

that the

Samaritans

knew

it

already in

pre-

Karaitic

times.

43^
infers that
it

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


must be
the

of

great

antiquity, as
to

Kirkisani
niece,

actually

reports

that

Zadokites

prohibited

marry a

on the

analogy

between

man

and

woman.
23

But

who

are

Kirkisani's

Zadokites, and what has Jewish literature to say to this evidence?

Poznanski refers to the

ni^HJ DlD^n

which refute the prohibi-

tion of the Karaites; but this reference of the ninth century nat-

urally proves nothing as to

whether the rabbis of the

first

century

knew
62,

the prohibition.
24

He

further refers to the Baraita in Yebam.

bottom,

in

good

deed

to

which an anonymous teacher recommends it as a marry the daughter of one's own sister; 25 and
in this

Poznanski sees
tion.

an opposition against the Sadducee prohibifact that only the


is

But apart from the

daughter of the

sister

and not also of the brother


be no opposition intended
in

mentioned here, 26 there seems

to

the other

recommendations of

the

same Baraita,

to love one's relatives


it

and neighbors.

In any case,
rabbis of the
first

can

be

proved

from rabbinic

literature

that

century

whom

Geiger considered true representa-

tives of the early

Halakah, 27 not only taught, but also acted against,

the prohibition to

marry one's
Hyrkanos,

niece, the

daughter of their

sister.

So R. Eliezer

b.

at the instigation of his

mother, mar-

ried a daughter of his sister, 28 yet he 'was, as

we

well

know and
after

Geiger

emphasizes,
of
the

the

most

consistent

Shammaiite
Galilean

the
his

destruction
sister's

Temple.

R.

Jose

the

married

daughter, was afterwards compelled to divorce her and she


in his in

married

lifetime another
his

man

(Genes,

r.

17, 3),

yet R. Jose

maintained
the

Halakah the conservative

tradition, the views of

Sadducees according to Geiger.


spirit

R. Ishmael

same
23

once tried his utmost to persuade a

who was of man to marry

the
his

Ed.

Ilildesheimer,

p.

609.

24

ybo niSoni ininx

nx ntwam
tx ibix
1,

tanp nx aipom ijaw nx amain

aan

ioxn
a See

p*n
also
8,
7,

nap*.

xipn

avian vhy ipnn njwa

>aj.

Tos.

Ki.l.lusliin

4;
4,

minx

S'WnB'
in

TJJ

TWH D1 XB xS,
I,

and Nedar.

Genes,
ff.

rabba 80,

Midrash Abkir

Yalkut

146, R\EJ.,

XXII,

1890,

X7

Rashi and
Urschrift,
28 p.

Tosafot
and elsewhere.

153,

Abol

R.

Nathan,

XVI, 32a;

p.

Yebam,

13,

13c,

60.

SCHECHTER
sister's

JEWISH SECTARIES

BUCHLKR
a

439
which
be
of
s

daughter.

28

But

to pursue Geiger's view that


alike
to

law
to

Karaites
antiquity,
niece, I
Hillelites

and
with

Samaritans
reference

observed

is

sure

the

prohibition of

marrying one

refer to the far-reaching dispute of the Shammaiites and

concerning

nan mv. 30
early

Its basis is the case that a

man
it.

married his brother's daughter, and the Shammaiites, even earlier


representatives

of

the

Halakah,

took no

exception to

And

this not

merely in theoretical discussions, but also


priests

in actual

marriages

of

who had
R. Joshua
destruction

to
b.

observe the strictest rules in

selecting their wives.

Hananiah who had

lived in
31

Jerusalem before the

of the

Temple

testified

that

such marriages then occurred in so far as a

man married

his niece

and another
childless

wife

and

after

his
in

death his brother married his

widow, the other wife,


If

accordance with the view of the


priests

Shammaiites.

the

Sadducee

had

considered

such

marriage

illegal,

they would certainly have eliminated the family

from the Temple.


brother Jonathan
the destruction,

And the Shammaiite Dosa b. Harkinas and his who had lived for many years in Jerusalem before
to the marriage
first
it
32

would not merely have objected

of the

widow

to her brother-in-law,

but also to the

marriage

with a niece.
this

Professor Schechter might

argue that

was

just

combination of polygamy and of marriage with a niece, per-

mitted by the two schools of Jerusalem

between 30 and

50,

that

made

the author of the Zadokite fragment take a stand


against the priests

p. 4, 20-5,

11, especially

who had

availed themselves of the

new

permission.

But

first

nothing in those discussions about the

second marriage indicates that the marriage with a niece had not been always permitted; and secondly,

we have

seen that though

opposing

polygamy

in

general,

the

fragment mentions only the

special case

when
9,

a man, after having divorced his wife, wants to

29

Nedarim
II,

10;

comp.

8,

7.

Abba,

brother

of
150.

the

patriarch R.

Gamaliel
30

married the daughter of the


15b,

latter,

Yebam.

Yebam.

and

parallels.

31

n2 nnetrB D^t?n*2

vntr

ntmi mnewo
KBip

'ntr

hy

nsh

Tjro

jm

dpidi

rim
2Js

aa
% h;

ow
and

cnripa

po

na

nriEtrai

'xczy

po D*yws

nsrsn
32

wow)
16a,

nSnj Danr.
parallels.

Yebam.

440

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

marry another, and not the case underlying the above discussion. 3*
Consequently
All
this

cannot

have

been the
clearly

occasion

for

its

attack.
is

these considerations

and

facts

show

that

there
first

no

proof for the assumption that the Sadducees of the


prohibited marriage with a niece.

century

As

to

Kirkisani's

statement about

the

Zadokites

prohibiting

such a marriage, nothing proves that the book from which David

Almikmas or Kirkisani took


the eighth or ninth

this report,

was of

earlier origin than

century.
I

In

order

that this

view

may

not
the

appear hypercritical.

shall refer to

Harkavy himself who, on


hand
expresses

one hand, believes that the Karaites were the direct successors of
the Sadducees, and

on

the

other

the

following
34
:

opinion as to the origin and age of the book of


these proofs

Sadduk

"Since

(by

Kirkisani

and Sahl

b.

Masliah from

the

book

of Sadduk)
it

were used as polemical arguments against Rabbinism,

is

highly impropable that the whole matter concerning a book

or books of
ents could

Sadduk should have been wholly invented


then

the oppon-

have

disarmed the
all

Karaites by asking them to

produce the book. Least of

could a plain invention by Kirkisani

be assumed, considering the whole character of his literary activity.

More

probably
of

the
the

matter

proceeded

in

this

way

since

the

destruction

second

Temple
in

the

poor remainders of the

Sadducees were pining away


sectarian
particular

secret.

At the time of the great


general
the

movement
(seventh
with
a

in

the

East

in

and

in

Judaism

in

or

eighth century)

Sadducees came also


their

forward
Pharisee

polemical

book or books against


either

ancient

opponents.

That book

belonged
;

to

antiquity
it

or
at-

was composed anew from old

traditions
35

in

any

case,

was

tributed to the founder of Sadduceeism.


33

The
VII,
luto

first

Karaites used
Christian

In

the

Altercatio

Simonis

et

Theophili,

28

the

Theo-

mixtam volutas, sororem tuam tibi in conjugio copulas. Ilarnack in Teste und V ntcrsuchungen, I, 136 ff. knows no explanation of the two statements. The first refers to the bitter in case of suspected adultery (Bergmann, Apologetik, 5, 1), the other
Similiter
to

philus says to

Simon the Jew:

aquam

the

marriage with
.

niece

or

sister-in-law.
17,

!/.

Geschichte,

V,

note

4th edition,

p.

476.

:,i

In

the

Hebrew

Gratz,

111.

495

Harkavy

even

says:

"it?EN

HT

pil

|D?a

^z-r: pi
zrsr:*,

posy

pms

nos2

xinn

-nann

nn

sS

unjnS anpi

v-x

1300 "imxr:.

SCHECHTER
it

JEWISH SECTARIES

BUCHLEH
at

4|I
the
this

as a source of as a

Sadducean views adopted by them, and

same time

weapon against Rabbanism."

According
in

to

argument of Harkavy, Sadduk's book originated


eighth
century.
in

the seventh or

Poznanski

36

tries

to

prove that Saadia knew the

book; for
''But

the discussion about fixing the

new moon he

says:

when one asks


it

the Karaites for a proof from the Bible, they


in

derive

from the 150 days


reverse
of

Genesis
try

by which Sadduk rightly


prove."

proved the
Poznanski
reference
argues,
is

what they
that

to

But

later

on
that

himself
directly

admits
or

Saadia

could

have

known

merely
deal of

indirectly.

Kirkisani

however, he

drew

a great

information about Zadokites which

not otherwise known, and which he does not quote in the

name

of David

Al-Mukmis from Sadduk's

books.
:

He sums
it

up his
is

investi-

gation into that question as follows


establish,

"Naturally,

difficult

to

by those few quotations, what books are meant, when

they

were composed,

and

by

what

title

they

bore the name of

Sadduk.

But we can take

at least' this

much

for certain that they

contained Sadducean views and that the Karaites drew from them

without taking exception to them.

Those books could have equally


therein embodied various views

been known to Anan


of Sadducees."
It

who found

seems that neither Saadia who


all

in

his

attacks on

Karaism
of
the

exhausted

their sources

and

their literature, nor

any

Gaons who
an
ancient

dealt with Karaites, actually

saw the book.

Had

such

and

important

source

of

the sect been accessible to


its
;

Saadia, he would not have failed to disprove


ably

statements.

Probseen,

Anan was

the

first

who saw and

used

it

for, as

we have

he prohibited marriage with a niece.

But strange to
18,

say, there is

another long and exhaustive exposition of Lev.

18 by

Anan

3
'

in
is

which he proved that the marriage with

niece

of the wife

permitted, sometimes even together with the wife, though to

Anan
niece.

the niece of the wife

is

a relative just as near as one's

own

Yefeth
36

b.

Ali

rightly

exposes the strange inconsistency of Anan;

RE J., XLV,
Poznanski
in

177.

37

RE J., XLV,

186

ff.

Harkavy,

Atiati,

p.

105.

442
and
it

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


seems that his source gave him no direction on such extenor he
<4id

sions of the marriage prohibitions,

not

know

it

when
if

writing those

lines,

or did not recognize

its

injunctions.

Now,

the Zadokite fragment

was

in

any way, directly or


it

indirectly, de-

pendent on the book of Sadduk,


before 700

could not have been composed


in

when
is

the

book of Sadduk was not yet

existence.

And

if

it

independent of Sadduk's book, yet introduces contro-

versial points

which

were

unknown before

the

great

sectarian

movement,

it

could, at the earliest, have been


I

composed during that

movement.

admit that

this

inference only applies to the two

halakic points concerning the marriage with a niece and marrying

another wife

when

the

first

is

still

alive,

though divorced; but

it

need not apply to the bulk of Halakas in the second part. SECTARIAN LAWS IN THE ZADOKITE FRAGMENT

Though no dependence
duk could be proved, there

of our fragment on the


is

book of Sadits

no doubt that some of

legal points

are in accord with non-Rabbinic sects of early times.

Thus

the

very interesting law in

12,

13:

"Nor
was

shall fish be eaten unless they

were
tion.
p.

split alive

and

their blood

shed,"

38

deserves special atten-

Schechter refers to Wreschner's Samaritanische Traditionen,

51,

who mentions
fish

Elijah Bashyatsi's report that


if

some Karaites
fit

taught that

must be caught by Karaites,

they are to be

for food; others taught that death of the fish

must ensue during

the catching, while fish found dead, whether in the sea or on the

shore

are

considered

nS^J.*

Munajja,

the

Samaritan

of the

twelfth century, reports that Saadia attacked those views of


aritans and Karaites.
40

Sam-

On

the other

hand Ibrahim, the Samaritan

of the fifteenth century, expressly states that fish and locusts

may

be eaten without being slaughtered.


ject,
it

As Saadia dealt with the sub-

is

very probable that already

Anan

held the view reported in

M DD1 1W1 c"n

v;-)pi

cn
23.

*a

Aa*' Sn D*JHTn.

iitSx

mix, rbtiv,
in

Poznanski
to

The Karaite
of

literary

Opponents of Saadiah,

p.

10

refers

Kirlrisani'a

refutation

Saadia.

SCHECHTER'S JEWISH SECTARIES


the

BUCHLER
it

443

name

of Karaites;

41

but nothing indicates that any earlier au-

thority had taught the prohibition.

The Book

of Jubilees to which

our fragment refers and from which, as Schechter has shown,


derived ideas,

has
fish.

knows nothing
laws

of a duty to shed the blood of

For

50,

12,

in the

concerning

Sabbath,

enjoins:

"Whoever
whoever

strikes or kills anything, or slaughters a beast or a bird, or

catches an animal 41a or a bird or a

fish,

or whoever

fasts or

makes

war on the Sabbath.

..."

Fish

are only

mentioned among the

animals which are caught, but not, as birds,


to be struck or killed or slaughtered.
di

among

those that arc

On

the other hand, Pirke

R. Eliezer, ch. IX, prescribes


42

it

as a duty to pour
late

outthe blood
origin
it

of

fish.
it

Considering the character and the


highly probable that, as in

of this

book,

is

many

other cases,

included

a custom or rule which


tion.
its

was

in

vogue

in the place of its

composi-

The custom may have

existed for several centuries before


it

inclusion in the Pirke; but

is

a strange coincidence that


its

its

appearance here should point to the same period as


in

occurrence
fragment.
or eighth

Karaite and

Samaritan law and as


the
latter

in the

Zadokite
seventh

All

proves

that

originated

in

the

century.

But there

is

much

earlier reference to a heretical teaching


fish.

about the slaughtering of


41

Several parallel passages in the


138,

Hirschfeld in JQR., XIX,

1907, p.

note 2 published from Kirkis-

ani's

Kitdb

al

Anwar

the passage to
fish

which Poznanski refers:

"The

exilarch

(Anan)

deduces a proof that


12

caught by Gentiles are prohibited,

from

Num.

11,

which applies in a

like

manner

to

cattle

and

fish.

Just as the

term UriB" implies that the slaughtering of sheep and

cattle

must be performed
fish

by a coreligionist, the word S^DX' teaches that "the gathering in" of


be done by a coreligionist.

should

And
9,

Daniel (Alkumisi) argues in a like manner,

on the strength of
fish

Genes.

4,

concerning

the

prohibition

of

eating

live

or such

(caught)

dead."

Hirschfeld adds:

Saadyah

finds

two flaws

in

the opinion of

Anan which he endeavors to expose (in the fragment quoted) at some length. I may add that as the well informed Kirkisani quoted only Anan and Daniel, he cannot have found anything similar in earlier sources
like the
41a
42

book of Sadduk.
is

See also 4 Ezra

6,

48.

Animal

the

translation

PPn

beast,

Lev.

17,

13.

vim

Bjiyn

Sax numtra xStr

ptaiu maarn but d*dh


JQ

jo

vsrmr Ahi

}& ik-\2}v ihvn Doa -pBtrS

\cn Den

ixna:tr

iSx
201,

norwa x^x ^rx:


3-

Tfiya

moaS

JOT

pXH,

see Israel Levi in REJ.,

LXI,

444

TH E JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


(of the fourth
to

Midrash" report that Jacob of Kefar Nibburaya


century")

taught

in

Tyre

that

firsh

required

slaughtering;
its

R.

Haggai who declared


of
stripes,

that teaching erroneous


I,

and

author worthy
fish

he

quoted Genes.

20

where birds and

are by

juxaposition shewn
cpyi
to

to be equal in law.

Evidently he interpreted

be an
to

accusative governed by 1V")" just as i"Pn C*D3 }'1E\


45

and birds
rabbis,

have been created out of the water just as

fish.

The

on the other hand, separated the second half of the verse

from the verb and taught that the birds were not created out of
water, but out of alluvial

mud 44

(Hullin 27b), and derived from

Num.

22 that
;

fish

required

nothing but catching.

It

is

not

reported that Jacob

Nibburaya was the author of that teaching,


it

or whether he adopted

from some existing

sect

nor

is it

evident
it

whether
sectarian,

it

appeared to R. Haggai novel or whether he knew

as

and

that

is

why
is

he.

declared the

Jewish

teacher

who
as
it

applied

it,

worthy of punishment.
not

Whatever
identical

the case, the teaching


rule,

of the Zadokite fragment

with that
splitting,

merely requires pouring out of the blood by


tering,

not slaugh-

a very essential difference pointing to materially different

derivations from an

unknown
to

source.
dealt

In addition to

this,

Jacob
of

of

Nibburaya

seems

have

only

with

the

question

slaughtering

fish,

while the fragment also adds: But

all

the locusts

43

Genes,
3;
.

r.,

7,
r.,

2;
7,

Pesikta rab.,
23

XIV, 61a; Tanhuma

B.

npin,

15,

Num.
2py*

r.,

19,

Kohel.

(Bacher, Pal. Amoraer, III, 711):


ai j?p
. .

IBD B"X

i2x
.

pS

xn

n*S nStr rvS

on

n^na* piyu non iisa min ijnw:


jo

Krvmm mn po
epyi nn be:

ion

pS

wvnw
c]
.

xnSn

ieni

bwm
j
.

12
rvS

,rvS

bjdij*'

p&
.

o 4 n ix*ib d*piSk

lawn a*nn
nu'nc
*S

mr\
cpj?

ion
Sy

nmn
enc"

nS rvS nM

name
njni

paiyo dot

pyta

noi

pn
.

ixsn anai iS jnin


,nnS soi

jpn

n*S

ion

jhib nx pan nS io
one**

au

nm spw
IBtfl
p.

d^h jn Sa

nx otn onS nsei onS


*idx
.

ipai

MBfaiiS itae
44

mm

qm
LI,
is

loan
note

man
24.

^dk* xSn )3 a*n3 pK.

S<(

Schechter,
TJullin

45

In

27b there
the

reported

question of
to

according
20:

to

the com-

Pp'ltMlp
Icai

hegemon addressed

R.
1,

Gamaliel or R. Johanan
birds were created

about

the

contradiction
2,

between Genes.

out
rabbi

of

the

water,

and

19:

birds were

created out of the earth;

and the
disciples,

created out of the alluvial


<

mud;

to

his

r,

he says thai

they were created out of the water.

SCHECHTER'S JEWISH SECTARIES


after their kind shall
still

BUCHI,EK
6

445

come

into fire or into water whilst they arc


their creation."

living, for this is the

manner of

On

this very

strange law not even Pirke R. Eliezer agree with the fragment;41

Schechter suggests

that,

according to our author, the elements of

water and

fire

are to be found in the composition of the locust,


fire.

hence they shall be killed by water or

But since

fish

which

was created out of the water, was not


by
splitting,
it

to be killed

by water, buc
his
rule.

seems that some other principle underlay


first

Every animal must


creature;
as

be killed, in order to cease to be a living

the

locust

has

no blood,

no

knife

nor any sharp

instrument need or must be used, so that only drowning or burning


as
is

left.

According to Pirke

di

R. Eliezer also the locust, just


requires, beside

fish,

was created out of the water and therefore


pouring out of
in
its

killing,

blood,

i.

e.

splitting.

48

Another law
to

the

Zadokite fragment seems to point even

much

earlier times.

The second

of the three sins


(5,

for which
49

the author strongly blames his opponents

6),

is

this:

They
Sr

48

ofivo

xin

*2 Dn

en np

c>r22

ix

trx2

ix::*

0,^:^2

n^nn

onx>72.
47

The Samaritan Ibrahim

b.

Jacob (Wreschner,
to

p.

52)

says that scholars

hand down that the locust has


48

be killed in water.
in

According

to

"IHDJjn

1ED

nt5nB*

niaSn,
while

Saadia
fish

himself

taught

that

dead locusts
R.

were

prohibited

for

food,
to

found

dead

were

permitted.

Hai Gaon who was asked


to

account for this inconsistency of

Saadia, in a

Responsum
that
b.

the

Jews of Sijilmessa replied that he had never


locusts

before
R.

heard

Saadia

prohibited
Epistola,

found
p.

dead

(B.

Goldberg,
in

Jehuda

Koreisch
II,

Introduction,

XVII,

Harkavy

Horodezky's
acteristic

pUPl,

888),

R.

Hai concludes

his

argument by the char-

words:

T3 npzrh
to

ix ;nS 'oixo

ntpneh tom

nmcx

D*no TDKI {WO

7X12"

are the locusts to be alive in order to be slaughtered or to be strangled


It

by a Jew?

seems

me

that he had in

mind

the respective representatives of

the two views that locusts must either be slaughtered or strangled by a Jew,
the
also

one taught by Jacob of Kefar Nibburaya, the other by Karaites.


Kirkisani
p.

See

against
10,

Saadia in Poznariski,
II,

The Karaite
43, 45;

literary

Opponents

of Saadiah,
7349

and Ginzberg, Geonica,

Ponariski, in ZfhB., IV,

nxnn ny

D33ian

mina c^nrrs nn p

ntrx

anpon n dkdbo

c;i

nsn? ct nx.

446

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

also contaminate the sanctuary, as they separate not according to

the

Law and

lie

with her
further

who

sees the blood of her issue."

As

he has given no

explanation of his charge, nor of the


it

sinful observance of the other side,

is

difficult to see

with

whom

he sided; for there was an essential difference between Rabbanites,


Samaritans, and Karaites about the law of the menstruous woman.

Schechter

did

not

pursue

the

matter,

but

merely

referred

to
to

Wreschner's

thorough
4,
1

chapter

on

the

subject.

According
stricter

Mishnah Xiddah
rabbis

the Samaritan

women were
color

than the

and
60

considered

blood of
this
strict

every

levitically unclean.

R. Meir
thing,

remarks that

observance

would be a

great

if

the consequences of the strictness would not lead to a

serious mistake, inasmuch as the Samaritan

women

include in the
is

week of purity the day on which they notice blood, which

according to the rabbis levitically clean, and consider themselves


clean

before the

time.

According to another explanation, they


first

count the day on which the bleeding stopped as the


purification.

of the
in

Samaritan would, consequently,

feel

justified

charging the rabbis and their followers with acting against the

law by treating a
yellow blood as
4, 2,

woman on
still

the

first

day of her showing green or


to

clean.

Now, according
followed
the

Mishnah Niddah
view.
61

also the

Sadducees

Samaritan

One
are

teacher of the second century remarks that Sadducee


in this

women
if

respect to be considered
if

exactly the

same as

Samaritan
they

women,

they adhere to the ways of their fathers, but

give those up and walk in Jewish ways, they are like Jewesses.
R. Jose says
:

They are always


to

to be considered Jewesses, unless

they

resolve

walk

in the

ways of

their

fathers.

Now,

the

teachers discussing the position of Sadducee

women

lived in the

second century, so that their opinions would appear to be merely

60

Niddah 33a:
.

rttpfl

D11 CT Sa

Sj?

matPfl

|fl

DK 1KO

3"1

10X K*3n

Di'

ins i2i

piv

mS

inix

ma'Swai din dt msnir xhx

]rh

mn

nfina

51

itsne

rwniaa
|n

jn nn "iniN

jppman yna roSS umtr ]otn


dv ai
.

rpm
aria

rnaa

t;

imSmvo

cX'S
1

tvhmv*2

;n

^n

hveiv*

^b

|nman ama nsS ?

iBnty.

SCHECHTER'S JEWISH SECTARIES


theory.

BUCHLER
52

447

But

in the

Talmud

a Baraita reports

"Once a Sadducee,
on the garments of
to inquire

in conversation in the street,

happened

to spit

a highpriest; the latter

was very much upset and went

of his wife about the observance of the purity law on the part of

Sadducee women.

She told him: Though they are the wives of

Sadducees, they are afraid of the Pharisees and show their blood
to the scholars.

According

to

R. Jose, she said:

We
The

know them

very well, they show their blood to the scholars, except one
in

woman
is

our

street

who

refused

to

do so and died."

incident

reported by the same scholar

who

stated the

rule,

and thus we

learn of the actual observance of Sadducee the destruction of the Temple.

women

not long before

And when

the Zadokite fragment

blames

the
it

opponents
could

for

having

intercourse

with

menstruous

women,

mean

the Sadducees who, against their

own

law,

accepted the rule of the Pharisees, and, after defiling themselves

by following new Pharisaic practice, defiled the sanctuary.

The

express reference to the Temple seems to support that date and


to

prove the book as having been composed before the year


the other hand,

70.

On

we know
63

that not only Samaritans

and Jews

in the

twelfth

century

differed

on the same point, but also the


attacked the Karaites on

Karaites of the same time.


this point,
it

As Saadia

is

very probable that already

taught the Sadducee view; and as Kirkisani,


the

Anan had adopted and when dealing with


Sadduk,
this

matter,

does not refer to the book of


it.

source

probably contained nothing about

As BHpD can mean


is

the syna-

gogue
as
to

to

which according to Anan the same laws of purity apply


the Temple,
5,
54

the court of
33b,

there
;na
Sitji

no argument or proof

m Niddah

Tos.

3:

pitrs

Snj
Sy

dj?

ieow inx 'pma rwyn

mpi Snj
nvna\

jna Sir ras

^pnirn
;n

.inaa

|naS nSeai
Sj?

vbo

mm
. .

ntnai

Dttrhsn \n

nixvna
{a

D*pro
i:x

twtr s

qx

iS

mo
pn

intra ^sx

mjno

oro

San

viv

jna

ppa

dv

n inx
ntro

n>03nS

on

nnoi vnznh

nnxnn xSc t^naiava

nmrw nnx

DoanS.

53 Wreschner, In addition to this, Samar. Traditionen, p. 30 and 33Abulfath reports that the Dositheans altered the time of reckoning the days

of

the

purification

of

women, inasmuch

as

the

woman

should commence to

count them only from the day following the bleeding, as the festivals extend

from evening
54

to

evening.
p.

Harkavy, Anan,

53

ff-

448

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


from the consideration of other
legal

against the conclusion derived


points
that

the

Zadokite fragment was composed shortly before

the time of Anan.

Another halakah concerning the law of

levitical purity

deserves
or

some

attention,

though rabbinic literature affords no


55
:

parallel

illustration.

Immediately after the law prescribing the splitting

of fish and killing of locust,

we read

"And
their

all

wood and

stones
shall

and dust which


be
polluted
like

will be polluted

by the uncleanliness of
uncleanness

man
states,

them

according to

shall

be
the

unclean he

who

toucheth them."

First,

as

Schechter

things mentioned are in


stuff

rabbinic law not defilable, being merely


56

not shaped into a vessel or a tool.


it

But even granted that

such can be defiled,


of

is

against rabbinic rule that the uncleanness


its

man
3

should be several times transferred and retain

original

degree of impurity; for DlXil riXEIB includes according to Levit.


5,

and

22, 4,

several kinds of defilement which are not

all

of
its

equal

power.

Of

those

only a dead

human body

transfers

impurity to a person and he, in his turn, transfers the acquired impurity to a vessel, but not to another person.
Vessels defiled

by a dead
to

human body
is

transfer their impurity to other vesels or

person

unchanged,
reduced
;

but

in

third instance the degree of


its

uncleanness

an earthenware vessel cannot transfer


57

impurity without reduction.

Only

if

meant exclusively a defilement by a

we assume dead human

that the author

body, does the

unchanged transference of the impurity of things to a person who


touched them,
agree

with

rabbinic

law 58 as
of

represented

in

the

halakic Midrash by rabbis of

the

school

Jamnia and Lydda.


the destruction of

We

do not know whether


If,

it

was taught before

the Temple.

however, the author of the Zadokite fragment


is

referred to
in

all

kinds of impurity of man, there

no

parallel except

the

book of Munajja, the Samaritan of the twelfth century,


i2,

p.

15:

'Six:6 dispi nxDtta

iSkw

~ib>x

iBj?m

D*aani

n^yn

Sai

C2 JWun KDB 1 OnxO^ B3


reada

Cm
be-

lOtr.

Instead

of

Dnn

1BB> SlaS

Schechter

DniD3 )SwJ*.
not

M Should
47

CT;r\ ^31
J*I2

emended
5.

into

O'Syn

^31 V

Maimonides,
Sifre,

nXEl-

Num.

158,

on Num.

31,

24,

and

parallels,

Sifre,

Num.

130,

127.

SCHECHTER
who emphasizes
ad infinitum. 69
I

JEWISH SECTARIES

BUCHLER
defiled

449

against the

Jews that things

transfer in

their turn the defilement to other things, these to others

and so

remember no reference

in the

Talmudic

literature

which would indicate the existence of such a rule


Babylon
in

in Palestine or

the

first

five

centuries of the present era,

and even

among

the Samaritans, to
80

my

knowledge,

it

is

not reported before

the twelfth century.

NOT DOSITHEAN

The examination
the
is

of

some of the halakic

parts of the Zadokite

fragment confirms the conclusion derived from a comparison of

book with the

details preserved of the


its

book of Sadduk: there


composition in the
first

nothing to prove
there
is

early origin or

its

century;

not

one

among
there

the laws discussed cogently

demanding for

its

existence
;

and practice any time before the


is

seventh or eighth century

no evidence so far for the


to establish a

Sadducean character of the book, none

relation of

the fragment to the Sadducees of the time of the Temple, nor to

the book of Sadduk.


to prove that
it

Some

of the details inquired into go even


the time

was composed about

when Anan founded


from the body
parallels
in
its

Karaism and when several other


of

sects

separated

Judaism.

Its

peculiarities

in

the

Halakah have
times,

Karaitic
89

and

in

Samaritan law of
Samar.
Tradiiionen,

later

thus defining
the

Wreschner,

XXIV.

It

is

Samaritans

only

who consider even


ner,

the dust touched by non-Samaritans defiled; see Itinerarium


p.

Antonini, ed. Geyer,

164,

Kaufmann's Gedenkbuch,

p.

16,

note

1;

Wresch-

XVI.
60

Perhaps Sifra on Levit.


that law.
It

5,

2,

p.

22d,

12 could be interpreted to have


yjfl "ItTX tTEi IN

known
rh2S2

reads:

D^lCXin D^pTPl KOB 12T S22

imS m&Sn 2n m manis paoa


,nsr2r^n

pja nx

iSen

Via'

cnoix

in

Vtftr "i2i ks*

ma

ptr pinwa iSk ns

,pc

nSs:2 riEm n^aaa rvn


first

nKOTCn 2X

Early scholars limited the defiling power of impurities to the


It

sources of such, and excluded transferred uncleanness.

would seem that

before those scholars any impurity of lower degree could be transferred to man.

But we know nothing of such a view.


Alphabeta
96,

Judah Hadassi

in

1B13J1

713CX,
de-

end,

p.

41c,

reports

that

Samaritans wash after a

slight

filement; the

same

97, beginning, in both cases in the

name

of David Almukmis.

Schorr in

pSnn

VII,

37

quotes the

Persian religious law in which stone


to

and

earthenware vessels are most

liable

defilement.

450

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

character as non-Rabbinic; but they are not sufficiently distinctive


to

determine
(p.

in

positive
ff.)

way

its

position

among

the

sects.

Schechter

XXII

suggests that our book represented the


;

view of the sect of the Dositheans

but the material at our disis

posal about this branch of the Samaritans arrayed by him,

not

only not conclusive, but has not even a real parallel in our frag-

ment.

For the months of

thirty

days in

the

calendar of

the
to

Dositheans cannot be traced, as was shown, in our book.


their
strictness
in

As

the

observance of the Sabbath,

it

is

strange

that just the details reported by

some Fathers of the Church and


are,

by Abulfath

in

their

characterization of the Dositheans,

as

Schechter also notes,

not to

be

found

in

the

fragment.

The

former would not move on the Sabbath from their places or their
position;
to
61

p.

n,

our author only prohibits to follow one's cattle

feed

it

outside the

town further than 2000

cubits.

According

to Abulfath, the Dositheans taught that one

must not drink on the


one must not

Sabbath from vessels of metal or glass; our fragment forbids to

draw water

in

a vessel.

The Dositheans

say, that

feed the cattle or give them to drink on the Sabbath, but the food

should be placed before them on Friday; our author allows to


drive the animals outside the town.

Only the peculiarity stated


marrying a

by Epiphanius that some of the Dositheans abstain from a second


marriage,

has

parallel in the
first is still
all

prohibition

against

second wife while the


certain.

alive; but even that is not quite

On

the other hand,

other distinctive laws of the Dosi-

theans

cannot be traced in our book.

Though

Dr.

Kohler has

accepted

and
it

pursued

the idea

of the

Dosithean

origin of the

fragment,

appears to
(p.

me

far

from being proved.

Schechter
ing the

XVIII)

also says: "Likewise, the laws concernsect,

Sabbath that play such an important part with the


with those
given in
the

agree in the main

Book
from

of

Jubilees to

which also the Samaritan and Karaitic code offer some important
parallels,

but they

differ

in

many

respects

the

Pharisaic

code."
in the

Considering the unique position which that book occupies


Apocalyptic Literature, the agreement of our fragment with

those laws would certainly tend to indicate the character of our

61

Hilgenfeld,

Kctscrgeschichte,

p.

157.

SCHECHTER
book.

JEWISH SECTARIES

BUCIIIJ.k

451

But already a
p.

superficial

examination of the Sabbath laws

from

10,

14 to 11, 18 reveals full


in

agreement of the

details

with

rabbinic law

the

Talmud, but with none of the characteristic


First

prohibitions of Jubil. 50.

we should expect
50,

the prohibition of
the

intercourse

with one's wife

(Jubil.

8),

all

more

as

the

Samaritans 62 and the Karaites from the times of Anan 63


observed
circle
it.

strictly

Its

omission

tells

us

more than other laws about

the

from which our fragment could not have proceeded.


the

We

know from

Mishnah Nedar.

3,

10 that the Sadducees did not


;

agree on this point with the Samaritans

and as Kirkisani, when

dealing with the matter, only mentions Anan, but not the book of

Sadduk,

64

we may
of

infer

that

neit'her

Sadducees

nor

Zadokites

knew anything
to the

the

prohibition.
is

Another prohibition peculiar

Book
(50,

of Jubilees
12).

that against fasting and fighting on the


b*<

Sabbath

Schechter suggests that in 131V1D B"N 3"iyJT

fQCa
but
it

(11, 4)

the second

word should read


religious

ny""UT

starve oneself;

would be strange that

fasting should have been


it

expressed in this way, apart from the consideration that


in

is

put

rather

unsuitable

group of laws. 15

The
in the

prohibitions which

the fragment has in


law,

common

with Jubilees and rabbinic, or Karaitic

would naturally have been arranged


if this

same or

a similar

order, as Jubilees have them,

book had,

as Schechter thinks,

influenced the long

list

of

prohibitions

concerning the

Sabbath.

There
that

is

much
of

closer relation between the non-rabbinic laws in


is

list

and the Samaritans and Karaites than there

between them
assumption

and the
that
62

Book

Jubilees; yet

nothing
it

justifies
is

the

it

was Sadducean.

As

to the rest,

the rabbinic law: the

Schorr in |>1?nn, VI, 30

ff.

proved that already the Samaritans in the

times of the Mishnah observed

it,

and
the

the

rabbis

in

opposition

to

them

recommended such intercourse on


Ezra
to eat garlic

Sabbath

and that the institution of


820, p. Megillah, 4, 75a, 27)

on Friday night (Baba


See
p.

kamma

was

for

this

purpose.

also

Kirchheim,

JTIQIC

B*13

27;

Frankel.

Einfluss der pal.


63

Exegese,
% ]

252.
ff-

See Schorr in

lSnn, VI, 31

64

Harkavy

in

Gratz,

Geschichtc,

IV,

478
it

says

that

Anan

took

the

prohibition

from the Sadducees who derived


this;

from

PDN^G

FIB^H

X?,

but mentions no source for


65

where

is

it

to

be found?

Unless

5,

the dirty garments are those of

mourning and

fasting.

45-

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


when before
nightfall the

fixing of the time

Sabbath begins, not

to talk useless things, not to discuss matters to be

done on Sunday,
city,

not

to

walk beyond two thousand cubits outside the


in

not

to

draw water
not
to

a vessel,

not to ask a non-Jew to do one's work,

put

on

soiled

garments,
in

or

such

as

were brought by a

non-Jew unless washed


to

water or rubbed with brickdust, 69 not


place

spend

the

Sabbath

in a

inhabited by non-Jews, not to

drive cattle beyond


strike
it,

two thousand cubits outside the town, not to

not to carry anything from or into the house, not to open

a stuck vessel, not to carry outside ine house spices, not to take

up a stone or earth, not to carry a

child,

not to provoke a servant,


fell

not to assist an animal in casting or one that

into a pit, etc.

The author seems

to

have known not merely the earlier Halakah

of the rabbis, but, exactly as Anan, he

knew

the

Talmud

itself,

the

laws of which he adopted either without any change or in making

some of them

stricter.

RABBINIC INFLUENCE

That he knew rabbinic law,

is

evident from his attitude towards


:

the privileged position of the priest (13, 2)


arise ten, the

man 67 who
defiled

is

a priest learned in the

"And when Book


for

there will

of

Hagu 68

66

They are

by the non-Jew and not


purity.
P131S7
is

fit

the

Sabbath which

is

considered
Shabbat.
67

holy,

of holy

not incense, but as

Nfl^S IDy
BN
in

in

506 ntP KMa'sS 1BJ?


is

mirf 31 10 powder
]7\3

of a pounded brick.

W<X

not
is
is

the
to

Mishnic SlIJ
be translated

'tTN, but,

as
ttN.
7:

DlSn

the

next line shows,


68

as
in

D^n^PI
10,

]t2

The book
H1D31

mentioned again
"judges
so

and

14,

*1DD2 D'JSl^O

71W
The

tl'ian
of
the

Unn

may
the

be versed in this book and the teachings

covenant";

and

the
it

priest

must be versed
itself
is

in
to

this

book.

nearest would be to see in

Torah

which has
supported

guide the priest

and

the

judge
(7.

in

their
)

decisions.

This

by the addition of

r.^in
sect.

HID'

5 11

which mean the special laws of the covenant of the

was

the other hand, we find that the wording of the laws in the Torah some instances differently interpreted by them, as in the marriage law, levitical purity, Sabbath, and holidays, so that the members are expected
in

On

to

act

minn

eniea

8;

6,

18,

20.

Now we
shall

find

in

13,

minn

time

immediately after

UAH
thai

"1BD3,

"the

trpSE

teach the ignorant priest in

case he has to decide a question of leprosy, the interpretation of the Torah."

From

this

it

set ins

i;n

1ED

means the Torah with the interpretation

SCHECHTER
shall

JEWISH SECTARIES
to
all

BUCHLER
all

453
be ruled.
is

not depart.
if

According

his

word

shall they

And
camp
there

he

is

not versed in
it

these but

versed in these, then


shall
is

is

his lot that all


in

a man of those who


his

the Levites

enter into the

go out and come


a

according to

word.

And
shall

if

in

man

a question concerning the law of leprosy, then

the priest shall go and stand in the


struct

camp and
law
for
;

the "lp3D
if

in-

him

in the interpretation of the

and
unto

he

is

ignorant,

he

(the

priest)

shall

shut

him

up,

them belongs the


of

Judgment."
the

Already Schechter refers to

Hillel's interpretation

same law 69 who admits that

a priest, even an insane one,

must

pronounce the purity or impurity of the man, but only, after he

was instructed by a

scholar.

The same

is

the

attitude

of

our

author, and he seems to have adopted the rabbinic Halakah, merely


substituting TID for noiC*.
70

Now, from

a parallel

71

we

learn that

this influence of the scholar in the decision of

an ignorant priest As
this
is

of the

teachers of the sect, as in 20,

mini"!
it

ttmB

identical
rnifi

with oral law and the author would not use for

the rabbinic

HE S^SC

he invented this
difficulty,

artificial

denotation.

Its

meaning can be derived, without


10,

from the rabbinic

run

pronounce, Sanhedrin
with

1:
p.

J"lX

n^nn

VnvniNn
4,
74(1,

UVn, which

is

identical

CHE

in

EmEBH

QV.

Megillah,

50:

xmpi veb

runn xn* xS
,

k"itj,d

n-nn2 S*;n iSsx

pronounce

orally.

Comp. CipT DJ7B


3 roi

p.

57,

where R. Hai writes: l^maXl 13*m21 731

pnyiB

xSx

nnmx

px

|na?tf3i .S222 arrison


;>xi
is,

qv vdthS cnoix
inx^np:: xin

ms nym ntrnpa xSx mix fnaix nOX Xm pjjfl nj? S32 xSl. It
as

inxS nnxB niDBi


therefore,

uium
the

exactly

same statement
>2T\2

Anan's

(Harkavy

p.

22)

XJVniX IBJbS |3*nO XvS

hi

"P^H

ntrivEi.
69

Sifra on Lev.
1

13,

2,

p.

60b,

8,

Negaim

3,

1.:

mmBI

MIIDH9 |K IbSS
.

;hd djwmi nx mm Sxnt^ntr oan ,W3 xn Sj? n paS ""31** iibx now b. Ana ibix mm iina mas ,db wim mm oo
70

bb xSx

It

is

true,

we

find

TIB

in

similar
it

meaning
by

in

Ezek.

45,

20

B*KD

nBBl nttW

where the Targum renders

trEBBl
;

=
P-

foolish,

and even

with the verb


71

pnn

in
6,

Ps.
1,

119,

130
67;

D"DB
Sifra

|3B

yet
13,

it

seems here different.


66rf,

p.

Pesahim
1,

33a,

on Lev.
.

37,

15,

Tos.

Negaim

16:

-fri

IDS' Si^
-ibx

mn win
jnan
xin

fcae SSn
^x
.

nSj?

onan r6

-y

lima xbb hy pan

dx

Std>

nnw
win

jnan

nnm
lino

^biS Tiofrn iS

SnnB SSn
Zeitschrift,

nSj? nt
II,

fy |fn nnoi
if.

ibiS -naSn

xn\

Geiger,

46

454

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

and, at the same time, the careful preservation of the privilege of


the priest in his formal declaration

was due

to Hillel.

An

author

who adopted
is

this law,
p.

can hardly have been a Sadducee.


8 where he prohibits to
sell

The same
non-Jew

evident from
animals,

12,

to a

clean

for they might be bought for sacrificial purposes.


it

The

rabbis prohibited the same," as

seems, soon after the de-

struction

of

the

Temple;
it

and,

if

the

author

of

the Zadokite

fragment borrowed
ten
it

from rabbinic sources, he cannot have writ70.

before the year

much
p.

later date is indicated


20,

by the
deeds

reference to excommunication on
shall

appear according to the

walk the men of perfection

"And when interpretation of the Law of holiness, no man shall


6:

his in

which

associate

with him in wealth and labor,

for the saints of the most

High

above cursed him."


to

No

such

exclusion
78
;

from

society

is

known

me

before the time of the Tannas

and the reason given for

the prohibition against having business dealings with the banned:

"for the saints of the most


as
I

High have cursed him,"


in

has,

as
di

far

remember, some kind of a parallel only


7

the

Pirke

R.

Eliezer

*
75

and
It

in
is

Responsa of the Gaons of the tenth and eleventh


hardly
it

century.

accidental

that

just

that

book

offers

similar detail, as

contains a parallel to the pouring out of the

Abodah Zarah
D*fttj?

1,

16:

DlpB jnaiO naaS


Saai
.

Hp

Hna
jk

"IIDbS

Um
is

DipB

no; nana onS

D1D2 "VnO mJia


with R. Judah
there
7b.
is

paio jk nipa pi omatW D'Sb>


.

pain

iianS

nh& nmtr
identical

DnDl.

As Ben Bethera

b.

Bethera, the discussion took place between 90 and 140.


to the prohibition in the Baraita in

But

an earlier reference
iS

Abodah Zarah
oin: "pK

vpntr:

no

nante
the

jpn ibt did onS plain iniK

nan

wan

1DK2
old

JOl lain.

"Nahum

Mede

said:

We may

sell to

them a male and an

horse in time of war; his colleagues answered him: This statement has never been made by anybody (Rashi)." Nahum lived shortly before and after the destruction of the Temple (Tos. Baba batra o, 1 b.
;

Ketubbot 105a; Nazir


the
subject.
73

5,

4).

We know

nothing about an earlier treatment of

Moed katan
Ch.
51

150

ff.

7<

XXXVIII: pnnnn ;h na ninai jvbvn jn n*a mnai,


ff.

see rej..

X1JII,

" Aruch,
I
c,
p.

s.

v.

nDn,

III,

2290,

cmxjn

niaiVJI, ed. Lyck, No. 9; REJ..

52

ff.

SCHECHTER
blood of
fish.
70

JEWISH SECTARIES
to

BUCIILKR
p.

455

It

is

difficult
is

say which stage of development


20, 28:

of the confession of sin

represented by the formula

"we have
done

sinned,

perversely

we have committed wickedness, and we have (?), we and also our fathers, because they
laws of
the

walked contrary

to the

covenant,

and

true
to

is

thy

judgment against
9,

us."

The

last three

words correspond

Nehem.
78

23

which

verse

forms

part

of the Jewish confession.

The
to

synonyms for
in

sin are taken

from the form of the

same prayer

which

it

was preserved by European rabbis of the eleventh


79

the fourteenth centuries.

It

is

from the times of the Gaons and

possibly even earlier, since the highpriest in his confession in the


service in the

Temple

of Jerusalem also said three verbs for

sin.*

The author knew


before then.
81

the

confession
his

in

the liturgy of the

Jews

in

Talmudic times, therefore,

book could not have been composed

76 77

Above,

p.

442.

np cnaSa wmaM ns unjK "VEstro nasi nnan pna.


78

(?) u*ijn njrtm

i:xt:n

hx '3eS

mnn

Pesikta
iaS

rab.,

XXXV,

160:

13Xttn

UfUM SiX

,PITn

pB^a OnOlK DHl

nnsi

nic

xSi

tbdwdi -pnwoo inDi


a ia>Sy

wna wnn
p.

lapvi lajrann

wijm

uyann lanaw ny ncx


79

xnn ba Sv pns.
106 be says:

R.

Aaron

of Lunel in

0"n mmiK,
...

lOTSM 13XDTI hlH

no*
R.

kVi D*npn fya njn new mSi

-pmsoo inm

lappsi unjn i3*niaan


...

prnsoo inoi layvsi wnjn

lymam
in
Griitz's

i3n:x

Menahem

Meiri,

quoted
in

Monatsschrift,

uwan Sax yaS* ano db XXXVI, 412, says:


oa

7J?1

,naSn
...

mS ;:ix xSx

nn

vbo D*3uean

*ron

noia n*n

m im
/Qtf..

7!2Btroo lanoi ujranrn


80

wiyn i3a

ntton.
P-

See
2.

Yoma

3,

8;

Ibn Gayyat, ffllOV HJflPi

62;

Poznanski

in

X,

252,
81

This,

if

correct,

that

the

fragment
in

represents

would dispose of the suggestion of Dr. Margoliouth the view of the early Jewish-Christian com-

munity
out
this.

Damascus.
Epiphanius

But

to

meet

his

arguments,
says
that

it

is

necessary to point
Ebionites
like

(Haeres.

XXX,
(11,

2)

the

the

Samaritans avoid touching a non-Jew and bathe after cohabitation on getting


up.
.

This

agrees

with

our book

3;

II,

14),
is

though

exact

agreement

cannot be stated.
they jeer
at

Also the slight of King David

found with the Ebionites:


18).

and curse

David and Solomon (XXX,

But they extend

456
It

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


must further be pointed out that the author of the fragment
his
in

derives

new halakas not merely from an


It

interpretation

of

verses

the

Pentateuch, but also several times


is

from Prophets

and Hagiographa.

true,

Samuel
a

12,

9 the law that a


is

we find Shammai derive from II man who deputed another to commit


82

murder

responsible for the act;

but this

is

one of a very
all

few exceptions.
of the Bible of
is

That Sadducees should have considered


equal importance
for the

books

derivation

of

halakas,

nowhere reported; though the


b.

fact that the authorities in the

times of Hananiah

Hezekiah

b.

Garon intended

to exclude the

book of Ezekiel from the canon owing


Pentateuch,
stated
in
83

to its contradictions to the

indicates

that
I

some school emphasized


need hardly say

the

laws as
it

the prophets.

how improbable

is

that just the Sadducees should

have done

so.
all

On

the other

hand

we

find that

Anan
Is

derived his halakas from

parts of the Bible

indiscriminately, and
peculiarity.
84

Harkavy draws
agreement of

special atttention to this his

this

the

Zadokite

fragment

with

this

attitude
just

to

all

prophets,

Isaiah,

Jeremiah,

Daniel,

Ezekiel,

Elijah,
f.),

and
while
the

Elisha,

as

the

Samaritans
the

(Hilgenfeld,
respect
that

Ketzergeschichte,
for

431

our

fragment

evinces

highest
says

and

recognition

of

prophets.
times,

Epiphanius

further

the

Ebionites

married twice, three

even seven times; our author limits marriages.

They
not

reject all blood

sacrifices

(XXX,

16);

our

fragment

not

only

does

oppose

them,

but

prescribes
sect.

some and presupposes the existence of a

sacrificial

Temple of the

Similarities between the Christian organization in the Syriac Didascalia


in

and our fragment were emphasized by Dr. Kohler


of

the

American Journal
they
are

Theology,

191

1,

433;

they are

all

very interesting and deserve attention


but
the

on account of the geographical relations of the two books,


insufficient
to

explain our

fragment.

It

is

well

known

that

Didascalia

attacks the observance of the Ebionites

more

fiercely

than the practices of the

Jews.
82

Kiddushim 43a: vnSlCM 3'H


i*rfVt

N1PI

PB3n HN

Jllil

NX

iniStt'S

nOIXn >JH
.

njnn mix io:rr a*n

K*aan

^n

oitrs

naix

jprn

ikob>

"nob

pop oa
88

2^r\2.
13b.

Hagigah 13a; Shabbat


Anan,
p.

84

XI: D^lflSrfl DWatfl ioa

nBD nx

)}$ atMl D3Hi1

nxXlH pj?S

rvnvmxi
m*brr\

minn mSa
ana

cmnvnixi

orpmSoa p"ipi

wo

min.ioa

ma*

[Snprni

jwiw iedo) nS^o

wa

niEisa

nma nawa

SCHECHTER

JEWISH SECTARIES

BUCIILER
is

457
it,

Anan's consistent method of deriving laws accidental, or


several other points stated before, due to their

as

common
of

origin in

the eighth

century?

The haggadic
as exposition of

interpretation

prophetic

passages
instance
foolish

is

even more peculiar; and the mere reading of the one


7,

p.

14-21

Amos

5,

26,

27 reveals
in

it

as

and

without

the

remotest
is

parallel

even

the

freest

rabbinic

Haggadah. 85
interpretations
derivations.

There
it

in

Jewish literature nobody with


be

whose
halackic

could

compared,

except

Anan's

TEMPLE AND SACRIFICES

The accumulated evidence


fragment
sacrifices
is

for

the

late

composition of our
clear

strongly

opposed

by

several

references
states:

to

apparently
is

still

practised.

Thus

9,

13

"If

any

recompense

made

for that which has no owners, he


it

who makes
belong
17:

the recompense shall confess to the priest, and


to him, besides the

shall all

ram
the

of the guilt-offering."

And n,

"No
your
or

man

shall

bring anything on the altar on the Sabbath, save the


of

burnt-offering

Sabbath,

for
to

it

is

written,

Save

Sabbaths..

No man

shall

send

the

altar

burnt-offerings

meat-offerings or

frank-incense or

wood through
shall
lie

the hand of ?

man contaminated by any


inate

of the uncleanness, allowing to contam-

the altar...,"

12,

1:

"No man
in 16, 13

with a

woman

in

the city of the Sanctuary to contaminate the city of the Sanctuary

by their uncleanness."

no man

shall

And vow anything

"As

to the

law of offering,

for the altar under compulsion; nor


Israelites."

shall the priests take

anything from the

As
life,

all

these

rules are placed between laws concerning everyday

there can

be no doubt that they were given in order to be practised.

They
is

were addressed
devoted, and
side
their
in

to the colony in

Damascus

to

which our book

we

learn

from them that those Jews


in

sacrificed out-

central

sanctuary

Palestine.

Whether they
Temple
in

lived

there
still

the
it

seventh

century

or

when

the

Jerusalem

stood,

was equally strange and irregular


Again

that they brought

sacrifices
still

in

Damascus, or even more unlawful when the Temple


it

existed.

is

more probable

that

such worship was

45$
introduced in
Palestine, than

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Damascus
that
it

as

continuation

of that

practised in

had ceased

to

was the resumption of an old custom that be observed. This would suggest either Jerusalem
70,

and
the

Judea before the year

or

Shechem and Samaria before


all

time when the Samaritans ceased bringing


in

the

sacrifices

prescribed

the

Torah.

As we

learn

from Abulfath that the


to burn, char, or
sacrifices,"*

Emperor Zeno (474-491) forbade the Samaritans


destroy anything with
fire,

which meant the offering of

the reference of the Zadokite fragment could in that case allude


to

conditions

before

the

year

486.
is

But whether and


not reported;
the
it

when

the

sacrifices

were after that resumed,


improbable
that
to

would not
in

appear

the

Moslems gave

Samaritans

Shechem permission

sacrifice.

The
in

place
say,

whence the
not

colonists

in

Damascus emigrated,

is,

strange to

mentioned, though several times referred to

an apparently clear manner.


87

Jerusalem does not occur in the


(4, 3),
8,

book,

but the emigrants come from the land of Judah


(6,

yet
Is

they are never called Judeans, but Israelites


this

2 and

16).

merely the

biblical
in
(6,

style

of the prophet Ezekiel, or does he


It is true, in
1,

mean non-Judeans
and
its

Judea?
12)

he speaks of Israel

sanctuary

where he seems

to refer to the

kingdom

of Judea and the

Temple of Jerusalem,

as immediately after this


is

the delivery into the

hand of Nebuchadnezzar

mentioned.

The
to
all

leader of the

restored nation will be descended from Israel and


the nation itself
is

Aaron

(1, 7),

Israel

(1,

5;

4,
4,

4;
13;

3,
5,

19)

whom
Israel

a teacher of

falsehood preaches
(3,

(1,

14;

20);

goes astray

14)
Israel

and through the obedient God makes


(3,

new covenant with

13).

But most instructive

is

p.

7,

9-14

where the author

tells

us

that

God

visited

the land and

punished the wicked, the backsliders were killed by the sword,


while those
those
"

who

held fast to the laws escaped to the north; on

who

rejected the laws, the

words
112,

in

Isaiah

7,

17 about the

Montgomery, The Samaritans,


to

p.

explains the prohibition to refer


the

in

part

the
p.

peculiar

fire-purifications

prevalent amongst

Samaritans;

so also
87

on
p.

319.

But the

many

verbs clearly point to sacrifices.


*1'J?0

20,

22

in

the second

fragment we read
left

\XT

ItPM

jSb fV2Q

BHpn
in

the
1

group of separatists who

the

holy

city;
2,
1.

KHpH

1JJ

D^KW'

Isaiah

Bpeaks for Jerusalem, the same Nehem.

SCHECHTER
separation of

JEWISH SECTARIES

IHc

III.I.K

459
this

Ephraim from Judah were


:

fulfilled.

To

verse

he adds the comment

When

the

two houses of

Israel separated,

Ephraim departed from Judah and

the backsliders were killed by

the sword and the observant escaped to the land


It

of

the

north.

seems that the emigrants are denoted as Ephraim, correspond-

ing to the Israelites emigrating from the land of Judah.

We

only

know

of the Samaritans that they called themselves descendants


is

of Joseph and Israel; but nothing


settled in

known
of

of Samaritans

who

Judea before

the

destruction
in the fifth
88

the

second

Temple.

On
a

the other hand, there

was

century a large

commun-

ity of

Samaritans
in

in Caesarea,

at the time of the

Moslem conquest
Ashkelon, and

community

Lydda,
89

later in

Ramla,

in

Joppe,

Gaza, and, as inscriptions found show, also in Emmaus-Nicopolis


south-east of Lydda,

To

this

may

be

added that
I

Benjamin of
fully conscious

Tudela found
of
the

in

Damascus 400 Samaritans.


of

am
to
is

difficulties

assigning

our

fragment

Samaritan

author; the frequent reference to the prophets


to
in

quite sufficient

exclude a Samaritan.

But

see no

possibility

of accounting

any other way for the worship of

sacrifices in the

community

of emigrants in Damascus.

For

the

emigrants
nieces

were
to
still

commanded by our author


alive.

not to
first,
it

marry

their

and not

take another wife while the

after being divorced,


is true,

was

These two prohibitions,

could not be proved as parts of early Samaritan law; but


is

the
in

first

reported
ages.

as

having been observed by the Samaritans


this,

the middle

In addition to
intercourse
in

the

Zadokite fragment
the

prohibits

conjugal

the

city

of

sanctuary.

9.

Neither the Torah, nor rabbinic law knows of such a prohibition;

88

In

p.

Abodah Zarah
280-300)

5,

44^,

54

the

Samaritans of Caesarea ask


their

R.

Abahu Abhau
rejoiced.
89

(between
died
(p.

why

the
3,

Jews prohibited
42c,

food.

When

R.

Abodah

Zarah,

22)

in

Csesarea,

the

Samaritans

Montgomery, The Samaritans,


has

p.

148:

The reference
to
it

to

the
I

districts

of Apharema,
11,

Lydda, and Ramathem as belonging


do
with

Samaria in
with

Maccab.

34

nothing to

Samaritans;

deals

administrative

districts.

"

p.

12,

1:

tnprsn i*y n

mxh

enpon vya

iwh zy

-_

m,

x aaan ^x

orvm.

460

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


in

and not even the highpriest was

any way

restrained,

91

save
15,

in
to.

case he had to officiate next day in

accordance with Lev.

The

privileges of Jerusalem referring to the strict levitical purity

of the

Temple

city,

92

do

not

include

the
in

prohibition
this

mentioned.
stricter,
is

That the

Sadducee

highpriests

were

respect

nowhere indicated; the reverse follows from the incident with


the

highpriest

Matthiah
also

b.

Theophilos.
this

93

Our fragment,
view.
15,

conse-

quently,

represents

in

sectarian

Its

source
")>K
11,

seems
1HT

to.

have been the undefined wording in Lev.

16

Nvn

H23V 13EC
Though
the

which, identified or compared with Deut. 23,

could be interpreted to

Temple.

mean that every kind of issue defiled know nothing about the respective law of
of
Kirkisani
purity

the the
to

Samaritans,
their
strict

references
of

and Judah Hadassi


justify

observance

levitical

the

suggestion
or belonged

that the prohibition quoted


to a similar

may have been Samaritan


Jerusalem

unknown

sect.

For the assumption that


a whole temple for bringing
difficult.

priests

of

in

the

first

century before the current era should have founded an altar or


sacrifices
in

Damascus
its

is

not

less

Apart

from the consideration of


of
the
94

unlawful

nature

which could now, after the discovery


papyri,

Egyptian

Aramaic
life

be minimized,

the

sources dealing with religious


the

in

Damascus are
sacrifices
in

clearly
city.

against

existence
II,

of a
2)

temple
reports

with
that

that

Josephus (Wars

20,

there lived in that city ten thousand or eighteen thousand


8,

(VII,

7)

Jews, and that most of the non-Jewish

women

observed the
II,

Jewish laws.
39)
as

What

is

meant by
is

this,

he describes (C. Apion.


of the

follows:

"There

no

city

either

Greeks

or

of

Barbarians or anywhere, nor a people to which the celebration of


the

Sabbath,

as

we have

it,

has not come, and where the fast

and the lighting of candles and many of our dietary laws are not
91

Josephus, Antiq. XYTT,


1, 1,

6,

4; Tos.

Yoma

1,

4; b.

12b, p. 2, 38**;

comp.

Y/oma 6a; Tos.


92

R.
6,

Judah

b.

Bethera.

Tos.
,

Negaim

2;

Baba kam. 82b; Abot R. Nathan,


1911,
6,

XXXV,
30.

52b; 2nd

XXXIX,

54c; Antiq.

RBJ.,

LXII,
4.

201,

1912,

LXII,

93

Josephus,

XVII,

94

They could have referred

to

Zechar.

9.

"pin

pK3

"

inrnJB pyoii.

SCHECHTER'S JEWISH SECTARIES


observed."
Sacrifices of
e silentio
is

BUCKLER
to;

461

Jews are not referred


not conclusive,
it

and though an

argumentum
the year

is

certain that

Jews

in

Damascus had no sanctuary, nor an


70.

altar

for

sacrifices

before

Of
a

course,

it

could be assumed that a small sect


in the great

would not have been noticed


sacrificing;

community of Jews not

yet

temple with an altar would not have escaped

the attention of Josephus.

Apart from

this,

the laws prescribed


has, as

for the founders of the temple reflect a


far
as
I

community which
times,

know, no

parallel

in

Roman

and an organiza-

tion of a Jewish colony

which appears unique.


5)

They
(9,

lived in the
1,

land of Damascus
6-11;
14,

(1.

19.

among non-Jews

1;

2,

3;

12,

5),

inhabited several cities termed cities of Israel


rTUriE
(7,

(12,
19,

19; 11, 5), but also in several other places called

2;

13,

20;

14,

3.

9;

10,

24;

13, 7.

13.

13)

which seem
lived
in

to be smaller
in
cities;

settlements,

perhaps villages.
9)
:

Most of them
camps

for

he says

(7,

"And
95

if

they settle in

accordance with
shall
9,

the usage of the land.

and take wives and beget children, they

walk according
11,

to
(11,

the Law."
12;
12,

They owned

fields

(10,

20;
cattle

9;
(12, (11,

5),
5.

slaves
13),

10),

male and female, and


9); they hired
nurses
for

8; 11,
12),

and fowls
(11,

(12, 8.

men

for

work
(11,

also

non-Jews

2),

and

children

11).

Some

of the slaves entered the covenant of


(12,

Abraham and were


to be sold to nondefile

not to be sold to non-Jews

10)

the fields yielded corn and

wine (and
Jews.

oil)

(12, 9, 10)

which also were not

The
fish

special

warning that they should not

themselves

with creeping animals, honey, and animals living in water, and


that

and locusts require


setlements

special

treatment,

clearly

indicates
to

that the

were

in

places

where such animals were

be found and

were used as food.


in

No

doubt,

the

members of

movable camps
us of

the

first

instance lived in this way, reminding

Arab Bedouins.
SETTLEMENTS AROUND DAMASCUS

So far the colonies


as to their existence
95

in

and around Damascus, though unknown


life,

and their mode of


other fragment
p.

offer

no great
\2W*
to

dif-

The
rVH

parallel
*1t?X

in

the

19,

^^2
country

flUMC 0X1
past.

OTpB

r'ISn,

assigns

the camps in

the

the

As

there must always have been villages, the word must then

mean camps.

462
ficulty.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


But when we read that desecrators of the Sabbath and

of the holy days shall not be killed but excluded

from the conis

gregation

(12, 2-6),

and

in

another case

(9, 16)

that death

the

punishment, and one witness shall not be


to death
(12,

sufficient

for a sentence

1),

it

appears rather strange that they exercised the


life

far reaching
bers.

power over
the

and death even of

their

own mem
city

Though
not

Romans may have granted


a small

to

the

of

Damascus a high degree of autonomy,


certainly

body of Jews would

have obtained such legal independence.


tried his

Not even
the

Schiirer

who

utmost to prove that Jews


96

in

Roman

provinces had their

own
If
it

courts and exercised the right of auton-

omous

justice even in criminal cases,


is

can adduce an instance of

capital punishment.
its

the justice of the head of a clan in

camp, there

is

no

difficulty to
it

understand

it;

but

it

is

just this

loose organization

which

is difficult

to realize in the case of


first

Jews

who

are alleged to have left Jerusalem in the

century before,
into

or of, the current era

and should
(12, 6)

have turned
:

wandering
out his

Bedouins.

Further we read

"None

shall stretch

hand

to shed the blood of

any

the sake of wealth and gain.

man from among the Gentiles for Nor shall he take anything of their
unless

property in order that they blaspheme not,


of the congregation ("linn) of Israel."

by the counsel

Let anyone on these rules


;

form an opinion of the character of Jews

were they not a

tribe

exactly like the Arabs living in the desert of Arabia, and did they

not fight a neighboring non-Jewish tribe, killing or trying to


a

kill

member

of the latter or to rob their property?

What

does the

permission
colonies,

of

the

whole body of
it

Israel,

meaning naturally the


all

mean?

Was

the united council of

tribes that

had
for

to

give permission to take revenge on the neighboring tribe

bloodshed or theft?

Read the picture which Gratz 97 draws of the

Jewish tribes

in

Arabia shortly before

Mohammed, and you


of
the

will

be struck by the naturally close parallels with the passage quoted.

But

in

the

first

century nothing

is

known

existence

of

such tribes, especially around Damascus.

Now,

the settlers in the

cities,

and among those


in
4th
ff.

in

Damascus,

were of the same origin as those


M Geschichte
97

the camps, and observed the


edition,
p.

des

jiid.

Volkes,

III,
p.

114.

120.

Geschichte,

V, 4th edition,

76

SCHECHTER'S JEWISH SECTARIES


same
(9,

I'.l

III.1R

463

laws.
a

They formed

community
in

Snp

(12,

6),
(12,

had elders
1); in
all

4) and

common

temple

one of the

cities

cities

the laws concerning clean and unclean animals and levitical


19.

purity were observed (12,

20;

11,

19. 20,

22) of which those con-

cerning the defilement of a


rules (12, 15-18.
(12,
(6,
7, 3. 4.),

human dead body are specified in two holy and common things were distinguished
holy
heave-offerings
(9,
13.
15.

20),

as

in

Palestine

were
14,

separated
3.
5.

20; 14, 4), for they had priests

13, 2;

6),

learned
(13,

and ignorant

(13,

2.3),

and Levites who were learned


lost

3).

Debts that had no claimants, and


to

things recovered
(9,

that

were not claimed, were handed


special

the priests
altar

13-1

16).

The

warning against vows for the


offerings

and against the


the
priests
(16,

acceptance of
1

of

various

kinds

by

3~ 1 7),

indicates

the great influence of the priests over the colfear.

onists,

and their piety and

The

priests
98

and Levites were

represented on every court consisting of ten


(10,

members by four
inflicted,

5),

and some of the punishments which the courts


a

were

of

curious

levitical

character,
"If

and have no
acts

parallel in

Palestinian Jewish

literature.

man
known
"lp3E>
;

sinfully

against
it:
if
it

anything in the Torah and his fellow-man, only one sees


be a matter of death, he shall
"lp2D write
in
it

make

it

in his presence to the

giving

evidence before the


his hand.
it

and the "lp2E


it

shall

down with

When

he does

again before one


will

and

this also

informs of

the")p2D,

and

if

he

be
if

caught

again before one, his sentence shall be complete.

And

they are
shall

two and

the}''

witness against him another matter, the


if

man

be only excluded from the purification,

they are trustworthy

and the man


seen
it."

shall

inform of

it

the "Ip30 on the day

when he has
sufficient.

For complete evidence" two trustworthy witnesses are


from the
purification one
is

required, but for separating

"And there shall rise no witness before the judges to kill at his mouth whose days are not full to pass among them that are numNo man shall be believed as a bered, and who fears not God. witness against his fellowman who transgresses a word of the
98

Courts of ten members we find in


|SlD

Sanhedrin 76 where R. Joshua

b.

Levi says
ten

1K133

nSn
to

"iSip

JT3

]<2WV PHPy,
as
in

and R. Huna

called

scholars
99

when he had
9,

judge.

read in

22

n31!"in

evidence,

9,

3-

464

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


a high hand, unless he has repented."

commandment with
ing
the

Our

sources do not enable us to trace the origin of the rules concern-

evidence

of

one

witness;

exclusion from the purification.


be excluded
as
it

As

far as

we know nothing about an we know, no Jew could


after a defilement,
to

from the prescribed


the interest of the

purifications

was

in

community
the

have
is

his

impurity
in

removed.

On

the

other

hand,

question

raised

the

Talmud 100 whether


son
in

the peace-offering of an

excommunicated pervisit the

may

be sacrificed, though he was allowed to


101

Temple

Jerusalem.

By

refusing

purfication

the

colonists

excluded

the sinner from entering the sanctuary, perhaps even the city ot
the Temple.

Consistently with this "a

man who
if

will err to proit


it,

fane the Sabbath and the Feasts, shall not be put to death; but
is

upon the sons of man

to

watch him;

he will be healed of

they shall watch him for seven years and then he shall
the congregation"
(12, 3-6)
;

come

into

he

is

excluded from the whole comin

munity.

102

It is

noteworthy that in none of the cases


as

which the
of

author pronounces death

punishment

is

the

kind

death

defined, whereas, according to the scholion of the Megillat Ta'anit

to

the

14th

of

Tammuz,
in

the criminal code of the


it

Sadducees in
death.

each case clearly stated whether

was stoning or another

There was no section


know, ever had a Ipnn
cerning
rules
it

Palestinian Judaism that, as far as

we

at its

head or had even similar laws conthe

the

character

and

evidence

of

witnesses.

Those

seem

to belong to a non-Palestinian country

and people, and

is

not too far to suggest that they originated in the land of


the colony

Damascus where
Jewish

had

settled;
in the

and

it

is

not accidental
3

that similar details can be

found
in

Didascalia

a law-book

of

the

Christians

Syria,

which gives the Bpiscopus a

position similar to that of the *ip3)

and excludes sinners from the


It is

church on the evidence of single witnesses.


""
102

however the law

Moed katan
In
12,

156.

101

Middot

2,

2.

we

read:

Any man over whom


he
shall
is

the spirits of Belial will have

dominion

and

he

will

speak rebellion,
.

he judged according to the


death,
as
also

law of the
line

3^jn*1

21N
is

The punishment
to

the

following

shows; the sin

inciting people

idolatry,

just as in

the case of the

sorcc
10 *

See

Kohler

in

American Journal

of

Theology,

1911,

416

ff.

SCHECHTER'S JEWISH SECTARIES


of

BUCHLKR

465
of

Syria and not Christianity that accounts

for the presence

similar details in the

two books.

A
In
16,

offered on
1

specimen of a very strange interpretation of Num. 30 is p. 16 which, it seems to me, has been misunderstood.
the author says: "Therefore the

man

shall

impose upon
is

himself to return to the Torah of Moses,


explained.
104

for therein

clearly

And on

the day

himself to return to the


will

when the man will impose upon Torah of Moses, the angel Mastemah
if

depart

from behind him,


is

he will
it

fulfil

his

words."
the

The
author
7):

self-imposition

a vow,

and

that

must

be

kept,

derives from Deut. 23, 24 which he interprets as follows

(16,

"Every oath of binding oneself which a man imposes upon himself


to fulfil a
if
3.
it

commandment

in the

Torah, must not be annulled even

cost his life."

He

clearly translates "IDX

HPOW

in

Num.
fulfil

30,

14 as

an oath of that kind, for he goes on: "Everything that a


himself
life.

man imposes upon


even
[the
shall
if
it

(to transgress), he

must not

it,

cost his

And

every oath of a

woman

about which

Torah] said to her husband 105

to disallow her oath,

no man
it

disallow an oath of which he does not

know whether

is

to be confirmed or to be disallowed.

If the oath is to transgress


shall not confirm
it
it.

the covenant, he shall disallow

it

and he
If

The
find a

same

rule

applies

to

her

father."

were possible to
30,

representative of this interpretation of

Num.

the school could


is

be defined to which our author belonged.


in

But there

no trace

the whole passage

of the

slightest
;

opposition to the rabbinic

law about the dissolution of vows


the

for the rabbis taught exactly


to

same about

vow

to fulfil a

commandment and about one


vows
o.f

break the law; no dissolution applied to such.


can be adduced to the
erty
106

Similarly, parallels

list

of prohibitions against

prop-

to the altar
107

and

to the priests; the


fines the

the rabbis,

and our author

vow is termed vowing man (16, 17.


-,-^c;
4.

a sin by
18).

104

pipm
Read
to
16,

bin

.12

ntra

mm
15,

Sx
12

y\vh

-; tnnn

cip

-y;

instead of
106

"J0D3

read 1ITE3, see


,

and

16,

HtT^S 1DH 1BW


the
14

for

the contrast

in

16,

12

ir^xS requires a

reference
106

husband.

In

S^XE seems

to be

a mistake for S3

and another word.

107

Nedarim 22a, R. Nathan.

466
Of some

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


interest is also the

paragraph on the oath

(p. 15, 1-9).

The author not only

prohibits the use of the


in taking

most sacred name of


and

God, the Tetragrammaton,

an oath, as the Samaritans 10*


excludes
also

and the Dositheans; 109 he goes

even further

DV12N and "JIN, and allows


covenant,
110

in

the oath only the curses of the

but without mentioning the

Torah

of

Moses.

If

one
of

has sworn by the prohibited name, he has profaned the

name

God; and
oath
guilt,

if
5,

he has sworn by the curses of the covenant a false


22.

(Lev.

23), he

must confess and return the object of

otherwise he will

die.

Again we see here the interpretation

of a

word

in a

law of the Pentateuch, defining the exact form of


the author exclude
all

an oath.

What made

names of God, whether


light use of the serious

his scrupulous respect for

them or the too

names by
in

his followers, is not indicated in the book.

But there

is

these rules no trace of

Samaritans or Dositheans or Essenes,

nor can here anything be detected that would suggest pre-Christian


times.
is

The

description of the

names of God by
4,

their first letters

taken from the Mishnah Shebu'ot


all

13

and the corresponding

Raraitas which

belong to the middle of the second century.


in

Our author may have merely acted


and similar sectarians

extreme opposition

to those

who

according to Kirkisani held that he


it

who
as

does not pronounce the Tetragrammaton as


is

is

written, but

^"IN,

guilty of unbelief.
up,

111

To sum

none of the halakic points considered, not even

the references to a Temple, an altar,

and

sacrifice in the district

of Damascus shake the accumulated


interpretation of the

evidence

derived

from the
their
tribe

more

distinct legal rules

and laws and

history that the Zadokite fragment


that lived in the

was the law-book of a

neighborhood of Damascus about the seventh or

eighth

century.

As
10,

the

fragment

in

its

first

part gives also the

08

p.

Sanhedrin,
says

i,

28b, 4

and Geiger, Nachgelass, Sc\riften,


taught
that

III, 261.

,,;
'

Abulfath

that

the

Dositheans

the

Tetragrammaton

must not be pronounced, but


1.0

D^nSx

should be
5,
1

read.

Perhaps he derived
termed
319,
is
f

it

from Lev.
cf.

H^X
1;
I

Sj3

PiyOBH
8,

where the

oath

is
1.1

nSx

curse;

Judges
in

17,

Kings

31.

ahout some non-Karaites


that
R,
to

Khorazan.

In Abodah Zarah 18a.

top

it

reported

ITanina
its

b.

Teradjon (before 135) pronounced the

God according

letters.

schechter's JEWISH SECTARIES


origin of the sect,
it

buchleb

467

will
style

now
of
the

be necessary to leave the Halakah


the

and

to

consider

the

writer

and the

details

of

the
as

historical

account.
at

As

whole

document

presents itself
it

composed

the time of the events with the

which

deals,
shall

of the

foundation and organization of


ascertainment of
the

settlement,

we

by

the

probable

time of

the

composition

directly

obtain the period of the unique incidents which form the subject
of the book.

LANGUAGE OF THE BOOK

"The language of
(p.

the

manuscript

says

Professor

Schechter
first

XI)

is

for
rise
it

the

most part pure

Biblical

Hebrew, the
poetry.
in

three there

pages
are in

even to the dignity of

Scriptural

But
the

terms and expressions which occur only


in

Mishna or even only


first

the Rabbinic literature dating from the


It
is,

centuries of the Middle Ages.


all

however, not impossible

that

such expressions pointing to a later date are mere sub-

stitutions

by the later scribe for the original terms."


is

How
;

pre-

carious

it

to

remove
it

a strong proof by attributing such substiis

tutions to the scribe,

hardly necessary to emphasize


tell

the exstrik-

pressions are there, and must

their evidence.
is

The most

ing feature of the language, however,

the continuous employlike

ment of whole phrases and sentences of the Bible the


which we
find in

of

none of

the

literary

productions

of

the

pre-

Christian, pre-Talmudic,

and Talmudic times (except the Hebrew


not
It
is

Ben-Sira

which

should

be

used

as

evidence

owing

to its

contentious character).

unnecessary to quote examples from


Besides
this,

our fragment, as every page offers several.


hard, clumsy, sometimes almost impossible
part which
is I

the very

Hebrew

in

the halakic

not merely due to the style of the author, strikes


shall only cite p.

one as

late.

13,

ff.

tTN PD" ^K miry Dlp31


1

nb&

bn

pro ton p* dki

nb)2 ipe* rs bv

unn isdi pae jm


used to
kinds of
s
>

mno
The

*na hi trrs bv ubi nvb *rim


translation
is

n
we

nbva pna D^bno v*xu


all

not

difficult,

for

are

Hebrew.

But when examining the


41,

parts,

we
an

find

IpB* VB

borrowed from Genes.


similarly

40 and

used in

unnatural

sense;

htfn N^l

and ln-B bv KnSl T\wb.

As

to

the vocab-

468
ulary.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Dlp^l could be translated:
it;

when

there will arise ten, though


it

the context does not require

WW

is,

is

true, a biblical

word,
versed,

but never used without the place whence one departs.


if

}JOD=
8

passive,

reminds one of the rabbinic interpretation of


32,
io,
112

ln^n^
from

in

Deut.

as

the

active

form
expert,

in

13,

5.

taken

Chronicles means "teach."

prQ

-=

where

is it

found again?
JTpnj

\HD

(13, 6)
(13, 8)

has been discussed above

(p.

453) as unusual;

D^y
in

events of ancient times, because he found the verb

the

Xif'al;

inim D
S

(12)

"according to his position."


first

Are

such formations of nouns probable in the

century,

and has

anybody written such Hebrew?


aritan

Perhaps,

if

a specimen of

Sam-

Hebrew

of that time were available, such forms could be

stated; but not

mm
113

which we would expect only


writers.

in a translation (11,

of

Arab philosophical

Or

take a sentence like

10)

isyi ybo rQE'lD JT33 h)W bs; whatever

rOB>l means, a dwelling

house or a
of earth.
"lay
is
?

closet,

the line prohibits to take up a stone or a clod


111

But does y^D mean a stone,

as

Either the author's knowledge of

mean next 10 it must Hebrew was poor which

contradicted by his style in other parts of his book, or he thought

in a

language
3.

in

which the word for rock also meant a small stone.

In 20,

6 VC'yE yElilZl

when

his actions will be revealed,

is

not
10)

used before the Arab period;

D1ENE
(6,

IN

D*BB1B>n

')&

(9,

seems
tive,

to

mean:

in the presence of the

judges or their representa10)

from the Arabic

"ION;

DnSlTI

means probably:
1B>K
it

others,

as in mediaeval

Hebrew.
so

In

DIKE DHK Dnn"

the

word D'lrp has

far not been explained,


115

DIX !>D (9, may have been,

as others in this context,

a technical term in the author's place,

but D"1N D*1N which Schechter explains as dittography, looks like

112

sifre,

Deut.,

313,

p.

134&:

nnp

lo^o

,nmnn mvya
...

,tfittia'

D'jnvi la DttanDQ

Sma

vm
111S

n"::pn >es
in

iw

iiain
13,

m
81a:

Compare
Q33K,
Pl*aS

^mpDPI
in
b.

Tos.

Shabbat

17,

P-

8,

11c,

4;

-:

Shabbat

430:

KD3rl rVaS

j"Tm
pSI

fll^nipD

D*K3;

XD2H

D33rr?
X2.~i

imi2
JPD

mSnipD
R.

03a

t?St?

Wfl.

m
a
5,6

As

CH':

in

Judah's statement in
r.

Baba batra

19a,

in

Baraita.

Little stones

=
wai

spots in Genes,
(9, 3 ),
4,

20, 4

and

parall.

iai

injn

by

naina sS rnrn
7),

(9,
11.

3),

"ipaoS

iraina

(9,

181,

WBl

-v t^Mn

Cip>

Or,,

^jno

(10,

13).

SCHECHTER'S JEWISH SECTARIES


an

P.I

VHI.i.k
after a

469
rule

Arabism.

mnriK'n JV3

(u, 22)

which
a

follows
rule

about
the

sacrifices

and
the

stands

before

about
as
If
it

blowing
also
is

trumpets
itself

of

congregation,
a

must

mean,
110

the

sentence

shows,
is

place

of

worship.

not

a coincidence,

it

the Arabic

word

for the house of prayer which

the Falasha parallel quoted by Schechter does not refute.


the difficult line referred to (11, 22)

And
may

in

DTpJT

b^pn

nnmn

]Tin2l
it

UT

nbl3

rHUyn

riS

lmc^
is

*6l "inxrr IN, the Arabism for:

be earlier or later,

too clear to be considered accidental.

And

the unusual formulae introducing quotations

from the

Bible, "lt?K2
in

IBN, 1DK
literature,

*1^JO, 31J13 IC'JO,

which have no parallels


118

rabbinic

are extant in Arabic.

If

these observations are not

entirely

without

foundation,

the
the

book cannot have been written


district

before the Arabs conquered

of

Damascus

or

the

Jewish
ancient

settlers

had been influenced by the various


in

tribes

of the
districts

Ghassanide race whose kings had ruled

the

around Damascus before the Arab conquest."*


116

It

is

noteworthy that our author prescribes


prayer

levitical

purity of some

degree for entering the house of


agrees with Anan's
rule

which

is

not

the

Temple.

This
to

that

a priest must not drink wine


p.

when about

enter the court of the tent of meeting (Harkavy, Anan,

21),

and that the

same applied

to

the

synagogue.

Further

(p.

35)

he

prescribes the

same

purification for the


117

synagogue as for the court of the tent of meeting.


the whole sentence
is

The meaning of
Sabbath laws as

obscure; does this line revert

to the

Silpn

nmiXn
for
5,

suggests?
the

For Num.
congregation
tell

10,

prescribes

the

blowing of the trumpets


1,

calling
5;

together;

and

Mishnah Hullin
approach
Shofar.
of
the

7,

end,

Sukkah
9,

Shabbat 35&

us that just as in

Jerusalem (Tosephus, Wars IV,


the

12), so elsewhere in Palestine

and Babylonia

and the beginning of the Sabbath was announced by blowing

the

Only the members of the covenant,


law,

strictly

adhering to

the

words

used

trumpets.

Whether
the service

the
(in

trumpets

sounded
for

earlier
it

or later,

the priests shall not stop

the Temple),

is

holy service (I supply in the lacuna


is

map,

not nnt?).

It is possible

that

xH

a mistake

and

in that case the rule should say:


it

when

the trumpets sound,

everybody must stop work, for


118

is

holy Sabbath.

How

else is to be explained 3, 21

Sxptrv

T3

ClS

EPpfl

"HMO,

as

God promised them?


119

Guy Le

Strange, Palestine under the Moslems,

p.

33-

4/0

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


THE HISTORICAL PART
In approaching the historical portion,
I

am

quite

aware of the
;

difficulties

that beset

the

way
his

to

the true interpretation

all

the

more

so as the discoverer

and editor of the fragment,


learned

just as the

numerous reviewers of
authority
liouth,

book,

some
I.

of

recognized

as

E.

Adler,

Bacher,

Chajes,

Kohler,

Levi,

Margo-

and Poznariski, derived the authenticity of the contents as

not to be contested and their pre-Christian origin from the historical

part of our book, and only few of


its

them

as Adler

and Bacher

advanced doubts against


the

early origin.

closer examination of

whole

story,

however,

reveals
spite
I

many

difficulties

against

the

theories proposed.

For

in

of the most careful reading of


failed in

the

book and
of

its its

commentary,
early
origin.

detecting one certain

indication

The
God.

fragment

opens

with

an

impressive address to the knowers of justice, and announces God's

judgment

to

the

despisers

of
its

The author

refers to the

destruction of Israel and of

sanctuary, and to the preservation

of a remnant

and he reports that 390 years after the delivery of hand of Nebuchadnezzar,
at the

the people into the

termination of
Israel

the wrath,

God made
to

the root of a plantation

grow from

and Aaron

conquer his land and

in

obscure phrases borrowed


If the figure
4,

from the Bible

to

enjoy the goodness of his land.

were chronologically exact and not taken either from Ezek.


or guessed,
Sirach.
it

could take us to the year 196 B.

C.,

the times of

But neither our scanty knowledge of that period, nor the

author's verbose poetry helps us to understand his statement; but


so

much we know

as to see that his figure

is

wrong,.

As

to con-

quering or taking possession of land in Palestine,


ficient

we

learn suf-

from Josephus and the two books of Maccabees: there was


extend their boundaries before the year 153-2 under
is

no opportunity for the subjects of the Ptolemies or the Seleucidae


in Palestine to

Jonathan the Maccabee, that


conquest of Judea.

413 years after Nebuchadnezzar's

This figure would only be wrong 123 years

for which the uncertain Jewish chronology of the Persian period

could

easily

account.

The Maccabees were


as in lines

new

root

of

dynasty; but as they were of Judea the author would have used
Israel
to denote Judea,
3.
5,

which

is,

though Ezekiel

SCHECHTER'S JEWISH SECTARIES


constantly does the same, not quite smooth.
to

BIVHl.i.k
It

471

could also refer

the

conquest of the

Samaritans and of Samaria and of the


129-125,

Idumeans by John
Aristobulus
nezzar.
I

Hyrcanus between
104,

or of

Galilee

by

about

which was the 482nd year since Nebuchad-

Proceeding with his history, the author reports that Israel


its

became conscious of

sins

and groped

in the

dark for 20 years;

this figure, if not apocalyptic, could, according to the first suggestion,

refer to

Simon

the

Maccabee and the


seeing
the

first

year of the reign


of
the

of

John

Hyrcanus.

Then

true

repentance

people,
right

God gave them a righteous teacher to lead them in the way. Then He revealed to later generations the punishment
120

to be inflicted

on the band of treacherous men.


time
of
aberration,
just

Of
stitute

course, the
it,

as

the

punishment

following on
a

was

past

history to

the

author,

and both conscoffing

great

part of his preaching.

A man
(1,

of

arose
list

who preached untrue


considered later on.

things

and led
is

Israel

astray; a
15-21)

whole

of his and his follower's sins

given
is,

which

will be

If the scoffer
b.

as

Mr. E. Adler and Dr.


Pharisee

Kohler suggest, Simon

Shetah and

the

ascendancy
to

under queen Alexandra (76-67), the punishment revealed

John
(63).

Hyrcanus would be the conquest of Jerusalem by Pompey


But
this
is

impossible,

for the

Sadducee nobility suffered much

more than
of

the Pharisees, as not only Josephus, but also the Psalms

Solomon prove.

As he
(1,

assigns the punishment to a later or to


it

the last generation

12),

seems probable to refer

it

to the

destruction of Jerusalem by the


first

Romans

(70 C.

E.).

Here the
he

paragraph ends

in

which the author asked


to

his followers, the

knowers of righteousness,
that
later
all

consider

God's

doings;

shows

sinners in the past were punished, in early as well as in

Israel.
(2,

In the second paragraph

2-13) he addresses himself to the

members

of

covenant

knowers of righteousness.

who He

evidently
points

are

identical

with

the

out to them the ways of

wicked men who turned away from the right way and detested
the law, and were punished by utter destruction.
that they had never been chosen by God, for
120

He He knew

emphasizes

beforehand

ncy

instead

of

nW

in

1,

12.

472
their

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


future
actions;
the
land,
1

He
till

rejected

their

descendants
their

and turned

away from

they
all

perished, as

end

had
in

been
order

appointed by God."
to preserve a

From

He

raised a
to

few good ones


fill

remnant for the land and

the world with their

seed

spirit,

He informed them while He led astray


(2,

through His anointed one of His holy


those

whom He
their

hated.

Accordingly the

ways of the wicked


sinners

2)

mean

treatment

by
God,

God;
and

the

were considered as originally chosen

by

the
did

author has to prove that their destruction was


this

justified.
all

Nor
14

prove anything against God's prescience, for

had been ar(2,


fT.)

ranged before they were created.

In the third paragraph

the author reverts to the actions of

God which

his hearers should

understand, so that they could choose the right action and reject
the

wrong one and not go astray through


eyes.

sinful

thoughts and

immoral
and

Many

in the past erred, as for instance the angels

their sons the giants

who were
erred

afterwards swept away by the

flood for their sins; also the sons of

and

the

sons

of

Jacob

Noah and their descendants, who were punished for it, but
Their
ate

Abraham,

Isaac,

and Jacob observed God's commandments and

were entered friends and men of God's covenant forever.


descendants in Egypt acted against God's

commandments and

blood for which sins they died in the wilderness.

In Kadesh they
also their

disobeyed and murmured, and

God punished them; and


sin,

descendants perished for the same

their kings,
first

their

mighty-

men,

and their land were destroyed, the

members

of

the

covenant sinned and were handed over to the sword.


those

But through

who held fast to His commandments and were preserved, God made an eternal covenant with Israel and revealed them His laws He led them and they dug a well of much water. Those, however, who rejected those laws and continued living in two old
;

sins

(3,

17), will not live, while to the obedient


built

God forgave
to

their

sins

and

for

them

a lasting house in Israel the like of

which
live

there

never

was before.

Those who hold

fast

God

will

forever and attain every


121

human

glory

(3,

20).

p.

2,

9.

10

is

very

difficult

language.

JHV1

would give better sense


the
see,

as

pluperfect

Hifil:
tin to

God had many years ago revealed


wicked; trnEl "1ED2, as
""ED

years of the
are synonyms,
story of their

future existence of
the
first
is all

we

shall

noun

story:

God had revealed

the

end

t"

creatures.

SCHECHTKR

JEWISH SECTARIES

BUCHLER
is

473
the time

In reading these glowing sentences the reader

all

under the impression that the well was dug and the glory attained
in the

land of the preceding events, Palestine.


of
left

But suddenly an
tells

interpretation

Ezek.

44,

15

(3,

21

ff.)

us that those

repentant

men
the
(6, 3

the land of Judea with others joining them;

and

also

well
ff).

was

dug by

the

emigrants

in
3,

the land of
cf.
19,

Damascus

He
18)
122
;

terms them ^JOC" *2W

(4,

16),

they were, consequently, up to


first

now

sinners

whose

sins

God had
2),

to forgive
is

(3,

they are priests and laymen

(8,

and

the well
these,

the

Torah

in its

new

interpretation

(6, 4. 9).

Besides

others accepted their teaching who, however, seem to have


in

remained

their original place,


44,

as

the context in the continued


123

interpretation of Ezekiel

15 indicates
Israel,

(4,

3).

"the

sons of

Sadok." these are the chosen of


sins
in

renowned by names, whose


in

God forgave

(4,

6)

and others who follow them

acting

accordance with the interpretation of the Torah, will also be


(4,

forgiven their sins


years
shall

10).

And when
will

the appointed

number of
house of

have passed, they


all
124

not join

again

the

Judea, but

shall

remain

in their positions.

As

the continuation

of the verse
life,

suggests, they guard their sanctity, their purity of


sins

after

their
to 6,

were forgiven
they have been

(4,

6),

and they

act

justly.

According

125

made

to promise not to enter

the sanctuary to light the fire on the altar, and to bring about the closing of the door,
if

the people there

(not mentioned)

should

continue their sins and not act according to the interpretation of


the

Torah.
122

"They

shall

separate

from property of wickedness

When

explaining to the members of the covenant the punishment of


2
ff.),

the

wicked

(2,

he
1J,*2

points
"IB

out that

God The

is

longsuffering and
full

full

of

forgiveness
to

J?t!*E

'St?

37,

towards the repentant, but


sins.
first

of wrath

punish those
the
3,

members of
laws, as in
123

who new

persist

in

their

group consists of the

covenant, the sinners are those

who

rejected

the

new

12-20.
is

As D^nan
all

explained to

mean

those

who

left

Judea, and those

who

joined them,

sections of the emigrants are hereby exhausted;


to

now

follows

piTX
124
125

'22

which must refer

non-emigrants.

'imps

more
the
in

ns natr iw.
the

From
6,

context and
the land

new address
Damascus
it

in
is

6,

20 to the members of
that

the

new covenant
1 1

of

clear

the

preceding

paragraph

refers to the

members

in their native country.

474
defiled

TH E JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


by a vow and ban, and from the property of the sanctuary

and from robbing the poor of the nation so that the widows are
their prey

and they murder the fatherless; and they

shall disting-

uish

between clean and unclean and make known between the Sabbath according to
fast
its
its

holy and the profane and observe the


interpretation and

the feasts

and the day of

according to

command." THE SINNERS IN JERUSALEM AND DAMASCUS As


several

improbable explanations have

been

suggested of

this list of sins, a

few words of interpretation may be given here.

First,

property of the sanctuary could only be handled by priests,

laymen had nothing to do with such, so that the denunciation


could
only

have
as

concerned

priests.

Secondly,

property
us,

arising

from ban,

far as biblical

and rabbinic law informs

could

only belong to the Temple or to the priests, so that also this detail

can only refer to


only

priests.

Vows mentioned

together with ban can

mean goods vowed

to the

Temple, and such were administered

by priests; consequently the appropriation of vowed goods cannot have been committed but by
priests.

Now

4,

12 tells us that whi!e

the emigrants lived in the land of

Damascus and other members


and
teach

of the same covenant practised their virtues at home, a wicked

man

will

be

let

loose

upon

Israel

them three

sins:

immorality, (sin against) property, and defilement of the Sanctuary,


three wicked snares concerning which Levi the son of Jacob has

spoken.
Levi, ch.

Professor Schechter rightly points to the Testament of


14,

where the misappropriation of holy property


descendants of
Levi.
(6,

is

pro-

phesied

of

the
in

This

is

confirmed by the

continuation

our fragment

17)

concerning the distinction

between impure and pure, and holy and profane which was the
exclusive privilege of priests
is

(Lev.

10,

10; Ezek. 44, 23).

If this

correct,

then those to
(i,
list

whom

"the

man

of scoffing" preached

wrong

ideas

14-21),

were
is

in the first instance priests.


test,
128

Unfor-

tunately the
08 In

of sins

too general to allow a

but Testa-

1,

16

one of the sins

is

the

removal of the boundary set by the

s,

which probably means the abolition of old customs and laws.


i^

In

5,

20

it

said

that

at

the

end of the destruction of the land there arose


led

those

who removed

the

boundary and

Israel

astray,

for

they spoke

re-

SCHECHTER'S JEWISH SECTARIES


ment of Levi
eous men, ye
127

BUCIILER
the

475

16,

2 has the same:

"And ye

shall persecute rightshall

and hate the godly; the words of the faithful

abhor."

And

similarly

the

members of

covenant

who
altar,

promised not to enter the sanctuary and

light the fire

on the

were

priests,

and they were expected to force by

their resistance

the main body of the priests to adopt in their dealings with the

sanctuary the law of the dissenters.

It

must be added here


were
killed

that,

at the destruction of the land, also backsliders

(8,

1),

members
the
1 ff.

of

the

covenant

commandments.
in the

who had given up This is made certain by


Here
the
in the land of

the observance of
the parallel in 20,

second

fragment.

emigrants

are

termed
(20,

members of the new covenant


and
both are those
holy
perfection

Damascus
;

i2\
from
of

their backsliders are also discussed

(20, 8-12)

different

who had
(20,
2.

entered
5.

the
5),

community of
but

the

men

7;

7,

ceased to

practise the

commandments

of the righteous.

Any

such

man

will be dismissed,

when

his

actions

become

known,

from

the

community

of

the

disciples of

God.

And
As

if

his actions are against the interpretations

of the Torah in which the

men

of holy perfection walk, he


8,
1
ff.,

is

excommunicated.

to the backsliders in
in the land of
is

it

is

not clear

whether those
but
it

in

Judea or

Damascus

are

meant

12*
;

is

evident that he
12

blaming Judah, on account of


to the

"Jin

pnn

(8,

19,

24)

who pay no heed

coming punishment
to

and do not see that a preacher of untruth preaches


bellion

them with

against
one.

the

laws

of

God

given

by Moses and against His holy


hardly necess-

anointed
127

According

to

1,

19 they
little

must have been judges.

It

is

ary to add that just as


that

as

pH

tTEJ Sy

m*1

so

p13 1JTBTP1 means

they treated unjustly an individual.


131

While
about

1JV13 *N2 speaks for Damascus, the verse adduced from Hosea
the

5,

10

princes

of

Judah,

the

list

of

sins

containing

immorality,
that

misappropriation,

and others, and the

preacher

of
to.

untruth

show

the

members
16

of the covenant in Judah are referred


3

The

other fragment 19,

8,

has the addition PQlBTl rv*123 1K2 3 they had entered the covenant
life.

of repentance, but continued the sinful


DJ70

One

of their sins
8)

is

1113
(19,
8,

?1
20),

they did not separate from the people

(8,

and

its

sins

while the SxiB" <2tr


the

departed from the

way

of the people

(19,

29;

16);

majority of the people


in

who

did

not practise the laws of the covenant,

were

his

eyes

all

sinners.

4/6

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


is

whose community God

angry

(8,
8,

18-19, 31).
11.

They follow
23),

the

ways of the kings of the nations (


of the king of Javan will
ners.
129

12,

19,

and the head


sin-

come

to execute

punishment on the

This time
I0
,

is

more generally termed the time of

visitation

(-

=
The

5)

in

which the observant


by the sword.

will escape while the others

will be destroyed

backsliders

among

the emigrants in the land of

Damascus

are threatened with even heavier punishment for having departed

from the well of

living water

(19, 34)

they will not be included


till

henceforth, from the death of the unique teacher

the appear-

ance of the Messiah from Aaron and Israel


of the people.

(20,

1), in the lists

They and
Torah

their
10.

families will have no


13) and
will be

portion in

the house of the

(20,

punished as the

treacherous in Judea

(20,

10).

Those members of the covenant bound of the law,


will,

who have broken through


appears to
Israel,

the

when God
(20,

be destroyed
in

from the camp, and along with


in

them those who sinned


25-27).

Judea
130

the days of purification

Those, however,

who

hold fast to the laws and obey the


will

teacher

and

confess

their

sins,

not

rebel

against

God's

commandments, but
It is

will accept the teachings of the first teacher.

very probable that the book was composed, when, soon after

the foundation of the sect, several


special

members ceased
teacher
;

practising the

laws of the covenant and others entirely abandoned the

cause.

The death

of the energetic

first

may have
to

contri-

buted to the discouragement of the sect


that,

and our author expected


fellows
the

on the one hand, by

referring

his

speedy

coming of the Messiah, and, on the other hand, by picturing the


129

In 20,
in 20,

10

they are described as

men who
first

returned with the

men
in

of

scoffing;
is

26
(2,

mirv
12),

'J^ttnn.

The

teacher of the

new law
spirit.

Judea
also

called
1

ITCE

who

teaches the remnant God's holy

As

20,

ff.,

deals with the beginning of the


it

movement and
is

incidentally mentions

the death of the unique teacher,

seems that he

identical with the ITC'E.


his death the era
till

He

died at the beginning of the


is

new movement, and from


1.

of the followers

counted (20,

14); forty years will pass

the faithless
(20, 14).

members who joined


1,0

the preacher of untruth, will have died out

The

special purpose of the confession is the admission that the fathers

have sinned by not obeying the laws which constitute now the covenant, and

by recognizing that the punishment was

justified.

SCHECHTER'S JEWISH SECTARIES


punishments of the faithless
he would succeed
the
in
in

HL'CIILER
imposed

477

Judea and

in the

land of Damascus,

strengthening the wavering and frightening


task

treacherous.

The
from

and

the

duties

upon

the

members must have weighed


for
defections
the
evidently to the

heavily on them, and partly account

sect.

They were commanded


of the

to give
(6,

tithes,

many

priests

community

20)

the

word "according
the Torah.

to their explanations"

seems even to indicate

that those contributions


in

went beyond those expressly commanded

When
it;

the

members emigrated from

their

native

country, they had to leave behind their property and the income

derived from

only few

may have brought money with them


Consequently, there
their

and bought the

fields

referred to in the book.

were many poor


neighbors;
in

in the

camps depending on the support of


to

addition

them there were proselytes 131 some of


in the

whom may
proselyte

have joined the sect

hope of support.

The duty

to love one's brother and to support the poor, the needy, and the 1" mentioned.
(6,

20.

21)

had, therefore, especially to be

of the

The observance of the laws of purity was members were priests (7. 3). The
suggests that there was not

not easy, though

many

special reference to the


(9,
2.

vice of revenging oneself

and bearing grudge

4,

6-7, 2.

3)

much

love to cement the adherents of


also

the sect together, and this

may

have

contributed

to

force

some

to

leave the camp.

AUTHENTICITY OF THE BOOK


Professor Schechter takes
it

for

granted

that

not

only

the

central event of the fragment, the emigration

and the settlement of


is

Palestinian priests in the land of Damascus,

to be accepted as

true, but also the details of the report referring to relations be-

tween two

sections

of

priests

in

Jerusalem

and the

activity of

a violent leader of the ruling party.

And

also the time

of the

iai

p.

14, 14,

priests, Levites,

Israelites,

and

proselytes.

182

In

14

ff.,

we

read that the contributions were delivered into the


the

hand of the highest

dignitary,

*ip2B,

and that the judges distributed

them among the poor and needy, the old men who had nobody to support them and a maiden that had nobody to care for her (the last reminds one of
the

Christian

charity
all

organization

in

which

the

virgins

enjoyed

special

position),

and

for

whom nobody

provided.

478

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


in

foundation of the sect


exact,

the year

176 B.

C.

is

to

be taken as

so that the kings of

Javan would be Antiochus Epiphanes

and

his

supporters.
the

It

has not escaped the attention of scholars

who

discussed

fragment that several generations intervened

between the foundation of the sect and the activity of the


scoffing
(1,
(2.
8,

man

of

who
4,
7,

forced the
T2
ff.).

members

of the

new teaching

to emigrate

n-20;
1
;

The followers
and
explained
as

of the scoffer were destroyed

20?:
;

9-14),

this visitation

was

called the first (7, 21;

1)

it

has

been

the

conquest of

Jerusalem by
the
is

Pompey. 133
future

But

in the

continuation of the last

named passage

punishment of the faithless members of the covenant


in this

announced; and

description

it

is

prophesied that the head

of the kings of Javan will


it

come

to execute the punishment,

and

is

expressly stated that the visitation will

come

for the accept(8,

ance of the teaching of the preacher of untruth


the second
184

1-13).

It

js

and probably

last

judgment which the author views


seen.

and which he most probably had already


interpretation the writer

According to
his

this

must have composed

book after the

destruction of the second Temple, but


centuries
after

the

events

described

by

may have done so several As there is no him.


its

statement in Jewish literature to confirm the report of the frag-

ment, what could be adduced to prove the truth of

contents?

Or

is

the whole

book an invented story

to prove the early origin


in the seventh or

of a sect that lived in the district of


eighth century, and to defend
stitution,
its

Damascus
then
the

peculiarities as to worship, conlist

and religious law?

Could

of

the

sins

blamed on the opponents suggest the time and the character of the
author?

An unknown
What
wrong

preacher

in

Israel

is

held responsible

for

the
ff.).

aberration of the whole population of the city in Judea (1, 14

has he done?

Seven

lines
it

are devoted to the

list

of his

actions; but whether

is

due to the poetical vein of the

writer or to the fact that his generalities were easily understood

by his contemporaries, he does not

tell

us

more than

that

the

followers of the scoffer were unjust and delivered to the sword.

]M

Some

scholars refer this to the destruction of Jerusalem in the year 70.


first

1M For he speaks of the

visitation.

SCHECHTER'S JEWISH SECTARIES

BUCHLER
this

479

He

is

clearer in

4,

12

ff.

where he accuses him of immorality,


Did
is
it

misappropriation,

and defilement of the Temple; here he quotes

for his indictment the Testament of Levi.


to

book suggest

him

the whole attack on the priests, or

merely a quotation

to support it?

Though he can reproach

the other side only with


is

obeying different marriage laws, immorality


tioned as a
8, 5

several times
1

men-

charge against the opponents

(7,

niJITH JD "Vtnp,

19,

17 nuir

3"n3 lbburpi,

8, 7

19,

19

ncrS

ww

2,

16) in

the strongest expressions and in generalities exactly as Testam. Levi


9,

9:

"Beware of the

spirit of fornication, for tihs shall

continue and
in

shall

by thy seed pollute the holy place;" and more detailed

14, 4-8

where the worst forms of lewdness are attributed


and

to priests.

Our fragment warns again


tion in
2,

against immorality and sinful inclinaillustration is

16,

his

first

the

sin

of

the

angels,

taken

from
135

apocalyptic

literature,

either

from

Enoch

or

the

Testaments.

There may be many more passages which he borto

rowed from the Testaments,


which
to set his detailed

use them as the


It
is

framework
that

in

attacks.

not

accidental

the

Genizah of Cairo contains a -fragment of the Testament of Levi,

and that
that
is
it

this attack

on priests

is
it

based on that Testament.

And

was the Aramaic form of

which he used for

his purposes,

evident from the so far unexplained

word
If

"|"1D

frequently used
in

by the author for "order"

which

occurs
138

twice

the

Aramaic
this

fragment of the Testament of

Levi.

we knew when

version of the Testament was made,

it

would be possible

to find a
is

terminus a quo.

But whenever

this

may have been

done, there

not the slightest difficulty against the assumption that the Aramaic

version was in existence in the seventh or eighth century, as the

fragment of the Genizah


eleventh century.

proves
p.

its

existence

in

the

tenth

or

For on
137

16 our Zadokite

fragment refers to

the book of divisions of time according to their jubilees and their

week (of
135

years).

Though
in

the reference in

its

present surroundnone

The other passages

Jubilees

and

Enoch

contain

of

the

details
**

quoted by the fragment.

JQR., XIX, 574,

4.
1,

6 where the Greek has


417,
41.
is

razic

order; American

Journal of Theology,
137

191

If

the

whole

reference

not

by mistake placed
his

here,

it

probably

meant

this:

the sinner shall

make up

mind

to

return to the law of the

480
ings
is

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


not
intelligible,
is

owing

to

the

preceding lines

not

being

preserved,

there

no doubt that he meant a Book of Jubilees

138 which could have formed a part of the Testaments.

Now,

it

is

only due to an incidental reference that


in

we know

that the schools

Babylon had

Book

of Jubilees in the tenth century different

from ours and


to the Karaite

fuller,

Salman
if

This proves that

Hebrew or Aramaic, known also in its Hebrew Midrash form. our author composed his book, as was shown
probably in
b.

Jeruham 139

from some of the halakas and the


there were at his disposal the

style,

in

the

eighth

century,

Aramaic Testaments. 140


disobedience
141

From

these

he took his

illustration

of the

of

the

Israelites ir

Egypt

(3,

4-6)

by their eating blood.

It

seems also fairly clear

why he selected just this book As he wrote against priests and


them was
tion,

for his attacks on his opponents.


tried to prove that

one section of

never chosen, but from early times destined for destruc-

he looked for an earlier source which gave the reasons for

such punishment of priests and the prophecy of their visitations.


Torah, before the time expires which
length of this term yp,
their

has

been
4,
5

fixed

for
][51

the

trial.

The

occurring also in
9),
6,

m?3J?0
all

the

length of

existence
12,

(see 2,

10
1J?

JNSHPl

yp SD2
,

the time the wickedness

will last,

23

ITBM3 TIEV

Hytrin \>p1

15,

7\ 20, 23

f?mt? SjTO

fp3

during the treason of Israel.


138

Charles in JQR.,
is

XIX, 567
work based
else

says:

The common source

of these

Greek

and Aramaic texts


the

partly on the Testaments

and partly on

Book of Jubilees or
189

work from which

the authors of these books

drew some of

their materials.

See Epstein,

OHirvn rnWOTpfc

part II, KBHri tbTtp,

p.

V-VIII

ff.

To P

8,

20

imA p&^Ki
p.

rpna
"In

p
to

jn'hS

h*bt ibk
place

wr

wn

mn

njJ2
to

Schechter,

XVI,

says:

another

we have an

allusion

the

word which Jeremiah has spoken


to

Baruch, the son of Neriah, and

EHsha

Gehazi his servant, which suggests the existence of Pseudepigraphic


to these Biblical to

works ascribed
sect."
in
8,

personages and considered authoritative by the


is

It
18,

seems
19

me

that Jerem. 45, 6


5,

quite sufficient for the statement


is

and also II Kings

26-27,

and there

no need for assuming

such

Pseudepigrapha.
to

141 The same applies known from a quotation


it

his

reference
first

to

Jannes
(see

and Jambres who are


III,
in

of

the

century

Schiirer,

292);

but

does not prove that he

could not have

known

the legend

the eighth

century from the Midrash or some other source, just as Jerahmeel (Schechter.
p.

IJX) knew

it.

schechter's jewisii sectaries

buciilEr
Enoch

481

And

the Testaments

(Lev.

16,

1.

2)) also contained the length or


(2,

the activity of the sinful priests

9)

in the required prophetical

manner

"And now

have learnt

in

the book of

that for

seventy weeks ye shall go astray, and profane the priesthood, and


pollute the sacrifices.
set at

(2)

And

ye shall make void the law, and


evil perverseness.

nought the words of the prophets by

And

ye shall persecute righteous men, and hate the godly; the words
of
the
faithful
;

shall

ye

abhor."

He

used

every word of this

description

and from here he appropriated the idea of a Messiah


Israel, as already Dr.

and of wise men from Aaron and

Schechter

has pointed out; only he puts Israel instead of Judah, for this
tribe

and

its

land are an abomination to him for reasons which


142

cannot be ascertained from the book.

LACK OF INFORMATION

Or does
Judea,

the

author's
its

knowledge of characteristic
its

details

of
its

Jerusalem,

population,

internal

conditions,

and

Temple 143 demand


142

the early composition of

our book?
according
to

Not one
his

The

tribe in

to

which

our
but

author

belonged,

report,

originally

lived

Judea,

having been
the

persecuted,

emigrated
so

from the
that

country.

The hatred between

two

sections

grew

great

our

author declared that, even after the end of suffering in the land of Damascus,

no reunion with the house of Judah


143

shall follow

(4,

10.

11).

We

could explain
priests,

6,

15,

16,

the accusation of misappropriation in the

Temple by
the
fact

as reflecting actual conditions in Jerusalem.

Some goods
while

vowed by Jews were

considered by the

priests

as belonging to them,

members

of the covenant declared


2,

them, property of the Temple, as in


ini!3
...

we know from Nedar.

4:

CHD CXI

D'SPD
npitt

bv?

D*iri3
a*i

^J?
...

in

jniDK
Dalian
to

S^m
in

prno
tilt

nron*a

coin cno
BttH

mim
4,

iidx

P*P3B

Wj

|IW, that some goods banned belonged


see also

the Temple, others to the priests;

Tos. Arakin.
influence,

3.

4.

Priests
to

of

high

standing

may

have,

by their

great

persuaded
it

people

vow
as in

their

property to the Temple, and afterwards claimed


4,

for themselves,

Psalms of Solomon
that
is

11:

And

their eyes are

toward the house of a

man

prosperous, like a serpent, to pervert wisdom, speaking with the


transgressors
(12).

words of the
intent
to

His words are

words of deceit
(13).

to

the

that

he

may

accomplish his ungodly desire

He

never ceaseth
his

scatter

and bereave, and he maketh desolate for the sake of

wicked
it

desire...

(15) and his eyes are against his neighbor's house to destroy

with

swelling words of flattery.

The same we

find in

Matth. 2^, 14-22 where, no

482
fact

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


which
can
be
verified

by

our

sources,

Josephus

and the

rabbinic

literature,

proves that the author had seen anything of

the priesthood in Judea and had observed actual life in the times

of the Temple.

He

is

ignorant of the circumstances even of the

event which constitutes the central fact of his book, the emigration
of some priests of Judea to the land of Damascus.
state or probably did not

He

forgot to

why and how and when


of

know who caused the emigration and he only knew the settlement in the land
If

Damascus, though his description apparently deals with the

very

men who had


substantial.
if

left

Judea and had founded the colony.

any tradition had been used by him, his facts would have been

more

And

even though without tradition about the


in

emigration,
exhibited
priests,

he
least

wrote

the

first

century,

he

could

have
its

at

some

slight

knowledge

about Jerusalem,

and the service

in the

Temple

the purity of which gave

him so much trouble and

pain.

Our author can never have

seen

the Temple, nor has he spoken to a priest of that sanctuary, nor

has he read any sources dealing with the times of the second

Temple, or

else

he forgot
in

all

real

information characteristic of
subject.

an author interested

the main

facts of his

He must
facts
facts

have been separated by a considerable time from the events which


he described and,
it

seems, imagination took the place of

which he borrowed from the Testaments.


supplied by conditions of his
district

He had
just

few

own

time and place: a sect in the


as

of

Damascus consisting of Aaronites,


of

the
in

two
the

Jewish tribes
seventh
144

Arabia,
of
in

Bnu-Nadhir and
priestly

Bnu-Kuraiza

century were

descent

and called themselves


in

Alkahinani

The

sect

Damascus
other
alive,

differed

two important

points of the marriage law


in

from other Jewish

tribes: they lived

monogamy and married no


wife, as long as she

woman

after

divorcing the
niece.

first

was

and married no

They

had a peculiar organization and constitution, and observed some


laws of the Torah concerning
for
levitical

purity and killing animals

food more

strictly

than other Jews.

In order to prove for

doubt, the noble priests were originally meant.


is

Yet, as far as

know, there

no true parallel
1M Graetz,

in

our accounts.

Geschichte,

V,

4th

edition,

p.

74.

SCHECHTER'S JEWISH SECTARIES


some
special

BUCIILER
that the sect

483
was not
had

purpose unknown 145 that their observance

merely ancient, but the only correct rule," 8 our author constructed
a history of his
sect.
It

was invented

to

show

existed already in early times and that the differing practice of the

Jews was wrong and


rebellious teacher

followed

the

teaching

of

an

unworthy,
1

and of a company that was punished by God.


CONTRUCTION OF HISTORY

*'

We

know

similar

constructions

of history in

the references

of early Karaite writers to an existing Karaite sect in Jerusalem

before the destruction of the Temple.


Kirkisani

An
a

interesting instance

is

who
that

in

Professor

Schechter's
plays
first

statement

about

the

character of the Zadokite fragment

very important part.


after

He

says

148

Jeroboam was the

sectary,

him came

the Samaritans, and only after these, in the times of the second

Temple, appeared the Rabbanites who raised themselves to be the


heads of the whole nation.
first

Among them Simon


was the
the
last

the Just

was the
Great

who,

at ihe

same
fact,

time,

member

of

the

Assembly;

in

however,

Rabbanites

only

continued

Jeroboam's work.

Against them rose the Sadducees whose head

were Sadok and Boethus.

Sadok was the

first

who exposed

the

Rabbanites and contradicted them publicly.

He

revealed a part of

the truth and composed books in which he frequently denounced


the Rabbanites and criticised them.

When

reading this history of

the religious developments of Judea during the last centuries of


the second Temple,
all

we

are inclined to assume that Kirkisani found


is

this
145

in

Sadok's books, and that his presentation


fact

worthy of
name
of

The

that

he

deliberately
to

avoided

to

mention

the

Jerusalem or of the Jews, seems


tion for
146

suggest that he had a special considera-

Samaritans who, we know, were well represented in Damascus.


is

It

not improbable that also the sacrifices and the Temple were not

in

existence,
147

but an invented detail.

He

also

seems to meet the obvious objection that priests ought not


Temple, by

to

have

left

the

showing

that

the

separation, emigration, and

new
them.

organization
its

was prophesied by the

earliest

prophets.

Even
all

the

new

land and

interpreter,

the gatherings and the prince were

foretold by

Perhaps their own members raised


See Poznanski in REJ.,

such

objections.
162,

14s

XLIV,

(1902),

from

Kitdb

al-Anwar,

II,

1,

4^4

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


But the reference
to

serious consideration.
at

Sadduk and' BoeVhus

once betrays that Kirkisani or his source borrowed this staterabbis,


is

ment from the


the past. Just

and that his informant knew nothing about

This
is

confirmed by his other reference to Simon the

which
after

taken

from the
with
great

first

sentence

of

Mishnah Abot.
evidence

And

reading

care

Harkavy's

and

Poznanski's confirming arguments about the consciousness of the


Karaites of their descent from the Sadducees,
also
their
it

seems to

me

that

mere

reference

to

the
that

same
it

Sadduk

and

Boethus

as their ancestors clearly

showed

was purely a construction


they,

based on Jewish sources.


exactly the
rabbis in

For how did

otherwise,

commit
as the

same mistake about the two eponymous heroes


It

Abot R. Nathan?

would be a very strange coincidit,

ence

Once Kirkisani had adopted


is

other Karaite writers fol-

lowed; and Joseph AlBasir

an interesting illustration of the

construction: "In the times of the second

Temple the Rabbanites,


while
the
Karaites,

then called

Pharisees,

became the
were

masters,
at
is

then

known

as the Sadducees,

the bottom."

That there

was no early source


statement of
the

available for this,

evident from the parallel

author of the
are

Differences

between Rabbanites
(the Talmudists)
;

and Karaites:

"We

much

earlier than they

from us descended the Jerusalemites, the Shammaiites, the Sadducees, and the Boethusians."
relation

What

he meant was the spiritual


of

between the

halakic
149

principles

the

Shammaiites and

those of the Karaites.

The tendency

of the Zadokite fragment


is

is

the same, only

its

construction of hisi'ory

more elaborate and clothed


halakas

in historical
it

events located as to place, and time, persons, and actions; and

owes

its

origin,

as

several

show,

to

the

time

when

number
Jewish

of sects were brought into existence in Asia at the end of


first

the seventh and the


in
its

half of the eighth century.

Judean and
closer

beginnings,

the

sect

depicted

came

in

and

continuous contact with the Samaritans in Damascus and adopted


souk
this

of

its

religious practices
If

and prohibitions which we

find

in

fragment.
reflect

the references to a
conditions, the

Temple with
latter

sacrifices

and
been

an altar

actual
in

were,

as

has

Poznansld

REJ.,

XIJV,

175-

SCHSCHTER'S JEWISH SECTARIES

BUCHLER
it

485
is

pointed out above, founded by Samaritans, especially as


said in

not

the

fragment that the Judean emigrants Instituted them.

When

the Judeans

came
to

to the land of

Damascus, they were after

some time admitted

the

Samaritan Temple on the condition

that they observed the strict laws of purity required for the sanc-

tuary by the Samaritans.

Perhaps even the awkward


to

style

and the
for
in

unusual words were due


present

Samaritan
about

influence.

But

the

we know

too

little

Jews

and

Samaritans

the

district of

Damascus

in the

seventh and eighth centuries to attempt

to solve all difficulties of the fragment.

Let us be grateful to Professor Schechter for his discovery and


for the thoroughness with which he has elucidated

many

of

the

most

difficult

points;

and especially for the many-sided commen-

tary and the learned introduction in which he has


tention to the

drawn our

at-

numerous problems awaiting

solution.

Even

if

his

find should not

prove to be an early Zadokite book, but one of


in

the

many

links

the great religious upheaval of the times imthe

mediately
attention

preceding
of
the

Karaite

movement,
to

it

has

drawn

the

literary

world

chapter

of

Jewish history

which has rightly invited the collaboration of many great minds

and

will

long

continue

in

attracting

and

captivating

our best

scholars.

London

A. Buchler

ANNOUNCEMENT
I

had the opportunity of reading the

article of the

Reverend

Professor Doctor Adolph Buchler, Principal of the Jews' College,

London,

in proof,

and prepared a refutation of


that

it.

But the rumor

having reached

me

M.

Israel Levi, of

Paris, has discovered


is

new pages
in the

of the Zadokite document which he

about to publish

Revue des Etudes

juives, I decided to keep

back the publica-

tion of

my

rejoinder until these

new

discoveries have been

made

accessible to the public.


S.

Schechter

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF APOCRYPHA


for

1912
HERBERT PENTIN,
The Apocrypha
M.A.
East
in the

Edited by the Rkv.

Principal Contexts:

Syrian (Nestorian) Daily Offices, by the Bishop of Moray; Greek Catechisms and the Apocrypha, by Prof. Compston;

Ben-Sira

(Ecclesiasticus)

on

Men

Oesterley; Judith, by Dr. Sehutze;

and Women, by Dr. The Book of Jubilees,

by the Rev. L. S. A. Wells; The Nature of the Coptic Apocryphal Gospels, by Dr. O'Leary; The Influence of the Apocrypha on Christianity, by Rabbi G. Friedlander; The Apocrypha in Modern Literature, by Prof. HudsonWilliams; Chanucah, the Festival of the Maccabees, by
I. Livingstone; The Pre-existence of the Soul in the Book of Wisdom, etc., by Prof. Stevenson; The Bible Canon of the Reformation, by Sir H. Howorth; The EzraApocalypse, by Prof. Sanday; The Astronomy of the Apocrypha, by E. W. Maunder; Is the Book of Isaiah mainly a Maccabean Work? by the Rev. G. H. Box; Primitive Christian Eschatology, by Canon Mac Culloch The Apochryphal Epistle of St. Paul to the Laodiceans, by Dr. Pick; Was St. Luke influenced by the Book of Wisdom? by the Rev. H. McLachlan; etc.

Rabbi

Price, post free,

One

Dollar

International Society of

the Apocrypha,
15, Paternoster

Row, London

SAADIA STUDIES
By Henry Master, Dropsie
I

College

Another Fragment of

Saadia's "bin isd

(Liber Exsulis)

While

in

Cairo in 1891, Dr. Cyrus Adler purchased a


of

number of Hebrew and Arabic Genizah fragments


manuscripts which he
College.

has

recently

given

to

the

Dropsie

One

of these
It

fragments contains a portion of


it is
1

Saadia's

littn "I2D.

should be noted at once that

not

new

portion but one already published by

Harkavy from
in

another manuscript.

The

latter,

however, was defective

many

places, so that the editor

had

to supply the missing

words or phrases by conjecture.


as far as
it

Moreover, our fragment,


variants,

goes, offers

numerous

some of which

are of considerable importance, as will be seen in the notes.

Harkavy's Hebrew translation of the corresponding portion


of the Arabic text
is

in

many

instances incorrect and


2

some

of his explanatory notes inadequate.


terial

As

additional
is

ma-

from the writings of the great Gaon

of historical
republish the

and

literary value, I

deemed

it

advisable to

Arabic text of the fragment


it

in question

and to accompany

by a

literal

English

translation

and a few elucidating

notes.
1 2

Studien

und Mitteilungen, V,
review

151-157.

See Bacher's thorough

of the

work

in

REJ.,

XXIV

(1892),

307-318.

487

488

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


size

13

The fragment, parchment, x 10 cm.), consists of two

17 x 13 cm.

(writing
the

leaves.

Each of

four

pages

contains 18 lines written in a large

square hand.

Dia5f.

critical points are

missing except on the letters D

and

In the edition of

Harkavy there are

fifteen

and a half

lines

preceding the passage with which our fragment begins and,


as
is

evident from the content of these lines, they were very


3

near the beginning of the book.

Saadia had originally

written

the

Sefer ha-Galui
also
in

in

pure

biblical

Hebrew

imitating the Scriptures

the
into

outward form by dividing the content of the work


verses and providing
this
it

with accents.

His antagonists used


attacks

method of

his as

a pretext

for their

on the

author, claiming that he did that with the purpose of giving


his

work the appearance, and hence the importance, of the


Saadia, therefore, issued a

Bible.

second version of the


in

book with an Arabic translation and an introduction


4

which he defends himself against the various objections

made by

his antagonists.
is

Among

other things he

asserts

that there

nothing wrong in the arranging of a book in


it

verses and in providing


this
is

with accents and vowel-points, as


facilitating

simply a means of
text.

the

reading and the

understanding of the
him, as

Moreover, many authors before

Ben

Sira, a certain Eleazar b. 'Irai, the five sons of

Mattathiah the Hasmonean, and others, have done the same,


without

anybody having ever objected

to

their

method.

Here our fragment begins


I

as given below.
call

should here

like to

particular

attention to

the

fourth line of our text, which

may
1.

be of historical import-

up.
4

Harkavy,
the

/.

c,

p.

149,

n.

See

on

whole matter Harkavy,

/.

c,

142

ff.

Schechter, Saadyana,

r-

1-3.

SAADIA STUDIES
ance, as the

M ALTER
At

489

name(?) HUBvN occurring

there will perhaps


firsl

help to identify the person referred to by Saadia.


sight
I
is

thought

of

the pseudo-Messiah Serenus,

whose

name

given in various forms, also Zonoria, which would

correspond to

ntfP

B
.

To my mind

it

is

still

questionable

whether
0K1SJ2K
tion.

this

pretender was a

would not be so
are,

Jew at all, so much in the way

that the epithet

of this assump-

There

however, so many other

difficulties that I

would not venture anything beyond a mere suggestion.

One

is

also tempted to read

TOB^K, meaning "the


1

rascal" or

'impostor," but the letters

and

are very carefully disis

tinguished throughout the fragment, which


exceptionally clear

written in an
Besides,

hand and

is

well

preserved.

we

should then expect

TW,

instead of

*VW.

Translation
and as Simeon and Johanan and Jonathan and
Eleazar, the sons of Mattathiah, wrote a book on what hap-

pened unto them, resembling the book of Daniel


language of the Chaldeans.
6

in the

In this

our generation the


they
210
f.

people of Kairwan' composed a


5

Hebrew book on what


Note
14; comp.

See Gratz, Geschichte,


to

V
me

(3), 401,

JQR., 1910,

p.

Mr. B. Halper suggests

that

maB^N may mean


%

"the Babylonian," for


e.

Saadia always renders the biblical

1J, 51?

Babylonia, by ^13 , C (comp.

g.

Gen.

10,

10;

11,

2).

But aside from the missing of the


it

after the

C*

in our

MS.

as well as in that of Harkavy,

is

not very probable that Saadia should

have designated the

man

merely

by

"the

Babylonian

Christian,*'

without

mentioning his name.


6

Moreover, we would then expect


/.

ma'cSx

2X*, jSx.

According

to

Harkavy,

c, 205

ff.,

Saadia has reference to the Aramaic

Dt3Vt23X n?JO, which he, like others, had ascribed to the Maccabeans; comp.
Poznariski,
7

Schechter's

Saadyana,

p.

22,

No.

15.

The people of Kairwan are mentioned twice more


'iSiniED;
427;
see

in

the

extant

pages

of the

Harkavy,

163,

1.

8,

181,

1.

10;

comp. Schechter, JQR.,

XVI,

Poznanski, ]Xl"Vp

^2X,

2.

4QO
suffered at

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


the

hands of

*TWtP7KP

the

Christian

it

was
I

divided into verses and provided with accents.

Likewise

have composed while


of him

in 'Irak a

Hebrew book by
telling

the advice

who was

then

exilarch

therein

what had

come upon

the nation through the aberration of

Ben Meir
9

of Palestine regarding the order of the

festivals;

it

was

divided into verses and provided with accents.


I

Moreover
10

composed a book
I

telling of the tribulations

and the moleshis

tations

had encountered
;

at
in

the

hands of some of
into
it

adherents

it

was written

Hebrew, divided

verses

and provided with vowel-points and accents, so that

might

be more easily read and more readily retained. The subjects


[to be discussed in]
this

book number ten; from each one


Seven of

of them the nation will derive an evident benefit.


these subjects will be

made

clear in their respective places,

while the other three will be spread throughout the whole


book.
It is

necessary that

should indicate their contents

In
i

i;,

B\ which

is

the

reading of Harkavy's text (see also


13
,

ib.,

209-11),

the y
9

an erroneous combination of the letters

while the 1 stands for 1.


this

Harkavy, whose manuscript was defective


is

in

passage, supplied the

words -IX^N[Sn 2Xn32 'fDDoSs IHl] "which


Festivals.' "

entitled
is

'The

Book

of

the

On

the basis of this supplement the book


*1ED.

always quoted under


is

the
text

title

DHpOH
title,

Rut, as

we

see here, Harkavy's

addition

not in

the

and Saadia did not intend

to give

here the

exact

Arabic

equivalent

of

the

Hebrew

which would then be


the

OHJNOn

"HD, but merely indicated that

the book dealt with

order

of

the

festivals.

No more

definite
1.

is

the

second passage in which he refers to the work (Harkavy, 181, he


savs D*TjnoSlt "IOK *B nflB^H tSh
the
festivals."

12),
I

where

D^mSm
details

"the

book
though

which
very

composed
is
ff.,

regarding

The

title

DHJ?10PI

TED
on

probable,
p.

nevertheless only conjectural.

For more

this

book see below

505

Nos. 9-10.
the

We

learn

here that the D'lyiQn 'D was also written by Saadia at


}l"13Tn *1ED

request of the exilarch, as was the

discussed in the following

article.
'"

Refers

to

die exilarch
is

David

b.

Zakkai,

with

whom

he

was

then

at

enmity.

The book

unfortunately

lost.

SAADIA STUDIES

M ALTER

4';

and the cause that induced


of them, and
I

me

to the treatment of each

one

say

the

first

one of them

will be a descrip-

tion of learning

and the indication of the way


superiority

to its attain-

ment, a characterization of the


love
it

of

those
it.

who
The

and

of the inferiority of

those

who

hate

cause that induced


people"

me to discuss this matter was antagonized me solely because of their


12

that those

hatred of

learning and their desire that there should be in the nation


neither learning nor justice.
tain the calculation of

The second chapter will conhow many years prophecy existed in


that
it

our nation, and

show

lasted

thousand years
years
this

further [the question]

after

how many
I

the

whole

Mishnah was completed, and


500 years later;
13

show

that

took place
the

finally
[I

[I

investigate]

when

Talmud
the

was

finished,

and

prove] that both [Mishnah and Taltransmitted


14

mud]

were

uninterruptedly

orally

until

time of their commitment to writing.

The cause

that led
call

me

to this discussion

was

that

found that those who

themselves Rabbis at present are ignorant in these matters

and do not walk


their

in the

path of the ancients,

who

live

in

mouth

15

and from whose [mental] food they are

fed.

The
in a

third chapter will give a description of

what happens
assume the

country of which an unjust person

tries to

11

Refers again to the exilarch and his adherents mentioned before.

12 13
14

Comp. Harkavy,
I. e.

p.

152,

n.

7.

500 years after the cessation of prophecy.


is

This

an important testimony showing that in


to

his opinion the

Mishnah
196,

was committed
n. 12.
15

writing in the time of the Tannaim; comp. Harkavy,

The word

'C

at the

end of the
,

line

(1.

10)

is

written with a stroke on

the left side of the yod: ''B

which makes

it

appear as the abbreviation of the

following DSTE. If this be the case the sentence would offer no proper sense.
It

seems that Saadia made use


\3H DTPBO
"lt?K
;

here of the

common

rabbinical phrase

"ISTrlSI

pn

comp. Ketubbot 12b.

492
leadership.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

The cause
David
b.

that called forth this discussion

was

the affairs of

Zakkai and what happened to him.

The fourth chapter"

will

show

that

God

does not leave his

nation at any period without a

scholar

whom He
instruct

inspires

and enlightens, so that he

fin turn]

may

and teach

her. whereby her conditions for


this
11

may
I

be improved.

The cause
[of

discussion

was what

have witnessed

His

bounty]

toward

me and towards
[of the

the people [through me].

The

fifth

[chapter] will offer interpretations of the princi-

ples of the precepts


I

Torah] and of the prophecies.


in this

have placed these interpretations


order that the
reader
for this

book

side

by side

18

in

may [more
was
that

readily]
[I

understand
the urgent
kind.

them.

The cause

saw]

19

need of the nation for an exposition of


sixth chapter will
tell

this

The

of the injury
that
;

and

injustice

and the

designs upon

my

life

had sustained on the part of


I

people

named

therein

how

had invoked God and prayed


stating this
is

for His help.

The purpose of my

that every

man

of probity should take example therefrom,

when he

is

subjected to

harm and

injury by the wicked, so that he

may

remain hopeful and invoke [God], and not lose heart and
hasten
to

join

them and agree with them.

The seventh
20

chapter will present what was said [in Scripture]


16

by way

The

text offers here


in

(1.

14)

220^X1, which

is

a scribal error for 2^2^X1.

17

The words

brackets are added on the basis of Harkavy's text; see

the

variant to the passage.


in

Saadia has here in

mind

God's
so

bounty

toward

him

granting him wisdom, which enabled him to write


the
nation,
too,

many books by
not
quite
clear

which
,s

was

benefited.
to
n.
is
1.

As the portion of the book referred


is

lost,

it

is

what

meant here; comp. Harkavy, 160,


in

Harkavy"s
t"

text,

]>.

155,

1.

8. is

'-'"

Thai he refers
in

the

Scriptures

evident from the

passage

following

later,

which he resumes the enumeration of the seven special chapters in


order,

an inverted
enth,

beginning with the seventh.

In each instance, so also in

which forms the end of our fragment, he quotes verses from the

SAADIA STUDIES

MALTKR
all
it

4<j3

of description and exemplification concerning

those that
will

are wicked.

This presentation was necessary because

serve as a deterrent to everyone

who might perhaps


it
1
'

seek
will

wickedness

like

them, that he desist therefrom; nay,


1

serve as such even to the wicked themselves


take warning and repent.

that they

may
the

This

is

the

exposition

of

seven special chapters.

As
22

to the three general points

they

embrace the whole book.

In the

first

place

it

intends to

teach the nation the correct usage of the

Hebrew

language.

For

saw that

since the Arabic and the Xabatean languages

have become predominant, particularly the inferior one of


the two, they caused the people
to

forget

its

eloquent lanit

guage and elegant expression.


ports to teach
the

In the second place

pur-

nation the composition of

speech and
this

[how

to avoid] obscurities therein.


like a light

For

have made

[work] to be

unto the people, which they should

follow and by which they shall be stirred up to a proper


disposition of their discourses and of the thoughts contained
therein.

In the third place

it

is

to

teach the

nation

the

proper connection of sentences, as no discourse can be fully


Bible to prove his point.

Harkavy,

who, as

pointed
in

out
S.

by

Bacher,

RBI.,

XXIV,
passage,
21

314,

misunderstood the entire portion

which

announces the ten


the sense of this

points or subjects of his book, naturally could not

make out

and hence
(1.

his

remarks on

p.

154, n. 8-9.

The MS.

12)

has TTT3, which gives


is

no sense.

It

is

doubtless a

mistake
after

for "St3,
is

which

also

the

reading of Harkavy.

The pronoun DH

OH;
(the

not superfluous, as Harkavy thinks, but serves as emphasis: "to themselves."


to

them
22

wicked)

Saadia means

say that he did not

assign

special

paragraphs

to
is

the
to

treatment of the three points which he


teach

calls general,

for as their object

correctness

of

expression,

proper

construction,

and logical

connection

of sentences,

no

such

treatment

was

necessary.

His

whole

book,

which

complies with these three demands, will serve as a model to the reader, or,
as Saadia expresses himself in the following, as a light to guide him in his

compositions.

494

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


by interdependence of sentences, which
It is

intelligible unless

holds together the parts of the speech.


sense becomes clear, otherwise
it is

thus that the


I

vitiated

and diverted.

have elucidated these three points also

in

the ''Book on

Hebrew
benefits

Poetry."

23

have expressed therein


24

my

sorrow
clear the

over the nation's neglect of the language and


of
I

made

proper order and connection.

Much

of

this

matter

have, likewise, explained in the


25

"Twelve Parts"
the

[of

a book],

which

have composed for


of
the

purpose

of

elucidating the

grammar

Hebrew
its
26

language.

When
it,

the nation reads this book and


it

when

youth
:

will study

will derive
23

therefrom these ten


known under
the

benefits

it

will acquire
first

This

is

the book

title

"Agron," Saadia's

literary

production, of which again only parts of the Arabic and

Hebrew
/.

introduction

were preserved
Bacher, REJ.,
24

in

the Genizah and published by Harkavy,

c, 41-57; comp.

XXIV,
to

307

f.

The passage
f.
;

which he refers here occurs


p.

in

the portion preserved;

see Harkavy, 54

comp. also
1895,
P-

45,

and Bacher, Die Anf'dnge der hebr'dischen

Grammatik, Leipzig
25

60.
title

This Book

is

often quoted by Saadia under the


It

rbSSx 2H3 "Books


he

on the Language."

was one

book

in twelve

parts,

which

sometimes
refers
to

designates as separate books.

In our

passage

he

more

properly

them as
about
it
it

parts.

Of
in

this

work nothing has come

to us, but various particulars

found

Saadia's other works, as well as in those of later authors,


its

made
310

possible for Professor Bacher to give a full description of


its

original

plan and arrangement, as well as of


f.,

content; comp. Bacher, REJ.,

XXIV,

and especially Anfdnge,


Harkavy's
text,

38-60.

26

followed by Bacher, REJ.,

XXIV,

315,

top,

has 'jSn,

"the three," which refers only to the three general purposes of the book.

Our
he

text offers, however, the correct reading, for, as pointed out before (note 20),

Saadia here again takes


desires
to

up
the

the

enumeration
work,

of

the

ten

points,

which
the

bring out in

present

briefly

summarizing
verses
special

three

general objects, to which he finds allusions in


Job,

the

from
topics

Isaiah

and

and then giving

in inverted order

the

seven

(beginning

with
161

m2nj?N1
11.

1.

15).

This reading

is

supported by a later passage (Harkavy,


all

12-14),

where, upon having recapitulated

points,

he says:

ip
.

1M

ktiSih
I

'tot

itmait ]Q

impBuaD

jy netrsi

nsisx

'Sn

nin

nmy

"Now
last

as

have recounted the ten points and shown their usefulness from the

SAADlA STUDIES
elegance in the use of the
disposition,
filled

MAI/lT.k
correct

495

language, a

method
will

xof

and the proper connection.


27
:

Thus

be

ful-

the

words of Isaiah

The
the
;

heart also of the rash shall

understand knowledge and


shall

tongue of the
as
said

stammerers
Elihu
28
:

be ready to speak plainly


shall utter the

also

My

words
which

uprightness

of

my

heart

and that

my

lips

know

they shall speak sincerely.

The nation
said

will further derive a lesson

from what was

therein

regarding the wicked and

what was recorded concerning


that
it

them for future generations, so


like

desist

from acting
to stumble,

them, as David said

29
:

So they

shall be
etc.

made
and

their
30

own tongue
etc.

being against them,


31
:

all

men

shall

fear,

Job also said

Upright men

shall be astonished

at this,

and the innocent

shall stir

up himself against the

godless.

of them back to the first" and so forth.

It

may

be observed that in counting


1.

backward he placed the

fifth

point (Harkavy, 155,

6-9),

either

by mistake

or for some reason, between the third and the second points
1.

(Harkavy, 159,

20-23).
2T

Isaiah 32,

4.

M Job

33,

3-

29

Ps.,

64,

9-

30

.. 64,

10.

31

Job

17,

8.

496

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


(Leaf
1

recto)

nzn\-c rpnnn
.p\3fcnDD5s n:Sn

^2

"irySKi

m:n

\:nv)

iiywi
^d

1 2 3

^^i

2Knr>

mB" nm
*b

id ks

N2NJ12 fRrPP^K frlK t^K $17]

KJIVi? '21

npdbd

*j*nv:tfK

nwfo

to

cn^x: no

R^iraif

4
5 6 7 8

n:ni nstfa kodi .povoa

KsyuD kp^dkis
p*oy^xn
'b

rh^nSsn j^D

i^ *tn iv

iwmay anxra

vko p ndd
kd
*a

|o .1e&6n

NiTDKlB NyDP?0

^y ni an "IfcOytOK rmfl ^B
ibnrsi
rtfiix
.

Ken

DKB^KZI

anxro ns^x

poyon xsyoD

iwCWay
nn*np^

nrtibm inn^x in

in dip id rovp?

10
11

^pidx
riiry

pd^ xnyoD kjddd

xp^dxis xpdsd
.

nxn^x

xnn

j'x-nxi

n^ariS

po^l
-tnxi 5a

12
13

x:^2 xyco fiDxbx


nnxbn^xi rue wrine
-onx
fx

m yan:n

xn:o

xyviE |nn fiyno khjdb

14

uan

njpo) b lipK? (sic) -oix^x

15

-nxi ^d nxarix *k xyi


*P31

nbn 220^x1 xm^y 16


17
18
b'xirai

hDDnbs

riax k,i:d

5ix^x nx]^ipxi xnj


xnaxiJi

txai

Knnuta rxp:i xrvnnD


DnS
word

H(arkavy) 'cSx
6

4 IT

for

Dflfati

HJRBP for

nuvfa
which
so

H pDCO
is

II

ny-0

in

the last
II,

of the line stands for

in

KD""I missing

in

but

suppllied

by

him conjecturally,
in
1P11;

in

several

instances

marked

in

the

following as

missing

First
9

three
I

words

missing in H, who
9 II

conjectures
as in line

3Kn33 'BDdSn
7

see

note

IMI^M
then

-hl2

'

13

Here

HEIN^X with

as mater
|

lectioms,
;

but

out and dagesh added in the following


in

13

H
|

K3'3
II

see note on

J"3n
The

next

line

14

HjDB
is

is

margin; text

For |an
17

reads

pn

doubling of the yod

to indicate
IT,

consonantal reading
but

The words
through

]H SlpNl

Hn:C

SinSn

are omitted by
in
fact,

they

fell

out

only
are

homoiotel-

euton (MnSD), and

the

first

three

words

found
is

also

on
see

the

margin

of

MS.
I

II

from which ]X
II

missing in our MS.,

supplied;

H's

note ad locum

18

MUltlAl.

SAADIA STUDIES

MAI/lT.K
(Leaf
1

497
verso)
*a

no;n

DfctfK VltfK \*&

iW nxanK

aaoSu

*b pa^

n^n ormpi ftoanbb


.

dwiw^ on*y
Hdm6m pa no

2
3 4 5
6 7 8 9

6 a*afoi
(sic)

fry k5i D^y (sic)

N:noiN pa no

*b

nnata donpn en tjdSn Tntui


5>w

yoj nnnDx Hao os


D3 ^Nl
,:

foo

f|b

xmx

ru*3B

1^
ok

lya

R
^n

ft"

NO DOD

>^>N PIJN nDIXrfi

MPD$M
^ODHDN

?N

p^pjo N^[N]r C^ JPdAk


ibi
1

|N1 IIDfrlftl
.

yi

hSx aaobw

KnnitariM dpi

^y pap

n^ t^

p^into nodn2 pbono^N mil

niON

6n tawta HTD3 |TW l6l "|5n iiprm^ on^Kyo toi orpfi |kdj^ n^o sis nitfa^K '2 mn^ no finyn l^i *b* xyi n^w aaD^i n^y onrtfK thAk
B

P^JT

,-

10
11

n^Nn^N asa^Ki

12
13

ya*rK aa5Ki
5a *B

rrby

n3 not 'ndt
n5

\2

-hni

14

TO^n

to

nnoN

*bi'

h^n

*pnyn

15
16 17

n5v;m KfiD^yi
*B

Kmiw
-fri

Tin
'2

mvn
.

noSir nvy

nmnitp kd
io ivy

anD^Ni Nn^NTiN na
k.t^/i

nvw
JX
4

donz^ni

^y
H

^dbj

18

1-2

'STUM? DXJxSx Tl6lH

T- KO
]"3n
!

'E
6

missing

in
is

For

ni M 2E
and

see preceding page line 14, note on

JTX!2

D02
The

margin; text

ji
J

ri:D

missing in

10

correctly

JH^X

14

last

two
for
is

letters

of 'X2T

and following three words are missing


1

in

see note 16

16

H
;

[xn]TlE'
see note 17

17

^B

missing in

H H

MS. 22DSxi
18 In

2X2^X1;
followed

DB3

by Ha ^SSfl

X2B

H DSxSSx

SXS^Xl

JO

missing in H.

498

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


(Leaf 2 recto)
riSxn

3nabK sin KnirniM nH'n^xi nwD^K


iSi
B

njxn rhir

[jvn-i] ;n

mo^Ni rmnp
.

to KfpftJ

*ip>

2 3

rrNDn dtndSn 2N2Sni

Nn^riD

nynfai tnvbx
.

\n ira

(sic)

pddd5> dip^ ro
(sic)

^n ^y

Hd!>k

ni no
nfoi

4
5
6 7

rrfo rnanoKi

n^

*5h

win

rma kdi dbj^n


"6"t

nnxv
r5i iy-ni

nbhnw*?
\a

^nNanx

>a 33d5ki

in^a po^Kb^N
.

inn nin

m&

tv

pn

nxn^Ni

DnnpDNioi onnt^NDO
S

JD inK! ^D

Q ^NriDN^NI

W^N

JO

^n yiND^a n}jF ^p NO JDND^N


po^Nt^N ^inh
nNoy
to

8
9

bib

rim mis
^2

ibi

nxshN

nSiN

10
11 12

rma

5^

N^a onbrio
in
.

dWjn

nvp^ in

piirps

pyinv

Dn^y^ DnDSJN on dh^ i^id

h[N]br6N neni

.ivNb^N

nNUN '6n

nriB>

nine 13

^in^n nNnr^N sroA rtijDNC ^ns noNy^N

nana 14
15

[K]nm*n *jk$ "Jtnny^N dn^o ppvb honSn D^yn Nn:o

N^mo

<:t6n

b
.

fi'tj!w

rrmy^N rubbx Nn^y nzA: no 16

ynn^N NnnN^oi rirrv^N Nnn:^ nhidjn 17 norm dn^n pi^nd Hon^n D^yn *r6w 18
supplied from text of

rVN"l, missing in our


!

MS.,
I

is

H;

see
12

note

19

4 II

HKSK

H
H

H2

for

Plf?M

"TnJ\ taking

it

as a verb!| 13 In

MS.
is

"frill;

see note 21

II

correctly

lyim*
I

in the subjunctive

]Vy

added
Sa

after

nntr

DxSdS

16

"130 for "10

HJSSk missing in

3lS

NC!"I2C and 3N of the

following word missing in H, for which he conjectures


11

an 22Db rhttbb

18

nyoJi.

SAAftlA STUDIES

MAI/TER
(Leaf
2

499
verso)
nhv'i

^y

nn pratfW nrin pnrr S*no!>Ka xin

xno'byn nbsn^xi
fc^K ninsnyo
-6*13
'aft*

Dmyi onaNua
dk^:j *a r*a
b fiyoio

dkl::

foan k^

nx nitDi&M

3
4
5

nvn nn pya ^x ppa ^pSx


sin nmtp kddi

nxosa

m^rn moa

k5ki

^xyo^x
a

ppd nyjina

ijmajtfa nyt^K nann


n^a nj^ai

>:xy^

6 7 8

dkpj!>m

yawo
%

ft^K Hok^n \wd>


.

ny\\
flab

-|in jd

Krria nn-i^ xddi

niiD&Ki
afaic

ixnyx rrnvrtf Knns^K n5 w6k

>a

aKnafo xnn
;

ftotibtt

mop

kins ijito)k
khzik::^
s

10

vzx:d bx rnna
s

nyamK

no^ym 11
nnven 12
pd i5n
[o^lb'y

s IK3i KnrocDH khdnd:! ft6b

iwft ny-tf
ny-n

pr Dnnw

aoft

tnw

13 14

now

a5

new kw5k

pai [ni]ns

[nanb [in]bn
.

pobabbs nai xoo rmnyxi


pen oniric ^>ya |y
y\

tffo

nnn ^dd^ 15
bn*fi rro

nnn:ai bitted

na 16

5a

imi

Ji

dji^

id^jj intfnson
idib*

th
5kpi

17 18

.-nw
"IK

$i:n

5y pji dkt 5y

on^
is

av

missing

in

H,

for

which riS*&3ttta
leaf
1

conjectured
line 14
|

H
T^K
16

njTOJin
|

5-7

For

mJW
I

and n321 see


;

recto, note

on

H
|

11

H
5.

moSpni

'&Htor '^H

see note 26

J?BH30^

15

13*1

j5

500

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

II

Tm-;

Documents on the Ben Meir Controversy

Altogether there exist at present twelve documents relating


to

the

controversy of the

Babylonian authorities,

preeminently Saadia, on the one side and Ben Meir on the


other.
ary.

All of these documents are

more or

less

fragmentleaves,

Some were patched

together
different

from separate
libraries,

partly doublets, found in

whither

they
re-

had been brought from the Genizah, then published and

published sporadically by various scholars in several periodicals

and separate

editions, often with


all

French or English
the
last

translations
years.

and annotations,

within

twenty

There

is

much

uncertainty as to the chronological order


these

or even the identity of

documents.

This

is

due

to

their mutilated condition, as the beginnings

and the ends,


to be

where the dates and the names of the authors are


much, however, seems

expected, have suffered most or are missing altogether.


certain, that
all

So
12,

but one

(No.

perhaps also No. 10) originated during the years 921-22 of


the

common

era.

In the

following

try

to give

a brief
in their

description of each

document and

to arrange

them

approximate chronological order,


texts published in Bornstein's

using in

particular

the

tko

pi p*U rmjJD T) np6n,

Warsaw
1
.

[904, pp. 45-102.


letter

of
to

the

Babylonian authorities,
at

including
the
to

Saadia, addressed
quarrel,

Ben Meir
Saadia's
the

the beginning of

subsequent to

return

from Aleppo

Bagdad shortly before


l'

high

Holidays

of the year
his first

s-

921

If

it

is

true that

Ben Meir issued

proclamation on the

Mount of Olives on Hosha'na Rabbah

SAADIA STUDIES
of that year, as
is

M ALTER
HoGoren,
was written
V.

501
137,

claimed by Epstein,

we might assume
the

that this proclamation


it

was the cause

of

the letter under consideration and that

a> soon
I

news of Ben Meir's procedure reached Babylon.


is

lowa

ever, Epstein's assumption

subject
is

to

doubt, as
stated

such
in

proclamation by

Ben Meir

not

clearly

the

sources and the various passages that

come

into considera-

tion can also be referred to the proclamation

by one of Ben
later.

Meir's sons, which took

place

about three months

Moreover, to judge from the highly respectful and friendly


tone in which the writers of this letter address themselves
to their opponent, especially

when compared with


it

the style

of their subsequent letters to him.

is

hard to believe that


decisive
step

Ben Meir had already taken


officially

his

first
I

by

proclaiming his reforms.


if

am

therefore of the

opinion that

there

was such

a proclamation on

Hosha'na

Rabbah, as appears from the phrase D^mn in nron (Bornstein, 91,

bottom, 92, top) this letter was


first

written

prior

to

that

event after the

meeting

Saadia had with the

authorities

upon

his

return to

Bagdad.

This finds some

support in a passage of Saadia's second letter to his pupils


in Egypt,

where he says
'3 1*1:33

'3

-H3D

WH1
iy

T1JQ 'flTll *:n 'fi3*n


bip.

pDn YriDH

nywvn nx3

-ictn

The wording
BagMeir's

indicates that

some time elapsed between

his arrival in

dad and the reaching there of the news of Ben


proclamation.
letter,

The word DTnan, which occurs


*nron (Bornstein, 62,
1.

twice in that
coirip. 93,
1.

as well as
in

30;
it

15)

is

favor of Epstein's view, though

is

not impossi-

ble that the writers

had

in

mind the proclamation of Ben


was written
and

Meir's son.

At any

rate the letter in question

before the month of Teb'et 4682,


the son took
place,

when

the proclamation of the


first

and

is

therefore

not, as

5-

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


(ib., p.

Epstein
ian

140) thinks, the third letter of the Babylon-

Geonim

to

Ben Meir; comp.


3.

S.

Eppenstein,

MGIVJ.,

1910, p. 456. n.

The
first

letter of

which beginning and end are missing was

published by Sehechter in the JQR.,


16-19,
later

XIV,
87

52,

and
in

in

Saadyana,

reprinted

by

Bornstein
p.
ff.)

the
in

Memorial volume for Sokolow (brn naD,


the separate edition,

and

Warsaw

1904, p. 73-77.

In the follow-

ing

I shall

quote only from the separate edition.


conclusion of a letter by the Babylonians ad-

2.

The

dressed to Ben Meir, dated Tebet


era
lines

1233

of

the

Selucidan
10

(=

4682 Jewish era).

The fragment counts but


c,

and contains only blessings and good wishes for the


Eppenstein,
/.

Palestinians.

suggests that

it

might be

the end of the preceding number.


be, this

Whatever
its

the case

may
tone,

fragment, too, on account of

conciliatory

must be assigned
the son of

to the time preceding the proclamation by


It

Ben Meir within the same month.

was

first

printed by Harkavy, Zikkaron, V, 213, then with variations

by M. Friedlaender, JQR., V, 197, by Epstein, REJ., XLII (1901), 179, and by Bornstein, 45; comp. Epstein, HaGorcn, V, 137, note 1. According to him it is the conclusion of the first letter of
lost, but,

the Geonim, which he

considers

as

we have
reply of

seen above

(No.
to

1),

without ground.
letter

3.

The

Ben Meir
the

the

first

of
son,

the
to

Geonim,

written

after

proclamation

of

his

which he refers (Bornstein,


latter part of
first

51, line 10), thus either in the

Tebet or in Shebat 4682. It was published by Harkavy, Zikkaron, V, 213-220 from a MS. count-

ing 6 leaves (copied for


tional leaves

him by Neubauer) and two addiin the library

which he found

of

St.

Peters-

burg.

M.

Friedlaender

reedited

the

Oxford MS. with

SAADIA STUDIES

MALTER

503
ff*.

various omissions and corrections in the JQR., V, 197

Later two more pages, partly corresponding with the text


of

Harkavy

and partly completing

it,

were brought

to

Cambridge by Schechter.
Israel Levi,

One
and
in

of these

was published by
All

RE J.,

XL, (1900),

262, the other by Schechter,

JQR.,

XIV

(1901), 42,

Saadyana (1903),
is
still

15.

these finds notwithstanding the letter


fact

incomplete, a

overlooked by Eppenstein,

/.

c, p. 453.

In 1901 A.

Epstein reedited the whole text (with the exception of the


portion published by Schechter) with an elaborate introduction

and copious notes

in

the

RE J.,

XLII, 180-87.

He
the

also
(ib.,

added a French translation of nearly the whole text


p.

187-91).

Finally H.

J.

Bornstein,

using

all

material collected by his


in

predecessors, published
p.

the letter
partly

his

work on

the controversy,

45-56,

with

different readings

and

interpretations.

4.
is

The

letter of

Saadia to his pupils in Egypt.


letter
It

There

no reference

in this

to

proclamation of either

Ben Meir

or his son.
it

has been proved, however, on other

grounds that

was

written either in Tebet or in Shebat of

the year 4682 (beginning of 922


ciding in time with the letter of

common

era), thus coinin the

Ben Meir discussed

preceding number.

The exact
was

date

cannot be determined

and the
of

letter

might perhaps as well be placed before that


It
first

Ben Meir.
of

published by Schechter from a

MS.

Mayer

Sulzberger,

JQR.,

XIV

(1901),

59

(Saadyana, 24-26), and subsequently by Bornstein, 67-69.


5.

Saadia's

second

letter

to

his

pupils,

written

two

months after
explicitly

his first letter to the


It

same

pupils, as he states

therein.

was published by Xeubauer, JQR.,


in

IX

(1897), 37; Harkavy

Ha-Goren,

II

(1900), 98; with

504

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


translation

French
1

and notes
finally

by Epstein, RBJ.,

XLII

(190

').

200-203. and

by Bornstein, 69-71.

6.

Ben Meir's second letter in refutation of the view

of the Babylonian authorities.


letter
it

From

the

content

of

this

is

evident that things were running against him and

that he

had suffered some defeat, though he was not yet


in.

ready to give
of
his

Contrary to his expectations even some

former friends celebrated Passover of that year


in

(4682)

accordance with the accepted calendar

(comp.
DKi

the passage in Bornstein, p. 92, line 9: ruapa ]D^2


|HT3

orwy
is

ntrm

icyn b).

Probably

this

was the case with an


It

overwhelming majority of the congregations.


fore safe to assume that
after Passover.

there-

the letter

was written not long

The
(1901
7.
).

letter

was published by Schechter, JOR.,

XIV

56,

Saadyana (1903), 20-22; Bornstein, 90-93.

fragment disputing the right of the Babylonians


calendar,

to

fix the

published by
131;

Schechter, JQR.,
94.

XIV

(1902), 249, Saadyana,


/.

Bornstein,

Bornstein,

c.j

suggests that

this

fragment formed a part of Ben


before (No. 6).

Meirs second

letter discussed

This

is

also

the opinion of Epstein,


8.

Ha-Goren,

(1906), 139.

A
V.

letter

against

Ben

Meir

by

some

unnamed

scholar,

who, as Bornstein
141,
n.

(p.

78; comp. Epstein, Ha-

Goren,

2)

pointed out, was not a Babylonian.

The

author, addressing himself to

Ben Meir, uses

a phrase

that occurs in

Ben Meirs second

letter (the

passage quoted

above

in

No. 6), turning the same against him and his

followers, thus

making

it

certain that he wrote

during the

same summer, probably soon after the appearance of Ben


.Meirepistle.
It

consists
at

of

three leaves

which

were
by

found and published

different times,

the third

leaf

SAADIA STUDIES
Israel Levi, REJ.,

M ALTER
the

505

XLI

1900), 229-32. reedited by Epstein,

REJ., XLII

(1901),

197-200.

second

by

Schechterj
p.

JQR.,

XIV

(1901), 62-3 (reprinted in Saadyana, [903,


first

26-8), and the

by the same

in

Saadyana,

i<>.

The

three

parts were then arrranged in their consecutive order and

reedited with explanatory notes by Bornstein (1904). 78-89.


9.

fragment dealing with

the differences

between

the ''Four Gates" of the accepted calendar and those intro-

duced by Ben Meir.


Saadia
is

There

is

not the least doubt that

the author of this

fragment, as various phrases


it

and even a whole portion of


passages occurring in
the

agree almost literally with


of
the

remnants

Sefer

ha-

Mo'adim; comp.
p.

the phrase in Bornstein, p. 64, line 18 and

102, line 3, as also the passages following there 102, respectively.

on

p.

65

and

The

question

is

only as to the chron-

ological

place

of

this

fragment within the controversial


p. 99.

literature.

Bornstein,

suggests that

it

may have been


Ep-

part of the Sefer ha-Mo'adim or an appendix thereto.


stein,

however,

in

Ha-Gorcn, Y,
is

140. though recognizing


it

the authorship of Saadia,

of the opinion that

repre-

sents a letter of the Babylonian authorities to the Jewish

communities.
that Saadia

If that be the case

we would have
is

to

assume

was charged even with


of the Geonim, which
:

the composition of the

official letters

not very probable.

Besides, the words (p. 102)


piid -ijn

p-n6 invnS

nm

iBDn

rux 3iro5>

r6nnE

pith

tkd p npyo ns oimnb hinw


a
letter,

ba

Tina

do not seem

to refer to

but.

just as

the parallel
in">2D

passage (p. 65), to some memorial volume that was

tended for the Jewry

in general. in

To

such a POJDl |TOI


letter

nw6
and

Saadia refers also

an Arabic

published by

Hirschfeld. JQR.,
it

XVI

(1004). 296, fol. 2 verso, line 4-5.

is

therefore probable that

we have

here a fragment

506

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


This
is

of that memorial volume.


stein

suggested also by Eppenbut

(MGWJ.,

1910. p. 458, n.

3),

he overlooks the

authorship of Saadia.

There

is

only this difficulty that in

the letter referred to Saadia speaks of the book as having

been written by the exilarch, while, as pointed out before,


the

fragment indicates Saadia as the author.


in

We may
to

assume, however,

this

instance, that
in

Saadia wrote the


his

book by request of the exilarch and


give
it

name, so as

more weight and


it

authority, and, therefore, in referit

ring to

had
it

to designate

as the

work

of

the

exilarch.

After

was not a question who was the writer of a document, but what purpose it was intended to serve. The
all,

description

Saadia gives there of the

fHSt 1BD, as

dealing

with the Four Gates contrived by

Ben Meir,
I

tallies

very

well with the content of our fragment.

am

therefore of

the opinion, that the Sefer Zikkaron mentioned by Saadia


in

one of the fragments of the Sefer ha-Mo'adim, (Born65)


is

stein,
itself,

not another

name

for

the

Sefer ha-Mo'adim

as has been hitherto

accepted

(Epstein,

Ha-Goren,
is

Y. 140, Eppenstein,
of another book, of

MGWJ.,

1910, p. 457), but

the

name

Moreover,
be
read
in

it

which our fragment formed a part. was not the Sefer ha-Mo'adim, which was to
on the twentieth of Elul, as generally

public

assumed, but the Sefer Zikkaron mentioned therein. There is no basis for the assumption that the Sefer Zikkaron is
identical with the Sefer

ha-Mo'adim, nor that the

latter

was
of

intended for public recitation.


the

Judging from the

style
it

extant

fragments of the Sefer ha-Mo'adim


strange, that

would,

indeed, seem very

such a book should have


it

been destined to be read in public, as


the purpose.

could hardly serve

view was based, were simply misunderstood because of the erroneous identithis

The passages on which

SAADIA STUDIES
fication of the

MALTER
in
p.

S7
the

two books.

It

should be noticed that


(Bornstein,

fragments of the
Saadia reports that
for

Sefer ha-Mo'adim
it

65)

was decided

to write a Sefer Zikkaron


p"OT

future

generations

(wnnx irnrvnS
p"l3?

iED DW3J),
pub-

which agrees with nm"6 n^ODi

ISO

in the letter

lished by Hirschfeld, while in the fragment of the Sefe*

Zikkaron (Bornstein,
write this book as a

p.

102) he says that


for
all

it

was decided
(ns

to

memorandum

Israel

DiriD?

b*nw

hi linn

fnah wtrnb

nm

nBDrt).

This distinction bethe


in

tween the

two books

relieves us also of

difficulty

that

Saadia should have repeated his report

nearly the same

words

in

one and the same book.

The Sefer Zikkaron was

written

first,

at the request of the exilarch,

when

all

other

efforts against

Ben Meir had

failed,

and was

finished before

Elul 4682, while the Sefer ha-Mo'adim, which mentions the

former,

may have been


above,
p.

written at any subsequent time, but

probably soon afterwards.

As Saadia informs
1.

us

in his

Wn

'D (see

496,

6) he

wrote the Sefer ha-

Mo'adim

also by request of the exilarch.

The fragment
Schechter,

of the Sefer Zikkaron

was published by
(Saadyana.

JQR.,

XIV

(1902),

498-500

128-30), and by Bornstein, 99-102.


10.

Three

fragments

of Saadia's Sefer ha-Mo'adim.

written probably

when
;

the struggle, as far as

we know

it.

was

over, 4682-83

see above

Xo.

9.

One

of the fragments
a
J.,

(counted by Bornstein as Xo. II)

was published with


J.

French translation by Elkan X. Adler and

Broyde,

RE

XLI

(1900), 224-29, later retranslated

and reedited with


(1901). 191-97-

additional notes by A. Epstein. REJ.,

XLII

Subsequently the fragment was completed by two leaves


discovered by Schechter, which partly overlap one another
as well as the text previously published.

The two

additional

508
leaves

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


were published by Schechter, JQR.,

XIV

(1901),

49-52 (reprinted in Saadyana, 10-13).

Fragment Xo.

was published by

Schechter, JQR.,

XIV, 47-8 [Saadyaiia,


ame,
ib.,

8-9), and fragment Xo. Ill by the

p.

52 (Saadyana,
Bornstein.

13-14).

The whole was

later

reedited

by

58-67.

For another fragment of

the Scfcr Jio-Mo'adim, in which, however, the controversy


is

not explicitly mentioned, see Harkavy, Zikkaron, V, 220;


n.
1.

comp. Hirschfeld, JQR., XVI, 291,


1 1

An
in

Arabic

letter

of

Saadia to three Rabbis in

Egypt
of

answer to their inquiries regarding the calculations


celebrat-

Ben Meir, which they had accepted by mistake,


admonished them

ing the festivals accordingly.


the situation and

Saadia enlightened them on


to

read

for themselves
(

and

to others the Letter of

Reproof and Warning

3WO

mnmi

nroin) of the

Head

of the Academy, copies of which

he sent them together with those of the Sefer Zikkaron of


the exilarch (see above Xo. 9).

This interesting

letter is

dated "Friday, the


but no doubt
it is

nth
by

of Tebet."

The year
JQR.,

is

not given,

4683.

The

letter

was published with an

English

translation

Hirschfeld,

XVI

(1904),

290-97

comp. D. Yellin's Notes thereon,

ib., p.

772-7$.

12.

list

of the differences between the respective

calculations of Saadia

and Ben Meir regarding the appointduring the years 4682-84.

ment of the
to Epstein
in

festivals

According

(Ha-Gorcn, V, 141) the author of

this list lived

Egypt after the death of Saadia, for he adds the eulogy


"0VOT
to Saadia's

nzrob
as "the

name.

He

also speaks of Saadia

Gaon" and "the Head of the Academy," which, as know, he was only several years after the quarrel. The we
was published
first

list

by

Schechter, JQR.,

XIV

(1901),

59 (Saadyana, 22-^). later reedited with a French transla-

SAADIA STUDIES
tion by Epstein, REJ.,

MALTKR
f.,

509

XLIV

(1902), 235

and

finally

by

Bornstein,

p.

95.
I

Of

recent articles on the controversy


Poznariski,

wish to point
the

out in particular that of

Ben Meir and

Origin of the Jewish Calendar, JQR.,


well
as

(1897), 152-60, as

the

elaborate

essays

of

Epstein

{REJ.,

XLII,

173-210,
stein,

XLIV,

230-36, Ha-Gorcn, V, 118-42), and Born-

referred to repeatedly above

The account here given


identity

of the chronological order and

of

the

documents on the Ben Meir controversy

differs essentially in several points

from

that of the various

authors mentioned, but upon a careful examination of the


sources the reader will find this presentation justified.

A DISPUTATION

IN

AN

ITALIAN" NOVEL.
School,

By Max Radin, Newtown High

New

York.
article

In connection with President Schechter's


the

on
fol-

Khazars

(JQR.,

New

Series,

III,

i8iff.)
at least

the

lowing account of a disputation may have


terest of a curiositas Utter aria.

the in-

Jerome Morlini, a Neapolitan


8,

jurist,

published on April

1520, a collection of Novels in Latin. These do not dif-

fer

from the many

similar collections in Italian


if

and French,

except that they are rather less witty and,


obscene.

anything, more

The

style,

too,

is

a curious conglomeration of

phrases, a piling of solecism

upon euphuism, and the ex-

traordinary book
less printing.

is

further disfigured by extremely care-

These vices of substance and


ever,

form did

not,

how-

prevent the book


for bibliophiles

from becoming a much-coveted


eighteenth century.
a

prize

as early as the

Finally, in 1799, a certain Pierre

Simon Caron prepared

second edition at Paris, which purposed to be an exact


reproduction of the
in reading,
first,

but which, by gratuitous blunders

succeeded in being
later,

much

worse.

A
vise

very few years

one E. T. Simon, of Troves,

conceived the plan of a third edition.


the text

He

intended to re-

thoroughly,

and to add to the eighty-one

novels,

the

fables

and the comedy already published, an

appendix consisting of 19 new novels.

One

of these had

?\2

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


in

already been published


liani
|

the

Notizia de'

Novellieri

Itait

Bassano 1794) by Count Borromeo,

who found
to

ascribed to Morlini.

The other eighteen he claimed

have

discovered

in a

MS. where

they were attributed to the Nea-

politan jurist.

Simon died before he could carry out

his project.
finally

His

MS.

passed

into

several

hands and

was

(1853)

purchased by the Municipal Library of Troyes.


In 1855 Morlini

was edited

for

the third time in the

Bibliotheque
third edition

Elzeverienne
is

published
is

by

P. Jannet.

This

the

first

one that
its

properly printed.
all

The
very

text has been freed

from

obvious errata and


full.

the abis

breviated words are printed in

The

editor

short with Simon's eighteen novels, which he pronounces

clumsy forgeries.

The

decision,

to be

sure,

is

based on

differences of style, at best a

slippery

criterion.

But

whether they are genuine or not, a


in

real service

was done

publishing the complete collection, since otherwise the

eighteen novels of

Simon would have remained


are those that meet us in
buffooneries,
[Morlini,
it

inaccessible.
little

As
be
said.

to the character of the original novels,

need

The themes
retorts,

all

the

Nov-

ellieri

witty

and the inexhaustible


be noted, exercised

astusia dellc donnc.

may

considerable influence upon later writers,


ed and translated him.

who

often imitat-

The novels
same
type.

of the

Appendix
vi

are, in the
xiii,

main, of the

Two. however,

and

are peculiar.
is

They

contain miracles of the Virgin and

xiii

especially note-

worthy for the


ly

fact that in

it

Jew

suffers both

contumeis

and

beating
to

tor his- blasphemy.

Indeed the novel


exist
in

an attempt

explain

the custom

said to

Santa

Maria

)culatrice near

Venosa

in the

province of Basilicata.

DISPUTATION IX AN
by which any Jew found
in

II

AI

AN

NOVEL

RADIX

5IJ

the village on
1

Assumption Day

(August 15) received a sound beating.


In view of the above, the
Christiano
able.
last

novel entitled.
is

De Judaeo
remark-

Mahumeditano
it

ct

rege,

particularly

Summarized

runs as follows.
set

Three travelers once

out

from

Tripoli

for

the

Mountains of the Moon, situated

at the

sources of the Nile.

After countless hardships they reached a beautiful region


called

Oasis.

Immediately upon their arrival they were


in
in

surrounded by a gaping crowd shouting words


intelligible

an un-

tongue.

Armed men

finally

took them

charge
latter,

and brought them to the King of the country.

The

wholly unable to understand them, ordered them to be kept,


at public expense, for the present.

Meanwhile

royal attendant bethought himself of

resident of Oasis

who had come

there

many

years ago. ap-

parently from the same direction as the travelers.

This

man was immediately summoned and who the strangers were.

ordered to find out

Xow
that they

this

man happened
all

to

be a

Moor from

Tunis.

After speaking with the travelers, he promptly discovered

were

three

from

Tripoli, but that they

were

of different religions,

being a Christian, a Jew and a Moa

hammedan respectively. The Moor was himself hammedan by birth, but had long lapsed into the
of the other inhabitants of Oasis.
still

Mo-

idolatry

Secretly, however. h

favored his old belief and bitterly hated both Jews

and Christians.

When,

therefore, he reported the results

of his investigation to the King, he wickedly asserted that


the
1

new-comers were dangerous


The custom
Jewish
is

to

the
for

state

because

somewhat

like

that recorded

Lyon

in

the fourteenth

century.

Encyclopedia,

VIII,

259b.

514
their

THE)

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Thereupon the King or-

widely-differing religions.

dered the travelers to learn the Oasitan language as soon


as possible, and

commanded

his attendants to see to their

maintenance.

The

travelers obeyed.
in

Instructed by the Moor, they

soon succeeded

mastering the language, although they


to pursue their journey.

would vastly have preferred

When
him.

the

King thought

that they

had learned enough

for his purpose, he

summoned
dogmas

the frightened travelers to

He

conversed with them on frequent occasions and


of their respective religions

quickly discovered the

and the differences, disagreements, and mutual hatred that


reigned in the breasts of
all

three.

Convinced that they

never could agiee and would make bad citizens of any


State or government whatever, he nevertheless decided to
try to

overcome such obstinacy.

He, therefore,

called

them

together and

summoned

the executioner.

Then he ordered

every one of them at once, under pain of immediate death,


to adopt the religion of
in

one of the other two, and to give

the presence of one another and of the court, the rea-

sons that guided him in his choice.

The Christian spoke


and death," he
than
said,

first.

"Since

it

is

a matter of life
faith
is

"and since the Jewish

older

my own

and consequently than the Mohammedan, and


is

since the

whole Christian religion

derived from the Holv

Scriptures
prophets,
I

handed

down

by
in

Moses

and

the

ancient

have no hesitation

adopting the laws of the

Jews."

The Mohammedan,
dogs,

calling both
bitterly,

Jews and Christians


nevertheless,
that he pre-

and

reviling

them

declared,

that he held the

same opinion.

He announced

ferred to be a follower of

Moses than of

Christ, the

God

DISPUTATION IN AN ITALIAN NOVEL


born of a virgin, and that he held
his

RADIN
life

own

dearer than
latter.

the Alcoran, because the Bible was older than the

Then the devotee of Moses arose and


the prince

thus addressed

"My
for

fate

hangs on your nod.

Nevertheless,

most

noble judge, you see the great veneration these

men have
I

my

law.

Both religions are daughters of Moses, the


is

Prophet.

But the father

greater than the daughters.


its

cannot join the child when the child of


cleaves to
loyal

own

accord
dis-

on

my father. my part. As

It

would be both absurd and

far as
I

my

life is

concerned, do what-

ever seems best to you.

shall continue to

adore the

God

who

is

the

Judge and Sovereign even over you."


these words, the

Moved by
many

King permitted

the

Jew

to

retain his faith, dismissed the executioner


gifts to the travelers.
if

and distributed
10

He

even permitted them

proceed on their journey

they chose.

They

preferred,

however, to stay there, induced by the delightful climate

and the sacred and inviolable blessing of


by the citizens.

liberty

enjoyed

They, therefore, pitched their tents there.

Soon

all

the people

became converted

to Judaism,

and the

travelers guided

King and people

in the

observance of the

holy days, sub insignibus Synagogue.

This story teaches that ancient


preferred.

rites are

always to be

How
part,

this story,

in

which the Jew plays a triumphant


Xovel
xiii.

came

into this collection side by side with


is

above mentioned,

difficult

to

imagine.
in

The substance
Judah Halevi's
he was the
(if

an obvious adaptation of the disputation Al-Khazari could have reached Morlini


writer)

only by oral communication.

There were

mam

Spanish Jews and Marannos in Naples after the expulsion

in

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

of 1492, and

we know
1

that they

were

effectively protected

by the King.
If.

however, the novels are a forgery of very

much

later date,

we have

not far to look for

its

source.

In 1660

Buxtorf translated the Al-Khazari from Hebrew into Latin.


After that time, the story of the disputation was
property and

common

form here found.

may very easily have been adapted into the The curious circumstance, however, that

such a story should be written by a Christian for a Christian audience


-

remains quite without explanation.


Pt.
i,

The novel of Bandello,

Nov.

32,

addressed

to

Cardinal Lodovico
i

d'Aragone.
del

Frate
di

Francesco Spagnuolo volendo cacciar con inganni


e

Giudel

regno

Napoli

imprigionato.

THE ORIGIN OF LETTERS AND NUMERALS ACCORDING TO THE SEFER YESIRAH *


By PhinEas Mordell,
Philadelphia

The Text
No Hebrew book
Sefer Yesirah.
has been
so tampered

with as the

As

early as the tenth century there existed


it,

several versions of

varying

in length

and

in

arrange-

ment.

There were the short and the long version, which


in

were edited

Mantua

in

1562, and Saadya's text, edited

by M. Lambert,
is

in Paris, in 1891.

Each of these three

texts
is

different

from the

others.

Although Saadya's version


II, it differs

almost of the same length as Mantua


ly

material-

therefrom

in the
it

arrangement of the

chapters

and the

paragraphs, and

thus happens that the matter contained in

one chapter in Mantua II


several chapters in
in

may

be found scattered through

Saadya's text; while entire paragraphs

Saadya's text are cut up and distributed

among

three

different chapters in
in a general

Mantua

II.

Both Mantua texts agree

way with each

other in their arrangement, but

Mantua
the

II contains twice as

much

material

as

Mantua
latter

I,

former numbering about 2400 words, the

only

1200 words.

critical

study leads to the conclusion that these ver-

sions contain only about


*Continued from JQR.,
thanks to Prof. Henry
tion

600 words of the original Sefer


Series, II, 557
ff.

New

wish to express here

my

Maker

for

many

courtesies extended to

me

in connec-

with this work.

517

518
Yesirah.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


The remaining 600 words
in

in

Mantua

or the

1800 words

Mantua

II are all interpolations

and not of

the original Sefer Yesirah.


original

All the matter belonging to the

Sefer Yesirah.

arranged as a separate
Sefer

treatise,

which may be referred to as


interpolations
I

Yesirah

I.

All

the

arranged also as a separate


II.

treatise,

which

may

be referred to as Sefer Yesirah


I,
it

Having
to

already-

explained the Sefer Yesirah


the Sefer Yesirah II.

now remains
need be said

explain

Of

the Sefer Yesirah II

little

it

abounds
it

in trifles, contradictions,

and

repetitions.

Although
I,

was

intended as a commentary on Sefer Yesirah

its

author
Sefer

had no conception whatever of what the original


Yesirah was.

He saw

in

it

only a cosmogony based upon


Sefirot.

the letters of the alphabet

and the
with

According to
wonderful

him,

God

created the universe

thirty-two

ways of wisdom.
twenty-two
letters.

These ways are the ten Sefirot and the

The
first

ten Sefirot are

The

Spirit of

God,

Air, Water, Fire, Height, Depth, East,

West, North, and


;

South.

From
third,

the

emanated the second

from the

sec-

ond the
six

from the third the fourth, and the remaining


six

Sefirot

emanated from the

permutations of the
(Air)

letters

in.

With

the

second Sefirah

God
seven

created

the twenty-two letters, and divided

them

into three parts,

or

books (D^BD

Twfotf)

three

mothers

fc>BK;

double
'Dn nn.

letters

rmss T03, and twelve


r

simple letters: pvy

wb

With

these three classes, or groups, of letters

were created

the various parts of the

w orld (dW),

of the year (n3BF),

and of the soul

PD3).

The author
self
;

of the Sefer Yesirah II

contradicts
E'EN,

him-

he explains that by the three

mother

letters,

which

the original Sefer Yesirah declares to be a "great secret"

LETTERS AND NUMERALS IN SEFER


(^1*13 "I1D)
,

^>

l.Sl k.\

MORDELL
name
all,

are

meant the

letters

Ifl

of the great

vrv;

the mothers thus not being a separate class at

but part

of the simple letters.

As a matter of

faet,

he himself abandons the division


in

of the letters into three parts, and rearranges them

two-fold division, one of ten and one of twelve


finally,

letters.

For,
let-

he counts the letters 8PDN with the seven- double


TJl, as

ters

maa

one

class.

The whole theory


is

of the world,

of the year, and of the soul,


twelves.

expressed by tens and

Indeed he says

39

as follows

....

-itry

D^n

mtrya wrvfiD nSiy"

....
. . .

"icy

D^en metfa nnrso

nw
*jt:

."icy d^ci

mpya nrwBD

"The world

is

counted by ten and twelve

The year

is is

counted by ten and twelve


counted by ten and twelve
the
"

The
It

soul

therefore follows that, according to


II,

author
are

of

the Sefer Yesirah


into ten double

the

twenty-two

letters

divided

msa TQ, PDK and


letter

twelve simple

letters,

nn

PW
II,

o:b

^n.

According

to the author of the Sefer

Yesirah

however, each double

represents only one way of

wisdom, as each simple


ters, therefore,

letter does.

The twenty-two

let-

are according to him, only twenty-two ways


ten

of wisdom.
Sefirot,

The remaining
height,

ways of wisdom are the ten


air.

which he explained to be the Spirit of God,


fire,

water,

depth,

east,

west,

north,

and south.

The author of
eral

the Sefer Yesirah II understood the


...

numand

words

....

yn-iN ...B^P

DW

...nnx 4 ", occurring in the


first,

original Sefer Yesirah, to


39

mean

second,
I.

third,

Mantua
See
text,

II,

chap. II, Sepher Yeirah II, chap.


18-21.

520
fourth.

TI1K

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

He

imagined that the author of the original Sefer

Yesirah had counted only four Sefirot, and had forgotten


to

count the remaining six Sefirot, and after explaining that

the tour Sefirot are the Spirit of

God.

air,

water, and fire,

he counted height, depth, east, west, north, and south as


six Sefirot to

complete the number of the ten Sefirot.


the

The
nr.N

truth

is

that

numerals
second,

....

e^P

....

DW

-.

yznx

mean, not

first,

third,

and fourth; but

one.

two. three, and four, and these numbers themselves

are the ten Sefirot from


(particularly the

which

all letters

of the alphabet

vowel-letters)

originated.

The

Sefirot,

therefore, cannot be counted as ten separate

ways of wisletters

dom.

The

latter

view requires that the twenty-two


all

shall be

taken to be

the thirty-two

ways of wisdom, not

only twenty-two ways of

wisdom
the

as explained by the Sefer


all

Yesirah

II

which

is

followed by

commentators.
to

Saadya,
into
all

who
to

was

first

divide

the

letters

five

groups epn, pTl, rotal,


be
consonants.

pfc'DT,

ynnK,

believed

the

letters
in

He

interpolated this

division

the

Sefer Yesirah without knowing that by

niDK the
first

original

Sefer
that

Yesirah

meant
vowels

vowels.

The

to

preceive

niEX meant

was Dunash
vowel

Ibn

Tamim,""
C'EK the
*1K.

who

explained that by the three mother

letters
litters

Sefer
failed,

Yesirah

meant
to

the
see

three
that

lie

however,
necessarily

by

way
Now,

of contrast

nnhn must

mean consonants.
Sefer

he

knew

that his version of the

Yesirah

contained

many
al

mistakes, that ignorant people had blended the origina

and an early commentary,

and consequently the original

text did not exist.

Yet he did not perceive the absurdity of

the division of the letters into three classes


" Sefer Yesirah, London 1902,
4J

named:

three

p.

45.

Ibid.,

p.

65.

LKTTKRS AND NUMERALS IN SKKKR YKSIRAIl

MORDELL
133,

521

mother
simple

letters
letters,
is

PDK, seven double

letters
.

mB3

and twelve
'mothers'

pw

djS non

tin

The category

(mK)
letters"

not in any sense coordinate with that of "double


letters,"

and "simple

which contrast admirably with

each other.

Moreover, he failed to perceive that according

to the Sefer Yesirah, there are ten double letters

and not

only seven.

He

is

also at

variance

with

all

the

known

versions of the text, which give twelve simple letters, while


he, in

counting the total number of sounds 29, of which 14

are contained in the seven double letters

msD

iJa

makes

the simple letters

number

15.

Besides

it is

very hard to un*in

derstand

how Dunash

could have counted the letters

as simple letters having one sound,

and declare

at the

same
and

time that originally

they

were vowels and consequently


:

must have had several sounds namely


e;
l

'

the sounds of

of

and 0; K of a and other vowel sounds, as be43

lieved by

Kimhi

and Ephodi.
I

44

Long before
cluded that the

ever saw the Sefer Yesirah,


alphabet consisted
of

had conletters

Hebrew

ten

with double sounds and twelve letters with simple sounds;


thus representing thirty-two sounds.
I

came
of

to this con-

clusion in investigating the pronunciation

the

vowels,
in

which the reader


I

will find in
it
,1

my

nsnpni nipjn pprp,


ten

which

have discussed

at length.
,"1

The
D

double letters are:


the
,**

rv,P~,1 ,B ,3
letters are
I
:

,:
,

,3 ,11, and
,

twelve
,

simple
,

,u

base this division on the assumption that the letters

nys are the original vowels of the Hebrew alphabet, and


that the true sounds of these letters
a.

were as follows
v.

K
43

e,

o,

=
P-

i,

= w, =
t
35.

Hence

the letters

Miklol,

Ffirth

1793,

87.
p.

**

Maaseh Efod, Wien

1865,

S 22
IN are also

'''Hi:

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


letters, so that

double

these together with the six


letter

letters

nB3 1S2, the


letters:

letter

1,

and the

V were known
double

to

be double

hence, ten

letters
I

with

sounds.

After reaching this conclusion.

found that the division of

the letters of the Sefer Yesirah bore a decided similarity to it. In fact, the Sefer Yesirah gives the same number

and

the

same
is

classification of the single letters; the only differit

ence
I

that

counts the
)

among

the simple letters, while

considered the
.

as a double letter,
I

and gave instead the

Nevertheless,

do

not

believe,

from a grammatical

point of view, that the author of the original Sefer Yesirah

could have counted the letter

as a simple letter instead

of the letter o, and could have counted only seven double letters without including at least the letter B> which is still

pronounced as a double
Jewish people.

letter

by a great majority of the

Further investigation proved that anciently

there were counted ten double letters.

As is well known, some old grammarians, among whom was the author of the Dikduke ha-Te'amim, counted the
letters as separate letters, thus making the total number of the letters of the alphabet twenty-seven. They apfinal

parently based

their

calculation

Talmud and Midrash


the beginning, the

that the letters

upon the saying of the HEN form respectively


end of the alphabet,"
the
finals

middle, and
if

the

which can be true only


letters

we count
total
in the

as

separate
for

and thus make the

number twenty-seven,

otherwise the o can not be

middle of the alphabet.

Convinced that there


simple letters.
I

are ten double letters and twelve concluded that there must have been a time
letters,

when

the

Hebrew alphabet was reckoned thirty-two


28,
ii,

ordingto Kashi, Job


Yefirah.

7l

the

word DOM occurred

in

the

Sefer

See above

in

volume

p.

5 68.

without the

final letters,

and thirty-seven or thirty-nine with


:

the final letters, as follows

n nipum p p v(*0n Beyop d

obC-Oiaa^ nni n in a j aa km.


0, but

In such an arrangement of the letter-, not the


the letter
b
is

in the

middle of the alphabet.


I

On

reaching this conclusion.


ancient
literature

sought to find some auplacing the b


if

thority in the

for
fact,

in

the

middle of the alphabet.


prove the correctness of

This

established,

would

my

views on the Hebrew vowel

points and their relation to the vowel letters jn as explain-

ed

in

nicnpm

"ilpJn

ppnb and

it

would also prove

that

the

original Sefer Yesirah gave the


letters as ten,
in the

number of double sound


great delight,
I

and not seven.

To my

found

K3*pP 'mi

nvniK the following:

"Why
it

is

the letter b

higher than the other letters?


of the letters."
the letter
b
is in

Because
in the

is

in the

middle
46

also

found

Midrash Tadshe

that

the middle of the letters.

These passages
letters,

make
and

it

clear that the ancients

counted ten double

in their

arrangement of the alphabet, they sometimes


This seemed to justify
,1

counted them as twenty.

my

read-

ing of the ten double letters


,n J& in the original

,e

,3

,1

,"i

,2 ,N

r\)b)22

~\W

Sefer Yesirah. and not seven, and

my

contention that by the thirty-two ways of


the thirty-two sounds of the
ten double letters

wisdom

are meant

Hebrew

alphabet, consisting of
letters.

and twelve simple


not
only
as

The
them
to to

commentators

failed

to

explain the

combinations of the
be
it

letters

the

Sefer

Yesirah directs
the
text,

made,

but

they

even
their

altered

make

harmonize
early

with

mistaken

interpre-

tations.
46
4T

So

an

authority
,

as

Saadya
XVIII.
p.

47

mentions

Epstein,

DHirvn Hl'SWIpD
1c

Wien

1887.

p.

Commcntairc sur

Scfcr

Yezira,

Paris

1891,

80.

524
that
in
all

THI
the

'

JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


versions
of
the

Sefer

Yesirah

he

had

seen, the text gave 221 divisions (onycr).

He

corrected

this to

read 231 divisions (DnyBO, and most of the

commenII,

tators
II.

and editors adopted


the

his reading.

In

Mantua

chap.
5

occurs

reading 241 divisions (Dnyt?).


in

Barzeloni'

mentions that

some versions there are 222

divisions
is

(DnyL"). but his

own

opinion

is

that the correct reading

462 divisions (DnyB>).

Authorship
Thus
far,
it

has been impossible to determine the age

and authorship of the Sefer Yesirah.


claims divine origin for
it
:

Jewish tradition
to

it

was intrusted by the Lord

Adam

and

afterwards

to

Abraham.

A
his

very

interesting

passage concerning
Yesirah
is

Abraham and
J.

his relation to the Sefer

quoted by

Barzeloni, in

commentary on
text.

the Sefer Yesirah (p. 268),

from an ancient

D^iy to

um
n 2n
,r

n"2n
-ik

'OEtf

mvrn "oafo vibx irna omnN "t^ucm


ntfn

nonnn

td

u
n^>

inix nobni D^nyn

*fi

b nina
s

^mnK DmiK^ in^ji


-dz
rpn

^n ^m
rrny

i^ki

minn

ifoji

Dmn

:n

n"nn
5i ^n

nfoj

to
tf

ke^i

ny nu^
bmiKS

iy ik5 l^stf hidk


.

pwoi ttp
d^3

ntrv

mm

riDDi

in

now nw^
^n
s

B>pno
itf

nn

moto
in

5ip nn niPB> iy Dtfa

12 pnrtf

nniti
in

n mpm nm^

120 ^nxini ina ^n 5k no^y nwrtf


"inn
'a

to
-y

warn

Daw
c^nn
no]

wnni

novyS nip
ioy sb"1
in

mm

in pnrtf

^in
*^n

D^iyn

dk 11^ iypi u^am


n?i

dw
5>3

im d^5 Dn-QK

'^rr

jp k5k

mm

pn*p di

pen

[?onto
.rtfin

D^no
5>3

m:ryr> I'or

V P I'BOV TO imrn^'m D^tr ':


in

n-nnn

id^i nmrp nonn *roin di-tdk


Sefer Vezira,
Berlin
1885,
p.

pnntrmi

ls

Commentary on

the

209.

LETTERS AND NUMERALS EN SEFER YESIRAH

MORDELL
follows:

5-S

"We
to the

find in

an

ancient

reading

a>

When
said

Abraham, our

father,

was born, the angels of ministry


the

Holy One, blessed be He;'0 Lord of


hast a beloved one in the world, wilt

World!
conceal

Thou

Thou

anything from him?' Directly, the

Holy

One, blessed

be

He
will

said: 'Shall

conceal

from Abraham?' and consulted

the Torah.

He

said to her:
to

'My daughter, come and we


beloved.'

marry thee

Abraham

My

She
takes

said to

him:

'No, not until the

meek one comes and


over to Abraham,

meekness.'

God
God

then consulted the Sefer Yesirah, which said, 'Yes.' then handed
it.

it

who

sat

by himself

studying

without being able to understand anything, until

a heavenly voice

came

forth and said


I

'Dost thou seek to


I

compare thyself with


Yesirah. and studied
alone.
will

Me?
it.

am

'One.'

created the Sefer


it

But thou canst not understand


it

Get thee an associate, and look into


understand.'

together,
to

you
his

then

At once, Abraham went


with

teacher Shem, and

stayed

him three
to

years.

They

looked into

it

and they knew how


is

form the world.

From
it

that time to this, there


alone, there

no

man who

can understand

must be two wise men, and they cannot underBut when they do understand

stand
it,

it

before three years.

they can do anything their hearts desire.


it,

When

Abrahe

ham understood

his

wisdom increased

greatly,

and

taught the whole law."

The world which Abraham and


able to

his teacher

Shem were
Indeed,

form after three years of study of the Sefer Yesirah

may

be understood to

mean

the world of letters.

the invention of letters


tion of the universe.

was anciently spoken

of as the crea-

The names

of Moses, Ezra, and Rabbi Akiba have also

been advanced as the authors of the Sefer Yesirah.

The

5_'()

THK JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


work
titles.

attribution oi the

to

Rabbi Akiba undoubtedly

rests

on a confusion of
ancient writers

The Sefer Yesirah was

called

by

with the Midrash

nN DrTOK bv nvniK, and was confounded STpy^iScnvms, which is called by some


Thus Gedaliah Ibn Yahya,
in his

authors Sefer Yesirah.

Shalshclct Jia-Kabbalah, says:


-znir rrpir nsD bi n^ipn ^v

fwar ism prtfoo idd inn Kim

"He

composed the

Sefer
is

Mekiltin,

and the

Sefer

Yesirah on Kabbalah.
by Abraham,
to

There

a Sefer Yesirah

composed

which Nahmanides made a great and won-

derful commentary."

This passage was apparently misunderstood by some


later writers,

who imagined

that Rabbi

Akiba was the au-

thor of the Sefer Yesirah attributed to

Abraham.

Hence

Isaac de Lates' criticism in the introduction to the Zohar:

nn*rw

n:^n

inuripi

rrw

isd mnsS xi'vv *3i5

Tnn

' -njn

.DmiNo n^npn Drrsn noi^


"Besides,

who

permitted
called
it

Rabbi

Akiba to write the


it

Sefer Yesirah?

They

Mishnah, and

was handed

down

to

them by

oral tradition
flatly

from Abraham."

Muses Cordovero
ship of the Sefer
says

denies Rabbi Akiba's author-

Yesirah.

In

the

Pardcs Rimmonim he

d^dd

B"i

Dtfpn v^y

wan

D.TDfctf

njDDii itvjp idd i:n njni

.nDDDio nriKi

tow
to
is

m5

iniN

"We
Some

have
it

a
to

Sefer

Yesirah attributed

Abraham.
no general

ascribe

Rabbi Akiba, but there

agreement."

LETTERS and NUMERALS IN SEFER VESIRAH

&I0RDELL

5-7

Modern
lieve

writers are also divided in their opinions con-

cerning the age of the Sefer Yesirah.


it

Some
or the

of them be-

to be a production of the
;

first

second

cen-

tury B. C.

others place

it

in the

Gaonic period,

ranging

from the seventh

to the ninth century of the Christian Era.


is

My

personal inclination

to accept the late date (750-931)

for that portion of the book which has been referred to as

Sefer Yesirah

II. in

the discussion of

the text;

but

there

can be no doubt that the part containing the account of the


origin of letters,

which was explained above,

is

pre-talmudic,

and

is

referred to in the

Talmud

in the

following passage

(n& $& nvrnK *im nnlw


rr5

nrr
21
,

120

"y "en)

^2:

x-\z

am
5"k

vino kp

mn

k5i

nnna wipdkp

*in

ktt an

So
i

nrp iin rryt^K

m uran
50

nw5

nrnr
|o

inwtf

mn

na unan

:oni

Kn^n
voy

K^ry

vti *onDi

rvrir 1202 ^poyi

Knap ^ys
49
.

,t5

niaSna

iin

anatF

^yo

So

kwik
Kn^n

211

.rrS>

^aai

fctfan?

xr:n ama m5 na^Di m**'

"Rabba created

man

(Rashi says, through the Sefer

Yesirah), and sent him to Rabba Zera


but received no answer.

who spoke

to him.

He

then said to him, ''You are a

creature of the learned, return to your dust."


''Rab

Hanina and Rab Oshaiah


and ate

sat the entire eve of

the sabbath studying the Sefer Yesirah and created a three

year old

calf,

it".

"Like the case of Rab Hanina

and Rab Oshaiah who studied the Hilkot Yesirah every


Friday, and a three year old
calf

was created for them,

which they

ate."

The Sefer Yesirah and


in

the Hilkot Yesirah mentioned

these
49
50

passages
65b.

are

undoubtedly

our

original

Sefer

Sanhedrin
Ibid.,

67b.

;_^

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

Yesirah, from which was borrowed the Baraita beginning

with the words of the Sefer Yesirah:


B1

.tfia

ttfwn te

*\'\>vw

pit

ip nr

inn

"Void

is

a green line that surrounds the whole universe."


a

This passage must have been


Sefer Yesirah and not a later

part

of

the
for
its

original
it

interpolation,
it,

tallies

with the paragraphs before and after


leaves a gap that no other can
fill

so that

omission

so satisfactorily.
53

A. F. Thimus,
of Meyer,
54

52

who

shares the view of Molitor

and

that the Sefer Yesirah

was written

in the later

days of the Babylonian Exile, maintains that the Pythagorean philosophy


is

is

an adaptation from the Sefer Yesirah.

It

quite remarkable that, according to the

Hebrew

sources,

the Sefer Yesirah was diligently studied


B.

in the sixth

century

C,

the period in which Pythagoras lived.


i860, 20a, quotes

The ""Oman Clp^" Lemberg


kabbalistic
r,2n
vj'jiir

from

work

n&r^B, as follows:
ip

i> n;p

msKi

na

rrKV 1

fTPX 1 "isdi piDy^


i:a

wa^

&:v2

mw icon ipoym
ns

pDD rrm n^a insoa aina

nna
'k

din. Drtf

^nnn .tdt ktd ^>vk n>n *na: iokdhi ^an


imK n>a
noa
n> 5ib>dk ^"k

^3 i.tdt " dek nuno noa D^nn n&a njia


*sn

pniD frm Nnajn

rpnty nnttf

VnD5

^d
s

ny

55a
r

ina5Da
y

k5i injoiwa

BnD di

n n k5i m5n:iD
>:a 'a

noun

-t'

5an

wt^

ny in:DiN tid d-id^i dik

lmivst?

itmsu^

ny onana inDjp5 i5nnn irmarn

moi

'uniKn nrrKoi
iriftana

D^iy en
lown
nr

in:
5b>

ntsny n>n

kw no inioa
Dna ^a Dna

0^:2 D^y:i
,

niaa

irrai

wwiimi
Dm 5k
VI,

d^dipb 'm

rw
M
68

pjan p:yn cna d^pdivi ddini pnaai


I.Iagigah
12a.
II,

D5ia D^a5im

.'on*
Die Harmonikale Symbolik, Koln 1876,
pp.
2,

133, 241.

Philosophic der Gcschichte oder die Tradition, Frankfort 1827, 63.


Yeirah,

M Sefer

Leipzig

1830,

p.

III.

LETTERS AND NUMERALS

IN SEFER YKSIKAII

Mi IRDELL
when

529
a

''Jeremiah began to study

Sefer

Yesirah,

heavenly voice came forth and said: 'Get thee an associate.'

He

accordingly went to his son Sira, and they studied the


Finally ... a

Sefer Yesirah together.

man was

created by

them, upon whose forehead was written 'Emet' (net*


truth).

The person

created had a knife in his hand, and

was erasing the


said to him,

letter

Aleph of the word Emet.


that?'
is

Jeremiah
'I

'Why do you
This case

He

answered,

will tell

you a
built

parable.'

similar to that of a

man who
to
all

many

houses, countries, and towers, and no one ap-

preciated his art or his work, until two

men induced him


knew
it

teach them the secret of his

art,

so that they
the
art,

thoroughly.
secret

When

they learned

and the

man's
their

and method, they began to


left

irritate

him with
with

words, and finally

him, taking his

science

them

and became builders

like

him.

What

he did for a denarius,


people learned of their
artisan

they did for three peshutim.


existence, they all
left

W hen
r

the

original

and went to

them, honoring them, and negotiating with


building enterprises."

them

in

their

This passage, which

may

also be considered as having

been prefixed originally to a copy of the Sefer Yesirah, not


only
indicates

that

Jeremiah and Ben

Sira

studied

the

philosophy of the Sefer Yesirah (or the invention of the


alphabet), but
al'so

gives a reason

why

this

study should be

kept secret.
In his
says
55

work Sefer ha-Gematria, Rabbi Judah he-Hasid

tow

x*?
'a

mDKi

ftp

m nwr
tpDjn.
. .

mnr

tdd3 pidjp nan


tf

kvd p
zr^ ITQJ

&:w
65

ntpv^

ran irrov 5sk

i^n na5 imwi

"IBK \WKr\T]

DTK nVD3 1D3 DSK lmtDa


in

2Wm

IrlK DIN*
1887,
p.

Quoted by Epstein

EHirVPI

DVaimpO, Wien

122.

530

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


din

ncmn

nN n^n^ run bo
mL'T s

n"npn

>*nne>

man

on?

won
i3B>n
.

mtn ^np fat? 5d ,n vo:i noNn ni ftno k5i p main din dh$ "ion truN ina D^yn n lyD N?t>- din my i2y^ ntpyj toi toddc? n^Nrc 'n ipnoi y*iDD5 nmiNn *im
1
,

"Ben Sira wanted So he went


it.

to study the Sefer Yesirah,


:

when

a
it

heavenly voice came out and said


alone.'

'Thou canst not do


.

to

his

father Jeremiah

and they

studied

At the end of three years a man was created by

them, on whose forehead was written


as on the forehead of

Emet (nEN

truth),

Adam.
:

Then

the one

whom

they had

created said to them

'God created Adam, and when


he erased a
letter

He

wanted

to put
it

him

to death,

from the word


the

Emet and
reason
is

became Met (no

dead).

So much

more

there

why

should want to do the same, so that

you may not again create a man and the world go astray
through him
like the

generation of
created said
to

Enosh.

!'

Then

the

man who had been


order of the
letters,

them

'Transpose the

and erase the Aleph from the word


forehead.

Emet (noN)
dust."

in

my

Immediately he turned into

Though we cannot regard


historical
tirely.

all

these passages quoted as


right to reject

documents,

we have no

them en-

work

like the

Sefer Yesirah could not have been

entirely the product of


it

one person, the one


its

who

actually put

into writing.

Some

of

contents must have been known,


it

to at least a
It
is,

few persons, long before


all

was written down.

therefore, not at
his
L.

impossible that the prophet Jereits

miah and
J. J.

grandson Ben Sira studied


Barges" quotes from the

philosophy.

Paris

Cod. 762 the

following passage, which occurs also in the Brit. Mus. Cod.

15299:
66

PAT 1ED, Paris

1866,

p.

X.

LETTERS AND XTMKRALS IN

SI*.

MR

KS R A
I

M 0R1
'n

>KI.I.

53 1

nDv^
H12K

1:2 5ni]/5

kvd p rtw
,m
\

Dmo

'm dhbd

or m

P1D

TIY

p \WW

p12 D'p-IB
'-n

'n 13

BM
"n r

^331*11
se
,

1DD
in:
'n

'*<

Tn
yid

pia
naji

p^tD t\vvv pis

K:rpy

nvniK

[pie]

m
.n

mo

nw tid niaipn iid


*BD 3D31
*1D"P

d^v

omo
km

enpn nn
*:k

na&M cna an* 5s itpm now [ktd p] cr"Bvy nby m*


P'tttf]?
.
.

rtfan
J3$

Dmn

>3 nftBOi

muSn

nno

rtfjp

*q ividk
*?13

[KTD p]

'131 rrrtf 1

ibd

3B" TO T^ tf 1DK *T13 13 n&o dtod 'n pn3l cnmn

tfn
five

"These are the

five

Sefarim

(books)

and the

Sedarim (orders) which Ben Sira revealed


and
his

to his son Uziel,

grandson Joseph, Sefer Yesirah, Sefer Tagin, Sefer


in

Dikduk, Sefer Pesikta Rabbeti


babel,

two forms, Sefer Zerub:

which contains
de
rabbi

five

chapters

Simeon ben Yohai,


rabbi

Abot

Nathan,

Otiot
five

de

Akiba.
:

Maase

Mishkan, Derek Eres.

The

Sedarim are

Seder Olam,

Seder Tekufot, Seder Shaot, Seder Ibbur, Seder Halakot,

W nen
that

he revealed

all

these secrets,

all

the host of heaven


said
:

shook, and the holy spirit came out and


revealed
arose

'Who
'C'OSV
Buzi.'

is

it

my
and

secrets

to

mankind?'
son
of

[Ben

Sira]

said
:

'I

Buzi

The
Joseph
of

holy spirit said to him


sat

'Enough.'
these

Immediately
at

down and wrote down


Sefer Yesirah,
etc.

words

the

dictation

P*BB [Ben Sira], and he wrote them


earth
:

in five

books on the

Although the greater part of


spurious, attributing, as
it

this

passage

is

obviously

does, to Joseph ben Uziel


lived hundred of years

works
later,

of well
it

known authors who


It is

may

be authentic with regard to the Sefer Yesirah, which


list.

heads the

not unlikely

that

originally

only

the

Sefer Yesirah had the ascription to Joseph ben Uziel. and


as there

were several other works

in the

same volume, some

53 2

TH E JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


all

ignorant copyist attributed them

to him.

The

original

passage
lis:

may have
M2

read as follows

ktd p rtw rmv* iD Kin m Kin o moa BHpn nn men one k2* ^ itry-i ntn rnn n^rai tf no* na |2 na ^n idki tr"&vy noy dik ^i5 nno n<oc nr
novft
fwriyf
1

firm 13D ^"t^vy ^so

nriDi *idv

IB"

to th
,

"This
his son

is

the Sefer Yesirah,

which Ben Sira revealed

to

Uziel,

and

his
all

grandson Joseph.

When
is
it

he had

revealed this secret,


the holy spirit

the host of heaven trembled,


said
:

and

came out and

"Who

that has re-

vealed

my

secret to

son of Buzi.'

mankind P'Vovy arose and said: 'I Buzi Then the holy spirit said to him 'Enough.'
:

Immediately Joseph

sat

down and wrote down

the Sefer

Yesirah at the dictation of >"LOT."

From

passage

of

commentary on the Sefer


is
still

Yesirah of the thirteenth century, which

extant in
see

manuscript (Bodleian Library, Codex


that

1947),

we can

the

commentator knew that the Sefer Yesirah was

written by Joseph ben Uziel, for he says:


...enpn

nn

rw

im

nn

ftp

rrT

^o Swny

12 *idv

W?

nn
2^.T

U13D $V

"1VV

"These are the words of Joseph ben


received

Uziel,

who
is

them from Jeremiah:

'Voice, air, speech,' this


his abode."

the holy spirit

and restore the creator to

As

the

commentator declares words

in

the

Sefer

Yesirah to be the language of Joseph ben Uziel, he evidently


believed that he wrote
it.

In another passage the

commentator says

^222

td

n^o:

wim

ppdt 'bd ftww

12 *idv -12

LETTERS AND NUMERALS IN SEFER YKSlRAir


''So

MORDELL

533

Joseph ben Uziel

received
in

from Jeremiah the


Babylonia."
97

Prophet.

The
11 D
is

secret

was revealed

By

apparently meant the Sefer Yesirah,

which

he believed to have been revealed and transmitted to Joseph

ben Uziel by the prophet Jeremiah. have obtained


this

The commentator may


and Ben
and

information from such passages as that

mentioned above,
Sira

in

which

it is

said that Jeremiah

studied
it

the

philosophy

of

the

Sefer

Yesirah,
it

revealed

to Joseph ben Uziel,

who committed

to writing.

It is also possible that the

commentator had before him an

ancient text of the Sefer Yesirah, which had at the begin-

ning

bTO
at the

*1DV"!

KJVna, "Baraita of Joseph ben Uziel"

and
ends

end btvrw

*1DV

nJPDl Dril3K n:^D p^D "Here

the

Mishnah of Abraham

and the

Mishnah

of

Joseph ben Uziel."

Hence

the heading

and the ending of

the commentary, which

were taken by Recanati and other

writers to

mean

that Joseph ben Uziel

was the author of


biblio-

the commentary.

This misunderstanding caused the


it

graphers to catalogue
or TXVT "IBD.

under the

title

btfTO

^pvn NJVnn

In the Leipzig

Codex (No.

another
Epstein
58

treatise

called

XXX, fol. 12) there b*TO p t\OVi WF12, which


the

is

A.
the

considers

work by
title

same author
to

as

commentary.
apparently
therein

The quoted
of

was given

the

treatise

because

the

following

passage

occurring

"Joseph ben Uziel taught

it.

It

was revealed

to

him by
anyone

Jeremiah the prophet, and


BT

it

must not be revealed


is

to

Comp. Rashi on

Ter.

23,

18

where 11D
II,
p.

explained by Sefer Yesirah.

58

npinn, Krakan-Wien 1893-95,

41.

534
except
the

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


pious"
(the

modest?).

In

this

passage the

author doubtless refers again to the Sefer Yesirah, which

was revealed or handed down by the prophet Jeremiah


Joseph ben Uziel.
It is

to

known
the

that

Ben

Sira

was only the family name of


is

the author of Ecclesiasticus, which

believed to have been

written in

third

or

second century B. C.

About
it

his

given name., the opinions vary.

According to some,
still

was

Joshua
I

(=

Jesus)

others say Simeon;

others, Eliezer.

am

inclined to believe that

one part of the book was

written by the high-priest Simeon the Just, and the other

by his brother Eliezer during the lifetime of the former;


for concerning
59

Simeon Eliezer says

.uw

rD'ai

nDn pyc^

nv fo^

"May

his kindness be

confirmed to Simeon and

may he

save us in his days."

These tw o brothers were


r

descendants

of

the

high-priest

Joshua ben Jehozadak ben Seraiah, to


taught in Ecclesiasticus was attributed.

whom

the

wisdom

Joshua ben Jeho-

zadak was apparently also called Joshua ben Seraiah, which


is

really identical

with Joshua ben Sira


also called

as Ezra the

scribe,

for instance,

was

Ezra ben Seraiah.

Like Ecclesiasticus, the Pseudo-Ben Sira's ''Alphabet


of Hen Sira"

was

also attributed to

Joshua ben Jehozadak.


edition

Hence
1728).-

its

title

in the

Hebrew-German

(Offenbach,

[sidore of Seville, in his remote

day (620), identified

Jesus, the son of Sirach, with Joshua ben Jehozadak,


in

and

the Latin
'''

MSS.
Peters,

of Ecclesiasticus,
Freiburg
1909, vol.

it

is

stated

that

Ben

Norbert

Ecclesiasticus,

1902,
3,

p.

429.

60

Com

i).

Oear

Yisrael,

New Vork

p.

107.

LETTERS AND NUMERALS IN SEFER YESIRAH MORDEU*


Sira

535
holds

was

a son of Jehozadak
to

61

As Jewish

tradition'

Ben Sira
dak.

have been a grandson of Jeremiah, we must

assume that the prophet's daughter was the wife of JehozaJoseph ben Uziel therefore was a grandson of Joshua

ben Jehozadak, and, consequently, could not have written


the Sefer Yesirah later than at the end of the fifth century
B. C.

As

the Pythagorean

number philosophy

is

doubtlessly

identical with the Sefirot philosophy of the Sefer Yesirah,

therefore, by solving the latter the


solved.

former has also been

YYe should therefore determine who were Pytha-

goras and the Pythagoreans. Dr. A. Hirsh (JQR., vol.


p.

XX,

61)

doubts
he

whether there ever was a

Pythagoras,

although

has

no doubt there existed a Pythagorean


It is

school of philosophers.

admitted
''all

(J.

Burnet,

Early

Greek Philosophy, page 99) that


to us.

that has

come down
is

under the names of various


forger}-, of the

disciples of

Pythagoras

pure

most worthless kind.


is

The whole early


all

history of Pythagoreanism

therefore conjectural, and


is

we

really

know

of

the

school

what we are

told

by

Aristotle."

According to some writers Pythagoras was a

Greek, according to others, he was either a Phoenician or a


Syrian.
that he

There have been also some writers who believe

was

a Jew.
64

63

He
with

has even been identified with the

prophet Ezekiel.
rather

If

Pythagoras was a Hebrew he should


the
first

be

identified

high-priest

Joshua son of

Jehozadak.

Philolaus, the

one to publish the Pythawith


p.

gorean philosophy, should be identified


61

Joseph
542.

ben

See Nestle in Hasting's Bible Dictionary, Vol IV, See "Alphabet of Ben Sira,"
Rathgeber,
n.
p.

62

n. d.,

p.

2.

63

Grossgriechcnland

und

Pythagoras,

Gotha

1866,

pp.

461,

466.

Ibid.,

534-

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Uziel

who wrote

the

Sefer

Yesirah.

Hence

the

only-

genuine fragments of Philolaus are those which have come

down

to us in the Sefer

Yesirah.

Moreover,

it

would be

proper to assume that most of the Pythagoreans were Jews

who went
Essenes.
the

to Palestine

where they assumed the name of


originated from jrur

This name

may have

= jwi"P

Hebrew name

of Pythagoras.

rrrr ^D

SEFER YESIRAH
Chap.

Thirty-two

mysterious

m*6a nu^n: d^d^i d^k>

ways of wisdom has the


Lord, Lord
dained
Script,

maav

mm

rn

ppn riD^n
"I1SD1 "WrtD3

of

hosts,

or-

:1BD1

through

Scribe,

and

Scroll.

These are the thirty-two

Dnw
:

ncari

mttfa rnrrn:

mysterious

ways

of

wis-

dom,
nioi^Q

twenty-two

letters,

rwy

D^n^i

which are ten double and


twelve simple.

3
ntiitoa

nrrna i^y
,1

The
,n

ten

double
,B ,3
,1

letters

n ,p

,c

are ,n ,P
,n
,a

ft

,3 ,K

,3

ten and not nine,

ten

and

not

eleven.

The
,

twelve
,n
,r

nvm
,3

mtflf
t*

d*w
,?
f

mt?y

simple letters are


,p

,n
,t2

,0

,12

rH

n mt21^Q

,v

,v

,o

,:

,*

161
k5i

rnw
m&tf

crritf'

,p ,s ,y ,d

twelve
twelve

and and

not
not

eleven;
thirteen.

D^nt?

mpy

nnx

LETTERS AND NUMERALS IN SEFER YESIRAII

MORDELX

537

ivv

tm npm n^m

inn

pm

metf b^b>

Investigate them,

examine

inia ^y

im noym
:uiae 5y

them, establish the matter


clearly,

and

restore

the

Creator to His abode.

4
nvniK
D^ntri

Dnpy
*ipa

Twenty-two
engraved

letters

are

nvu

niawn

nipipn

by
in

the the
the

voice,
air,

:niDipD

npom

nan niynp

hewn

out

and

established by
in five places.

mouth

5
Ippn
toi

nrm nvim

Dnt^y

Twenty-two
engraved,

letters

He
out,

rim prom i^w p*n rnyn 5a tiki iwn ^ na jno

hewed
changed,

weighed,
bined,

com-

and formed out of


all

them
and
the
all

existing

forms,
in

forms that may


be
called

future

into

existence.
'i

ruvm
tens

t[bx

from i5w
,

wa
t^a

How
them,

did

He

combine

oy rvn

*tf

cy j^ai i^d oy

weigh

them,

and
N
all

jftai i5i3

pi

nu

cy

tfiai

change
with
of
all

them
of

around?

wain

^d

km nWn nnnn
:fno nvv iiyn bai

all

them and
K;

them with
of

2, with
all

them
with
2

and
;

of
so

them
around

and

forth, all of

them turning
thus
all

in order;
all

words and

forms

are

derived from them.

538

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW

7
nwiiM
D^nt^i

DnB>y

Twenty-two
engraved
in

letters
circle,

are

mac yniKn fttfaa rnjrap inm cnyr nymai D :iDBn


s

with
cir-

nrtf id^di
:y;:

niriKi

d^js

^n

484
cle

divisions,

and the

turns
;

forward
thus
the
y
ytt

and
j:y

noob

pyi J:y

n^yob py

backward
[delight]
,

in
is

at the

beginning; in
the
y
is

[plague],

at the end.

'n

riJB>D

8
Out of two
stones

two
of

c^nn ntpp

onpy
^:2^
b>b>
,

nun d^sk b^p d^k ymx D nn fi^Dn nymw


nuia
s
f

houses

are

built,

out

three stones six houses are


built,

out

of

four

stones

D^nn Dn^yi hno


jtikd ynt?

mm
,

twenty-four
built,

houses

are

cn^yi

mm d^3k
cm
nan'

out of five stones one

nun
,

d*J3K

yn&?

hundred and twenty houses


are built, out of six stones

cm Dwmi
nwm

d*b5k

npon

pt? no

xv t>ki jndd
nrti

seven hundred and twenty

nto man pm

to
:

houses

are

built,

out

of

yio^

seven stones

five

thousand
built.

and forty houses are

Go

and

count
is

further,

what the mouth


to pronounce,
is

unable

and the ear

unable to hear.

'2
'b

pIB
ruvB

Chap. II

He

combines

a n

xd

changes about and makes

LETTERS AND NUMERALS

in

SEFER
all

ESIRAH
forms

M0RDELL
and
all

539

Nvv

imn

^ai

iwn

^n kxoj

wordthus

with the
all

One Name;
all

forms and

words are
the

derived

from

One

Name.

10
consti-

^n;.

-no

cok moK
noiaoi
,

b^g?

Three vowels 'con


tute

ckvv
o^nrn

|hdb>

ksid

great

secret,

mar-

d>oi n^yo^ b>k


,

ex d^o nn

vellous

and hidden.
forth
air,

From
water,

ynao

nm

notf
jd*di

them go
and
fire.

pp noon d"o im$


:

Fire

above

and

D^rn ynao

n^i np-ntr

water below, and

air holds

the balance between

them
hiss-

thus o
ing,

is

mute

L"

is

and N holds the

bal-

ance between them.

5na

11

"no

n"oa
I-IOI

moK
HD1301

b>5b>
fctfBlD

Three vowels n"OS constitute a great secret,

D'KW

mys-

mow
ino&r
:

y:"iK

nay
frit?

d^o

nn

terious

and hidden.
air.

From
water,

nn

ntron

n"B>DK

them go forth
and
earth.

nn^in waen entry n5w

Four

vowels

rl'PDK,
els,

which are
gave

rive

vowto

that

birth

twenty-seven consonants.

12

m5
lt?y
r

The
ina
?a

five

vowels
itself,

stand

rhaa

riB>pn

each one by
niott
,

but the

nn^in

Dnwh
d*pvw

"raw
D5ia

twenty-seven
are
all

consonants

niaxn

dependent

on

the
in

nDr6o poa pnyi rune poa

vowels.

He made them

540

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


the

form of a

state,

and
an

:iy

ny

iy vjnp

;iyrD^

t^m

arranged

them

like

army
only

in battle array.

The
over

One

Master, God, the

faithful

King,

rules

them from His holy abode


forever and ever.
13

-yrjn Dntryi rnna


n^ntsn

nts>n

The
these
letters

five

vowels

and

anew
:

tfa

nrtfin

twenty-seven
are
the

consonants,

nwns

mm m no^

rmniK

twenty-two
the

no^ni nimDD nt?y

which
hosts,

Lord,

Lord of

established
digits

out of the
zero.

ten

and

Chap. Ill

14

Dtfn

hd^si

nrpDD npy
in^i

The

ten digits and zero

n dki
m

nmnbo
a

nnnfo

ts
nrtf

close

thy

mouth from
thy
heart
if

nan ^y

dipd^
:

m^

speaking

and

nnn

run:

from thinking, and

thy
it

heart should leap, bring

back to

its

place; for con-

cerning this has the covenant been made.

15

nw
!2iD2
I2H

no^ai
irtfnni

nimsD

nt*>y

The
their

ten digits and zero,

irtfnm ibid

end

is

joined

with

rtfroa

mw

mrtfBO

their beginning,

and their
their

mm imw

nrrn Dam nn^nn

beginning with

end,

LETTERS AND NUMERALS IN

SKl'l.R

yksikah

Murium.
is

54

nn no -ma ^a^

tf

p*o

as the flame

attached to

the coal.

Understand wisbe wise in underis

dom and

standing, that there

but

one Master, and there

is

no

second to Him, and before

One, what countest thou?


16

in^DS no^ai nrpsD iew


rrr?

The
their

ten digits and zero,

p in^am pnn ntn3

appearance
to

is

like

aitsn

*om
lsrrv
:

inn

nn
.in

niD

lightning;

their

aim

^s5i

naios riDHDft

there

is

no

limit.

They go

rninn^D

ikd3

and come
at

at

His word, and

His command they pur-

sue like the whirlwind, and


kneel before His throne.
?"i

rums
n?
ppn maty

17
digits

no^m nivsD iwyn m


^n
5>

These are the ten

iD^y

riK

and

zero,

with which the

Eternally
blessed

Living
be

God,

His

name,

ordained His world.


n"
1 *

rutrn

18

nn

ftp

nn
:

nvm ppn nn tnpn nn nn nim

One

He

graved
it

and

hewed out of
Holy

voice, air
this is the

and speech, and


Spirit.

19

inn

inn

nvm
ifts

ppn D^nt?
inn ,imi
^3

Two

He

graved

and

ppdip
tf k

pit
,

ip nr

mm

n^yn

hewed out of them void and chaos. Void is a green

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


line

that

surrounds

the

whole universe, and chaos


refers
to

viscous

stones,

sunk

in the abyss,

whence

water comes forth.


'2

natPD

b>5b>

20

PB1
pnrn

inn

asm
pea

ppn

Three

He
a

graved

and

n:nny

jxtry

trm

hewed out
and
clay.
like

nanyo pea taao noin pea

of them mud He arranged

them

garden

bed.

He He

set

them up

like a wall.

covered

them

like

pavement, and poured upon

them snow, and the earth

was formed.
n"2
dd inn

mt?D
Four

21

avm ppn yana


mern on^i
t^npn

He
out

graved
of

and
the

nvm

D^n^i d^siki nuan


:

hewed

them

throne of glory, the ophanim, the seraphim, the holy

animals, and the minister-

ing angels.

n"a
irs
nryi

ruffe

22
existence out

pod innD tikd ntfvu D^as avm i:& on^y nnn^> itrm pan: lra^
.

He formed
nothing,

of void, something out of

and

he

hewed

nna

mn

ra^ao D^ncri

large stones out of intangible


in
air,

thus

twenty-two
in spirit.

number one

LETTERS AND NUMERALS

IN SKI-'KR

YESIRAH

MORDELL

543

23
set

7\w

m
,

riDiy^ nr nx. dj

Also
over

God
against

the

one

ym ym
jnn
naiD

yi

now5
sib

sib
,

D'nSun

the
evil,

other,

aiuo

nip

nmy5
,

good against
against good
;

and

evil

n
,

pnao

aion

yirc

good out of
evil
evil

ai^n nx pnae
njni

jnm
D*n5

good, and evil out of

mine

nmt^
:

mios?

good testing
testing

evil,
;

and
is

good

good

stor-

ed away for the good, and


evil is stored
evil.

away

for the

Y'a

ruena
"iyty

24 our

win
nn^yi
ivik

nmaK

jvai

When

Abraham

ppm pam

npm n*m tram aemi to sptfi avm


tk

father arose, he looked and

lny n^:
ijnr^

rmnarr

ma

saw and investigated and observed and engraved and

~y

iwi
ti&^n

pa

tf nna mai Jam nna ti ma c^y


,

hewed and combined and


formed and
his creation

calculated,

and

niyavK ntry pa
nt^pi

rronn

nna Kim pt niyavx nna n mai nbnsn nna Kim inn nvniK cntri n^vv
tf

was

successful.
all

Then
vealed

the Master of

re-

Himself

to

him.

and made

a covenant with

ta^D hid na

n^i i:i^a
ip5i o^oa
ian:i

him

and

with

his

seed

nna
D^n^i

jpjti

^^a

forever.

He made

a cov-

ntfisa
:

-it?y5

enant with him on the ten


fingers of his
this is the

niBHFfi

mpy

hands,

and

covenant of the

tongue

and

on

the

ten

toes of his feet,

and

this is

the covenant of circumcision


;

and

tied

the

twenty-

two

letters of the

Torah

to

544

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


his

tongue and revealed to


their secret.

him

He drew
water
air,
fire,
;

them
stormed

through
through
in

He
and

kindled them

melted them into ten double


ters.

and twelve simple

let-

Corrections
P.

to

JQR.,

New

Series, II, 557

ff.

564,

1.

25.
26.
11.

For

letters,

read

letter.

P.

564,

1.

For combination by read combination 33


For
i-a-o-u-i

by.

P. 567,

1.

read

i-a-o-u-e.

P. 567,
P.

1.

26.
8.

For Ashkenaztic read Ashkenazic. For B read K. For


IP
B>

569,

1.

read 0.
P,

P. 569,

1.

9.

For and the n and

read and the

P. 570.
P. 577, P. 579,
1.

Footnote beginning, Dr. H. Maker, should be footnote on P. 571.


22.
25.

For water read snow. For numerals read numbers. For vowel
letters,

1.

P. 581,

1.

25.

but read vowel letters $

but.

A NOTE ON
In"

R.

HAPS LITURGIC FRAGMENT


Gaonic History and Literature,"
published a fragment of a piyyfit by R. Hai

his interesting "Studies in

Prof. Alexander

Marx
1

Gaon on
fragment

circumcision.
is

Like

all

other

poems by
fluent

that

Gaon,

this

written
in
it

in

an

easy

and

style.

Two

words,

however, occur

which form an exception:

nn?3
latter

(line 7)

and

nmradine
once

8)

are not readily understood.

The

occurs only

in the Bible

(Job

41, 21),

and probably denotes


(II

javelins, while
10,

the former may be derived from nnn^D

Kings

22),

which
to

again

is

hapax legomenon.

One
its

is

at

first

sight

inclined

suggest that, as

nnn^D whatever

derivation

denotes a wardrobe.
to signify a

R. Hai coined the

word nrp which he intended

garment

= 7)2.
is

The meaning

of this line would then be he put fringes on


sense

the garment.
retained,

The second word, which yields no may perhaps be emended to nninD like

javelins.

when 2 The
terror/

allusion

would probably be

to R. Eliezer ha-Gadol's implied state-

ment
It

that the phylacteries inspire the Gentiles with

awe and

must, however, be admitted that, although

we

are not infre-

quently driven to adopt forced explanations in liturgic poetry, the

above interpretation

is

not very convincing.


I

Through

the courtesy

and kindness of Prof. Schechter

have had easy access to that

portion of the Cambridge Genizah which

the Jewish Theological Seminary of America.

poem under

investigation

is

a fragment of
is

now in the library of The original of the two leaves. Some leaves
is

are missing in the middle, as leaf 2

no continuation of
of
a
collection

leaf

1.

The fragment
poems, the

evidently formed

part

of

liturgic

difficult

words of which were now and again explained.


:

Thus
1

leaf

la bears the following superscription

JQR.,

New
"1

Series,

I,

p.

103,

Text

2.

it^Sx
,
|

K'am ion
iSn
-IQIX

win yby mpa


hllZn
(quoted
in

'n
b.

uv

'3

pan

dj?

^a

wm

CiOStr

^En

r.erakot 6u

and other

places).

545

546

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


4

n..n

nany ns Yxsbtf pya pabn


%, n Jd

>bv

"in3

nuibx
y
:

jn3n bxpirvb

....
/4 exposition of
b.
i.

innty

p ones

|o

some words

of
the

(the piyyut)

nany nx
b.

by Ecekiel

'.///
e.

ha-Kohen; taken from

writing of Ephraim
piyyut.

'Asaryahu;

Ephraim annotated
are

Ezekiel's

Among

the

words exas

plained

main
On

*D13 (specified

as

biblical), jrPD"i: (specified

targumic), D331LM (specified as mishnic).


the end of lb.

These notes break


written which
is

off at

2a another piyyut

is

completed

on top of

2b.

Then follows

R. Hai's fragment.
is

On

the

margin of

the latter opposite the

word nn^3 there


n^LT! jD
'D,

the following note written

by the same hand:


tator took this a corner.

P)J3

which shows that the commen-

word

to be a cryptograph disguising the


3

word Pp3
But what
itself

Xow

by this note we only obtain

from D

about the other two letters?


by
.

The 3 from

;>

at

once suggests

Itbash. (comp.

"]E?t5>

;>33, Jer. 25, 26),

and we may obtain 3


final letters.

from n by the same system by including the


however, unlikely,
each
letter.

This

is,

as

we should
is

require

different

system
still

for

Then nnin which


It

more

difficult

would
to

remain
that
{5*jn

unexplained.

therefore

may

not be hazardous

suggest
5)33

both
JHT
.

nr6 and

nmn

are here cryptographs,

from which

and

respectively, are reproduced by calculating the numerical values

of these words by the system


letter is

known

as JDp

1S5DO, in which no
digit.

allowed to have a value greater than one


(

Accordingly

nnb

= ^3 =

3 2

+4+8= +5+8=

15. 15.

Similarly
f

nmn =
snt

4 + 6 + 4 + 8 = 22. pm = 2 + 1+3 + 7 + 2+7 =

22.

Thus
in

R.

Hai

obtained rhymes for

nnQ

by a device customary

Hebrew

literature.

Dropsie College
3

B.

Hamper
I

This evidently

= UNE^N.

In

the

Genizah fragments which


"itsnao
.

examined

sometimes stands for u, as l^riSO


4

=
it

This word

is

not

quite clear, but

obviously

is

part of the piyyut.

r^L"

= MA Ik
Series,
III.

(Xote

to

JQR.,

New

230-31)
I

With
out

reference to the conclusions of A. Cohen

wish to point
of
the
else-

that ^L3^' actually

means "hair"
and here

in

several

passages

rabbinic literature.

The proof
ago,

for this
I

was furnished by me
result

where

nine years

reproduce the

of

the

conclusions reached there.


the

Already Buber and Kohut have adopted


in

meaning "hair" for *\W

Midrash Tehillim (to


1
,

Ps. 78, 51

yet it is also found in Sifre to Deut. 18. 4 where *\U&n D^'XI corresponds to the talmudic D^TJJ \w ilXU, and in Midrash Ber. r. 65. 2_>\

where the reference


is

is

to the

bad smell of goat's

hair.

From ?\W
the

4 derived the verb ?|^ "to remove the hair

with

hand, to
5]113*{^

pluck

out,"
5

from which
the

in

turn
as

the verbal substantive

is is

derived.

Of

same meaning,

Immanuel Low informs me,


(Payne Smith. 4135).
deductions

the Syriac RQBB>

evulsio pilorum

This explanation does away with Herschberg's

in

Hakedem,

II

(1908), Hebr. division, 68-69.


Pr.

Konigsberg

i.

Felix Perles

OLZ.,

1903,

col.

425-26.

Ed. Friedmann,

1066; parallel passage

b.

JJullin

137a.

To Gen.

27,

27

(=

Shir R. to

4,

ix)

CjECTI (0

Htrp

WW ^31

"jS

]<H

D'ry
4

bv

run.
rlullin
b.

Tos.

10.

4;

b.

Hullin 137a.

Baraita

Shabbat 74b, 99a.

547

HERFORD'S "PHARISAISM"
Pharisaism:
B.
Its

Aim and Method.


and

By

R.

Tkavers

Herford,

A.

London

New

York:

Williams

&

Xorgate,

G. P.

Putnam &
Herford
has

Soxs, 1912.
written
in
its

pp. 340.

Mr.
original

striking as
in

and an original book,


its

not

so

much
to

content
students

outlook.

He

is

already

known
in

theological

by

scholarly
in

study

mi

''Christianity

Talmud and Midrash."


difficult subject,

But

this

book he has

handled a much more


standpoint.
"to

and taken up
has been

much

bolder

His aim,
present

in

his

own words,

and make clear the Pharisaic conception of

religion,

the point of view

from which they regarded


dealt

it

and the methods by which they

with

it.

have

not sought to write a panegyric on them, but, so far as

may
their

be

possible

for
their

one

who

is

not

a Jew,

to
,

present
as
is

case

from

own

standpoint,

and not

so

often done, as a mere

foil to

the Christian religion."

Such a book was long overdue, but misrepresentation of the


Pharisees had become such a commonplace
logians,

among

Christian theo-

whether
school,

in

other
it

respects

of

the

Liberal

or

the

Con-

servative
spirit,

that

seemed beyond hope that the

critical

not to say the spirit of justice, would ever be applied to

the

Xew

Testament record of the

sect.

Mr. Herford has made

the attempt to judge Pharisaism without preconceived prejudices

and with sympathy; and


in

it

may

be said at once that he has been

the

main
and

strikingly

successful.
it

His

Rabbinical

learning

is

sufficient,

he

carries

easily;

and he has the quality of

imagination which enables him to appreciate other points of view


than
his

own.

Though

his

chapters bear an

impress of having
is

been delivered as oral lectures separately, the writing


clear

always

and there

is

little

repetition.

549

550

Tin:

JEWISH quarterly review


in

Mr. Herforcl starts with a historical sketch

which he traces

the development of Judaism as the religion of the

Torah "which
and

found expression in the intention of fulfilling as a personal duty


the
in

commands
the

of

God

set

forth in the

Scriptures,
that

especially

Pentateuch."

He

recognizes

the

service

of

God

through the law was to the individual Jew not an irksome task

imposed on

him by external authority, but


all

willing

and glad

devotion of himself and

his

powers

to

God.

The
the

effect of the

Maccahean struggle was


upon the
religion

to

renew the hold of the Jewish people


it

of

the

Torah, and

was

Pharisees

who
life.

kept that religion as a living principle, capable of being adapted,

and needing

to be adapted, to fresh

developments of religious

And

it

was the Pharisee again who, when the Temple was


and the nation dispersed, preserved the
the tradition in which
its

de-

stroyed

religion

of

the

Torah and
set

meaning and content were


second chapter the writer
in the first place disposes
is

forth

in

growing

fulness.

In his

deals with "The Theory of Torah," and

of

the

deep-rooted fallacy

by which Torah

taken to connote

simply
are

Law

in

its

sense of binding prescription.


interpreters,

On
are

lines

which

familiar

to

Jewish

but

which

welcome
the

innovation in Christian theology,


Scribes,

he

shows

how Ezra and


in

by making the Torah the seat of authority


life

religion,

deepened the spiritual

of the ordinary Jew.


says,

"The Torah," he
personal

"made

the

religion

of

Israel
it

and individual to a far greater degree than


before,

had

been

and

it

did

so

by

conveying to

the

individual
phetic

Jew not merely


joy
of
as

the legal precept but the prothe


inspiration as

fervour, the

of

personal

communion
serving Him.
signal

with

God

well

the high privilege of

The

introduction of the Torah was not the


life,

for a decline in the national religious

but the

beginning of a new and strenuous advance; and whereas,


before, the prophets had towered high above the
the
level

mass of
low

people,

who had

remained

at

comparatively
is

of

spiritual

attainment, henceforth there

a great

development of the

spiritual nature of the ordinary people,

HERFORD
the
individual

PHARISEES

BEXTWICH

551
be-

Jew.

There were no more prophets,

cause there was no further need of any prophets."


In support of this estimate of the spiritual worth of Torah
religion,

Mr. Herford adduces the development of the synagogue,


attempt at public worship without a
in the
cult,

the

first

and the growth

and completion of the Book of Psalms

time of the Scribes.

But the Halakah


spiritual idea.

in

its

entirety,

he maintains, manifests the same

He

takes the extreme instances of minute regula-

tion

in

the Mishnah, which have been the happy hunting-ground

of Christian theologians and Jewish reformers,


as the rules for dealing with an egg laid

such

for example

upon the sabbath

and
make
by

traces

how even

in

them the Pharisee would

feel the teaching of

the divine will, without concern for the smallness of the occasion
in

regard to which he was

fulfilling that will.

"It

is

easy to

Pharisaism appear ridiculous, a mere extravagance of painstaking


formalism.

But that
its

is

only possible to those

who judge

it

a standpoint which

adherents never recognised."

In the next two chapters of the book, the author treads


delicate

more

ground.

He examines

the

relations

of

Jesus and Paul

to

Pharisaism, and without trying in the least to explain away


hostility,

their

he contrives to

explain

it.

He

brings

critical

spirit to

bear not only on the text but on the


of Judaism.

spirit of the

Gospels

in their treatment

In regard to fundamental beliefs

there

was no disagreement between Jesus and the Pharisees, and


of
his

many

phrases,

the

watchwords

of his spiritual religion,

were taken by him from

his

Pharisaic environment.

What

then
finds

was the reason of the


it

hostility

between them?

Mr. Herford
set

in

the claim to personal authority which Jesus

up as the
7,

basis of religion.

The famous phrase

in

the Gospel

(Matthew

29), "he taught as one having authority

and not as

their Scribes,"

gives the keynote of his revolution.

For the Pharisees, the Torah


the supreme revelation of
to fulfil the

was the
to

basis of the religious

life,

God

man.

But Jesus, while claiming


a

Torah, was

in fact

setting up

new

sanction of personal conviction.

'Ahad Haam'

has recently pointed out that the essential religious characteristic


of Judaism
the
is

that "it cannot accept with religious enthusiasm as

word of God

the utterance of a

man who

speaks in his

own

552

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


saith the Lord,' but
'I

name not 'Thus


and the
Gospels.*'

say unto you.' " ("Judaism


I,

The Jewish Review,


idea,

200).
to

And Mr. Herford


the

expresses

the

same

when he
religion

points

fundamental
religion

incompatibility

between

the

of

Torah and the


all its

of the individual soul.

"Christianity in
in

forms

is

a religion
is

founded on personality, one


son.
is

which the central feature

a Per-

And

Judaism, at

all

events since the days of the Pharisees,


is

a religion in

which the central feature


person,

not a person, at
Jesus,

all

events not a

human

but

the
;

Torah."

therefore,
calls

could not understand the


'hypocrites,' that is

Pharisees

and

when

he

them

merely the expression of irreconcilable opposireligion.


it

tion

between his and their

It

seems obvious, but few

Christian commentators have pointed

out, that the justice of the

implied charge

is

not established by the


recrimination
is

fact

that the charge

is

made,

and

that

not

argument.

The Pharisees
measured terms.
prejudice,

have been attacked, even by a Jewish commentator of the Gospels,


for their views about divorce and upbraided in no

But Mr. Herford again

rises

above the

common

and

shows the

injustice of the attack.

"The controversy was


itself

strictly

not

about

divorce

in

but about the attitude of the Torah towards divorce.

Jesus

condemned
divorce.

divorce...

But

the

Pharisees
it,

also

condemned

They could not


away
seen

abolish

but they

sought to restrict what had been the immemorial freedom


of the husband to put
Hillel

his wife at his pleasure.

If

and Akiba
in

had

their
their

way

to

interpret

the

Torah

accordance

with

own
so.

ethical
in

judgment,
the

they would certainly have done

But

face of

fact that the Torah, the written Torah, expressly allowed

divorce,

not

even

Hillel

and Akiba could establish the

contrary

view."

Paul was even more incapable than Jesus of appreciating the


true

meaning of Pharisaism.

He

says,

it

is

true,

that he

was

Pharisee of the
description

Pharisees so, by the way, did Josephus, whose

of

Pharisaism would hardly be accepted as authorita-

tivebut he had abandoned the Jewish stadpoint, and wrote years


after he

had been converted to a different religion; and "a con-

herford's ''Pharisees"
vert seldom takes the

p.HXTwicii
Stirred

553
is

same view of the


in
it."

religion he has left as

taken
faith,

by those

who remain
at

himself

by

new

and impatient

the

slow progress of the Jewish mi

to the Gentiles, he believed with an intense

and absorbing passion


faith
in

that

harmony with God could be obtained only through


and that
those
it

Jesus,

was sought in vain under the law.


the

To*such

man
were

who upheld

Torah
does

as

the

way
prove

of

righteousness they

unintelligible.

But

that

not

that
it

were
valid

perverse.

His theory was valid for himself, but

was not

for

the

Jew

and arguing from


such
as
it

his

premises he only described

an unreal Judaism,
his
it

doubtless

ought to have been

if

premises had been true, but such as in fact and experience


certainly

was

not.

His presentation of Judaism


its

is

"at

its

best

a distortion, and at
into
his

worst a

fiction."

Paul

in

fact introduced

account

of

Pharisaism

the

odium

theologicum

which

has remained in

the Church ever

since.
little

On
with

one point Mr. Herford seems to do a

injustice to the
is

Pharisees.
the

He

speaks of their particularism, which


of
Paul's

contrasted
ideas,

universalism

Gospel.
in

Universalis!
their

he

thinks,

were but seldom touched upon

ordinary thought
to

and debate.
all-important,
as a

"Moreover the Torah

itself,

which was

them

so

was given only


salvation."

to Israel

and would serve only them

means of

He

repeats the

same idea with greater

emphasis in his

conclusion when he
free
itself

says that the religion of the


it

Torah could not

from Particularism, and though

could and did cherish a vision of Universalism, the vision

was for the

far future and only floated fitfully before the gaze of the Pharisee.

Has

the writer not here lost that historical perspective which has

hitherto guided

him?

It

is

true that the

Talmud

contains

some

passages of a particularist character


in

in

view of the circumstances

which

it

was compiled

that

was

inevitable

but

it

contains also
it

many

passages which breathe a generous universalism, and

is

full of ideas

about the Messianic

Kingdom which
far

are but an exof


the

pression of the belief in the ultimate acceptance

law

of

righteousness by

all

mankind.

So

from
it

the
is

Torah
stated

being

regarded as exclusively reserved

for
it

Israel,

by the
for
all

Rabbis with several variations that

was given

to Israel

554

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


it

the nations, that


that
Israel

was revealed

in

seventy

different

languages,
"to

was dispersed so

that

he might teach the Torah

the peoples (Pesahim Syb, Megillah 29a).

The

particularist sentibitter

ments which Mr. Herford


rience of the second, third,
first

cites

were evoked by the

expe-

and fourth centuries, when the Rabbis

Torah,

saw the breaking away of the Christian heresy from the and then felt the cruelty of the triumphant Christian

Church towards those who followed the Torah.

The
Theology'

last

two

chapters

of
as
a

the

book

deal

with

'Pharisaic

and

'Pharisaism

Spiritual

Religion,'

and

for

great part they


as

show

the

same

spirit

of sympathetic appreciation

marks the

rest.

Though
has

the author throughout refrains


feel

from

mentioning his sources, we


Rabbinic

that Dr.

Schechter's "Aspects of

Theology"

been

carefully

studied

and assimilated
sayings

by him.
the

He

reproduces

many

of

the

Rabbinical

about

nearness of

God, about reward and punishment, and merit,


to

which the Jewish scholar has collected

show

the inner religion

of the Jewish teachers; and he emphasizes also the fundamental


fact

which the Jewish scholar has driven home that Pharisaism has

no system of doctrinal theology.


terpretation of Scripture in
all

"Haggadah," he

says,

"is

in-

directions except that of precept"

and he points out the fallaciousness of the position of a Weber who


tries

to

extract an exact doctrine

from the medley of Pharisaic


doctrine.

teachings, generally, as one

would expect, an unfavorable

The

last

chapter of this book, however, seems to us the least

satisfactory,

and that because the writer,


takes

in

forming

his

general
illus-

conclusions,

too

narrow a

field

for his vision.

As

trations of the spiritual character of Pharisaism he chooses

some

of the Psalms,
late origin,

e.

g.

Ps. 103

and Ps.

119,

which he assumes to be of
liturgy,

few of the oldest prayers from the Hebrew


in the
is

and a few of the prayers

Talmud

ascribed to famous Rabbis.

Of

the last he says, "there

nothing very

sublime
is

about them,

none of the eloquence of rapture.


vainglorious
Pharisee."
able
is

But neither
to

there any of the

boasting

supposed

be

characteristic

of

the

This

is

discriminating appreciation.; but

more question-

his

judgment of the whole; that

HERFORD'S ''PHARISEES"
"to

BENTWICH
Testament
;

555
there
a
is

one

accustomed

to

the

New

certain flatness about the Rabbinical literature

want of

the sublime

and

still

more of
There

the beauty of holiness, the

fervour of
the

faith, the personal


is

consecration which marks

Xew

Testament.

nothing in

all

the
I.

RabCorin-

binical literature at all like the rapt utterances in

thians xii."

Xow
ferent

it

may
as

be that parts of the


the

New

Testament have a
snippets of
in

dif-

'feel,'

writer

puts

it,

from the

the

Pharisaic

liturgy

which he has brought together


is

this

book.

But the comparison


spiritual

surely unfair.

If

he would compare the


spiritual

product
it

of

Pharisaism

with

the

product of

Christianity,

is

fallacious to choose out a

few

scattered passages

from the

Talmud and

Midrash,

which

are

not

in

any

sense

collections of devotional literature,

and

set

them against the intense


If,
if

religious utterances of the

Christian

Bible.

however, he had
he had appraised
la-

considered the book of Psalms as a whole, or


the devotional

work of

Bahya,

or

Gabirol,

which, though

ter in date than the

Talmudic prayers, are equally the expression

of Pharisaism as a spiritual religion,


the

if

he had treated them in


the
early

same

spirit

as

he

has

appraised

fragments

of

Pharisaic doctrine about Torah, he would hardly have denied to


Pharisaic Judaism religious ecstacy, the fervor
of
faith,

and the
little

beauty of holiness.-

Mr. Herford appears to be here a

too

theoretical and, so to say, external, to lack that spirit of

sympathy
contro-

which illuminates
versies,

his

treatment

of

the

Xew

Testament

and

to

suffer

from an inadequate knowledge of Jewish

thought outside the Talmud.

He

brings his 'Theory of the Torah'

as the touchstone of the Pharisaic literature,

and

tries to

make

it

apply to the whole

but to do so he leaves out the whole mystical

development of Judaism as

though

it

did

not

exist.
spirit

Yet
it

it

is

fundamental to the Jewish and the Pharisaic


once mystic and
of
legal.

that

is

at

The conception

of the

Law

as the guide

human

life

has from the time of Ezekiel been transfigured in

the greatest Jewish minds by the mystic imagination.


ford's appreciation of Pharisaism
is

Mr. Her-

incomplete, because he neglects

altogether this aspect of

it.

556
But
it

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


were ungracious
cavil.

to

end up a review of

this stimulating

book with a

The outstanding merit remains


as their religion,
to

that a Chris-

tian theologian

has sincerely endeavored to expound what Phariit

saism meant to those "who held


it

who

lived by
re-

and died by

it"

and has striven

abandon the habit of

garding Rabbinical Judaism as a means of exalting Christianity.

Mr. Herford has not only made a successful endeavor, he has given
us what
that
is

for the most part a striking achievement,


will

and we hope

some day he
of

supplement

this brief study

with a completer

appreciation

Judaism.

London

Norman Bentwich

WIERNIK'S "JEWS IN AMERICA"


History
of
the

Jews

in

America.
to

From
the

the

Period of the Dis-

covery of the Xevv -World

Present

Time.

By Peter

Wierxik.
1912.

New
xxiv

York, Jewish

Press

Publishing Company,

pp.

449.
is

The book
the

before us

volume of about 430 pages


a

in

which
in

writer

proposes to give

history

of the

Jews not only

the United States but on the whole

American continent, from the


present day.

period

of the

discovery
so

down

to

the

To do

any-

thing like justice to

important and so large a subject, would


research.

require years of study and of careful

This the author

does not pretend to have done but


that his

tells

us frankly in his preface

work has been compiled

in large

measure from the publi-

cations of the

American Jewish Historical Society and from the

Jewish Encyclopedia.

While therefore the book


it

is

in

no sense a scholar's

history,

is,

despite

its

many

shortcomings, a useful work, presenting to

the public a considerable history of


pilation,
it

number of

facts
soil.

and data concerning the

the

Jews on American

Though merely

com-

has the merit of having arranged a considerable mass

of material in logical order so as to


rative,
ier

make

a fairly connected nar-

and while lacking the attractive


it

style of

Judge Daly's
large

earl-

work

has the advantage of including a

quantity of

material discovered since Judge Daly's day and at the same time

of covering a

much more

extensive

field.

In one of his famous essays. Lord


qualities

Macaulay mentions three


history.
in

as

the

most important for the true writer of


in

''Great

diligence

e>amining

authorities,

great

judgment

weighing testimony and great impartiality."


standard as
that,
it

Judged by any such

must be confessed that Mr. Wiernik cannot


it

be considered an historian, and

is

unfortunate that he has se-

557

558
lected so high

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


sounding a
title

for the

work under

consideration.

Our author

calls special attention to the fact that

he has not

made

any original research, and we


logical result oi such, a course.

will

now endeavor
relates
to

to point out the

The
Jews up
of

first

third

of

the

book

the

history

of
is

the

to

the period of the Civil

War.

This material

taken

practically without exception

from the volumes of the Publications


Society,

the

American Jewish

Historical

series

of

some

twenty volumes containing original essays and notes by students


of American

Jewish history.

Such

series,

in

its

very nature,

must be fragmentary.

Many

subjects

of

even great importance

have never been written up, not because they were deemed unimportant but rather because students working in that
few,
field

were

and
the

each

followed

some

special

line

of
in

research.
the

Thus
States
in

while

colonial

and

revolutionary

period

older

have been covered by a number of essays, the same periods


other sections have not been investigated at
tory
all.

The

early his-

of

most of our

Middle

and Western
it

States

has"

scarcely

even been touched upon, though


fruitful
field

offers

most
is

attractive

and

and though much of the material


of these States have been

readily
their

avail-

able, since

many

publishing

early

records.

Anyone, therefore, who undertakes

to

write a history of the


States alone,

Jews of the

entire continent, or even of the United

cannot simply rely upon the essays found in the publications referred
to,

but must, by

his

own

research,

fill

in

the very large

gaps which exist

and supply equally complete sketches of those States and those parts of our country which have not yet been

written up.

This is what Mr. Wiernik has utterly failed to do, and instead of calling attention to the fact, he has simply used

the published material, leaving the gaps,

which
the

in

many

cases are

enormous.
that

His

book thereby

creates

erroneous

impression

Jews are new comers


history
in

in considerable portions of

our country
last

and that their


quarter
of
the

those

parts

dates

only

from the
moderate

nineteenth

century,

whereas

even

re-

search might well prove the contrary.

Mr. Wiernik assumes that the volumes from which his compilation has been made, contain
all

available material on the subject

WIERXIK'S "JEWS IX AMERICA"

HUH NER

559

and that because he could find no published essay in connection with the history of certain States, there were, therefore, no Jews
in those parts.

For

this

reason that part of his book which deals


is

with the largest area of the United States


pages only, and the activity of Jews
of 1812 and the Mexican
in

covered by some 20

connection with the

War

War

is

dismissed with about two pages,

though we know that very respectable essays might well be written on both these topics.

Our author

is

equally unfortunate in weighing his testimony.


fact

He
some

overlooks

the

that

the

books

from which
persons

he

draws

his material

were not written by one and the same hand but that
articles

of

the
;

were

written
the

by

more

scholarly
cita-

than others

that

while some of

essays give numerous

tions of authority, others are based largely


say.

on tradition and hear-

To

all

this

mass of information he accords equal weight


little

and so repeats statements which have


fact.

or no

foundation in

Among
we

the

more
that

striking instances of such unverified stateassisted

ments
that

find

"Abrabanel

Columbus

financially,"

Hayman Levy was

the largest fur trader in the colonies, that


to the Revolution-

Manuel Mordecai Xoah contributed large sums


ary
to

War

and that the

letter of the

Jewish community of Newport


traces of having been origin-

Washington "bears unmistakable


composed
is

ally
S.

in

Rabbinical

Hebrew." In the same way David


S.

Kaufman
is

claimed as a Jew and Rev.


in

M. Isaacs

is

credited

with having introduced English sermons


it

the Synagogue, though

well

not only in his period


but

known that Gershom Seixas delivered English sermons own synagogue before and after the Revolutionary
even preached
in
St.

Paul's

Church,

Xew

York, by

invitation.

this

The work contains comparatively few citations, and while may be pardoned because it is intended for popular readyet
it

ing,

is

to

be regretted that where citations are given, they


in connection

are frequently

made

with matters of

little

import-

ance, while statements of real importance are not so fortified.

Oc-

casionally too, the

work of one writer

is

credited to another.
his

Broadly speaking, the author divides


the
to
first,

book

into three parts

which he

calls

the Spanish and

Portuguese Period, and

which he devotes 128 pages, deals with the participation of

560
lews
in

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


the

discovery
Brazil,

of

the

Xevv World, their settlements


Indies

in

Mexico,

Peru,
in

Guiana, the West

and

finally

their
fol-

settlement

New York

and the English colonies.

This
in the

is

lowed by a short chapter on the services of Jews


tion

Revolu-

which covers some seven pages, unfortunately omitting some

important names while dismissing others with but two of three


lines,

and

in

conclusion there

is

a short

discussion of

religious

liberty,

an account of the Jews in the early days of the republic


service
in

and

their

the

War
earliest

of 1812.

The period
settlers

is

so

named

presumably because the

Jewish

were

in

large de-

gree of Spanish and Portuguese origin.

The second portion of

the

book

is

named

the

German

Period,

and includes \he Jewish settlements


Middle West, and the Pacific Coast.
devoted to a history of the Jews
in

in the

Mississippi Valley, the


is

Almost a whole chapter


Texas, which in turn
is

fol-

lowed by a most interesting account of the Jewish Reform Movement, in the discussion of which a sympathetic sketch of Isaac

Leeser

is

deserving of note.
connection

Some
Civil

25 pages

are devoted to the


this

Jews
cludes

in

with

the

War

and

portion
'

con-

with an account of the Jews of the United

States

from

the end of that struggle

down
is

to 1880.

The
sary.
tion,

rest of the

book

devoted largely to "The Russian Periis

od of Immigration," which

given in greater detail than neces-

A
is

whole chapter

is

devoted to the Russian Passport QuesImmigration,


the

another to Legislation on
allotted to

and

considerable

space

accounts

of

Russian

Massacres and the

formation of the American Jewish Committee.

Throughout the work one


perspective,

is

struck

by a lack of

historical

which becomes more evident as the reader proceeds.

Contemporary events and personages with


sibly

whom
big

the author posentirely

has personal
to

acquaintance,

loom

up

out
the

of

proportion

more important events and worthies of


the account of the

past.

By way
Francis

of illustration

Jews

in

the

American
Congress

Revolution covers but seven pages in which the notable career of


Salvador,
a
is

Jewish

member

of the

Provincial

of South Carolina,
space
is

dismissed with three

lines,

while considerable
the
little

allotted

to the

Roumanian Question, the Hay Note,


to

Kishinev

Massacre

and

contemporary

Yiddish

writers

WIERNIK'S "JEWS IN AMERICA"


known
to the general

IHIINT.K

561

Jewish public.

The

latter

are often given

an entire page of biography.


also leads our author
to

This lack of historical perspective

devote a whole chapter to Lincoln and

the Jews, simply because there existed a mass of information on


the subject.

Mr. Wiernik has undoubtedly a sincere desire to be impartial,

but the fact remains that his readers get the general impres-

sion that the

Jew

in

America
he

is

really the Russian or possibly the


is

Slavonic Jew.

To

him,

more space
is

given than to others, and


focused, so that

more important
most
feel

still,

more sharply

we
book

al-

that the author's real purpose

was

to give an account
rest of the
is

of the Slavonic
largely by

Jew

in

America, and that the

way
in this
living,

of introduction.

Though

the history of the Rus-

Jew men now


sian
tirely

country
yet the

is

a matter within the

memory

of most
is

portion of space devoted to him


to

enac-

out
are

of proportion

that

brief

period.

Most minute

counts
gogues,
bis,

given of the

founding of Russian and Polish synalists

much

space devoted to

and biographies of

their rab-

scholars,

and

leaders,

and many of the names and biographies

detailed

are those of contemporaries of

whom

the general public

has scarcely ever heard, while even

among contemporaries

other

names of considerable

influence are but casually mentioned.

From an
as

historical

point of view,

it

would have been pref-

erable had the author


a
religious
entity

drawn

a sharp distinction between the


as

Jew
\\ e

and the Jew


list

an American

citizen.

cannot admit that a long


their

of the

names of synagogues and

founders constitutes a history of the Jews in America, any


a

more than an account of

number

of Catholic churches organized


in

by Irishmen would constitute a history of the Irish

America.
be
slight,

small group of Jews, whose religious affiliations


possibly have been

may
It
is

may

more

influential

in

American

affairs

than

even a large group of

strictly religious observers.

a mistake

therefore to give minute accounts of the founding and founders cf

synagogues,
locally,

many
wider

of which have been of small

importance even

and
of

to permit these accounts to take

up more space than


is

events

scope.

The maintaining of synagogues Jew and though


far a

but

one of the

activities of the

most important one,

yet in relation to the country at large,

more important than

562
a
list

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


of synagogue? and rabbis,
is

bringing out strikingly the im-

portance of the Jew as an economic factor, his influence in trade

and commerce,

in science
life.

and

art, his

recognition in the professions


it

and other walks of


far

In treating contemporary history

is

more important

to

bring out

how
is

great

is

the Jew's influence

as a merchant,
in dealing

how

large his proportion in our colleges, and even


it

with individual Jews

desirable not merely to bring


his

out his services as a philanthropist


influence as
the

among

own

people, but his


fin-

head of great interstate corporations, as the

ancier or perhaps as statesman or reformer, assisting in the build-

ing up of his
It is

city,

his

State,

and the nation.

true in treating of the early

American colonies Mr. Wier-

nik mentions the

name of
in

Rivera, Franks, Lopez and others, but

he does not bring out

bold relief

how important
other
note,

these Jews

were to

their

environment.

On

the
local

hand the names of


of Russian scholars

Synagogues and rabbis of purely


and
latter

Yiddish writers,

is

given

such

undue prominence that the

impress the reader far more than the accounts of the former.
the

The chapter dealing with


in

Jew
It
is

in Art,

in

the Professions,

Science and Literature for instance


in

should be

among

the most
in

important chapters
all.

the book.

given about ten pages

Instead of

mentioning the

Grau and Conned, who did so


opera
are

names of Da Ponte, Strakosch, much for the entire American


and maintaining grand

public in developing music, in introducing


in

America, none of these names are even mentioned, nor


achievements
list

their

referred

to;

on the other hand we are

given quite a long

of names of Yiddish actors and actresses

with the dates of their birth and often of their arrival in America.
In connection

with journalism

also

it

seems a mistake
list

in

work
lion

of 400 pages to devote considerable space to a

and to

biographies of Yiddish journalists while entirely omitting to men-

names
both

like

those of

Isaac

Harby and David Naar, of New


in

Jersey,

prominent factors

their

generation.
is

While other
given of the

great

Jewish journalists are mentioned, no idea


their

magnitude of
the

enterprises

or the wide

influence wielded by

Stupendous journals they founded.


This lack of judgment
is

likewise evident in the illustrations

contained

in

Air.

Wiernik's book.

The

selection

is

the

more

strik-

wiernik's "jews in America"


ing because pictures arc perhaps the very

huhnEB
for
instance,

563

first

things the reader

examines.

Among

the

portraits

of

ministers,

one

wonders why Gershom Mendez Seixas, one of the incorporators and for over thirty years a trustee of Columbia College, is omitted.
Tt
is

our impression that a few pictures of great American


substi-

synagogues might have been included with advantage and


tuted for

some of the
up,

portraits.

Summing
in

we must
his

reiterate

that
tell

Mr.

Wiernik deserves

commendation for

sincere effort to
a

the story of the

Jew
will

America

in

the

form of

complete narrative.

His work

be useful for presenting

many
is

interesting facts in Jewish history

heretofore

known

to students only,

and

in

showing that

in the old-

er States at least, the

Jew

by no means a new-comer but has

been a pioneer from the

start.

We

appreciate the great labor in-

volved in compiling a book of this kind and the difficulty

under

which an author labors who has not made original research and
thereby loses that subtle something which,
for

want of

better

name,
is

may

be called the atmosphere of history.


it

While the book


has considerable

perhaps only a newspaper man's compilation,


first

value in giving the

complete narrative of the coming of the


soil,

Russian Jew, of his development on American

and

in preserv-

ing data concerning Russian and Yiddish writers and rabbis

whose
it

names might otherwise be forgotten.


is

From

that

point of view
it

distinct

contribution while at the

same time

supplies

the

need for a work that will teach Jews themselves something about
the history

of their people on American

soil.

From
in

broader
still

point of view, however, the history of the

Jew

America

re-

mains to be written.

Xew York

City

Leox Huhner

GRAVES' "HISTORY OF EDUCATION"


A
History
of Education

Before
Ph.
D.,

the

Middle Ages.
of
the

By Frank
History

PiErrepont

Graves,

Professor

and

Philosophy of Education

in the

Ohio State University.


1909.

New

York: The Macmillan Company,

pp. xiv -f 304.

This work
the

is

in

the

words of

its

preface "intended to meet

demand

for a text-book or

reference

work

that will

give a

comprehensive idea of the history of education before the days of the monastic schools." The author devotes two chapters to
primitive peoples and early civilization and then discusses

Egypt,

Babylonia and Assyria, Phoenicia, China, India, Persia, Israel and


Judea,
tianity.

Sparta and Athens,

the

Roman World and

early

Chris-

Among
The
skill

the

ancient

civilizations,

Egypt naturally comes


which

first.

in

engineering and advance in architecture


is

this

country exhibits
tion; yet the

an index of the advancement

in material civiliza-

complex and highly developed

religious life
side alone.

shows that

this civilization lines of the


tical

was not upon the material

The main

higher education in ancient Egypt were priestly, prac-

and professional.

There was an elementary education which


at the

was widely diffused and began


and
tects,

age of

five.

The Temples

furnished the higher education, especially the training for the scribes,
in addition these temple colleges

had

specific training for archi-

physicians and priests.

The method

of teaching was large-

ly

by a memory system.

While reading and writing must have


ancient times

been very complex owing to the hieroglyphics employed, a simplified

system of writing did arise

in

Babylonia and Assyria had as their main development what

might be called

scientific

training as opposed to the professional

education of Egypt.

Their science was largely empirical and much

565

566
of
it.

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


especially

astronomy and meteorology, were related

to astrol-

ogy

and magic.

We

have no evidence of any general

popular

education in the Assyro-Babylonian empire but there was a very


highly developed education of the priests

and scribes

if

we may
libraries

judge
tablets

from the wide range of subjects represented on the clay


found
in

the

numerous Babylonian and Assyrian


Mathematics,

and the more formal inscriptions.


tural
science,

astronomy, na-

history

and probably geography were taught.


of
the

We
the
sent

also

know something
of
course,

method of

teaching.

Memorizing

was,

very

important.

cuneiform characters and copied them on


to

The students were taught clay, which was


tablets

the

potter

to

be baked.
found.

Many

with

school

exercises

on them have been


Phoenicia

although

very, significant

in

the

history

of

com-

merce and geography


little

and

in

the

arts

and

crafts,

would have

importance

in

this

connection except for the very important

fact that the invention of the alphabet is usually attributed to the

Phcenicians,

although

in

some

quarters

this

is

now coming

to

be
In

questioned.
all

Their

education

was
first

industrial

and commercial.
read-

probability they

were the

people

among whom

ing and writing were


In general,
it

common.
be said of
all

may

the earlier systems that they

were what may be called occupational.


consisted in
the training for

That

is

to

say,

education

the occupations

one was to follow

and the method was largely the memory method.


Israel

and Judea marked


the

new departure
individualism

in in

education
education.

for

here
the

we have

beginning

of

As

genius of the

Jewish people lay largely in the direction of

religion

and morals so the chief aim of education among them was

religious

and moral.

The
that

children were taught in the

the family by their parents.

home or in The professional education of which


the

we hear about was


probably consisted
ture.

of

priesthood

and the scribes and


historical
litera-

of

knowledge of law and

In

the schools of the prophets

where there may have been

something of the same education, the arts of sacred music and


poetry
are

were

probably
to

most

important.
period,

Formal
the

higher

schools
so-

ascribed

the

post- exilic

early

synagogues,

called,

being originally

not

places

of worship but of

instruction.

MICHAEL HEILPRIN AND HIS SONS

ADI.I.K

567

the portico of the


little

After the third century B. C, the scribes gave instruction within Temple and sometimes in private homes and, a
later,

private

schools

and

elementary
of
scribes

schools

came

to

be

formed and there was a


called

college

which was probably


the

the

Bet

Ha-midrash.

The education was no doubt

study of law and morals, but mathematics, history and geography

and beside Hebrew and Aramaic, Greek came

also to be taught.

Elementary schools spread to every town and flourished.


ben,

Simon
in

Shetah made education compulsory as early as 75 B. C.

Jerusalem and Joshua ben

Gamala extended
evidence
in

this

requirement to

towns and
tion

villages in 64 of the current era.

The course of educaof

was

outlined

and there

is

considerable

peda-

gogical
fications

wisdom.

Teachers were held

high esteem, the quali-

were

fixed
this

and the

discipline of the schools

was

rigorous.

Undoubtedly

educational

system upon which the leaders of


is

the nation always laid great stress


for the preservation of the

the main
all

human instrument
method of

Jews through
in

these centuries.

The statements

indicate

very brief

way

the

the author in giving a survey of education in the ancient world.

To

each chapter there

is

attached a

fair

bibliography indicating

the authorities

for the education of each people.


is

The book
that

a useful

text

book for pedagogical

institutions
it

and has a considerable value for educators showing as


the
science

does

and

art

of

education were not born yesterday

and that

in the history of the

world there
its

is

a long experience in

the art of teaching which has

value for the present day.

POLLAK'S "MICHAEL HEILPRIX AND HIS SOXS"


Michael
Heilprin

and

His

Sons.

Biography.

By Gustav
1912.
pp.

Poixak.

Xew York:

Dodd,

Mead and Company,

xv

540.

This volume which presents


are described in
ability.

remarkable

study in

Jewish
lives

family history has a general interest because the


it

men whose

covered a wide
Heilprin,

field

of intellectual and artistic

Michael

the

father,
in

was an

encyclopedist,

an

editor,

and a Hebrew scholar, and

one aspect a Jewish philannaturalist but

thropist.

Angelo Heilprin was

a general

made

his

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


principal reputation as
prin. like his
a

paleontologist and explorer.

Louis Heil-

father,

was an encyclopedist and an

historian.

Michael,

the
1838.

father,

was horn
of a

in

Russian

Poland

in

1823

and died
scholars.
field

in

He came
his

family which numbered

many
the

Although

activities

were
his

mainly

outside

of

of Jewish learning, a

number of

writings

entitled

him

to

the

consideration

of

Jewish

scholars.

His

first

contribution
article

of

importance on the side of


in

Jewish scholarship

was the

on "Hebrews*"
In

Appleton's

New

American Cyclopaedia
position
slavery.

in 1858.

1860 he wrote an article controverting the

taken by
1879 and

a rabbi that the Bible

was favorable

to

human

1880 he published his


a

Historical Poetry of the Ancient Hebrews,


substantially

work

which,

while

accepting

the

views

of

the
his

critics

of that period, did not slavishly

follow them.

From

youth he had made


notes were
edited

notes on the Bible and after his death these

and published (1893)

with an introduction by
Heilprin

Dr.

Benjamin

Szold.

Although

Michael

had

lost

in-

terest in

the Jewish religion he

was greatly aroused by the Rusto


his

sian

persecutions

and

his

loyalty

people

as

well

as

his

sense of justice impelled him to aid in the establishment of agricultural

colonies

for the

newly arrived immigrants.


the

He was
ciety

Secretary

of

Montefiore

Agricultural

Aid

So-

which was the originator of much of the agricultural work He wrote that has since been done for the Jews in America.
a stirring appeal to the

them
the

to aid the agricultural

Jews of the United States in 1883 urging movement, and his pen was aided by

inspiring

poems of

Emma

Lazarus.

His work

at

this

time

was of great

service to the

Jewish cause.

In 1868 he wrote an article on the


the

Reform Movement among


strokes

Jews

in

which

in

large

and

splendid

he briefly in-

dicated the course


clared to be
all

of

modern Jewish
theatre of

history.

Germany, he de"In

"the central

the

movement"
the

other countries. England and the United States not excepted,


as

the religious as well

the literary
in

movements of
Germany."

Jews are

but

reflections

of those going on

He wrote a careful review of Delitzsch's


dies
to
9

Wo

lag

das Para-

in

188!

in

which he concisely stated some weighty objections


book.

that

very

interesting

Of

Stade's

History

of

Israel,

MICHAEL HEILPRIX AND HIS SONS ADI.KK


Renan's History of
Israel,

Sayce's Hibbert Lectures on the Origin

and Growth of Religion he also wrote important reviews.

The
prin
for

scientific

the scope of this

work of Angelo Heilprin does not come within Review but the writer who knew Angelo Heilhis
Ins

many

years desires to record the great breadth of


his
fine
artistic
ability,

scientific

labors,

his

modesty,

and

lovable character.

Louis Heilprin

an editor
Book.

is

who known to

like his father


all

was an encyclopedist and


Historical

students

by his

Reference

Dropsie College

Cyrus Adler

RAYMONT'S "BIBLE IN EDUCATION OF THE YOUNG"


The Use of
Parents
the Bible in the Education of the

Young.

A
A.,

Book

for

and

Teachers.

By

T.
1.

Raymont, M.
pp.

London,

Longmans, Green and


"What,
in these

Co., 191

-J-

254.

days of

suspended judgment,
is

bold

criticism,

and apparently wavering

faith,

the use that can and should be

made

of

the

Bible,

in

the

education
belief,

of

the

young,

by

all,

of

whatever shade of religious


individual

who

value the best elements of


life?"
It

character

and

of

national
this

was

with

the

view of offering a solution to


dertook the preparation of
this

question that our author un-

volume.
at

by profession and, while perfectly

The author is home in the vast

a teacher
literature

of Biblical scholarship, does not claim to offer any help to the


student of the Bible, but to the teacher and parent
the Bible in their

who would

use

work of
is

training the young.

Having
little

this pur-

pose in mind, the author

careful to take but

for granted

and gives an

exhaustive

resume

of

Biblical

literature,

of

both

Testaments, which will prove of great value to those


neither the patience nor the desire to

who have
numerous

wade through
come up
in

the

books, manuals, and encyclopedias dealing with the subject.

The

first

question that will naturally


is

in a considera-

tion of the subject

what should be the aim

the use of
is

the
in

Bible in the education of the young.


the
first

This question

answered

chapter of the book, where the author properly comes to

the conclusion that "the main and fundamental use of the Bible
is

that of helping to cultivate the religion of the

heart that sense


in

of dependence upon, responsibility towards, and faith

Being

whose existence and whose wise appearances to ">thc contrary, most


acknowledge." The
Bible
is

purpose,

notwithstanding
are

many
to

of

us

constrained
a

thus to be used as

text-book of

5/1

?y2
religion,
its

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


narratives,

prophecies,

psalms,

and wise sayings are


But,
it

to
in

serve as illustrations of the

wisdom and power of God.


Bible in this way,
fully

order to

make

intelligent

use of the
it

is

necessary
contents,

that
in

we understand
its

and are familiar with

its

accordance with the best and latest results of stustudy their specialty.
it

dents

who made

Our

author, therefore, finds

necessary to

give

resume of
scholarship,

the Bible

from the point of view of modern

Biblical

steering clear, as far as possible,


ful matters.

from

all

controversial and doubtlit-

This resume, preceded by chapters discussing the

erary aspects of the two Testaments, occupies the larger part of


the

book and may be regarded

as

an introduction to the Bible


scholar

from the teacher's standpoint.


superficial
er

The

may

find ihis perhaps

and defective, while the conservative parent or teachupon


it

may

look

as

heterodox

and

doubt-inspiring.

This,

however, any one


pect

who

wishes to adopt a middle course, must exis

and the value of one's work, as a popular book,

not dimin-

ished thereby.
tious,

The author

is

certainly painstaking

and conscien-

having made use of the best works on the subject and pre-

senting his material in a

form which appealed


most
intelligible

to him, as a teacher

and

parent,

to

be the

and most useful

for

the purpose he had in mind.

Gifted with remarkable lucidity and


difficult

terseness

in

style,

the

author succeeded in presenting a


in

and complicated subject

a well-digested

and systematically ar-

ranged form, which will be greatly appreciated not only by the


novice and uninitiated but also by those

who have

given thought

and time to the study of the subject.


Teachers
will

find

the

last

few chapters, dealing with the


valuable.

method

of

presentation,

most

While

there

also

but

few original thoughts are found, most of the suggestions being


fully

covered

in

books on religious pedagogy, they

will

still

be-

come useful because of their particular and detailed The book, indeed, is valuable not so much because of
ity,

application.
its

original-

as

on account of the clear and logical presentation of the sub-

jed

and the mass of material, gathered from various sources and

put in a simple and attractive form.


el

The book

appropriately conall

inks

with

an

exhaustive

bibliography,
it

covering

phases

of

the subject of Biblical study in so far as

interests a teacher.

At

RAYMONTS

"r>Il*>LlC

IN

EDUCATION

GREENSTONE
.

573

the end of the book

two

tables are given,

one chronological, cover-

ing the events of the entire Biblical history, and the other

tematic arrangement of the subject, which


for
a

may

serve as a pattern

schedule of

studies,

based on the Bible, for the different

grades of the school.

The author
sistance.
this

naturally

has

the

Christian

teacher
will

and

parent
as-

constantly in mind, and

for

them the book

be of great
but
little

The Jewish
since

teacher, however, will


attitude that

gain

from
is

work,

the

of

the

quite
tion

different

from

of the

Christian.

Jew towards the Of course,

Bible

the por-

dealing with the

Xew

Testament has no practical value for


The

the

Jewish teacher, but even the chapters on the Old Testament

can be used by him only with great care and circumspection.


author's
(p. 20)

attitude

towards the manner of

teaching

Bible

history

will not be shared

by the Jewish teacher, since to him the


Bible

historic

portions

of

the

not

only

serve
that

religious

end,
his

but they are at the

same time the events


his
this

happened to

own ancestors, the history of know and teach, And since


method of presentation, the
as to

own

people,

which he should
greatly

attitude

affects

the

excellent

suggestions
in

of the author

the treatment of

Biblical

subjects

instruction will

have

to undergo considerable modification before they can be applied by

the Jewish teacher or parent.

The

author's verdict regarding Mr.

Montefiore's "Bible

for

Home
use

Reading," that "the editor's Juda-

ism

is

so liberal that the

Christian teacher must indeed be narthe

row-minded
(p. 241),

who

cannot

work
this,

almost

as

it

stands."

cannot be applied to

the book under consideration, when

used by the Jewish teacher.

And

not because of the nar-

row-mindedness of the
difference
in

Jewish teacher, but


purpose of

because of the great


religious

the

very aim and

instruction

depending that exists between the Jewish and Christian teacher, Jewish and the Christian aton the great difference between the
titude towards religion in general.

Gratz College

Julius GrEENSTOnH

RECENT ASSYRO-BABYLOXIAX LITERATURE


The Old Testament
in

the Light of the Ancient East.

Manual of

Biblical Archaeology.

By Alfred

JerEmias, Licentiate Doctor,


at the

Pastor of the Lutherkirche, and Lecturer


Leipzig.

University of

English edition, translated from the second German

edition, revised

and enlarged by the author, by

C. L.
D.,

Beaumont,
Master of
:

edited

by

Rev.

Canon

C.

H.

W. Johns,
II

Litt.

Catharine's College, Cambridge.

volumes.

New York
191

G. T.
pp.

Putnam's Sons, London, Williams and Xorgate,


683,

1.

with 214 illustrations and 2 maps.


theory of 'new ages' that

The

we meet with

so

frequently in

this book, suggests,

by an association of ideas, that we too have


age.

entered upon a

new

of

the

Higher Criticism.

Babylonism.

Hugo

ago, we lived in the age now replaced by that of PanWinckler, who ushered in this new era,
It
is

Xot many years

deserves, like the Oriental heroes of antiquity, to be

endowed with

the qualities of a 'deliverer,' as he saves the Bible

from enemies by

which

it

was torn
it

into shreds, in the preceding age.


this

Who. however,
is

will save

from

modern persecutor?
is

For

it

evident that

another passing fancy, Pan-Babylonism,


factor in biblical exegesis and
biblical students.
it

becoming an important

must be taken cognizance of by


all

But

it

is

a laborious task to learn

about this
followers.
this

theory from the numerous works of Winckler

and

his

We
who

owe, therefore, a debt of gratitude to the author of


for the
first

work
and

time

made an attempt

to classify this system

to present an index of

documentary references and proofs

from

other mythologies for the biblical interpretation.

But, though only


a

claiming to have elaborated

Winckler's

ideas

into

system,

the

author
in the

is

by no means as radical as the originator.

The

latter sees

mythological motifs the basis of the biblical narratives, whilst

575

5/6

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


used
for
the

the author contends that they merely are

form of
were
stand-

presentment, without eliminating the historical facts.


sion

This admisif
it

would be extremely valuable for

biblical

exegesis,

the result of scientific research.

It looks,

however, as

if this

point

is

not that of the unbiased Lecturer at the University, but of


Leipzig.

the Pastor of the Lutherkirche in

For
the

in

dealing

with

angelology, the author

says

as

follows:

"On
we

ground of the
and
in

religious truths set forth in the Christian conception,

review

of the gospel records of the life of Jesus,

recognize realities of

the transcendental world in the angelology of the Ancient-Israelite

And when the cuneiform texts speak of 'the divine messengers of grace' who accompany the king in his campaign, or of 'the guardian of health and life' who stands at the king's side,
religion

they are representing a religious truth" (p. 53, II).

We

need not
that

comment upon such


against
the
historical

standpoint.

The author thus holds


of
the

mythological motifs which adhere to the narrative, prove nothing


probability

whole

fact.

But

the

primitive tales must be judged differently

from the legends of the

fathers and the stories of the time before the kings, and these again
differently

from the

stories of the time of

the kings, lying in


artificial

full

light of history.

The motifs form

only an

part in the true

historical

books.
writer freely confesses that
author's
if

The present
would not

given no alternative

but to choose between the

and Winckler's opinions, he


It is logical to

hesitate to give preference to the latter.

assume that the movements

of the stars were personified and pre-

sented as stories of certain heroes too strongly our credulity


to

who never
that

existed.

But

it

taxes

believe

ancient
fight,

writers

were

unable to present a simple, true story of a


to 'the

without referring

dismembering of the dragon,' the

life

of a warrior of flesh

and blood, without endowing him with the motifs of a deliverer,


etc.,

etc.

The designation 'Pan-Babylonian'


'Ancient-Oriental teaching,' but
trine
it

is

replaced in this book by

still

asserts that the astral docclearest


it

issued

from Babylonia, claiming that the oldest and


it

statements of

have

been

discovered

in

Babylonia,

and

is

founded upon astronomy which originated

in this country.

Thence

RECENT ASSYRIOLOGICAL LITERATURE


it

HOSCHANDEP
many new
is

S77
influ-

spread out over the whole world, and exerting a different


every
civilization,
it

ence over

developed into

forms.

Accordingly, the theory of a borrowed literature

to be

abandoned.

There can only be the question of a common mythological ancestry.

The

chief

aim of

this

book

is

to trace

the

Ancient

Oriental

teaching throughout the Old Testament, and for this purpose the

author reconstructs the astral system,

supporting

each

point

by

documentary evidence.
ingenious, very weak. evidence, based by no

This support
It

is,

however, though admirably


as

may

be

characterized

circumstantial

means upon cuneiform


meaning of

texts, but

gathered
of
the

from

figures

of

speech, the

pictures,

sense

calendars, and here and there


It
is

from

late

Greek and other

writers.

homiletic exegesis, similar to that of


in

Talmud and Midrash,


of
the

and

many
is

respects identical with that

Kabbalah.

The

author
its

fully

aware of

it,

and believing that the Kabbalah had

starting-point in Babylonia, quotes in several places kabbalistic


in

notions

support
is

of

his

theories.

But

his

acquaintance
said

with
his
this

kabbalistic ideas

very limited.

The same may be

of

talmudic knowledge.

He

does not

know

that the
is

main idea of
with

system 'word-uiotifs and play upon

words'

identical
it

the

main halakic
that the
tation.

principle applied in

fWnTTJ.
to

If true,

would show

Talmud possessed
kabbalistic

the only right key to biblical interpre-

Pan-Babylonian scholars ought


literature,

make

a special study of

mediaeval

of

the
his

"1H1T, "iniffl

works of Rabbi Isaak Loria and


abundance of material for
stances.

followers.

^IpA, and the They will find


in-

their purpose.

Let us take a few

The fundament

of the

system, seeing a pre-established


terrestrial image, the earth being

harmony between
Even
in the

a celestial
is

and

a counterpart of heaven,

the leading thought of the Kabbalah.

Talmud we

often
in the
is

meet with the same


sentence

idea,

and

it

became, a halakic principle,

Sn^fe

pyD NJP80 SniD?D

JTp"H

'the earthly

kingdom

a counterpart of the heavenly kingdom.'


pla> s

The theory
in the

of sacred

numbers

an exceedingly important pare

Kabbalah: 50 and
-j-

72 in
72

Babylonian: 50
Saros.

Bel, as

comple-

tion

of the cycle: 50

3.600 are the

most sacred

numbers, 50 representing
72 corresponding
to

nr3

nj?B> D'CT'On 'the 50 gates of reason,'

BniBDn

DB> 'the

secret

name

of

God.'

4-'

is

578

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


in

another BmBDfl DB> mentioned

Talmud Kiddushin,
1

transmitted

only to initiates of highest character.


"?nx. representing the unity

13

is

the numerical value of

and the 13 attributes of God. 14 correis

sponds to 7^1Dn DV inx, that


unit.
It

to say, the

word

itself

counts as a
to

will be of interest to

Xew

Testament students

learn

that disciples of Jesus applied the

same mystical numbers.

In the

genealogy of Jesus we are told that from

Abraham

to Jesus there

were

+
was

14 generations

=
as

42.

It

undoubtedly indicates that the

most holy name of God, having been proclaimed during 42 generations,

now
all

fulfilled,
is

fulfilment of

the

name

of

God, in
3

Talmud and Kabbalah,


contains in

a postulate for redemption.

The

14

probability an allusion to the Trinity-doctrine.

The
power,

idea that each of the planets can reflect the complete Divine

is

one of the main ideas of the Kabbalah.

It is

even more

radical than the author's system.

Each of the seven niTSD which


of

undoubtedly correspond to the seven planets, not only Sin, Shamash,

and

Ishtar, contain, the

power of

all

them, thus becoming 49

nWBD,

50 ==

God: 2 Thus we have TlD\ IDUl^


etc.,

miU, ISniV IDn

nme> tid\
1

iDm^,

etc
the Divine

The present writer has no doubt


(Exod.
as
3,

that

it

is

Name 1BW fVnN


time (in E)

rvrtN
to

14)

by which God revealed Himself for the


gives 42.

first

Israel,

rVHK

!"Pi"IN

This
in
p.

double-name (rr

Gemini,

Sin

and
is

Nergal?)

may have been brought


(Genesis

connection with
ia),

the Aoyoe-idea

which

quaintly expressed in IHIT

where we

find that

from the

C]1D ]*X

emanated D^nSs, the creator of the world, hence the mystery surrounding

this
all

Name. HTIK placed

in

the

Four Points of the universe,


by

84,

comprises
signs
of

possible constellations, the seven planets multiplied

the

12
in

the of

Zodiac.

This
(II

EHIEEn DC may
2,

be seen

as

number-motif

the

story

Elisha

Kings

24) where by his curse '31K DB>3, 42

of

the

boys

who
and

derided him perished.

In accordance with the motif, they were destroyed by

two bears.
maintain
(=: 12)
2

We may
that

even go a
the

step farther,

in the

kabbalistic

system,

2H
'

has

numerical

value

of rPflK,

computed p|3 "IDDQl

where
is

counts only as a unit.

It

quite systematical that

God and Bel should have


riKO^ta
is

the

same numbers,
For
in

as

to

the

Kirnp njrtP DB"On correspond

nyWD^'On.

the

Kabbalah, the *nnt JOED ('the other side')


of the

in every respect a

counterpart

NBHIp K1BD

('the

holy

side').

RECENT ASSYRIOLOGICAL LITERATURE


It

HOSCHANDER
devotes
to

579

would be a hopeless task


the

to present in a review a satisfactory

synopsis of

system,

as

the

author

himself

this

purpose

141

pages.

We
is

can
clear

only

discuss

salient

points.

The
will

student, desiring to get a

conception

of

these

theories,

have a hard time, as one

easily bewildered by the descriptions of

the constellations, the solstices, the equinoctial points, the diagrams,


etc.

Some

points are

still

very vague and


is

we would have

expected

a fuller discussion.
see that in the

This

especially the case in the calendar.


in

We
the

most remote times the vernal equinox was

sign of Gemini.

Accordingly, the year must have begun with Sivan

and ended with Iyyar.

From

about 3000 down, the vernal equinox


In the

was

in the sign of

Taurus, and the year began with Iyyar.

eighth century B. C, the vernal equinox retrograded into the sign

of Aries, and

by the reform of the calendar of Xabu-nasir, the


into

beginning of the year was transferred

Xisan.

The

question

now how
The

arises

The Exodus having taken

place in the age of Taurus,

could Xisan have been fixed as the


simplest solution would
Iyyar,

beginning of

the

year?

be to
first

assume that the Exodus took


month, but
in

place in

and

it

was the

Babylonia, by

adopting the Babylonian calendar, the beginning of the

year

was
a
in

advanced into Xisan.

This suggestion might give


institution
to

some

critics

plausible explanation for the

of

the

second
of

Pesah

Iyyar.

But

it

does not seem

be

the
is

opinion

the author,

though the passage to which we refer

obscure and contradictory.


that

He

says: ''We are inclined also to think


first

Exod.

12,

(Xisan

as the

month)

agrees with old methods


I,

the

Babylonian

calendar (age of Taurus)" (vol.

p.

46).

Those who deny the

antiquity of the Jewish religion, could add a further proof that the

story of

Exodus was invented


was

in the

age of Aries.

One could
the
year,

also

suggest that X'isan

fixed as the beginning of

before

the arrival of the vernal equinox, in direct opposition to the current


calendar, and as protest against the prevailing sun-worship, in the

age of

Marduk.

From
first

conservative

point

of

view,

however.

Xisan became the


the

month of

the year, as being the month,

when
with

Jews gained

their freedom,

and

it

coincided

accidentally

the vernal equinox in the later age of Aries.

580
As
tal

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


a very

weak

point in this system

we

consider the fundamen-

idea that the primitive religion of

the Ancient-Babylonians

was
It

founded upon and regulated

by the

movements of

the

stars.

presupposes that, in a very remote period, the Babylonian already


possessed a perfect knowledge
high standard of
civilization.

of

astronomy, and consequently a

Primitiveness

and

civilization

are

incongruous terms.

Theories of this

kind

could

only

have been

elaborated in a speculative age.

Jastrow

in his recent

book 'Aspects
due to Greek

of religious belief and practice in Babylonia

and Assyria' maintains

indeed that the rise of astronomy in Babylonia was

modes of thought.

Quotations from Greek, Latin, and

Mohammewhen
the

dan authors, concerning the Babylonian views of the universe, are


not to be relied upon, as
science
all

of

them

lived

in

periods

of

astronomy was already established everywhere.


ideas

Late

speculative
tales,

they

have ascribed to antiquity, and primitive


occurrences and

interpreted as reflecting

phenomena

in

the

starry heaven.

The

inferences

from other mythologies are too


find in
all

hazy to build upon.


features, they are

Even

if

we should

them some cognate


peoples

due to the fact that

primitive

were

worshipers of the astral

bodies, and the same conditions and the

same phenomena lead


tions of the Babylonian

to

the

same conclusion.
rest

Many
The
in

interpreta-

myths

upon the assumption that shupuk


present writer
this

shame
is

is

the Babylonian

name

for the Zodiac.

not

convinced

of

it,

and would rather see

term the

mountain of the world, the link between heaven and earth, upon
which the heaven was erected (see Jensen, KB., VI,
IV.
5,

p.

462).

R.

proves nothing against

it,

it

threatened by hostile powers, Sin,

means only when the gods were Shamash, and Ishtar as the most
with
ina

powerful
heaven.

gods,

were

entrusted

guarding

the

entrance

to

The passage: Ishtar sha

shupuk shame naphat


it

'Ishtar

who

rises in the

shupuk shame' evidently shows that


rises

is

a locality
it

where only Ishtar

and not the other planets.

Hence

cannot

be identical with the Zodiac

where

all

planets

rise.

We
tion^
I.

cannot approve of the author's method of making suggesfacts.

and then converting them into indisputable

Thus

vol.

p.

344. he mentions the columns of Ta'annek which were probably


oil

sprinkled with

or blood, and vol.

II,

p.

104,

he asserts that the

RECENT ASSYRIOEOGICAL LITERATURE

HOS< KANDEH
is

581
strik-

Canaanite Asherim, stricken with blood, give evidence of the


ing of the doorposts with blood, in pre-Israelite Canaan.

For the

cosmic double-peaked mountain where the nibiru-point

said to be,

we have

in this

book the only evidence

in

Babylonia

in

figure

11

which, as the author says, possibly

shows the mountain, with the

sun-god emerging from between the two peaks.


other points of the same
kind.

There are many

valuable addition to this


is

book

is

Dr. Johns' introduction.

His mild, ironical criticism


Pan-Babylonism, and
not to dismiss
It
is
it

an antidote against the influence of

at the

same time
in

warning

to its opponents

by ignorance

contemptuous condemnation.

surprising to see scholars, so well-acquainted with events


antiquity,

in the

most remote
so
little

and occurrences

in the starry heaven,

knowing

about what happens everyday about them, being

ignorant of Jewish customs practised everywhere by religious Jews.

Fancy only that "among orthodox Jews, mothers

still
I,

teach
p. 45,

their
n.

sons to take off their caps to the new-moon!" (vol.

2).

The author does not know


his

that

an orthodox Jew never uncovers

head

in holy places

and

in the presence of holy objects,


its

and not

about

n^nbn KVJp which has


to

origin in moon-worship. Scholars

ought

mix more

carefully the stagnant waters of the Euphrates


still

and Nile with the


religious practice.

flowing

spring-water

of

Jewish

life

and

Die Sprache der Amarnabriefe


der Kanaanismen.X on Dr.
Semitistische Studien, V,

mit

besonderer

Berucksiehtigung

phil.
2.

Franz M. Th. Boehl. (Leipziger


Herausgegeben von A. Fischer
I.

und H. Zimmerx).
LUXG, 1909.
pp.
96-

Leipzig:

C. HixRiCHS'sche

Buchhaxd-

Kanaanaer und Hebrder.

Untersuchungen

zur

Vorgeschichte

des

Yolkstums und der Religion Israels auf dem Boden Kanaans.

Von Fraxz Boehl,


schaft

Lie. theol., Dr. phil.

(Beitroge cur Jl'issen-

vom

Alt en
9.)

Testament.
I.

Herausgegeben

von

Rudolph

Kittel, Heft
1911.

Leipzig:

C.

HixRiCHS'sche Buchhandluxg,

pp.

118.

582

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


The most important information we
possess about the condition

of pre-Israelite Canaan

is

found
year
is

in the tablets discovered in Tell-el-

Amarna,

in

Egypt, in

the

1887.

Their

significance

lies

not
but
of

only in their contents which


also in themselves.

eminently of historical value,


of

Though many

them

consist

of

letters

governors and rulers of Canaan addressed to the king of Egypt, the


script

and language
It

in

which they are written are cuneiform and

Babylonian.

shows that Canaan was strongly influenced by the

Babylonian

civilization.

But the

style

of

writing

and language

differ considerably
It

from

that of the cuneiform texts in Babylonia.

sheds light upon the identity of the Canaanite population.

On
and

the one

hand a considerable number of glosses


Babylonian words and

Canaanite
verbal

trans-

lations of

ideograms

forms

expressions that in Babylonian proper are impossible and can only

be explained by comparing West-Semitic dialects, prove that Canaan

was inhabited by West-Semites.


the letters occur

On

the

other

hand, in
that

some of
are

many words and

personal

names

non-

Semitic, and

it

shows again that Canaan's Semitic population was


foreign elements.
If
soil

interspersed

with

we
of

believe

that

Israel's

culture and religion

grew up on the

Canaan

an

opinion

shared by

all

critics,

the

facts

that

Canaan was inhabited by a


the

mixed population and

that the cast

of

Canaanite culture was


for
to

Babylonian would be of fundamental interest


Israel's

the

history

of

religion.

For

this

purpose

points:
Israelite

With what
Canaan?

layers of nations have

we have we

investigate

two

to deal in the pre-

And what were

their relations to the Babylonians

on the one hand, to the Hebfews on the other hand?

The main
it

source for such an investigation are the Amarna-letters, and


only be conducted upon a linguistic basis.

can

The

first

of the present volumes points out and discusses

all

the

linguistic peculiarities of the Amarna-letters, dealing

with the style

of writing, phonology, morphology,

syntax, and

the

Canaanisms.
forms,

Of
we

special interest

is

the part describing the

verbal

where

are

shown

the

strong influence

of

the

Canaanite

language

upon the Babylonian formation, and the hybrid forms.


It is

in the

permansive, the inflections,

a very useful work,

and

will be greatly
it

appreciated by students interested in this subject.

Though

does

RECENT ASSYRIOLOGICAL LITERATURE

HOSCHANDEB
at

583

not require any amount of ingenuity to arrive


conclusions,
especially

exactly the same

with

the

help

of

Knudtzon's

splendid
basis

transliteration
this

and translation of the Amarna-letters. the


however,
is

of

work, the merit of this hook,


all

to

have given
by

the
this

complete material to

the forms under


is

discussion, and

index, the study of this subject

gratly facilitated.

The second volume


above.
results,

deals with historical problems, mentioned


to

The author does not claim


concerning the Canaanites,
cuneiform,
Egyptian,

have arrived

at

definite

but merely aims to give a complete collection of the extant


Hittites,

material,

Amorites, and Hebiblical

brews

in the

Greek-Phcenician, and

sources.

The author holds


not
geographical,

that the

names Canaanites and Amorites are


terms.

but

ethnographical

The

latter

were

Semites and had the whole Westland


borders of Babylonia, already
in

in possession,

reaching to the

a very early period.

But

a non-

Semitic immigration, from North and East, of the Hittites, consisting of a

group of nations of different races and languages,

at

the time of the first Babylonian dynasty, brought into Palestine the

Canaanites, a branch of the Hittites.

They

settled

down

in

the

most

fertile part of the country, in the valleys

and on the coast

and confined the former inhabitants of the country, the Amorites,


to the

mountainous regions and the Xegeb.

The same opinion was

expressed by the present writer in his review of Clay's "Amurru"


(see JQR.,

New

Series, vol.

I,

p.

150).

In the Amarna-period. however, a

new Semitic immigration

swept

over

the

country,

the

Ha-bi-ri

D'tny, of which Israel


this contention

formed
rests
is

a branch.

But the foundation upon which


frail.

extremely

There

is

no necessity

to

assume that the


Israel

term Ha-bi-ri comprises besides


could

Israel other cognate tribes.

have

assisted

Amorite

princes

of

the

Lebanon against

Phoenician

cities.

And

as to Hani ha-ab-bi-ri "the gods of the


treaties,
it

He\"6x

brews'

mentioned

in the

exactly

corresponds to

In the last

chapter, the

author

discusses

the

two

different

methods for the understanding of Israel's religion, the meth.nl of

584

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


first

the higher critics, as

applied by Ktienen, and that of Winckler,


is

and contends that each separately

bound

to

be one-sided, and

only a combination of both will give us a true picture of Israel's


religion.
Its

starting point

was

in

the desert of Kadesh, outside

of the centers of culture, like Christianity

and other religious move-

ments.

The

influence of the Babylonian culture

upon the

religion

of Kadesh

corresponds to
Christianity.

the

influence
influences,

of

Hellenism

upon the

shaping of

Both

though contributing to

the development of the respective religions, were only superficial.

The present writer

differs

from the author


Wellhausen,

in

many

points.
Israel's

He

does not believe with Kuenen,

etc. that

religion

grew out of primitive peasant


of

religious conceptions.

Nor

does he admit that the religion

Kadesh was developed under


he
contends
that
Israel's

Canaanite-Babylonian
tribes,

influence.

But

being descendants of those

who emigrated from Canaan, and


in possesIt

originally

from Babylonia, undoubtedly must have been

sion of the Canaanite-Babylonian culture.

accordingly was the


Israel's

fundamental basis upon which the


erected.

edifice of

religion

was
in

The

task of the Sinaitic

legislation

consisted

merely

purging, and purifying,

and here and there suppressing the old


religious

Canaanite-Babylonian

conceptions.

We

must

always

keep

in

mind
its

that Israel did not

immigrate into Canaan, but re-

turned to

old home.

Hellenism, however, was not the basis of

Christianity,

and

its

influence, without
It

having a destructive

effect,

was bound
to

to be only superficial. parallel

would have been more


and
Hellenism,

logical

draw a

between Judaism

shaping and

modifying old religious conceptions.

The main value of

this

book consists

in

the collection of the

material concerning the pre-Israelite inhabitants of

Canaan which

confirms the biblical records, not in

its

deductions.

Cuneiform Parallels

to

the

Old Testament.

Translated and edited


Litt. D.,

by Robert William Rogers, Ph. D. (Leipzig),


F. R. G.
S.,

LL.

D.,

Professor

in

Drew

Theological

Seminary.

New

York

Eaton & Mains,

1912.

pp. 562 -f 48 photographic illus-

trations and a chronological table.

PECENT ASSYRIOLOGICAL LITERATURE


Keilschriftlichcs

HOSCHANDEH
in

585

Urkundenbuch cum Alien Testament

Urschrift,

Zusammengestellt, autographiert und


A.

herausgegeben

von

Dr.

Sarsovvsky.

Mit

einem

Worter-und

Eigennamenver-

zeichnis
in

von Dr. M. Schorr, Privatdozenten an der Universitat


I.

Lemberg.
pp.

Teil

Historische Texte.

Leiden: E.

J.

Brill,

1911.

71.

These two volumes, though


material, are extremely useful.

not

bringing

forward any new


and
will,

They supply

a real need,

therefore, be

duly appreciated by
is

many

students,

especially those

whose

interest in Assyriology

limited to those documents which

shed light upon the


scattered in
cessibte

Old Testament.

For these

texts

are

widely
ac-

many
it is,

rather expensive works and

thus not

easily

and

moreover, a laborious task to collect

all

the data

illustrative of the Bible.

The
liturgical,

first

volume by Professor Rogers contains mythological,


and
legal texts, tranclassic

doctrinal, chronological, historical,


parallels

scribed and translated, besides the


in

from

writers,

Greek and

translation.

It

offers the largest collection of cunei-

form texts necessary for


language.
well

biblical

exegesis,
historical

yet

published
as

in

any

Of special value is the known as a reliable historian,


introductions.

part,

the

author,

prefaces

the

texts
is

with brief

historical
It is,

The

chronological

table

up

to

date.

however, incomplete, as the approximate dates of the preperiod

Hammurabi
its

ought to have been given as


its

well.

But the

value of this book does not only consist in


omissions.

contents, but also in

The author does make every

not

thresh

out

all

sensational

theories and

possible comparison with the


lets

Old Testa-

ment, but only supplies the material and


his

the student exercise

own judgment upon


we cannot

it.

The

translations

are

in

many
regret,

cases

superior to those of previous editions by others.


ever, that

We

how-

give equal praise

to

all

the

transliterations.

The

present writer has compared the chronological texts with the

original

and found not a few errors and misprints.


an
of

Variants and

even apparent scribal errors ought not to have been omitted.


not
give

Why
in

exact

transliteration

the

proper

names

the

Assyrian

Eponym

List?

The Author having used

Delitzsch's

Assyrische Lesestiicke, zweite Auflage, as indicated

in the

footnote

586
(p. 219).

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


there

was no reason, why the

list

should be incomplete.

These

slight

inaccuracies might easily have been corrected by

careful proof-reading, and the author seems to be well aware of


these imperfections, perhaps better than the reviewer, and expresses
it

in his

Preface, in saying that this

work has
it

cost

him so much
It

that his early hopes

and enthusiasm for


precarious
it

have slipped away.

shows, however,

how

is

to rely

upon

transliterations.

The second volume,


students contains

therefore,

will

be

heartily

welcomed by
it

who
are

are able to
for
the

read

cuneiform.
identical

The
with

historical texts

most part

those

given

by
It

Professor Rogers, in the chronological and historical sections.

In the

Babylonian Chronicle:
original:

Col.

I,

6:

Rab-bi-ku

read Rab-bi-lu; 2$:


40
(translation):

Tukulti-apal-e-shar-ra,

Tukulti-apal(dsh)-e-shar-ra;

Ishtar-kundu read: Ishtar-khundu; Col. II, 3: ihlik


read rabuti-sliu
;

(HA-A);

28:

ra-buti-shu

Col.

Ill,

3:

is-hu-shu-mu read is-iiu-shu-ma; 31; ffum-ma-hal-

da-shu original: tyum-ma-AN-da-shu

(AN

scribal

error or

il

al

and

cf.

Um-man-al-da-si?)
IV,
12:

13:

XVIII read VIII;

35: idilk[-shu]
;

read iduk-shu; Col.


illikii

ljum-iva-ljal-da-shu original: JHum-ma-an-da-shu

24: after

insert

(hi-bi);

25: after dikat insert, according to Duplicate 2,mdrat-su shal-lat ilaniul-tal-lu-ni

shu i-tab-ku; 28:

read ish-tal-lu-ni.

The Assyrian Eponym


861

List: 825

Shamash-upahir

read

Shamash-upakhkhir ;
850
;

Nergal-is-ka-u-danni-in

read

Nergal-is-ka-udanni(KAL)-in;
Khu-bak-ba-ai read Khu-ba-a[i]

Hadil-ebushu

read

Kha-di-li-bu-shu;

830
820

829 Ilu-mukin-aki
762

read

Ilu-mukin-akhi;

Ninib-uppkhkhir
ka-udannis
read

read

Ninib-ub-la;

Sab-Bel read
712

Jab-Bel;

720 Asshur-is-

Asshur-is-ka-udanni-in;

Sharru-limuranni
lines)

read

Shamt-cof

murani-ni; There are


course the
ing

nine

lines

(not:

some

wanting,

containing

Eponyms

of 665-657, and the original Col. VI, 256-265 gives follow-

names: (656)
(652)

Sha-Nabu-shu-u,
Asshur-nafi-ir

(655)

La-ba-si,

(654)

Mil-ki-ra-mu,

(653)

Am-w-a-nn,
(649)

(651)

Asshur-malik,
(642)

(650)

Assur-diir-ufur,

Sa-gab-bu,
at

(648)

Bel-ellat(shad?)(-u)-a,

Bel(?)-Malik(?).

In the

names

the end of the List: Bel-nai'd read Bel-na-'i-di ;


Ass'Juir,

Tabu read Jab-shar-

Sin; Silim
nbtes:

better iLishir-Asshur.

The

Assyrian

Eponym

List

with

855

Asshur-ina-ekalli-lilbur

read

Abu-ina-ekalli-lilbur;

Asshur-takkil

read

Asshur-tak-lak ; 798 Lu-usi-a read Lu-u-shi-a; 792 erini read e-ri-ni; 770
shu-ra-od;
?(>(>

iia-ra-ad original
Sa-pi-ia

Til-H-c

read

Til-e;

743 dikat read

di-leat

731

read

Sha-pi-ui;
Bahili

707

ska

Asliur-du-ub-bu

read

Sha-Ashur-du-ub-bu
704
epi-csh

sham*
e-pi-esh.

islituiana')

read

[iarru
List:

ishtu(anaf)

Babili];

read

The Babylonian Kings


It:

A: Zamamu-shum-iddin read Za-ma-ma-

thum-iddin,

to

Adara-ktUama add: son ol the former.

RECENT ASSYRIOLOGICAL LITERATURE


has also a short
miss
in

HOSCHANDER
which

587

useful

glossary

an

advantage

we badly

Rogers's work.

The
and

present writer has examined m<

the texts, especially the Amarna-letters, comparing them with those

published by
faultless.

Winckler,
to be
part,

found them

to

be

in

every

respect

It is

hoped that the author


containing
the

will

soon

publish

the

promised second
texts.

religious

and

mythqlo

We

need especially an edition of the Creation-tablets and the


in

Gilgamish-epic

which

all

the

fragments

are

pieced

together,

with the probable restorations.

Bismya or The Lost City of Adab. A story of adventure, of exploration and of excavation among the ruins of the oldest of
the

buried
D.,

cities

of

Babylonia.
of
the

By Edgar James Banks,


Expedition
of
the

Ph.

Field

Director

Oriental

Exploration Fund of the University of

Chicago to Babylonia.
P.

With
1912.

174
pp.

illustrations.

New York:

G.

Putnam's Sons.

455,
is

with a map.
justly designated by the

This volume
it

author as a story, as

describes in a popular

way

the discoveries

made by him
especially

in

the

Babylonian

mound

of

Bismya and has been


is

written

for

the general reader


It

who

interested in days and things long passed.

dwells, therefore, at full length on

many

things

well

known

to

the scholar.

As

a story,

it

is

a very

entertaining

and instructive
sitting.

book which one would


scholar, however,
is

like to

read through at a single


esthetic

The
the
in the

less interested in the

beauty

of

description
results

and the author's adventures and travels than


the

of

Expedition,

which

are

given

in

chapters

XI-XVIII.

The most important discovery was


place

a statue of a king

which showed that the


ancient city of Adab.
translated in the

of

the

excavation

was once

the

The

inscription

on

it

was published and


p.

American Journal of Semitic Languages, XXI,

59 and reads, according to the author: 1) E-sar

(MAH)

2)

lugal

Da-udu

3) lugal

Vd-nu K* "(The temple) E-sar (or E-Mah), king


derivation

David, king of Adab," and he remarks that the appearance of the

biblical

name Da-udu may end the name David. But

discussion as to the
the

of

the

reading of

the

name

is

not

only

quite improbable, as the sign for udu has the syllabic value lu and

588
dib, but

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


simply impossible.
in

In the
in

first

place,

the

title

"king" can
the

neither

Sumerian
the
a

nor

Babylonian

precede

proper

name.

In

second
sheep"

place,
or,

Da-udu,
"with

if
is

Sumerian,
a
sheep,"

could only

mean
be,

"with
a

me
152)
**

and

thus

as

proper

name out of
{SAK.,
3)

place.
p.

But we can neither agree

with
2)

Thureau-Dangin
shar

who
and

reads:

"1) B-sar

rum

da-lu

shar

A dab
as

translates

"Esar,
da-lu

the

mighty king, king of

Adab,"
is

the

suggestion

that

stands for da-num "mighty"


that the

too daring.

We

believe, therefore,

name of

this

king was Lugal-da-lu

just

as

good
etc.

name
E-sar

as

Lugal-anda,

Lugal-kisal-si,

Lugal-zag-gi-si,

etc.,

so
kiri.

of course, not

This temple

temple E-Mah.
Col. Ill, 69)

E-mah means "the temple of the park" may have been situated in the precincts The latter was restored by Hammurabi
is

=
of

Bit the

(Code,

and

also mentioned

in the
1

copper tablet inscription,


as

discovered at Bismya.
that both E-sar

But

it

is

more

probable,

we

shall

see,

and E-Mah are

identical

and synonymous.

The
is

name
du,

of the pa-te-si found in the above mentioned inscription

to

be read E-igi-nim-slg-e, not

as

the author reads

E-she-ul-pa-ud-

which may be translated into Semitic Bit-Elamti-Shupu "the


is

house of Elam
ruler

excellent"

and suggest some connection of

this

with Elam.

On

igi-nim

=
are

Elamtu
identical

see

Briin.

9376.

The
the

characters

on

this

inscription

with

those

on

Obelisk of Manishtusu (about 2700 B. C), and

may

thus be pre-

Sargonic

and

not

belong

to

period

between
the

Naram-Sin and
do
tenta-

Ur-Engur, as the author


anything about
tively.
It
its

believes.

As

author does not say


will
so,

contents, the

present

writer

reads:
I

Col.

1)

Dingir

Mah

For the goddess

Belit

(?),

2) E-igi-nim-slg-e3) ni pa-te-si

has this E-igi-nim-slg-e,


the sovereign-priest

4)
5)

Ud-nunk*

of the city of Adab,


the temple

E-Mah

mu-na-dii

E-Mah

built;

Col. II 1) gim-bi ki-shu

by
the

its

architect,

on the
laid.

place,

2) temen ba-sig

temen was

On

dingir
is

Mah

Belit see

Muss-Arnolt,
slru

Dictionary,

p.

120.

But as mah

the usual ideogram for

"exalted,"

dingir-malj,

RECENT ASSYRIOLOGICAL LITERATURE


could be

HOSCHANDEB
cf.
is

Anion slrum
I,
i.

''the

exalted

Ann,"

Code- of

Ham-

murabi, Col.
as

The

first

suggestion, however,
in

more probable,

Xin-har-sag,

mentioned

Dungi's Brick-inscription, to
it,

whom

the temple

E-Mah

or a part of

was dedicated, and who by Urp. 60, 3,

Bau

is

called

"mother of the gods" (see SAK.,

8) appears

indeed to have been identified with Belit of Xippur.

Thus
Belit.

dingir

Mah would

be identical with Xin-har-sag, and li-Mah would

mean
the

not
"this

the great temple

but
ki-shu

the

Temple of Mah

i.

e.

To

particle ni

shu

"this," affixed to E-igi-nim-sig-e,

comp. Gu-de-a-ni

Gudea" (Cylinder, passim).

On
cf.

gim

architect, cf.

Code of
sig,

Hamur.,

XXXV,

56.

ana ashri: "to the place."

To
18:

in connection

with temen (TE),

Gudea Cylinder, A, XI,


as

ud

temen-mu ma-si-gi-na.
see Langdon's

For the function of ba


189.

passive

prefix,

Sumerian Grammar,

The

author's translation of the Brick inscription


It

is

in the

most

important point wrong.


dingir

reads as follows

1)

Xin-har-sag

For the goddess Xin-har-sag,


his

2) Xin-a-ni

mistress,

3) Dun-gi
4) nitah kalag-ga
5)

has Dungi,
the mighty man,
the king of Ur, the king of Shumer,

lugal

Uru- ki -ma

6) lugal Ki-en-gi

ki-Uri-ge
7) sish kesh-du

and of Akkad,
the

(temple-) park,

8) kenag-ni
9)

her beloved one,


(lit.

mu-na-du
translates
is

for her, he)

made.

The author
fact that kesh-du

gish

kesh-du by "platform."

But the

preceded by gish, the determinative for wood,

ought to have shown him that the object which Dungi dedicated to
his goddess,

was made of wood, not


is

a brick-platform.

Besides the

word

for platform

kisal.

In

all

probability, however, the signs

for keshda and sar, which in a later period

became

in

the

script

identical, have a cognate meaning, as keshda and sher, ser, unquestionably identical with sar,

= rakasu "to bind," = kasaru "to bind"


(Sumerian Lexicon,

(see
p.

Muss-Arnolt, Dictionary,

a.

1.).

Prince

meaning of both comes 313), therefore, rightly assumes that the

5QO

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


forest,"

from the idea "thick growth of the


'"forest,

the

meaning of sar
of s ish sar

park"

kirU.
s> sh

Thus keshda alone has the secondary


kcsh-da
is

meaning "to
"park."

bind." but

synonym

kiril

If so, the gish

kesh-du which Dungi

dedicated would be
seen,

identical with the temple

E-sar which, as

we have

means "the

temple of the park."

It

would be indeed surprising that Dungi

should not have mentioned the temple E-sar or E-Mah.

We

see

now

that

he

did,

but

used
is

different
special

expression.
as
it

The gold
appears
to

inscription of

Xaram-Sin
reads:

of

interest,
deified.

confirm the fact that this king


not notice
it.

was indeed

The author

did

It

i)

Xa-ra-am
lugal

dingir

En-zu

Xaram-Sin,
the king

2) 3)

A-ga-de^

of Akkad,
the

4) dingir uru-ge
5)
...

god of the

city,

sub

(KA

SHU)

.... prayer
king (?)

6)

illegal...

For dingir-uru-ge
p.

cf. '

Na-ra-am-Hu Sin

ilu

Akkadimki {SAK.,

168).

The legend on

the boat-shaped vase reads

1)

Nin dingir...

To
[_#/]

the mistress, the goddess...

2)

Ur

dingir

has Ur-Enlil,

3) dittnu

Ur

dingir

Lugal-e din-son of Ur-Lugal-edin-na,

na(\)
4) nam-til-la-lni]-shn4) a
for his wife

mu-na-irul

dedicated

For Lugal-edin-na "the king of the desert" see

Brunnow

4530.

The author ought

to

have told us the meaning of the Vase


it

inscription of Bar-ki, king of Kish, as

might show whether

this

king was a Sumerian, or a Semite like Uru-mush and Manishtusu. The other Vase inscription of this king (p. 266) reads:
J

Bar-ki
lugal kish

Bar-ki,
the king of Kish,

2)

RECENT? ASSVRIOLOGICAL
3)

LITERATURE HOSCHANDEB
the beloved son

591

dumu kenag
INIin-kar-sag dingir...

4)
5)

of Nin-har-sag, the goddess

Personal

Names

from

Cuneiform

Inscriptions

of

the

Cassite

Period,

By Albert

T. Clay, William M. LatYan

Professor of
(

Assyriology and Babylonian Literature, Yale University.


Oriental Series,
pp. 208.
I,)

Yale
[912.

New Haven: Yale


the

University PrESS,

The Assyrian language expresses


of this metaphor found
best

idea

of

"bringing

into

existence" by the phrase shiirnu nabfi "to give a name."


its

The

truth

confirmation in

modern

research.

Many fundamental
culture,

theories and conclusions concerning the history,

and

religious

conceptions

of

the

Mesopotamian

people,

owe

either their very existence to proper names, or have been first

suggested by them, and were subsequently found to be true.

The

importance of

this material

has been generally recognized lone ago.


all

In recent years, three

Xame-Books, comprising
it

the

names of
to

certain periods, have been published, and

is

also

customary

give indices of proper

names with
in

text publications.

There
tribute
to

is

no period
solving

which proper names would more conhistorical

the

of

problems,

than

that

of

the

Cassites.

We

have

no

documentary

information

concerning

the

origin of this people,

and where they came from, knowing only

that Cassite rulers held

sway over Babylonia for

a period of about

700 years.

This historical question can only be solved by means


a

of the proper names, which seem indeed to indicate that there was
certain linguistic relationship between the Cassites and Hittites.
this fact should be confirmed, the

If

former may have been among the

Hittites
ditana,

who, as

it

seems, invaded Babylonia in the reign of Samsufor


step

and

were responsible

the

overthrow

of
this

the

first

Babylonian dynasty.
is

The

first

toward solving

problem

a survey of the

whole material of Cassite proper names.

Professor Clay,

who

for

many

years has

made

a special study

of proper names, the results of which are embodied in the valuable


introductions and indices to his Cassite
publications,
is

and

Xeo-Babylonian
on
this

text

unquestionably an

authority

subject.

His

592
present volume,

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


containing
all

the

proper names
is

of

the

Cassite

period which are at present accessible to us

a valuable

work

in

every respect, and will serve as a reliable basis for further investigations.

Apart from the Cassite names, the meaning of which, for


is
still

the most part,


full

obscure,

and the Hittite-Mitani names, the

appreciation of which will be obtained,


is

when

the language of

the Hittites
philology,

understood, the book greatly


it

contributes to

Semitic

as

largely

deals

with Semitic names of that period.

The

Table, showing the different theophorous


the

name
of

formations,
written

is

highly useful for

reading

of

ideographically
the
list

proper
deserve

names.
serious

The many suggestions in The present consideration.


all

elements

writer,

however,
the
to
in

has

some
group,
a

doubts, whether

the elements enumerated in

Cassite-group
this

are

Cassite.

If

the
to

element

Gal-zu

belongs
lived

we

would

have
years

assume
they

that

Cassites

Babylonia

thousand
country,

before

became the ruling people of

this

as

we

find bearers of the

names Gdl-zu-daian, Gal-su-ilu

and Gal-zu, on the Obelisk of Manisthusu (about 2700 B. C). And even the element nasi, which in the Cassite-Babylonian Vocabulary
is

translated by sillu "shade, protection,"


It
is

is

found there
to
find

in the

hypocoristicon Na-zi-tim.

not

surprising

the

same

elements in the
at that

Hammurabi

period, in

Damu-gal-zu, Ilu-na-zv, for

time Cassites were indeed in Babylonia, as


published by Ungnad.
S.

we know from

the Dilbat inscriptions,

Tiglath Pileser III.

By Abraham
History

Anspacher, Ph. D. (Contri-

butions

to

Oriental

and Philology, No. V.).


1912.

New

York: Columbia University Press,

pp.

12.

The
now,

reign of Tiglath-pileser the

Third or
great

as

we ought

to say

the

Fourth

was

not

only

of

importance

for

the
this

Assyrian empire, as his accession gave a new lease of


scourge of the world, but also fateful for Israel, as
to
it

life to

was

this

king

whom Ahaz
with

of Judea applied for help, and his interference


disaster

fraught

for

the

Northern Tribes of
all

Israel.

was The
and

present volume deals at length with


history of this king.

the details

of

the life

The
available

special

aim of the author

is

to

fix,

by the aid of

all

the
the

historical inscriptions

which are very

fragmentary,

RECENT ASSYRIOLOGICAL LITERATUREgeographical


localities

HOSl

HANDER 593
of
this

and the routes of march

king's

campaigns.
better

In this respect, the author has greatly contributed to a

knowledge of ancient geography.


political condition of

The

discussion

of

many

historical points concerning the antecedents of this king's accession

and the
in

Assyria are also noteworthy, though

some

parts there

may

be

more fancy than

truth.

We

notice,

however, that the author overlooks the fact that the


the year in Assyria, at that time at least,

first

month of
13th
full

was not Xisan but Iyyar;

and as Tiglath-pileser ascended the throne 745 B. C, on the (not 12th) of Iyyar, he was justified in considering it as a
calendar year of his reign.
for Pulu, the
If

As we Babylonian name of
a

see,

no satisfactory explanation
is

Tiglath-pileser

forthcoming.
done,

we may assume
it

root pelu

''to

subdue"

as

has been

though

is

doubtful

the

present writer would see in Pulu a per-

mansive form of the Pa"el Pu'ulu "the conqueror" which subsequently became Pulu.

Ancient Assyria.

By

C.

H. W. Johns,

Litt.

D.,

Master of

St.

Catharine's College, Cambridge.

(The Cambridge Manuals of

Science and Literature.) Cambridge: at the University Press,


1912.

pp. 172, with 13 illustrations

and two maps.


as

The name
scholar,
is

of Johns, well

known

careful

and moderate

in itself a full

guarantee for the


brief

reliability of the present

volume which contains a


presents

history
in

of

Assyria.
latest

It

indeed
are

an up-to-date history,
It will,

which the
not

results

embodied.
reader, for
also
to

therefore, be
the

useful,

only

to

the

general

whom

Cambridge Manuals are


acquainted

chiefly intended, but

students

well

with

the

earlier
etc.,

works

on

Assyrian history, by Tiele, Hommel, Winckler,

as these

works

have been rendered nearly obsolete, by recent discoveries.


doubled

The
the

Deutsche Orientgesellschaft, which since 1903 has been exploring


the
site

of

the

ancient

capital

Ashur,

has

nearly
It is

number of monarchs of Assyria known


to learn that

to us.

rather annoying
is

Shalmaneser

II.

of the Black Obelisk


IV., etc., etc.

to be

termed
is
111

Sh.

III.,

Tiglathpileser III.

was T.
It

But Assyriology
all

in this respect

no exception.

shares the fate of

sciences

which theories are being continually upset and displaced by

facts.

And

even

this

work

is

only of ephemeral value.

Any

day may bring

594

TH E JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


the history
will

more information and


studied again.

have to be re-written and

We

notice that the illustration to page 66, representis,

ing the statue of Ashur-nasir-pal


the
first

by some mistake, ascribed to

bearer of this

name

(a

contemporary of the Babylonian


It is

king Adad-shum-usur, about 1250 B. C).

of course the statue

of the great Ashur-nasir-pal III, as the inscription, which gives the

genealogy of

this

king shows.

Mesopotamian Archaeology.
Babylonia and Assyria.

An

Introduction to the archaeology of


S. P.

By Percy
maps.

Hancock, M. A.
G. P.

With

numerous

illustrations, also

Xew York:

Putnam's

Sons, 1912.
In this

pp. 423.
to give

volume the author attempts


which

an account of the
in

civilization of ancient

Babylonia and Assyria,


has

the
to

light

of

the
the

new

material

been

made

accessible

us

since

publications of the pioneers in the field of excavation and research.

The attempt
present,

is,

as

whole,
as

successful,

and

this

book

may,

at

be

regarded

the

standard-work on

Babylonian

and

Assyrian archaeology.
is

The fourteen
all

chapters, into which the

book
the

divided, deal with

the

subjects

which go

to

make up

civilization

of any country.

The
probable

first

chapter traces the origin of the Sumerian, holding as

that

they

emigrated

from Elam, describes the physical


soil,

characteristics of the country, the

the various kinds of trees

and cereals which flourished there, and the animals the people were
familiar with, discusses the date of the arrival of the Semites in
the

Mesopotamian Valley, and gives a sketch

of

Babyloniana
historical

Assyrian history.

The following

three

chapters

give

review of the excavations, describe in a very clear and precise


the decipherment of the cuneiform writing,
the
its

way
and

pictorial origin

materials used

for the purposes of writing.

Chapters V-XII deal with architecture, sculpture, metallurgy,


cylinder-seals,

shell-engraving

and ivory-work, terra-cotta figures


pottery.

and

reliefs,

and stoneware and

The use
as
it

of

stone,

as

building accessor}-, dates

from the most ancient Sumerian times.


poor
in

Though Babylonia
sufficient

is

as

evidence for the use of

wood wood

is

in

stone,

there

is

as building material, in

all

RECENT ASSYRIOLOGICAL LITERATURE


periods.

KOSCHANDER

595

Metal seems to have been added more for the adornment

of the conspicuous parts of the buildings, than used as an integral


part of the structure.

As
state

to the general plan of

Sumerian temples,
buildings
of
a

we

are

still

in

of

ignorance.

Other

secular character have been preserved in a

more

satisfactory state.

Of the arrangement of private houses, we know comparatively little. The column never seems to have occupied a prominent position in
the architecture

a
the

fact

which was again due to the dearth of stone


is

and wood.

To

same
to a

owing the general use of the

arch, which

was indispensable
small
size.

people

whose building materials were of

Concerning sculpture, the bas-relief was the favorite

and

the

most successful expression of the


ians

artistic

genius of both Babylon-

and Assyrians.

For the study of


not

early
at

Sumerian sculpture
hand, for
till

in

the round,

we have

much

material
It

what they

excelled

in,

they practised most.

was not
a

the age of

Gudea

that sculpture in the


life

round assumed

prominent part

in the artistic

of the people.

In the art of working metals the Babylonians


proficiency.

showed no small degree of


to have been

most

in use are

copper and bronze.

The metals which appear The copper age


Gold was only
the case with silver.
alloy.

commenced

in

Mesopotamia

at a

very early period.

used for exceptional purposes.

The same was


state

Lead was used both


first

in

unmixed
state.

and as an

Iron

was

known

in

its

meteoric

The Mesopotamian
gay
colors,

dwellers, like

all

Orientals,

were

fond of
but

and

gratified their taste for

such

in

various ways,

no attempt was made

to faithfully represent the objects of nature,


naturalistic

and the colors they frequently used were, from the


standpoint, entirely impossible.
blue, yellow

The

colors

chiefly

employed

are

and white, while green, red and black are of rare

occurrence.
royal blue.

The background

of the picture

is

generally a shade of

The engraved
times.

seals

which kings and

commoners used
society
in

alike,

was an indispensable convenience of

civilized

primitive

The

materials used in their manufacture were serpentine,

marble, quartz crystal, chalcedony, carnelian. agate, jasper, syenite,


jade,

obsidion,

onyx,

limestone,

schist,
is

mother of
of

emerald
in

and
the

amethyst.

The

interest of the seals

course

centered

596

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


many legendary uncertainties in the The art of engraving on shell
ivory,
till

scenes depicted which elucidate

Babylonian religious conceptions.


dates

back to the
in

earliest

period,

however,
the

not

being

procurable
their

Mesopotamia, was not used

people
to

extended
a

power

outside.

From

this time, they

were able

command

supply of this precious substance.


fragile,

Terra-cotta being comparatively

and durability being one of the most important considera-

tions of the artists, this material

was not employed


as

so

frequently

for objects of a

votive

character,

might have been expected.

Various kinds of stone were used as materials for making bowls

and vases from the

earliest

Sumerian days.
dress,

The two

last chapters describe

military

accoutrements,

The full dress of the life, comprised nothing more elaborate than a skirt earliest Sumerians fastened round the waist and probably made of wool. The head of
manners, customs, law and
religion.

the majority of the figures on the early sculptures


beardless.
tain.

is

hairless

and

The

dress of early Sumerian

women

is

somewhat uncerin the light

From

the earliest times, marriage

was regarded

of a legal contract.

Polyandry was evidently not unknown.

Wo-

men were employed as weavers, gate-keepers and hairdressers. The trades pursued by men were numerous. The fertility of the
soil

naturally encouraged
the

its

cultivation.

Part of the land belonged

to

royal

domains, the

remainder being occupied by private

individuals.

The work

of irrigation

was undertaken by the

state

and not
of

left to private enterprise.

Gudea

(B. C. 2450)

The gods worshipped in the age were known and venerated in the time of

Uru-ka-gina

(B.

C.

2800).

Many

of

the

laws of Hammurabi's
if

Code show

little

or no variation. from those in force,

not actually

systematized, in the time of Uru-ka-gina.

The
the

chief sources for the study of Babylonian

symbolism are

cylinder-seals,

the

Babylonian

Boundary-Stones,
disc
is

and

the

monoliths of Assyrian kings.


of

The winged

clearly symbolic

Ashur.

But the

Babylonian

boundary-stones

provide

more

material for the study of Babylonian symbolism.

In the last few

pages the author discusses Babylonian eschatology and gives a short


bibliography.

This book
author

is,

as

we

said above, of capital importance.

But the
in

ought

to have

expressed

himself

with

more

reserve,

RECENT ASSYRIOLOGICAL LITERATURE


dealing with
life,

HOSCHANDEI
in its infancy,

5 )7
(

customs and religion of the early Sunn nans, as


is

far as their description

exclusively based on inscriptions.


is
still

Our

knowledge of the Sumerian language

and wc

may

be wide of the

mark

in

many

interpretations of early Sumerian

inscriptions.

They

are for the

time

being

merely

more or

less

probable suggestions and ought not to be represented as indisputable


facts.

From

the author's

descriptions

we

gain

the

impression
the

that

Babylonian culture was exclusively derived

from

Sumerians
noteworthy

and that the


towards
Semites
it.

Semites
is

did

not
fair.

contribute

anything

This

hardly

In point of religion, at least, the

whom we
the

find in the

country as a ruling people about 300


influenced

years before

age

of

Gudea, unquestionably

and

modified the conceptions of the Sumerians.

In an Archeology

we

would expect

a discussion about the original

home

of

the

HamWest-

murabi-dynasy,
Semites.

whether

they

were

South-Arabians

or

We
original

are

not

convinced

by the author's arguments that the

home

of the Sumerians

was

the Elamite plateau.


in this respect.

The

early

Sumerian

seals

do not prove anything

Considering

the mountains as the seats of the gods, they naturally depicted the

animals and trees found


very improbable that the

in

them

as sacred symbols.
civilization

Besides
its

it

is

Sumerian

had

origin

in

Elam.

The

primitive religious and mythological conceptions point

to Eridu as the earliest settlement of the

Sumerians and the cradle

of their civilization.

Sumerian
chiefly

Tablets

in

the

Harvard

Semitic

Museum.

Part

L,

from the reign of Lugalanda and Urukagina of Lagash.


of

Copied with introduction and index of names

persons

bv

Mary Inda Hussey, Ph. D. (Harvard Semitic


III.)

Series,
1912.

volume
pp. 36,

Cambridge, U.

S.

A.:

Harvard University,
75,

plates of

autographed texts

and photographed reproduc-

tions

6.

The
period,

texts

published in

this

volume belong
reigns

to

very

early

approximately 2800 B. C, to the

of

Lugal-an-da,

598

THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW


Urn-

sovereign-priest of Lagash, and his immediate successor( ?), ka-gina, who on his accession to
the high-priestly office,

made himself
of
the

king of this
of the

city.

The

tablets for the

most part contain accounts

palace

and temple expenses.

Though

nine-tenths

contents consist of proper names and numerals and in recent years

many many
ance.

texts of exactly the

same period and the same character have


and thus
offer

been published, they are nevertheless of great value.


signs

not

identified

yet

They contain new problems in


this

palaeography.

The proper names

are of course of great import-

So are the names of the months.

But text editions of


list

kind ought not to be published without a

of

the

signs.

The

author should have explained the meaning of the Sumerian series


designations.

The arrangement
and

of

the

columns,

in

the
is

obverse

from

left to right

in the reverse

from

right to left,

confusing

and unnecessary.

The

introduction, in which the author dwells at

length on the use of the curvilinear and cuneiform numerical notations,


is

not very satisfactory, as

it

does not give

much

help

for

the reading and understanding of the text.

Dropsie College

Jacob Hoschander

END OF VOLUME

III

NEW

SERIES

DS 101
J5

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