1 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper My attraction to linguistics stems from my attraction to all works of nature.

Nature is spellbindingly wild yet pleasantly predictable, seemingly repetitive yet subtly evolving. To study language is to study nature, which must be done in the wild in order to bring it to the classroom. I did not learn how to study language in the wild until I moved to Mexico for a year. Unfortunately, most of my Spanish learning in high school and college was devoid of authentic content, scaffolded lessons, task-based instruction, and communicative activities. While sitting on my Mexicana Airlines flight from Los Angeles to Mexico City in 2009, I quickly realized that I barely had the words to order un jugo de naranja (an orange juice). After wandering in confusion for several weeks in Mexico and attending Spanish classes for the next nine months at the Fenix Language Institute in Zacatecas and Quertaro Language School, Spanish somehow became mine. Upon reflection, neither living in Mexico nor simply taking classes was the magical recipe for becoming fluent, but rather an appropriate mixture of the two was necessary. Truly, what I learned as a student still continues to inform my teaching and understanding of language acquisition. In an attempt to unravel the mystery of language learning and teaching, let us liken the language learning environment to a zoo. The best of zoological sciences tries to recapture and recreate the natural habitat of an animal. The Bengal tigress will need the meat of other large mammals and the weather of subtropical and temperate upland forests, as well as interaction with her kind in order to survive. If she is reintroduced into the wild, she must first learn the skills that [she] will need for survival in the wild because animals in captivity do not usually have the natural behaviours needed for success (Clover, 2008). Language education should also create the proper conditions for learners to build a

2 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper linguistic basis of the target language and equip them with the skills to transfer that knowledge to the real world. I am passionate about helping English language learners navigate through their language learning processes, because indeed, language learning is a lifelong process. As a teacher, I face the never-ending commitment to understanding what language is and how it is learned. My position paper first aims to define language as a whole greater than its parts due to the importance of context, and that it requires social construction and probabilistic cognition to describe its dynamic nature. Additionally, I highlight the importance of subjectivity to show that learners go through continual identity construction. With a foundation in my understanding of language, I then present a snapshot of my communicative classroom through a lesson plan (Appendix A). The lesson incorporates an authentic humorous text and presents exercises that are scaffolded to complete a final task. The activities in the plan incorporate a focus on forms and explicit grammatical instruction that aim to help learners notice their linguistic gaps, and ultimately, equip them with tools to take their learning beyond the classroom. To connect my Language section with Language Learning and Teaching, I again emphasize cognitive and sociocultural frameworks, while finally considering the individual differences of learners. I finally conclude my work by showing how assessment helps learners gauge their language use in the classroom the zoo with the objective of experimenting in the real world wild nature. I interweave my critical view of the notion of standard English in reaction to globalization that fiercely continues to influence the present and future of cultures and

3 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper their native languages, including varieties of non-standard English. Like English, the Bengal tigress also comes in other varieties (subspecies in biological terms) and if not restricted by geographic separation, may interbreed with them. As such, educators should embrace the reality that English is a global language and the intersection of linguistic behaviors among speakers of different varieties is inevitable. Canagarajah (2007) writes: English is not an object or system that gets used in different places but rather something that emerges from local practices lingua franca English is not a product located in the mind of the speaker; it is a social process constantly reconstructed in sensitivity to environmental factors (p. 94). Language The crux of what is language for me is how language is used to create and interpret meaning. In order to describe meaning, I first consider the individual units of language and their impact on types of competence; next I discuss the interaction of individuals and the social use of language; and finally, I use these concepts to show how they contribute to the ongoing evolution of language. Components and Context The full pyramid shown in Figure 1 (van Lier, 1995) portrays how the integration of the tiers of language actually formulates language. As represented in the pyramid, language users must properly combine the tiers in order to create a comprehensible message that involves the sound system of the language (phonology, stress, rhythm, intonation), the forms of words (morphology), the arrangement of words (syntax), and an understanding of the context that will influence the language structures being used (discourse). Essentially,

4 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper the pyramid accounts for grammatical competence, which is the mastery of the grammatical code of a language, and discourse competence, which addresses how to combine forms in spoken or written text (Canale & Swain, 1980).

Figure 1: Introducing Language Awareness (p. 15) Yet, while the pyramid portrays language as having categorical components, language is not simply a mathematical equation with variables to plug in for one final answer. As a foreshadowing into my lesson plan, I will use the phrase, Thanks, search history in Activity #7 (Leffingwell, 2010) to demonstrate form, meaning, and use (LarsenFreeman, 2003). In the article, the author describes his frustration with the automated search history that is saved on his computer, which can be found by others using his computer, and, in fact, something that he sees every time he uses it. The form, Thanks, search history is ellipted and one can imagine the complete form being: I thank you, Google search history, which sounds too formal for the commentary piece. In order to

5 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper understand the meaning, imagine that the author finally found what he was looking for as a result of using Google search history; in such a context, one could interpret the meaning of Thanks, search history as an expression of appreciation. However, the author is being sarcastic, as he continues with If I were hoping for an unsubtle reference to how little Ive developed as an adult, that would do nicely. The use of thanks or thank you to chide someone or express I am not thankful is a common use of the phrase with just the right intonation and stress. Thus, utterances are inherently ambiguous without careful consideration of the context. As Ellis (2007) explains, A major characteristic of the environments that are relevant to human cognition is that they are fundamentally probabilistic: every stimulus is ambiguous, as is any utterance or piece of language (p. 78). In order to understand the interplay of form, meaning, and use, language users operate on their lifetime analysis of the distributional characteristics of the language input using a statistical ensemble of language experiences that changes slightly every time a new utterance is processed (Ellis, 2003, p. 64). In other words, speakers must apply their life experiences to create situated meaning, defined by Gee (2005) as the particular language [that] forms take on in specific contexts (p. 57). Understanding the authors frustration with Google search history required considering varied forms of appreciation, the context that actually necessitated sarcasm, and the particular use of this form and meaning of thanks that speakers have used before in similar sarcastic situations. Language, then, is the speakers or authors attempt to be understood (or misunderstood) based on his or her knowledge of the context, which Gee (2005) defines as the material setting, the people presentthe language that comes before and after a given

6 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper utterance, the social relationships of the people involved, and their ethnic, gendered, and sexual identities, as well as cultural, historical, and institutional factors (p. 57). How ambiguity becomes meaning is the work of interpreting language in context. Departing from Larsen-Freemans model (2003), meaning can also be described as use in other frameworks, such as Grice (1957). His work states that [expression] x means (timeless[ly]) that so-and-so might as a first shot be equated with some statement or disjunction of statements about what people (vague) intendto effect by x (p. 385). As an example, I recently had the following exchange with a security guard at the Monterey Institute of International Studies on the phone: Me: Hi, Im calling from the Writing Center. Im a tutor and just got here but noticed the door is not unlocked. Security Guard: Ah. Ill be right there. I thought about our quick exchange afterwards in terms of Grices Maxims (Grice, 1975). From an outsiders perspective, implicatures, or the act of implying something through stating something else, must have been at play in order to explain how something was accomplished. Understanding implicatures is made possible by means of Grices Cooperative Princple Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged (p. 67-68). Therefore, in the context, even though I never asked the security guard to come unlock the door, nor did I blame him for not unlocking the door, he understood what I needed and what he should do to help me because of our background

7 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper knowledge of our job duties. In essence, we were being cooperative interlocutors who adhered to the maxims. The Maxim of Quantity requires speakers to be informative, and I gave the security guard enough information to remind him of his duties by implicating that I needed to enter the Center. The Maxim of Quality states that users must be honest, and I was honest; however, I would like to add that my form was slightly hedged. I could have told the security guard, You forgot to unlock the door; instead, I told him, I noticed the door is not unlocked. Ultimately, I wanted to shift the focus to the door rather than his responsibilities, even though we both knew that he did not perform one of his duties for the day. The Maxim of Relation states that speakers make relevant contributions. From an outsiders perspective, the situation appears as though I simply called the security hut without a real intention because I never asked him to perform a job duty. However, I know his job responsibilities and he knows mine, because usually by 4:00pm every day the Writing Center is unlocked for tutoring purposes because tutors do not have their own keys - hence his response, Ill be right there. And, finally, the Maxim of Manner describes how users avoid obscurity and ambiguity. When the security guard arrived, he apologized in Italian and then continued in English, We didnt have it on our schedule! I do not speak Italian, rendering his statement obscure, and he probably did not assume that I did, but his facial expressions, gestures, and intonation indicated an apology and I responded accordingly, Oh, please, dont worry about it! Through conversational inference, defined by Gumperz (2006/1977) as the means of which participants in a conversation assess others intentions, and on which they base their responses (p. 78), we completed a

8 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper successful conversational transaction. Elliss (2007) assertion that every utterance is ambiguous holds; the key in recovering the intended meanings through implicature was the context. Individual and Social Use Identity and society add an additional layer to language, as Williams (1977) writes: A definition of language is always, implicitly or explicitly, a definition of human beings in the world (p. 21), which I will now consider at the level of the individual. A part of the portfolio assessment is voice: In its parts and as a whole, the Portfolio must be such that, whether the writing is introspective or academic in register, it could only have been written by the particular author (Program-Level Assessment in the MATESOL/MATFL Curriculum, 2012, p. 9). This expectation nicely reflects my view that individuals have idiolects, defined by the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2012) as language exhaustively in terms of intrinsic properties of some single person in which the main force of intrinsic is to exclude essential reference to features of the person's wider linguistic community, and perhaps too of their physical environment. Even if parts of my portfolio are quotably Heidi Laidemitts, I am still conforming to the use of academic English for the purposes of suiting both my audience and the genre. Therefore, idiolects are the stylizations and representations of me that separate me from, but also situate me in, my environment. As such, I depend on my environment to discover meaning in order to create my own meaning, whether or not I transmit it to the world or hold it internally. The environments where I use language may be serious, playful, conscious, subconscious (people often speak in their dreams), or fictional in nature. Ultimately, I not only create

9 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper meaning, but also express and create my identity through language I have a voice. Drawing from Weedons (1997) poststructural feminist theory, I agree that identity is both constructed in and by interaction and that subjectivity is precarious, contradictory and in process, constantly being reconstituted in discourse each time we think or speak (1997, p. 32). Applying this treatment of subjectivity to language learners, Norton (2000) explains that When language learners speak, they are not only exchanging information with target language speakers, but they are constantly organizing and reorganizing a sense of who they are and how they relate to the social world (p. 11). Important, then, is not only the individual use of language, but also the interaction with others in order to create identity. From my perspective, the individual learner is not acting in isolation; she is affecting and being affected by the environment. I believe that an important aspect of language use includes the participation metaphor, explained as a process that involves developing the ability to communicate through the language and behavior that are deemed acceptable by the community (Swain & Deters, 2007, p. 821). As Wenger (1998) explains, we not only produce our identities through the practice we engage in, but we also define ourselves through practices we do not engage in (p. 164). Evolution of Language Thus far, my treatment of language has included the components, context, individual use, and social use of language. Now, I will consider how language changes. Every time users speak, they contribute to the evolution of language. As Larsen-Freeman (2006) writes, Language is not fixed, but is rather a dynamic system. Language evolves and changes in the dynamics of language use between and among individuals (p. 593).

10 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper According to Schmitt and Marsden (2006), like is an example of a word that is changing. The following example illustrates the authors description of like as a common verb, a preposition that means similar to, a conjunction, and a marker of direct speech, which is a relatively new feature of the word: Well, you were like, I care about you a lot. But tell me like you mean it. Do you like me like me? Or like, just feel for me like a friend? I include reduplication of like me to illustrate a separate point: Contrastive Reduplication (CR), which has the semantic effect of focusing on the denotation of the reduplicated element on a more sharply delimited, more specialized, range (Ghomeshi, Jackendoff, Rosen, and Russell, 2004, p. 308). Interestingly, reduplication in other languages is used for a variety of syntactic functions, and in English, uses include: baby talk (goo-goo ga-ga); song lyrics (And, Im a ma ma material girl); depreciation of items (TESOL SCHMESOL); rhyming (Sexy Mexi); ablaut combinations: (hip-hop); and intensive reduplication (This position paper is mine mine mine!). Thus, CR is a cross-linguistic phenomenon, but through social use it has changed its functions across languages and within one language, like English. All of the samples in English are playful in nature and exhibit nuanced socially constructed meanings. Language Learning and Teaching In my language learning and teaching portion of the position paper, I will first describe the lesson plan (Appendix A). Then, I will use it to highlight the key concepts of scaffolded lesson planning; exercises that focus on form and explicit grammatical instruction; tasks that incorporate authentic assessment and learner autonomy; and how learners continually progress in their language learning.

11 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper Lesson Planning and Learning Outcomes The lesson plan is designed for high intermediate to advanced students in an intensive English reading and writing course at the Monterey Institute of International Studies (MIIS), or a program similar to it. Many classes in small intensive English programs have about six to ten students of nationalities from all around the world who come to the United States to study English in the target culture. Many of these students are young adults who aspire to continue their studies in higher education or use English professionally in their home countries. The lesson includes seven activities to engage learners in a humorous text by Leffingwell (2011). The learning process is scaffolded using, in part, Blooms Taxonomy (1956) by including seven exercises that culminate with the final task of students creating their own humorous text. Scaffolding was originally coined by Bruner (1978) and describes the frameworks given to learners in order for learning to take place. I selected each activity to build upon each other in order to achieve scaffolding by means of interaction with others and utilizing the lesson plan and text materials. I will reflect these levels further along in my paper, as well as provide more information on scaffolding. In addition, I distinguish exercises and tasks in agreement with Widdowson (1998), in that exercises focus on the linguistic skills necessary to complete a task, defined as: an activity in which the meaning is primary; there is a goal which needs to be worked towards; the activity is outcome-evaluated; there is a real-world relationship (Skehan, 1998, p. 268). Through written text and my directions, the lesson plan first introduces ideas of humor in Activities 1 and 2 to function as remembering and understanding the first

12 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper two levels of Blooms activity that trigger retrieving relevant knowledge and having learners construct their own meaning, respectively. Activity 3 focuses students attention on new vocabulary, while Activities 4 and 5 ask them to predict preposition use and conceptualize prepositions based on thematic roles. These activities fall under the fourth level in Blooms Taxonomy analyzing- because learners are breaking a part linguistic units that contribute to the overall meaning of the text. While the grammatical focus of prepositions may seem to be an aside, it aims to exemplify focus on form (FonF) rather than forms (FonFs) (Doughty & Williams, 1998; Long & Robinson, 1998), in order to give learners a usage-based view of language, while also highlighting prepositional use in idioms. As Long and Robinson (1998) explain, focus on form overtly draws students attention to linguistic elements as they arise incidentally in lessons whose overriding focus is on meaning or communication (p. 45-46). I used Cowan (2008) for ideas to create activities that focus on grammar, I assumed that high intermediate to advanced learners were already capable of identifying the prototypical meanings of prepositions, e.g., in relation to location, and I wanted to expand the learners awareness of some prepositions that contribute to more abstract meanings, as well as provide a conceptual framework to represent prepositional usage found in an authentic material. I do this by including the graph from Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999) that shows polysemy of the same prepositions (in, for, to, and with). The objective of Activity 5 is for students to place prepositions in relation to their thematic roles (p. 418-419). Activity 6 then has learners investigate idioms in a corpus. And, finally, the last exercise in Activity 7 highlights the use of literary devices to achieve humorous effects an example of evaluating the fifth level

13 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper of Blooms Taxonomy that has learners make their own judgments of a text. In this particular lesson, I am assuming that learners already have studied the literary devices and are now applying their knowledge. The final task in Activity 8 directs learners to create their own humorous text with peers on something they find annoying, which exemplifies the final level of creating in Blooms Taxonomy. This final level of producing an original piece is the synthesis of previous skills developed throughout the lesson. While a paper-based lesson plan is inherently linear, I actually envision a bottom-up and top-down interaction happening by using humor as the foundation of the content. At the cognitive level, Gervais and Wilson (2005) define humor as nonserious social incongruity (p. 399). In order for these incongruous meanings to actually be humorous, they must be found to be amusing (Martin 2007), which may pose as an extra challenge for non-native speakers who are navigating through incongruous content constantly. It is even more cognitively and affectively taxing to navigate through messages purposefully meant to be incongruous. Giving students a better understanding of how to interpret humor and how to use humor in a target language may contribute to their social identities and selfexpression. And in fact, theory suggests that humor is first understood through universal jokes, then cultural jokes, and finally word-based jokes (Schmitz, 2002). With due respect to a sensible description of humor comprehension, the lesson plan text seamlessly incorporates those three types of humor because it is authentic (Larimer and Schleicher, 1999) and challenges learners to comprehend all three. Engaging students in an authentic text designed for a target language audience necessitates finding ways to expand their language

14 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper abilities to those of a target language audience. My intent is to create a rich linguistic environment for the intuitive heuristics that normal human beings automatically process (Chomsky, 1968, p. 687), or what Kumaravadivelu (2003) calls activating intuitive heuristics. However, such a rich environment necessitates proper pedagogical tools for learning to take place. The Communicative Classroom and Zone of Proximal Development A learner uses a more knowledgeable other (MKO) to navigate through their zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978), defined as the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (p. 86). Specific to my lesson plan, I guide learners through activities (1, 2, 3, and 4), before they encounter the actual text in Activity 5 in order to assist their comprehension of the text. Thus, the activities, which promote classroom interaction and sharing of ideas, allow the learners to successfully comprehend the text. During the initial construction of this lesson plan for Structure of English, I received feedback from my professor and peers that the text was engaging and appropriate for the population, but because of the cultural references, idiomatic phrases, and humor, learners would have to be properly prepared before interacting with the text directly. Thus, I revised lesson with the learners zones of proximal development in mind, striving to make the content readable and understandable. Scaffolded lessons, previously discussed in terms of Blooms Taxonomy, are constantly changed, dismantled, and adapted (Walqui & van Lier, 2010, p. 24), because of dialogic interaction, described by Vygotsky (1986) as the

15 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper interactions between people. During a lesson plan, learners will interact with each other and the teacher in order to navigate through the learning process. Donato (1994) asserts that co-knowledge and co-construction result in linguistic change among and within individuals during joint activity (p. 39). The next difficult portion of the lesson that I aimed to scaffold was the creation of the final humorous text in Task 8. With this mind, I created activities (6 and 7) to draw learners attention to how humor is achieved by a native language speaker to model how to be funny in English. Otherwise, expecting learners to generate a sarcastic text with literary devices would be a very daunting task. As a teacher, then, I help learners navigate through their ZPDs by keeping their abilities in mind by creating lesson activities and tasks that create momentum and continual development. Walqui and van Lier (2010) also explain that scaffolding within the ZPD can happen through assistance from more capable peers or adults, interaction with equal peers, inner resources (such as knowledge, experience, memory, strength), and interaction with less capable peers (p. 30). Assistance from more capable peers or adults comes from modeling while interaction with peers comes from collaborative scaffolding, based on Bronfenbrenners (1979) idea that if one member of a dyad undergoes developmental change, the other is also like to do so (p. 65). Interaction with less capable peers comes from learning by teaching. Finally, inner resources allow for the learner to be a source of resourcefulness to themselves and a point of self-access. This final point of self-access and resourcefulness is directly related to importance I place on identity formation and learner autonomy. Because I claimed in the introduction to have a critical view of non-standard varieties of English and the globalization of the

16 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper language itself, I challenge myself to find ways to use the classroom as a site of identity exploration. For me, this is the essence of a communicative classroom: students engaging with others to continually build their linguistic repertoire. Learner Autonomy As explained, scaffolding may be achieved with others or through self-access and resourcefulness, and what ultimately remains important is the learners ability to use resources to work within their ZPDs. When learners directly engage with themselves in the learning process, I believe promoting learner autonomy that is, helping learners take responsibility for their learning, and to bring about necessary attitudinal changes in them (Kumaravadivelu, 2003) can be achieved. One form of becoming a self-access resource may be technologically based; thus, I make it my teaching goal to afford learners the ability to access the English language outside of classroom through technology. For example, lets assume that after the provided lesson, the learner engages with new material and finds an idiomatic expression that they remember from this particular lesson. At the moment, they do not remember the meaning of the idiomatic phrase, but they may return to typewith.me, utilized in ACitvity 1, to find the definition given by peers or perhaps the Corpus of Contemporary American English (CCAE) http://corpus.byu.edu/coca/ to look for the expression again. I think exposing students to useful technological tools like these in class allows students to continually use resources on their own. Typewith.me functions as a way to share answers with the entire class and is a way to share related links, information, and online class conversations outside of the classroom (Activity 1). As mentioned, I like to build into my lesson ways for learners to access content outside of class, and websites like

17 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper typewith.me make that possible. For me, it is an extension of the lesson that may manifest useful in other situations. The CCAE is another tool to help learners better understand idiomatic expressions, collocations, and vocabulary in general by giving website visitors access to a search engine of the target language in natural use (Activity 6). Additionally, a corpus may allow for implicit understanding by giving learners samples of the same word(s) from which they generate their own rules. Through the use of technology, I hope to guide learners, have learners guide each other, and ultimately, have learners guide themselves. It is from the zoo, crafted with careful lesson plans, that learners transfer their knowledge to their own language learning safari. Making Progress in the Language Learning Journey No matter the level of the language learner, there may always be a sensation of there is more to learn. Understandably, this experience happens to me in my own native language, especially in genres of self-expression and academia, and is something I share with my students to show commiseration, and perhaps inspire their advancement. As learners experiment with their L2, they may encounter a linguistic problem leading them to notice what they do not know, an essential part of the language learning process (Swain, 1995, p. 129). The Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt, 1990; 1993) accounts for the process of learners paying attention to and noticing input from the target language. When learners notice a specific feature of the input, they are made explicitly aware of a structure or rule; thus, this notcing helps them make progress in their use of language, both in terms of grammatical use and social use. In my instruction, I try to implement input enhancement, which is the way that teachers highlight specific parts of material to facilitate language

18 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper learning, as described in Sharwood Smith (1991). Ellis (1997) argues that input enhancement is a facet of explicit learning to help learners notice the gap between their output and the actual input, thus enhancing their accuracy and fluency through use. Throughout this process, learners are engaged in a dialectic process, involving the learner in a conscious tension between the conflicting forces of their current interlanguage productions and evidence of feedback (Ellis, 2007, p. 84). Relating noticing and language development to the lesson plan, listeners will often want to understand why something is funny, or how speaker elicited a smile or laughter (Activities 3, 6, and 7). Noticing may also be elicited through different techniques. One option is the importance of focusing on form, not on forms (Doughty & Williams, 1998; Long & Robinson, 1998), as exemplified in my section on language with Thanks, search history and the focus on prepositions in Activities 4 and 5 to direct learners awareness to thematic roles of prepositions for both accuracy and fluency purposes. As Larsen-Freeman (2003) explains, grammar is a tool of exquisite precision, allowing us to create forms in order to express delicate shades of meaning (p. 44). Prepositions function as one of those tools of exquisite precision, especially when it comes to orienting, situating, and linking, concepts as ODowd (1998) explains. The chart in Activity 5 illustrates a way for students to conceptualize space, time, degree, and other (includes idiomatic usages) that are a part of prepositions (Larsen-Freeman, 2003, p. 489). Lesson Assessment For me, assessment fits quite nicely with Vygotskys (1978) notion of ZPD and creating lesson plans that include activities to scaffold a final task, which are central

19 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper elements to my sample lesson plan. As Ellis (2003) describes, assessment should naturally be built into a task in order to create momentum and allow students to personally witness their success. First, the homework assignment asked students to interview a native English speaker about humor (Activity 1), which is necessary for students make predictions about the text (Activity 2). For me, assessment is achieved in two ways: did learners complete the assignment?; and, now, are they able to see the importance of it to continue their learning of American humor? Also, in Activity 4, I ask that students predict preposition use before comparing answers with a partner. Then, learners are to check the text to again engage them in predicting linguistic features and possibly notice their linguistic gaps. I do not directly tell the students the answers; rather, I have them self-assess and utilize the chart in Activity 5 for me to check their learning progress. While Activity 7 is not directly involved in assessment, the literary devices that students consider and describe may be used in the final task (Activity 8) of creating their own humorous text to illustrate an annoyance in their lives. This task may even have real world application for them as it builds their pragmatic competence which is how speakers appropriately use language, in written or spoken discourse first defined by Chomsky (1980) and expanded by Barron (2003) as the knowledge of the linguistic resources available in a given language for realising particular illocutions, knowledge of the sequential aspects of speech acts, and finally, knowledge of the appropriate contextual use of the particular language's linguistic resources (p. 10). The literary devices used in the text simile, personification, and hyperbole are actually quite common in everyday English and are a part of pragmatic competence. Ultimately, achieving pragmatic

20 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper competence helps learners in their social lives, because they become versatile speakers capable of expressing meaning through different linguistic forms. Due to the importance I place on education outside of the classroom, I believe that the best kind of educational approaches actually reflect external environments. Perhaps then, my communicative classroom takes the form of a wild animal park where I aim to create a natural habitat through authentic texts, include activities that involve checking predictions, and give learners linguistic tools to try outside of the classroom as a type of authentic assessment. At that point, learners must interact in online or in-person communities to ultimately gauge their success in the wild. If something goes awry, I encourage students to use the language classroom to better hone their knowledge. Conclusion The lesson plan that I incorporated became the natural way to connect language and language education. Further, it propelled me to explain why I teach the way that I do. In fact, this position paper came to fruition through constant editing and restructuring of both the content presented here, and the material selected and created for the lesson. The authentic text features language as a whole greater than its parts and the lesson includes activities that require social construction and technological tools to decode the content. In order to guide learners through their ZPD, students focus on forms, predict and assess preposition use, and take their learning beyond the classroom. The overarching themes of what is language and what is language learning and teaching, are emphasized through my description of cognitive and sociocultural frameworks, which bring the individual into social play with their environment in the classroom. And, I made sure to include

21 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper assessment because it helps learners connect their use of language, whether or not in the classroom, to the language they witness in the wild. A part of the passion that I have for language teaching resides in the fact that the TESOL field drastically changes over small periods of time. The changing nature of the field poses a limitation to my position paper, because that too will have to go through drastic changes over small periods of time. However, I view the ever-changing field of language teaching as a challenge that I am dedicated to meet. To enliven my role as a teacher, perhaps my approach to lesson planning, and teaching in general, best aligns itself with van Liers (2008) assertion that pedagogical activities should require the involvement of mind, body, and emotions, and a persistent attitude of social engagement and environmental exploration (p. 602). In van Lier (1996), he also suggests keeping a balance between lesson planning and improvisation. In the spirit of humor and creativity in the classroom, I value the importance of improvisation in lesson planning. While the lesson is framed around two-hours, I still aim to allow for the environment to trigger new learning and teaching opportunities in order to strike balance. Word Count: 5,880

22 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper References Barber, A. (2010). Idiolects. In The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy online. Retrieved on February 20, 2012 from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/idiolects/ Barron, A. (2003). Acquisition in interlanguage pragmatics: Learning how to do things with words in a study-abroad context. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge: MA: Harvard University Press. Bruner, J. (1978). The role of dialogue in language acquisition. In A. Sinclair, R. Jarvelle, & W. Levelt (Eds.), The childs concept of language. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. Canagarajah, S. (2007). Lingua franca English, multilingual communities, and language acquisition. Modern Language Journal, 91, 923939. Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1, 1-47. Celce-Murica, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The grammar book: An ESL/EFL teachers course (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Heinle. Chomsky, N. (1968). Noam Chomsky and Stuart Hampshire discuss the study of language. The Listener, 79, 687-691. Chomsky, N. (1980). Rules and representations. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Clover, C. (2008, January). Carnivores released into wild fail and die. The Telegraph. Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/3322397/Carnivores-released-intowild-fail-and-die.html

23 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper Cowan, R. (2008). The teachers grammar of English: A course book and reference guide. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. DeKeyser, R. M. (1997). Beyond explicit rule learning: Automatizing second language morphosyntax. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 195-221. DeKeyser, R. M. (2003). Implicit and explicit learning. In C. J. Douglas & M. H. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 313-348). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Donato, R. (1994). Collective scaffolding. In J. P. Lantolf & G. Appel (Eds.), Vygotskian approaches to second language research (pp. 33-56). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishers. Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (1998). Pedagogical choices in focus on form. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 197 261). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Ellis, N. (2003). Constructions, chunking, and connectionism: The emergence of second language structure. In C. Douglas & M. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 63-103). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Ellis, N. (2007). The associative-cognitive CREED. In B. Van Pattern & J. Williams (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (pp. 77-95). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Ellis, R. (1997). SLA research and language teaching. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Ellis, R. (2000). Task-based research and language pedagogy. Language Teaching Research, 4, 193-220. Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

24 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper Gee, J. P. (2005). An introduction to discourse analysis: Theory and method (2nd ed.). London, UK: Routledge. Gervais, M., & Wilson, D. (2005). The evolution and functions of laughter and humor: A synthetic approach. Quarterly Review of Biology, 80, 395-430. Ghomeshi, J., Jackendoff, R., Rosen, N., & Russell, K. (2004). Contrastive focus reduplication in English (The salad-salad paper). Natural Language & Linguistics Theory, 22, 307357. Grice, P. (1957). Meaning. Philosophical Review, 66, 37788. Grice, P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. Grice (Ed.), Studies in the way of words (pp. 22-40). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Gumperz, J. (2006). Sociocultural knowledge in conversational inference. In A. Jaworski & N. Coupland (Eds.), The discourse reader (2nd ed, pp. 79-85). London: Routledge. (Reprinted from Sociocultural knowledge in conversational inference by J. Gumperz, 1997, in Muriel Saville-Troike (Ed.) Linguistics and anthropology, Georgetown University Round Table on Language and Linguistics (pp. 191-211). Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press.) Kumaravadivelu, B. (2003). Beyond methods: Macrostrategies for language teaching. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Larsen-Freeman, D. (2003). Teaching language: From grammar to grammaring. Boston, MA: Heinle.

25 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper Larsen-Freeman, D. (2006). The emergency of complexity, fluency, and accuracy in the oral and written production of five Chinese learners of English. Applied Linguistics, 27, 590-619. Leffingwell, M. (2010, June 23). Stop helping me, Google search history. [Web log comment]. Retrieved from http://www.madatoms.com/site/blog/stop-helping-megoogle Larimer, R., & L. Schleicher. (1999). New ways in using authentic materials in the classroom. Alexandria, VA: TESOL. Long, M. H., & Robinson, P. (1998). Focus on form: Theory, research, and practice. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 15-41). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Martin, R. (2007). The psychology of humor: An integrative approach. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Academic Press. Norton, B. (2000). Identity and language learning: Gender, ethnicity and educational change. Harlow, UK: Longman Group Limited. ODowd, E. (1998). Prepositions and particles in English: A discourse-functional account. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Program-Level Assessment in the MATESOL/MATFL Curriculum: Portfolio requirements; January 2012; Monterey, CA: Monterey Institute of International Studies, MATESOL Program. Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11, 129 58.

26 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper Schmidt, R. (1993). Awareness and second language acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13, 206-226. Schmitt, N., & Marsden, R. (2006). Why is English like that? Historical answers to hard ELT questions. Ann Arbor, MI: University Michigan Press. Schmitz, J. (2002). Humor as a pedagogical tool in foreign language and translation courses. Humor: International Journal of Humor Research, 15, 89-113. Sharwood Smith, M. (1991). Speaking to many minds: On the relevance of different types of language information for the L2 learner. Second Language Research, 7, 118-132. Skehan, P. (1998). Task-based instruction. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 18, 268286. Swain, M., & Deters, P. (2007). New mainstream SLA theory: Expanded and enriched. Modern Language Journal, 91, 820-836. van Lier, L. (1995). Introducing language awareness. London, UK: Penguin. van Lier, L. (1996). Interaction in the language curriculum: Awareness, autonomy & authenticity. Harlow, UK: Longman. van Lier, L. (2008). Ecological-semiotic perspectives on educational linguistics. In B. Spolsky & F. Hult (Eds.), The handbook of educational linguistics (pp. 597605). Oxford, NY: Blackwell. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

27 Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper Walqui, A., & van Lier, L. (2010). Scaffolding the academic success of adolescent learners: A pedagogy of promise. San Francisco, CA: WestEd. Weedon, C. (1997). Feminist practice and poststructuralist theory (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Widdowson, H. (1998). Skills, abilities, and contexts of reality. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 18, 323-333. Williams, R. (1977). Marxism and literature. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper Appendix A Stop Helping Me, Google Search History Lesson Lesson Outline

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Target Audience and Context: High intermediate to advanced students in a Reading & Writing class at the Monterey Institute of International Studies (MIIS) Intensive English Language (IESL) program, or a program similar to it. Most classes have about 5-8 students of nationalities from all around the world who come to Monterey to study English in the culture (United States). Many of these students aspire to continue their studies at a graduate program at MIIS or other programs around the country. Most of the students are young adults with an interest in learning about American culture and socializing with other young adults. Lesson Objectives Cognitive 1) understand the thematic roles for prepositions as explained by The Grammar Book (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999, pp. 418-419) 2) decode humor in text through activities like vocabulary development, stackedmodifier use, and more 3) learn idiomatic expressions and prepositions in the given text Metacognitive 4) apply their knowledge of American humor to the lesson content and expand it, accordingly 5) compare their answers with other students in order to engage in a productive discussion concerning various uses of idiomatic phrases and finer points of grammar Affective 6) feel prepared to create their own humorous text using the article as a guide 7) feel comfortable using technology, native speakers, and each other to come to a better understanding of American humor and idiomatic language in the text provided Performative

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8) use the conceptual chart presented in class to understand the prepositions in the text and in future encounters 9) use technology to share definitions and find idiomatic expressions in the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) 10) identify linguistic devices in the humorous text (specifically: irony, personification, exaggeration, similes, and audience) Materials Lesson Plan Hand Outs, Answer Keys, Typewith.Me sample Computer and internet access for each student and teacher Marker board and markers Poster paper and markers Typewith me website (create): http://typewith.me/p/AmericanHumor

Lesson Plan Outline: 60 minutes / 10 minute break/ 50 minutes (2-hour class period)

Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper Lesson Outline Time Lesson Segments 3 Greet students and have them logmin on to their computers (either brought or use in computer lab). Teacher logs on as well. 2 min Distribute the lesson plan materials to the students (Appendix A). Explain that this lesson integrates technology with language learning and American culture. Activity #1 Direct students to complete Activity #1 in groups of 34 and record their answers on typewith me Teacher reviews the answers on typewith.me with class Activity #2 Direct students to complete Activity #2 in partners. Activity #3 Students do Activity #3 individually and then compare answers with a partner. Activity #4 and #5 Students do Activity #4 individually and then compare answers with a partner. Materials Students will need their personal computers or access to computer lab. Teacher will need his/her computer and overhead Lesson plan handouts Objectives Orient students to using technology in the classroom. Set students up for lesson activity and materials.

30

10 min 5 min 10 min 10 min

Activity #1 Share the typewith.me site: http://typewith.me/p/Am ericanHumor Answers on typewith me site (Appendix B is a sample of answers) Activity #2 Activity #3

Students discuss their homework and compare American answers based on humor by entering answers on live document. Teacher and students compare their answers with each other and add links to appropriate websites for more information. Students will discuss things they may find in their reading and activate their content schemata before reading the article. Students focus on stacked modifiers, a very common grammatical feature in this text. Students will have a better understanding of cultural idiomatic phrases the author writes before reading the article. Students focus on prepositions in the text and compare their work with their partner and then the original text while they read the article.

15 min

Activity #4 and #5 Answers in Appendix C

Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper After reading the actual text, students will complete the preposition chart in Activity 5. Inform students that not all boxes will be filled. Students put the answers on a chart for the class. BREAK Direct students to pinpoint boxes in the chart that they had trouble understanding. The teacher uses "errors" or "misunderstandings" to guide instruction. Activity #6 Activity 6 is done in partners. As text indicates, direct students to use corpus to complete the activity. Illustrate #1 for them by searching Do not get me wrong (corpus does not permit contractions) Activity $#7. These answers will be discussed in small groups of 3-4.

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Students will map prepositions on a chart to see the different meanings of prepositions. Teacher creates chart on a whiteboard OR computer. BREAK Chart on board + text Students check their comprehension of prepositions with others. BREAK Students visually see and hear each others answers to activity #4 and 5. Students will also be able to conceptualize prepositions based on a chart of the different uses. Students utilize the internet for comprehension of idiomatic expressions.

5 min 10 min 8 min

12 min

Activity #6 and overhead display for the website: http://corpus.byu.edu/co ca/

10 min 20 min

Activity #7

Activity #8 Students write a "letter" Activity #8. Large poster about something annoying in their paper and markers. lives in groups of 3-4 for Activity #8. This is their last activity. Students will present letters tmrw.

Students will understand audience and literary devices such as personification, exaggeration, simile, and commands. Students use knowledge based accrued from today to create their own "letter' or "commentary" on something annoying. The point is to be humorous about the complaint or annoying feature.

Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper Lesson Plan Handouts

32

Stop Helping Me, Google Search History

Activity #1: Understanding Sarcasm and Humor Your homework over the weekend was to interview an American about their perceptions of humor. Share your answers in small groups of 3-4. Log on to: http://typewith.me/p/AmericanHumor and record your answers there. 1. What do most Americans think are funny? 2. Do you think sarcasm is funny? Why or why not? 3. Who are some of the funniest American men and women? They can be alive or deceased. 4. What are some of your favorite humorous websites, magazines, blogs, or other form of written humor? Activity #2: Understanding the text. Answer the following questions with a partner. 1. What is a search engine? What are different search engines you use? Write the definition and names here:

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2. What do you think the article is about? Represent the main idea and the clues in the following thought bubbles. You may draw your answers or add more bubbles.

Clue: not about helping because of quotations

Main idea:

3. What does the title and image represent with dirty, dirty lyrics, dirty old man, dirty dancing, dirty dancing with the stars? Predict top results for the word Monterey: _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________

4. Do you think this article will be serious or funny? Why?

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Activity #3: Previewing new vocabulary (Focus: Stacked Modifiers) Identify the noun in each phrase and its modifiers. Then, write a definition of the noun phrase using your own words. Compare answers with a classmate. 1. awesome car crashes (line 6) o Noun: crashes o Modifiers: awesome, cars o Meaning in your own words: Awesome cars that are in car crashes OR awesome crashes of cars. Which do you think? 2. Amanda Seyfried cleavage (lines 6-7) o Noun: ____________________________________________ o Modifier(s): _____________________________________ o Meaning in your own words: _________________________________ 3. Dirty lyrics to Chipmunks songs (line 10) o Noun: ____________________________________________ o Modifier(s): _____________________________________ o Meaning in your own words: _________________________________ 4. Organic baby food (line 15) o Noun: ____________________________________________ o Modifier(s): _____________________________________ o Meaning in your own words: _________________________________ 5. Origami-shaped superheroes (line 15) o Noun: ____________________________________________ o Modifier(s): _____________________________________ o Meaning in your own words: _________________________________ 6. Outlet face (line 20) o Noun: ____________________________________________ o Modifier(s): _____________________________________ o Meaning in your own words: _________________________________ 7. Milk moustache Hitler (line 20) o Noun: ____________________________________________ o Modifier(s): _____________________________________

Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper o Meaning in your own words: _________________________________ Which noun phrases seem the most interesting or funny to you?

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Activity #4: Focus on prepositions Using the following prepositions, complete the blanks in the passage as you read the article. about to for under in with into without out

Is Americas No. 1 search engine just trying to embarrass us? By Mike Leffingwell featured in Readers Digest, April 2011

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Dont get me wrong modern technology is amazing. But ___ all the convenience the Internet offers, theres one area where I wish it wouldnt go out of its way to make my life easier. I cant begin to type any word _____ Google ______ it helpfully bringing up all the things Ive searched ______ in the past that start ______ the same letter. When my mother-in-law visits and is trying to look up American Airlines, I dont need Google to show her how I looked up awesome car crashes or Amanda seyfried cleavage. Google search history is like the friend you kick _____ the table because he doesnt realize he needs to shut up. Ive even tried to Google how to delete search history, and the second I type the d, I get reminded how Ive previously looked up dirty lyrics to Chipmunks songs. That was a one-time thing I was interested There are people sitting nearby , Google search history! Just forget I ever asked. this coffee shop, and youre embarrassing me.

Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

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Since it saves my wifes search history, Im constantly reminded how infantile my searches are compared hers. Case in point: Type in o and two things that come up

are organic baby food (hers) and origami-shaped superheroes (mine). Thanks, search history. If I were hoping that would do nicely. And its not that Im shamefaced my past searches; sometimes Im just an unsubtle reference to how little Ive developed as an adult,

perplexed. For the life of me, I cant remember what I was thinking that made me Google outlet face or milk mustache Hitler. Clearly, there was a time when I thought these were the things I needed to research more deeply. Now they are just riddles feel like a drunk finding indecipherable notes I left myself my apartment. no answer. I

I dont want to feel like that! What does outlet face even mean? I dont know, and I dont want to know. The man who Googled that is not a guy I want to remember. Let me live the present.

Activity 5: Prepositions continued Take your answers in Activity 4, compare with a partner, and place them in the chart on the next page. After you are done comparing with a partner, compare your answers to the actual text on page 11.

Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper Prepositions as Thematic Roles Adapted from The Grammar Book by Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999), pp. 418-419
In Space Enclosure: The man is in the room. Time In a period: WWII ended in 1945. Future appointment: Come in 10 minutes. Degree

37

Other (includes idiomatic uses) Currency: Pay me in dollars. Language: Write/say it in English.

For

Goal: Set out for Alaska. Distance: For 7 miles

Duration: For 7 years.

Exchange: Buy for $4.

Reason: California is famous for its wines. Purpose: Fishing for trout.

To

Direction: Go to the movies

Until: Work from 9 to 5 Before: A quarter to 11:00

Amount: He is smart to such an extent...

Accompany: Dance to the music

With

Alongside/near: Even with the wall.

Together: He grew wiser with the years.

Equal Standing or Ability: Run with the fastest.

In regard to: Pleased with the gift. Manner: Spoke with ease.

Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper

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Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper Activity #6: Common Idiomatic Expressions 5 groups of partners will each be assigned one idiomatic expression. With your partner use http://corpus.byu.edu/coca/ to find 1 or 2 sentences for each 1. Dont get me wrong (line 1):

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Fox News: Do not get me wrong, Jim, I am not saying this is not serious. I am being practical as to what this D.A. is facing when this D.A. finally ends up before a jury Total Health Magazine: Please do not get me wrong on this point-I am not against high-tech medicine. In fact, my earlier laboratory career familiarized me with research of this type and I know it has an important place.

2. I get reminded (of) (line 10)

3. Just forget I ever asked. (line 12)

4. Case in point (line 14)

5. For the life of me (line 19)

Activity 7: Identifying Humor in text and reviewing literary devices. Answer the following questions as a class.

Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper

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Google search history is like the friend you kick under the table because he doesnt realize he needs to shut up. (7-8) Who is the author addressing? Identify the simile. What is the effect of its use. That was a one-time thing I was interested in, Google search history! Just forget I ever asked. (10-11) Who is the author addressing? Identify the use of personification and the command. What is the effect of their use? Thanks, search history. If I were hoping for an unsubtle reference to how little Ive developed as an adult, that would do nicely. (15-17) Who is the author addressing? Identify the exaggeration (or hyperbole). What is the effect of its use? I feel like a drunk finding indecipherable notes I left myself in my apartment. (21-22) Who is the author addressing? Identify the simile. What is the effect of its use? Let me live in the present. (24-25) Who is the author addressing? How does this command help summarize his point? Activity 8: Identifying Humor in text In groups of 3-4, choose something in your life that is very annoying like the author. Use modifier stacking, similes, personification, irony, exaggeration, audience, idiomatic expressions, and other literary devices like the author does (highlighted throughout the exercises) to create a humorous text of your own. Your letters or commentary will be shared with the class tomorrow and should be about 1 to 2 pages. Be sure to create a funny title and use pictures if youd like! You may need to complete this portion for homework.

Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper Appendix B Activity # 1 Model Screen Shot from http://typewith.me/p/AmericanHumor

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Heidi Marie Laidemitt MATESOL Component 4 Position Paper Appendix C Activity #5 Answer Key
In Space Enclosure: The man is in the room. Time In a period: WWII ended in 1945. Future appointment: Come in 10 minutes. Degree

42

Other (includes idiomatic uses) Currency: Pay me in dollars. Language: Write/say it in English.

For

*in this coffee shop *type in *in my apartment Goal: Set out for Alaksa. Distance: For 7 miles

* in the past * in the present Duration: For 7 years.

Exchange: Buy for $4.

* I was interested in Reason: California is famous for its wines. Purpose: Fishing for trout.

To

* search for * hope for Direction: Go to the movies

* but for all the convenience the Internet offers Until: Work from 9 to 5 Before: A quarter to 11:00 Amount: He is smart to such an extent... * reference to how little Ive developed Equal Standing or Ability: Run with the fastest. Accompany: Dance to the music * dirty lyrics to Chipmunk songs

With

Alongside/near: Even with the wall. * start with the same letter * compared with hers

Together: He grew wiser with the years. * with no answer

In regard to: Pleased with the gift. Manner: Spoke with ease.