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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

COURSE MATERIAL FOR DEPARTMENTAL PROMOTION EXAMINATION (DPE)

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Table of contents
CH: 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 7

1.1 What Is Computer? ................................................................................................................. 7 1.2 Characteristics Of Computers ................................................................................................. 7 1.3 Evolution Of Computers ......................................................................................................... 7 1.4 The Computer Generations ..................................................................................................... 8 1.4.1 First Generation (1942-1955 ......................................................................................... 8 1.4.2 Second Generation (1955-1964 .................................................................................... 8 1.4.3 Third Generation (1964-1975) ...................................................................................... 8 1.4.4 Fourth Generation (1975-1989) .................................................................................... 8 1.4.5 Fifth Generation (1989-Present..................................................................................... 8 CH: 2 COMPUTER HARDWARE ............................................................................................. 10

2.1 Computer System ................................................................................................................. 10 2.2 Basic Computer Organization............................................................................................... 10 2.3 Base Unit .............................................................................................................................. 11 2.4 Input/Output Devices ............................................................................................................ 11 2.4.1 Keyboard..................................................................................................................... 12 2.4.2 Monitor ....................................................................................................................... 14 2.4.3 Mouse ......................................................................................................................... 15 2.4.4 Printer ......................................................................................................................... 17 2.4.5 Plotters ........................................................................................................................ 23 2.4.6 Scanners ...................................................................................................................... 23 2.4.7 Digital Cameras .......................................................................................................... 24 2.5 Case ...................................................................................................................................... 24 2.6 Cards ..................................................................................................................................... 24 2.7 Cables ................................................................................................................................... 25 2.8 Memory ................................................................................................................................ 25 2.9 Storage Devices: ................................................................................................................... 25 2.9.1 Disk Drives .................................................................................................................. 25 2.9.2 Hard & Floppy Drives ................................................................................................. 26 2.9.3 Compact Disks ............................................................................................................ 27 2.9.4 Disk Drive Characteristics .......................................................................................... 27 2.9.5 Usb .............................................................................................................................. 30 2.10 Modem .................................................................................................................................. 30 CH: 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 CH: 4 4.1 4.2 COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE .................................................................................... 32 Computer System Block Diagram ........................................................................................ 32 The Central Processor ........................................................................................................... 32 Programs: Instructions And Operands .................................................................................. 32 Computer Memory ............................................................................................................... 33 Types Of Computer Memory................................................................................................ 34 Input/Output Bus .................................................................................................................. 36 Input/Output Processors ....................................................................................................... 37 The Central Processor Revisited........................................................................................... 38 DATA COMMUNICATIONS .......................................................................................... 43 Data Transmission Signals ................................................................................................... 43 Digital Signals ...................................................................................................................... 43

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4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 CH: 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 CH: 6

Data Transmission Circuits................................................................................................... 44 Parallel And Serial Data ....................................................................................................... 45 Data Transmission Techniques ............................................................................................. 46 Data Communications Terminology..................................................................................... 47 Data Transmission Protocols ................................................................................................ 48 Types Of Data Circuits Available......................................................................................... 49 Basic Network Components ................................................................................................. 50 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SOFTWARE ...................................................... 54 What Is Software? ................................................................................................................ 54 Relationship Between Hardware And Software ................................................................... 54 Types Of Software ................................................................................................................ 54 Commercial, Share Ware & Open Source Software: ........................................................... 55 Operating Systems ................................................................................................................ 56 APPLICATIONS OF SOFTWARE................................................................................. 58

6.1 Using Software ..................................................................................................................... 58 6.1.1 Files & Documents ............................................................................................................... 58 6.1.2 Folders & Directories ........................................................................................................... 58 6.1.3 Saving Files Or Documents .................................................................................................. 59 6.1.4 Printing ................................................................................................................................. 60 6.1.5 Exit Or Quit .......................................................................................................................... 60 6.2 Installing New Software ....................................................................................................... 62 6.3 Backing Up Files .................................................................................................................. 63 6.4 Compression And Decompression ....................................................................................... 64 6.5 The Desktop.......................................................................................................................... 64 6.5.1 Desktop Menu ............................................................................................................. 64 6.5.2 Control Panel & System Preferences .......................................................................... 65 6.5.3 My Computer .............................................................................................................. 65 6.5.4 Windows & Finder...................................................................................................... 66 6.5.5 Toolbar ........................................................................................................................ 67 6.5.6 Status Bar .................................................................................................................... 67 6.5.7 Shortcuts & Aliases .................................................................................................... 67 6.5.8 Favorites...................................................................................................................... 67 6.5.9 Programs & Features .................................................................................................. 67 6.5.10 Using Help .................................................................................................................. 68 6.5.11 Microsoft Explorer Bar ............................................................................................... 68 6.5.12 Using Old Dos Programs ............................................................................................. 68 6.5.13 Switching Between Tasks (Programs/ Applications/ Folders) .................................... 68 6.5.14 Hints & Shortcuts........................................................................................................ 68 6.5.15 Different Methods Of Opening Documents And Programs ........................................ 69 6.5.16 Creating Folders .......................................................................................................... 69 6.5.17 Moving And Deleting Files ........................................................................................ 69 6.5.18 Multiple Selection ....................................................................................................... 69 6.5.19 Organizing Your Files And Icons ............................................................................... 70 6.5.20 Troubleshooting .......................................................................................................... 70 6.6 Word Processing ...................................................................................................................... 70 6.7 Database................................................................................................................................... 71 6.8 Spreadsheet .............................................................................................................................. 72 6.9 Graphic Images, Sounds & Animation .................................................................................... 73 CH: 7 INTERNET AND WEB DEVELOPMENT .................................................................... 76

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7.1 Internet .................................................................................................................................. 76 7.2 Email......................................................................................................................................... 77 7.3 Email Attachments ................................................................................................................... 78 7.4 Internet - Newsgroups & Discussion Groups ....................................................................... 80 7.5 Internet - Navigation ............................................................................................................. 81 7.6 Internet Other ..................................................................................................................... 82 7.7 Internet - Search........................................................................................................................ 83 7.8 Ecommerce ........................................................................................................................... 83 7.9 Introduction To Web Development ...................................................................................... 85 7.9.1 Basic Concepts ............................................................................................................ 85 7.9.2 Protocols ..................................................................................................................... 86 7.9.3 Role Of The Webmaster ............................................................................................. 86 7.9.4 Role Of The Web Developer ...................................................................................... 87 7.9.5 Role Of The Web Designer......................................................................................... 87 7.9.6 Html And/Or Publishers ............................................................................................. 87 CH: 8 CH: 9 COMPUTER NETWORKS ............................................................................................. 89 COMPUTER SECURITY ................................................................................................ 91

9.1 Computer Viruses ................................................................................................................. 91 9.1.1 Viruses Take Two Basic Forms .................................................................................. 91 9.1.2 Protect Yourself .......................................................................................................... 92 9.2 Computers & Security .......................................................................................................... 93 9.3 Setting Up Security ............................................................................................................... 94 9.4 Security And Websites ......................................................................................................... 95 9.5 Account Security .................................................................................................................. 95 9.6 Server Security ..................................................................................................................... 95 9.7 Third Party Security.............................................................................................................. 96 9.8 Software Security ................................................................................................................. 96 9.9 Copyright .............................................................................................................................. 96 9.10 Is Security Necessary? .......................................................................................................... 96 Multiple Choice Questions ................................................................................................................... 98

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CH: 1
1.1

INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS COMPUTER?

An electronic device for the storage and processing of information. A programmable machine that inputs, processes and outputs data. An electronic device that stores, retrieves, and processes data, and can be programmed with instructions. A computer is composed of hardware and software, and can exist in a variety of sizes and configurations.

1.2

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

The increasing popularity of computers has proved that it is a very powerful and useful tool. The power and usefulness of this tool are mainly due to its following characteristics which are as given below Automatic Speed Accuracy Diligence (free from tiredness) Versatility Power of Remembering No Feelings

1.3

EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS

The first mechanical adding machine was invented by Blaise Pascal in 1642. Later, in the year 1671, Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz of Germany invented the first calculator for multiplication. Keyboard machines originated in the United States around 1880 and are extensively used even today. Around this period only, Herman Hollerith came up with the concept of punched cards, which were extensively used as input medium in computers even in 1970s. Business machines and calculators made their appearance in Europe and America towards the end of the nineteenth century. Some of the well-known early computers are: The The The The The The Mark I Computers (1937-44) Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-42) ENIAC (1943-46) EDVAC (1946-52) EDSAC (1947-49) UNIVAC I (1951)

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1.4

THE COMPUTER GENERATIONS

1.4.1 FIRST GENERATION (1942-1955)


They were the fastest calculating devices of their time. They were too bulky in size, requiring large rooms for installation. Thousands of vacuum tubes, which were used, emitted large amount of heat and burnt out frequently. Due to low mean time between failures, these computers required almost constant maintenance. These computers were difficult to program and use, they had limited commercial use.

1.4.2 SECOND GENERATION (1955-1964)


They were easier to handle than tubes, since they were made of germanium semiconductor material rather than glass. They were more than ten times faster than the first-generation computers. They were much smaller than a tube. They were less expensive to produce. They dissipated much less heat as compared to vacuum tubes.

1.4.3 THIRD GENERATION (1964-1975)


They were much smaller than second-generation computers. They were capable of performing about 1 million instructions per second. They were much smaller and requiring less space. Timesharing. Affordable (for smaller companies).

1.4.4 FOURTH GENERATION (1975-1989)


PCs were smaller and cheaper than mainframes. Consumed less power than the 3rd generation computers. They were totally general-purpose machines. They had faster and larger primary and secondary storage as compared to third-generation computers. PC-based applications made the PCs a powerful tool for both office and home usage.

1.4.5 FIFTH GENERATION (1989-PRESENT)


Portable PCs (called notebook computers) are much smaller and handy than the PCs of the fourth generation. Uses of standard high-level programming languages allow programs written for one computer to be easily ported to and executed on another computer.

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User friendly interfaces. Less power consumption. Faster and larger primary and secondary storage as compared to their predecessors.

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CH: 2 2.1

COMPUTER HARDWARE COMPUTER SYSTEM

A computer system is made up of a number of different sub-component systems which together allow the system to perform calculations and complicated tasks. A computer system could run payrolls, control an engine in a car, fly an airplane or allow a user to play games and balance their cheque book. Computer systems do vary, in size, cost and power, depending upon the task that they are required to perform. In this course, we are primarily concerned about personal computer systems, suitable for small business or home use. The diagram (2.1) below shows a typical personal computer system.

FIG 2.1: BASIC COMPUTER SYSTEM

2.2

BASIC COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

Computer Systems perform the following five basic operations, for converting raw input data into information: Inputting Storing Processing The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system. Saving data and instructions to make them readily available for initial or additional processing, as and when required. Performing arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply, divide, etc.), or logical operations (comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than, etc.) on data, to convert them into a useful information. The process of producing useful information or results for the users, such as a printed report or visual display. Directing the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are performed.

Outputting Controlling

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

2.3

BASE UNIT

The base unit holds the computers motherboard, on which the computers memory storage area (commonly referred to as RAM) and CPU (Central Processing Unit) are located. RAM holds both programs and data, the larger the RAM size, the more complicated the programs that can be run, and the more data that can be processed. RAM is measured in Megabytes (one MB = 1 million characters). The CPU is the device that actually runs all the programs and processes the data. Its like the motor of the car, it does all the work and makes things happen. Currently the Pentium chip or processor, made by Intel, is the most common CPU though there are many other companies that produce processors for personal computers. One example is the CPU made by Motorola which is used in Apple computers.

With faster processors the clock speed becomes more important. Compared to some of the first computers which operated at below 30 megahertz (MHz) the Pentium chips began at 75 MHz in the late 1990's. Speeds now exceed 3000+ MHz or 3 gigahertz (GHz). It depends on the circuit board that the chip is housed in, or the motherboard, as to whether you are able to upgrade to a faster chip. The motherboard contains the circuitry and connections that allow the various components to communicate with each other. The PSU (Power Supply Unit) is also located in the base unit, and it provides power to the memory, CPU and other devices.

2.4

INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES

Input devices allow the user to input information (data) and programs into the computer for analysis or storage, as well as give commands to the computer. Examples of input devices are keyboards, scanners, mice, bar-wands, and touch screens. Output Devices display information on the screen (monitor) or the printer and sends information to other computers. They also display messages about what errors may have occurred and brings up message or dialog box asking for more information to be input. The output device also saves information on the disk for future use.

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2.4.1 KEYBOARD
Keyboards allow users to enter commands and data into the computer system. An example of a command might be to run a cheque book program or dial up a remote computer.

Some of the keys have a special use. They are referred to as command keys. The 3 most common commands are the Control or CTRL, Alternate or Alt and the Shift keys though there can be more (the Windows key for example or the Command key). Each key on a standard keyboard has one or two characters. Press the key to get the lower character and hold Shift to get the upper. Pressing a key on the keyboard generates a code that represents the character associated with the key. The two main codes associated with computers are ASCII and EBCDIC. ASCII is a seven bit code, so characters generated by the keyboard are made available as a seven bit code (a total of 128 different combinations). ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code, and is used primarily by IBM. 00 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F NULL SOH STX ETX EOT ENQ ACK BEL BS HT LF VT FF CR SO SI 10 DLE DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4 NAK SYN ETB CAN EM SUB ESC FS GS RS US 20 space ! " # $ % & ' ( ) * + , . / 30 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ? F G H I J K L M N O V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _ f g h i j k l m n o 40 @ A B C D 50 P Q R S T 60 ` a b c d 70 p q r s t u v w x y z { | } ~ DEL

The ASCII table (values show in hexadecimal)

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

00-1F 20-3F 40-5F 60-7F

Control Codes Punctuation and digits Uppercase Lowercase

Control codes are used to control devices like printers and modems, and to position the cursor. For instance, FF stands for form feed, and HT stands for horizontal tab. Control codes are generated on a standard keyboard by holding down the Ctrl key, and whilst it is depressed, pressing another key. For example, pressing the key combination CTRL-A generates the code sequence SOH, and pressing CTRL-R generates the code sequence DC2. KEYBOARD INTERFACE The majority of keyboards interface to the computer system using a serial interface. The typical connections are power and ground clock serial data BASIC KEYBOARD TYPES The basic keyboard used in computers today is the QWERTY keyboard. It gets it name from the key arrangement as shown in the diagram given below. It is very similar to the type-writer keyboard layout used on most type-writers.

FIG 2.2: PC KEYBOARD

Ergonomically, the QWERTY keyboard has been found to be slow and possibly contribute to repetitive strain injuries (RSI). There have been some attempts to revise the keyboard layout. An alternative is the DVORAK keyboard.

FIG 2.3: DVORAK KEYBOARD

Another attempt is the Microsoft Ergonomic Keyboard.

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

FIG 2.4: MICROSOFT ERGONOMIC KEYBOARD

PC KEYBOARDS There are two main types of keyboards used with the IBM-PC and compatible computers. The standard keyboard is found on PC and XT machines, and the extended keyboard found on 286-486 machines. The extended keyboard has the function keys aligned along the top.

Fig 2.5: PC Extended Keyboard

2.4.2 MONITOR
Monitors are the devices that allow the computer to display information back to the user. This might be in either a text or graphical display. Monitors come in various sizes and types, 14", 15", 17" so on and from the simple monochrome (one colour) screen to full colour screens. The larger the monitor, the more expensive it is, and the larger the image displayed on the screen is.

Most desktop computers use a monitor with a cathode tube and most notebooks use a liquid crystal display (LCD) monitor. Monitors have a number of important features; Screen Resolution refers to the number of dots displayed in the X (across) and Y (down) co-ordinates. Typical

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

screens are capable of displaying 640x480 dots. Larger screens are required for higher resolutions, for example, 1024x768 resolutions displayed on a 14" screen look very small, but the same resolution on a 17" screen is much easier to read. The following table shows some common resolutions Standard Resolution, x, y, colors CGA EGA VGA SVGA XGA 640x200x2 640x350x16 640x480x256 800x600x256 1024x768x65536

Another term used with monitors is refresh rate. This refers to the number of times per second that the image is redrawn on the monitor screen. A refresh rate of 60Hz means the images is redrawn 60 times a second. Typical refresh rates are 60Hz, 72Hz and 75Hz. higher refresh rates are required for larger resolutions, else the viewer tend to notice the image on the screen flicker. The images on the screen have to be refreshed at a reasonable rate (greater than 50Hz); otherwise the human eye perceives the image as flickering.

To get the full benefit of today's software with full colour graphics and animation, computers need a color monitor with a display or graphics card.

2.4.3 MOUSE
The mouse can significantly reduce user input by moving away from typing commands at the keyboard to clicking on buttons or other items displayed on the screen. A mouse is an inverted trackball device that has a number of selection buttons associated with it. Generally if the mouse has two buttons the left one is used to select objects and text and the right one is used to access menus. If the mouse has one button (Mac for instance) it controls all the activity and a mouse with a third button can be used by specific software programs.

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

The mouse is held in the hand and moved across a flat surface. As the mouse is moved, its movement is detected and translated into both X and Y movements, which updates the indicated position of the mouse pointer on the computer screen accordingly. The position of the mouse is shown on the screen as the mouse cursor and is denoted by a number of symbols. Standard mouse pointer Indicates computer is busy MOUSE CONSTRUCTION There are two main types of mouse, mechanical and optical. The mechanical mouse is the most popular type of mouse, uses a round ball which touches the surface of the desk. As the mouse is moved, this round ball also moves. Two rollers inside the mouse case make contact with the rubber ball, and are rotated by its movements. These rollers have encoders on each end which translate the movements into electrical impulses which are sent to the computer and decoded into x and y movements. Another type of mouse uses an optical system to track the movement of the mouse.

FIG 2.6: MOUSE INTERNALS: ROLLER WHEELS

MOUSE CONFIGURATION Under Windows95 and Windows NT, the mouse can be configured for a number of settings. These allow the behavior of the mouse to be adjusted to suit the individual. For example, the mouse pointer and shape, its blinking rate, its speed can be changed. In addition, the mouse can be configured for left hand or right hand operation. The configuration Parameters for altering the mouse's behavior is found under Control Panel.

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

FIG 2.7: MOUSE CONFIGURATION

SELECTING ITEMS WITH THE MOUSE Single Click A single mouse click refers to moving the mouse pointer over the desired item and quickly pressing the left mouse button once. Double Click A double mouse click refers to moving the mouse pointer over the desired item and quickly pressing the left mouse button twice in rapid succession. Drag A drag or move operation is performed by moving the mouse pointer over the desired item and holding the left mouse button down. The mouse is then used to move to drag the object or window to the new position, then the left mouse button is released.

2.4.4 PRINTER
The printer takes the information on your screen and transfers it to paper or a hard copy Printers are available in both color and black and white. Color printers are slower and more expensive than black and white printers. In addition, the technology used to print the information on the paper varies upon the type of printer.

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There are two main classifications of printers. Impact In impact printers, the print head mechanism strikes an inked ribbon located between the print head and the paper. The general features of impact printers are
o o o o o

uses force by applying hammer pins to strike the paper slow speed in characters per second prints on most paper types transparencies not supported multiple copies may be printed at once

The two main types of impact printers are Dot-Matrix and Daisy-Wheel. Non-Impact With non-impact printers, the print head does not make contact with the paper, and no inked ribbon is necessary. The general features of non-impact printers are
o o o o

print head does not make contact with the paper higher speed in characters per second is possible prints on most paper types but better quality obtained with better paper Transparencies usually supported

The three main types of non-impact printers are LaserJet, ink-jet and thermal.

DOT-MATRIX PRINTERS Dot matrix printers are suitable for draft copies and home use, where quality of the finished type is not critical. Dot matrix printers have tended to become cheap, but now are being quickly overtaken by cheap LaserJet and inkjet printers, which offer higher printing speeds and superior quality, as well as good color. Impact printing using an inked ribbon characters are formed from a matrix of dots the character is built up one column of the matrix at a time the print head consists of a number of wires formed vertically, creating one column of the dot matrix for every strike

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

FIG 2.7: DOT MATRIX PRINT HEAD

the number of pins in the print head varies the more print head pins the better the printed quality the print head wires are made of tungsten and are connected to an electronic solenoid

a large number of different characters or graphics can be created using a dot matrix pattern speeds up to 250 characters per second (cps) are possible High speeds causes smudging of the characters, as the print head must stop, fire the pins, wait for the pins to retract, and then move the print head to the next column before firing again. The less time there is involved between firing the pins means it reaches a stage where the pins have not fully retracted from the previous firing, which causes smudging as the print head is moved to the next column position. The character printing speed restriction is thus based on the physical mechanism being used to print the characters.

FIG 2.8: DOT MATRIX PRINT HEAD SOLENOID

FIG 2.9: PANASONIC KXP-1150 DOT MATRIX PRINTER PANASONIC

DAISY-WHEEL PRINTERS Daisy wheel printers use a spoked wheel with characters placed at the end of each spoke. A print hammer is used to strike the desired character onto the ink ribbon and then the paper.

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

The spoked wheel of characters is rotated around until the desired character is under the print hammer, then the print hammer is fired which strikes the character, pushing it against the ink ribbon, and onto the paper, creating the character.

FIG 2.10: DAISY WHEEL PRINT HEAD

Different fonts are available by changing the print wheels. Daisy wheel printers were commonly found in typewriters. Below is an image of the Brother electronic typewriter which uses a Daisy Wheel printer mechanism.

FIG 2.11: BROTHER WP-1700MDS DAISY WHEEL PRINTER BROTHER

LASER-JET PRINTERS LaserJet printers are very common today. Most LaserJet printers have been based on the Canon Print Engine, which originally ran at 4ppm (pages per minute), with a resolution of 300dpi (dots per inch). A refinement to the print engine has increased the speed of printing and resolution of the print quality. The diagram below shows a simplified canon laser print engine.

FIG 2.12: CANON LASERJET PRINT ENGINE

The diagram below shows a laser scanner assembly from a canon based engine.

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

FIG 2.13: LASERJET SCANNER ASSEMBLY

The following diagram below shows a Hewlett Packard Series 5 LaserJet printer.

FIG 2.14: HP LASERJET 5 PRINTER

INK-JET PRINTERS Ink-Jet printers have become the defacto standard for home computers and low cost printing. They offer good quality at an affordable price. conductive ink is forced through a small nozzle producing a small droplet of ink, which is propelled towards the screen surface the size and spacing of the ink drops is kept constant by vibrating the nozzle at a high frequency (100KHz) each drop of ink, after leaving the nozzle, is charged as it passes an electrode the drops are deflected using another electrode characters are formed from a dot-matrix, typically there are 10^3 drops per character print quality is high, speed is slow, typically about 100cps good results may require special non-absorbing paper, overhead transparencies require special material

FIG 2.15: HP DESKJET 680C PRINTER

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

THERMAL PRINTERS Thermal printers are generally used in low cost printers and fax machines. The print head contains high temperature heat elements arranged in a matrix When the print head is pressed against the paper, the heat elements burn small holes in the paper, forming the character The paper is white and develops color (black or blue) when heated above 110 degrees C Printing is generally slow The fumes generated are unpleasant A messy residue is left over by the heating process and can clog up the printer mechanism Print quality is poor and fades with time Special paper is required Some types use a silvery grey paper, which contains an aluminum surface coating. When the print head burns away this layer, it exposes a dyed layer underneath. One application for thermal printers is the production of bar codes. The diagram below illustrates a bar code thermal printer.

FIG 2.16: COGNITIVE SOLUTIONS PD1520 THERMAL PRINTER COGNITIVE SOLUTIONS

PRINTER CONTROLS
The following discussion summarizes the most common button controls available for printer systems. On-line The on-line button switch connects and disconnects the printer from the computer system. When in on-line mode (often indicated by the on-line light being lit), the printer is connected to the computer system and able to receive information from it. When the printer is off-line (indicated by the on-line light being out), the printer is disconnected from the computer system and ignores any information received.

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Form-feed This button switch, when pressed, advances the paper from its current location to the top of the next page. The new position is established as the top of form (beginning of a new page). On printers which support single sheet paper, this prints a single page of paper. Line-feed This button switch, when pressed, advances the paper by a single line. Multiple lines are advanced by holding the button switch down. This button is not present on some printers which use single sheet paper instead of continuous form of papers. The following image shows the front panel for a HP Series II LaserJet printer, with the on-line, form-feed and other buttons clearly visible.

FIG 2.17: HP LASERJET SERIESII FRONT PANEL

2.4.5 PLOTTERS
These devices are similar to printers, but are generally vector based in the way that they draw lines and information on the paper. Vector based means from point to point, in comparison to the way that the majority of CRT displays are drawn, which is pixel based. Vector based tends to give must crisper lines and graphics. There are two different sorts of plotter, one where the paper moves and the other where the paper is stationary. Majority of plotters use serial connections to the computer. The diagram on the left shows the Hewlett Packard HP7475A plotter, a 6 color pen plotter capable of printing up to paper sizes of A3. The pen moves across the paper, and the paper is moved backwards and forwards.

2.4.6 SCANNERS
Scanners allow you to transfer pictures and photographs to your computer. A scanner 'scans' the image from the top to the bottom, one line at a time and transfers it to the computer as a series of bits or a bitmap. You can then take that image and use it in a paint program, send it out as a fax or print it. With

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

optional Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software you can convert printed documents such as newspaper articles to text that can be used in your word processor. Most scanners use TWAIN software that makes the scanner accessible by other software applications. A digital camera allows you to take digital photographs. The images are stored on a memory chip or disk that can be transferred to your computer. Some cameras can also capture sound and video.

2.4.7 DIGITAL CAMERAS


These are cameras which convert the captured photograph directly into a digital image and store it locally inside the camera for later download to a computer. There are bits like a hand held video camera, except they can only take a limited number of frames. Some cameras support multiple frames. The number of pictures that can be stored depends upon the memory available within the camera and the size of each image.

FIG 2.18: SONY DSC-F1 DIGITAL CAMERA SONY

Digital cameras are easy to use and operate, even by novice users. At present, they tend to be expensive and have limited software support for email and faxing. Software included with the Digital Camera includes download capability between the camera and PC, and image editing software for editing the images on the PC.

2.5 Case
The case houses the microchips and circuitry that run the computer. Desktop models usually sit under the monitor and tower models beside. They come in many sizes, including desktop, mini, midi, and full tower. There is usually a room inside to expand or add components at a later time. By removing the cover off the case you may find plate covered empty slots that allow you to add cards. There are various types of slots including IDE, ASI, USB, PCI and Fire wire slots. Notebook computers may have room to expand depending on the type of computer. Most Notebooks also have connections or ports that allow expansion or connection to exterior, peripheral devices such as monitor, portable harddrives or other devices.

2.6 Cards

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Cards are components added to the computers to increase their capability. When adding a peripheral device, make sure that your computer has a slot of the type needed by the device. Sound cards allow computers to produce sound like music and voice. The older sound cards were 8 bit then 16 bit then 32 bit. Though human ear can't distinguish the fine difference between sounds produced by the more powerful soundcard they allow for more complex music and music production. Colour cards allow computers to produce colour (with a colour monitor of course). The first colour cards were 2 bit which produced 4 colours [CGA]. It was amazing what could be done with those 4 colours. Next came 4 bit allowing for 16 [EGA and VGA] colours. Then came 16 bit allowing for 1064 colours and then 24 bit which allows for almost 17 million colours and now 32 bit is standard allowing monitors to display almost a billion separate colours. Video cards allow computers to display video and animation. Some video cards allow computers to display television as well as capture frames from video. A video card with a digital video camera allows computers users to produce live video. A high speed or network connection is needed for effective video transmission. Network cards allow computers to connect together to communicate with each other. Network cards have connections for cable, thin wire or wireless networks.

2.7 Cables
Cables connect internal components to the Motherboard, which is a board consists of a series of electronic path ways and connections allowing the CPU to communicate with the other components of the computer.

2.8 Memory
Memory can be very confusing but it is usually one of the easiest pieces of hardware to add to your computer. It is common to confuse chip memory with disk storage. An example of the differences between memory and storage would be the difference between a table where the actual work is done (memory) and a filing cabinet where the finished product is stored (disk). To add a bit more confusion, the computer's hard disk can be used as temporary memory when the program needs more than the chips can provide.

2.9

STORAGE DEVICES:

2.9.1 Disk Drives


All disks need a drive to get information off - or read - and put information on the disk - or write. Each drive is designed for a specific type of disk whether it is a CD, DVD, hard disk or floppy. Often the term 'disk' and 'drive' are used to describe the same thing but it helps to understand that the disk is the storage

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device which contains computer files - or software - and the drive is the mechanism that runs the disk. All information on computers is stored in files. The size of a file is measured in bytes. A byte is approximately one character (letter 'a', number '1', symbol '?' etc....). 1 kilobyte (KB)= 1024 bytes 1 megabyte (MB)= 1024 K bytes 1 gigabyte (GB) = 1024 M bytes A byte is made up of 8 bits. A bit is simply an on or an off signal which passes through the computers circuitry. Every piece of software can be broken down into a series of on or off signals or its Binary Code.

2.9.2 HARD & FLOPPY DRIVES


The floppy drive and hard drive are storage devices that are used to keep permanent copies of programs or data. The floppy drive supports a removable media disk, which the user can take away and use on another computer system. The hard drive is considered a non-removable media disk because it is permanently fixed inside the base unit.

Hard disks store the majority of information on today's modern computer. Today the standard hard disk stores 100 GB or more (this number is constantly increasing). Like a floppy disk information can be stored and deleted as necessary. As files get larger the speed that hard disks can read and write become more important.

HARD DRIVE CONSTRUCTION


This picture shows the physical construction of a hard disk drive.

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

FIG 2.19: HARD DISK DRIVE CONSTRUCTION

Floppy disk or diskette comes in two basic sizes; 5.25 inch (almost obsolete) and 3.5 inch. Both have low and high density versions though 3.5 inch high density disks are the most common.

2.9.3 Compact disks


One trend that is appearing is a move to CDROM and optical storage medium. Many software companies offer both operating systems software and application software on CDROM today. Compact Disks or CDs can store large amounts of information. One disk will store 650 Mb or about 70 or 80 minutes of music. One type is a CD-ROM which stands for Compact Disk Read Only Memory. Another type is a CD-RW which stands for Compact Disk - Read/Write. CD drives can copy information or burn information on to a blank CD. Common Read Only CD blanks can only be written to once though more expensive Read/Write CD's can be used over and over again. DVD disks can store over 4 gigabytes. DVD recorders allow you to store large files, such as movies, on a single disk. Disk size Amount of storage Approximate prints of 8.5 x 11 inch pages 180 pages 360 pages 600 pages 720 pages a small library a feature length movie

5.25 low density 360 Kb 3.5 low density 3.5 high density CD DVD 720 Kb 1.44 Mb 650 MB 4.5 GB 5.25 high density 1.2 Mb

2.9.4 DISK DRIVE CHARACTERISTICS


This section discusses the terminology and characteristics of disk drives.

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TRACKS AND SECTORS


The disk is divided into concentric rings called tracks. A track is thus one complete rotation of the disk underneath the read/write head. The width of a track is determined by the size of the read/write head, and the distance between tracks determined by the mechanics of the stepper motor which controls the positioning of the arm to which the read/write head is attached. Each track is subdivided into a number of sectors. Each sector contains a specific number of bytes or characters. Typical sector capacities are 128, 256, 512, 1024 and 4096 bytes. Increasing the number of tracks is one way to increase the storage capacity of a disk drive. Often the physical size of the disk imposes space restrictions which make this impractical. The most common choice is increasing the number of sectors per track (from 17 to 34), or increasing the number of bytes stored in each sector.

BAD BLOCKS
The drive maintains an internal table which holds the sectors or tracks which cannot be read or written because of the surface imperfections. This table is called the bad block table, and is created when the disk surface is initially scanned during a low level format.

PARTITIONS
A disk partition is sub-division into one or more areas. Each partition can be used to hold a different operating system. The computer system boots from the active partition, and software provided allows the user to select which partition is the active one.

SECTOR INTERLEAVE
This refers to the numbering of the sectors located in a track. A one to one interleave has sectors numbered sequentially, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. The disk drive rotates at a fixed speed, 3600rpm, which means that there is a fixed time interval between each sector. A slow computer can issue a command to read sector 0, storing it in an internal buffer. Whilst it is doing this, the drive makes available sector 1, but the computer is still busy storing sector 0. Thus the computer will now have to wait one full revolution till sector 1 becomes available again. Renumbering the sectors like 0, 8, 1, 9, 2, 10, 3, 11 etc gives a 2:1 interleave. This means that sectors are alternated, giving the computer slightly more time to store sectors internally than previously.

DRIVE CONTROLLER

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

The drive is managed by a special peripheral card called a drive controller. It may handle multiple drives or only a single drive. The controller is often responsible for issuing commands to position the read/write head (especially in MFM and RLL drives). In SCSI and IDE drives, the controller is simplified, and the intelligence is placed onto the drive itself. These drive offer sophisticated features like caching and hot fix (write errors are redirected to another free sector).

ROTATION SPEED
This refers to the speed of rotation of the disk. Most hard disks rotate at 3600rpm. To increase data transfer rates, higher rotational speeds are required, or multiple read/write heads arranged in parallel, or disk arrays (multiple disks arranged in parallel).

LOW/HIGH LEVEL FORMATTING


Low level formatting is placing track and sector information, plus bad block tables and other timing information on the disk. Sector interleave can also be specified at this time. High level formatting involves writing directory structures and file allocation tables to the disk. Often this also means transferring the boot file for the operating system onto the hard disk.

ACCESS TIME
Access time refers to how soon the drive makes data available once issued with the command to read the data. Once a read command is issued, the drive must position the read/write head at the appropriate track number and wait for the correct sector to arrive.

LATENCY
This refers to the delay between the read/write request, and the appearance of the required sector under the read/write head.

TIMING TRACKS
Larger drives used on main frame computers, the disk drives often had timing tracks written. These tracks were used for alignment purposes, to ensure that the read/write head was accurately positioned over the track. The read/write head was moved until the pulses picked up from the timing head were at a maximum. It means that the read/write head was correctly positioned over the data track.

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Newer more accurate mechanisms have tended to make this obsolete.

2.9.5 USB
Another storage device is a USB, which is an external peripheral interface standard for communication between a computer and external peripherals over a cable using biserial transmission There are many other storage devices including tapes, Panasonic's LS120 3.5 inch diskettes, Iomega's Zip & Jazz disks, VCR tape and many others. Innovation in storage technology is currently advancing rapidly.

2.10 MODEM
A modem is a device which allows the user to connect their computer system to another computer system. A modem attaches to a telephone line, and dials up another computer via the telephone. The modem converts the computer signals and they work over the telephone circuits used by the telephone companies. A modem can be an internal device that is located inside the base unit, or, as shown in the given figure. modem is an external device that attaches to the base unit via a cable

The term Modem stands for modulate and demodulate which changes the signal from digital, which computers use, to analog, which telephones use and then back again. A high speed connection also requires a modem but because the information is transferred digitally it isn't required to change the signal from digital to analog but is used to create the connection between your computer and the computer you are connecting with. Modems are measured by the speed that the information is transferred. The measuring tool is called the baud rate. Originally modems worked at speeds below 2400 baud but today analog speeds of 56,000 are common. Cable, wireless or digital subscriber lines (DSL) modems can transfer information much faster with rates of 300,000 baud and up. Modems also use Error Correction which corrects transmission errors by constantly checking whether the information was received properly or not and Compression which allows for faster data transfer rates. Information is transferred in packets. Each packet is checked for errors and is re-sent if there is an error.

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

FIG 2.20: MODEMS IN A NETWORK

Modem Status Lights external modems, a number of lights are provided to indicate modem status.

HS High Speed: the modem is operating at its highest available speed AA Auto Answer: the model will automatically answer incoming calls CD Carrier Detect: Means it has detected a carrier signal from a remote computer OH Off Hook: lights when the modem takes control of the phone line MR Modem Ready: the modem is turned on and is ready RD Receive Data: Flickers to indicate incoming data SD Send Data: Flickers to indicate data is being transmitted

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

CH: 3

COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

3.1

COMPUTER SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

The functional diagram of a typical computer system is as shown below,

FIG 3.1: COMPUTER SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

3.2

THE CENTRAL PROCESSOR

The central processor (CPU) is the chip which acts as a control centre for all operations. It executes instructions (a program) which are contained in the memory section. Basic operations involve the transfer of data between itself and the memory section manipulation of data in the memory section or stored internally the transfer of data between itself and input/output devices

The CPU is said to be the brain of any computer system. It provides all the timing and control signals necessary to transfer data from one point to another in the system.

3.3

PROGRAMS: INSTRUCTIONS AND OPERANDS

A program consists of a number of CPU instructions. Each instruction consists of an instruction code one or more operand's (data which the instruction manipulates) The instruction code specifies to the CPU what to do, where the data is located, and where the output data (if any) will be put. Instructions are held in the memory section of the computer system. Instructions are transferred one at a time into the CPU, where they are decoded and then executed. Instructions follow each other in successive memory locations.

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

FIG 3.2: PROGRAM INSTRUCTIONS

Memory locations are numbered sequentially. The processor unit keeps track of the instruction and it is executing by using an internal counter. This counter holds the location in memory of the instruction it is executing. Its name is the program counter (sometimes called instruction pointer).

3.4

COMPUTER MEMORY

Memory contains data or instructions for the processor to execute. All memory has common features.

ADDRESS LOCATIONS
Memory consists of a sequential number of locations, each of which is a specific number of bits wide.
o o o o

byte wide memory 8 bits (PC-8088) word wide 16 bits (XT-8086, AT-80286) double word 32 bits (386DX, 486SX, 486DX) quad word 64 bits (Pentium)

The number of bits per location affects the speed at which data can be moved from one location to another in a computer system. In general, the more bits per location the faster data can be transferred. Each memory location is referred to as address, and generally expressed in hexadecimal notation (using base 16 numbers). The processor selects a specific address in memory by placing the address on a special multi-bit bus called the address bus. The value on this address bus is used by the memory system to find the specific location within the chip which the processor is requiring access to. The total number of address locations which can be accessed by the processor is known as its physical address space. How large this is determined by the size of the address bus, and is often expressed in terms of Kilobytes (x1024) or Megabytes.
o o o

16 bits address bus = 64K (65536 locations) 20 bits address bus = 1MB (IBM PC) 32 bits address bus = 4GB (486DX)

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

ACCESS TIME
Access time refers to how long it takes the processor to read or write to a specific memory location within a chip. The limiting factor is the type of technology used to implement the memory cells inside the chip.

VOLATILITY
This refers to whether or not the contents of the memory are lost when power is turned off. If the contents are lost, the memory is volatile. If the contents are retained, then the memory is non-volatile.

3.5

TYPES OF COMPUTER MEMORY

System memory consists of two main types. ROM (Read Only Memory) This form of memory contains programs which do not change. Examples of these are routines which initialize the computer system hardware when power is turned on. ROM is non-volatile. This means the contents do not disappear when the power to the system is turned off. EPROM is a special type of ROM which can be programmed by the user. Its contents can also be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light. EEPROM is another special type of ROM which can be programmed by the user. It contents are erased by applying a specific voltage to one of its input pins whilst providing the appropriate timing signals. RAM (Random Access Memory) Random Access Memory or RAM is the memory that the computer uses to temporarily store the information as it is being processed. The more information being processed the more RAMS the computer needs. One of the first home computers used 64 kilobytes of RAM memory (Commodore 64). Today's modern computers need a minimum of 64 MB (recommended 128 MB or more) to run Windows or OS 10 with modern software.RAM memory chips come in many different sizes and speeds and can usually be expanded. Older computers came with 512 KB of memory which could be expanded to a maximum of 640 KB. In most modern computers the memory can be expand by adding or replacing the memory chips depending on the processor you have and the type of memory your computer uses. Memory chips range in size from 1 MB to 512 MB. As computer technology changes the type of memory changes as

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

well making old memory chips obsolete. Check your computer manual to find out what kind of memory your computer uses before purchasing new memory chips. This form of memory is used to store data and application programs. The memory is read-write, and volatile. This means the contents disappear when the power to the system is turned off. There are TWO main types of RAM used in computer systems today:
o

Dynamic This memory is based on capacitor technology, and requires the contents of each storage cell within the chip to be periodically refreshed (about every 4ms). It consumes very little power, but suffers from slow access times. Another advantage is the large capacity offered by this technology per chip (16Mbit). Static This memory is based on transistor technology, and it does not require refreshing. It consumes more power (thus generates more heat) than the dynamic type, and is significantly faster. It is often used in high speed computers or as cache memory. Another disadvantage is that the technology uses more silicon space per storage cell than dynamic memory, thus chip capacities are a lot less than dynamic chips. Advantages Cheaper Dynamic RAM Low Power High Density Static RAM Disadvantages Slower Needs refreshing

More Expensive Faster Consumes More Power No need to refresh Low Density

CACHE MEMORY
Cache memory is high speed memory which interfaces between the processor and the system memory. Dynamic memory is used to implement large memory systems in modern computers. This is due to features like low power consumption, high chip densities and low cost.

FIG 3.3: CACHE MEMORY

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Dynamic memory is however slow, and cannot keep up with modern fast processors. When a processor requests data from a memory chip, it expects to receive that data within a specific time. This is expressed as a number of clock cycles. It is common for processors to run what is called a FOUR STAGE BUS CYCLE (which is four processor clocks long). Essentially, during the first processor clock cycle, the address is placed on the address bus. The second processor clock cycle is used to latch the address internally within the memory chip. The third processor clock cycle is used by the chip to find the data and place it on the data bus. The fourth processor clock cycle is used by the processor to latch the data on the data bus into its own internal hold register. Dynamic memory is currently too slow to keep up with processors running at clock rates of 50MHz or greater (each cycle is 20ns). To use dynamic memory with fast processors requires extending the third processor clock cycle by another (or multiples thereof) processor clock cycle. The name for this extra processor clock cycle is called a wait state. What this does is change a four stage bus cycle into a five stage bus cycle (or greater), meaning that the fast processor is actually running just as fast as a slower processor (its being slowed down by the memory subsystem, whenever it accesses memory). It is too expensive to use static memory in place of dynamic memory. To use slow dynamic memory with a fast processor requires an extra hardware subsystem (called cache memory) which fits between the processor and the memory subsystem. All memory accesses by the processor are fed through the cache system. It comprises of an address comparator which monitors the address requests by the processor, high speed static RAM, and extra hardware chips. The cache system starts off by trying to read as much data as possible from the dynamic memory subsystem. It stores this data in its own high speed static memory (or cache). When a processor request arrives, it checks to see if the address request is the same as that which it has already read from the memory sub-system. If it is, it supplies the data directly from its static cache. If the address is not cached, then it lets the processor access the main memory system directly (but the processor does this slower). The cache system then updates its own address counter it uses to read from system memory to that of the processors, and tries to read as much data as possible before the next processor request arrives. When the cache system can respond to the processor request, it is called as cache hit. If the cache system cannot service the processor request, its called a cache miss.

3.6

INPUT/OUTPUT BUS

The IO bus is the interconnection path between the processor and input/output devices (including memory). The bus is divided into THREE main sections Address The address bus is used by the processor to select a specific memory

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

location. This memory location may be in the memory subsystem (either RAM or ROM), or a peripheral device. The address bus is one way only (unidirectional). Data The data bus is used to transfer data between the processor and memory or peripheral devices. The data bus is two-way (read/write, bi-directional). Control The control bus is like the traffic signals. It provides timing, clock, and directional signals for each operation. Most of these signals are generated by the processor, as the processor generally controls the read or write operation. In more complex systems, the memory subsystem or peripheral devices also provide timing signals to complete data transfers, or initiate requests that the processor responds to (called interrupts).

INPUT/OUTPUT PERIPHERAL DEVICES


Peripheral devices allow input and output to occur. Examples of peripheral devices are disk drive controllers keyboards mice video cards parallel and serial cards real-time clocks The processor is involved in the initializations and servicing of these peripheral devices.

3.7

INPUT/OUTPUT PROCESSORS

An input output processor is a special processor dedicated to handling of peripheral devices like terminals, tape and disk units, and printers. Mainframe systems like the IBM 370 use I/O processors to off load work from the system processor. This lets the system processor get more work done executing user programs without having to worry about handling data input and output to terminals or printing documents. The PC has an I/O processor in the keyboard, which handles the complex operations of scanning the keys. In addition, it is now becoming common to have I/O processors on graphics cards. The S3 graphics card is a good example of this, which supports hardware support for scrolling, sizing and moving windows. This removes these tasks from the system processor, and performs them at a much higher rate (up to 30 times faster).

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

3.8

THE CENTRAL PROCESSOR REVISITED

We shall now take a closer look at how the processor functions internally.

THE FETCH, DECODE, EXECUTE CYCLE


Most modern processors work on the fetch, decode, and execute principle. This is also called the Von Nuemen Architecture. The execution of an instruction by a processor is split into THREE distinct phases, Fetch, Decode, and Execute.

FETCH CYCLE
In the first phase, the processor generates the necessary timing signals to fetch the next instruction from the memory system. The instruction is transferred from memory to an internal location inside the processor (the instruction register).

FIG 3.4: fetch cycle

In the above image, the processor is ready to begin the Fetch cycle. The current contents of the instruction counter are address 0100. This value is placed on the address bus, and a READ signal is activated on the control bus. The memory receives this and finds the contents of the memory location 0100, which happens to be the instruction MOV AX, 0. The memory places the instruction on the Data Bus, and the processor then copies the instruction from the Data Bus to the Instruction Register.

DECODE CYCLE
The instruction is decoded by the processor. During this cycle, the processor, if required by the instruction, will get any operands required by the instruction. For instance, the instruction MOV AX, 0 sets the value of the AX register of the processor to the constant value 0. The processor has the instruction (MOV AX),

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

but now needs the constant value 0 to complete the instruction before executing

it.
FIG 3.5: DECODE CYCLE, DECODING THE INSTRUCTION

In the above image, the processor transfers the instruction from the instruction register to the Decode Unit. It compares the instruction to an internal table, and when a match is found, the table contains the list of macro instructions (a number of steps) which are required to perform the instruction. In our case, the instruction means place the value 0 into the AX register. The decode unit now has all the details of how to do this.

EXECUTE CYCLE
In the last phase, the processor executes the instruction. In the example above, this involves setting the contents of the internal register AX to the constant value 0.

FIG 3.6: EXECUTE CYCLE, EXECUTING THE INSTRUCTION

In the above image, the processor executes the series of macro instructions related to the instruction MOV AX, 0. The final part is to adjust the Instruction

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Counter to point to the next instruction to be executed, which is found at address 0102.

GRAPHICAL ANIMATION OF INSTRUCTION FETCH


The following graphic animation illustrates typical operation of an instruction by the processor. It places the contents of the instruction pointer onto the address bus and fetches the instruction. Once decoded, the instruction is executed and the instruction pointer altered to point to the next instruction.

FIG 3.7: ANIMATION OF INSTRUCTION FETCH

We shall now look at the internal operation of the CPU, and how it performs the fetch, decode, execute cycle. Internally, the CPU is made up of a number of discrete sections.

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT


The ALU performs arithmetic calculations. Typical operations performed by the ALU are
o o o o o o

add subtract negate divide shift/rotate multiply

The ALU normally works on two numbers at a time. Often, one of the numbers is found in an internal location of the processor, whilst the other is a constant or found in the memory system. The reason for most arithmetic and logic operations using operands which are located inside the processor is speed. This is due to not having to perform a fetch cycle for transferring the operand from the memory system to an internal hold point (called latch) in order to execute the instruction.

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

The purpose of the ALU is to perform arithmetic and logic operations.

INSTRUCTION POINTER/PROGRAM COUNTER


The processor uses an internal counter to keep track of the instruction it is executing from the system memory. The content of the counter is the location of where the instruction is found (its address number). During the fetch cycle, the processor places the contents of this counter on the address bus. A read signal is issued on the control bus, then timing signals are generated to transfer (copy) the instruction from the memory location in system memory to an internal hold latch inside the processor (called the instruction register). During the decode cycle, the instruction counter is adjusted to point to the next instruction to be executed from system memory (calculated from the current instruction). The purpose of the instruction pointer is to hold the address of the instruction the processor is about to execute from system memory.

INSTRUCTION REGISTER/DECODER
Once the instruction has been copied from system memory to the instruction register inside the processor, the decode cycle starts. The instruction is decoded. This means that the processor figures out precisely the sequence of operations (both internal and external) that must be performed next. The decoded instruction might look like
o o o o

move the A register contents to the ALU left shift the ALU three times move the contents of the ALU to the A register add one to the instruction pointer register

The purpose of the instruction register is to hold a copy of the instruction which the processor is about to execute.

REGISTER BANKS
To provide for the temporary storage of variables or results, most (if not all) processors provide a number of internal hold latches called registers. The number of registers can range from 1 to several hundred, depending upon the architecture of the processor. The reason why internal register banks (a group of registers) are used is speed. Data inside the processor is manipulated significantly faster than data external to the processor (i.e., located in system memory). This is because of the time required to fetch the data from system memory and transfer it into an internal hold latch before it can be manipulated.
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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

For instance, to multiply the contents of a memory location by 2, the processor needs to first read the memory location value to an internal register, transfer it to the accumulator, multiply it by 2, and then write the ALU contents back to the memory location. The two memory cycles consume time. In contrast, to multiply an internal register by 2 requires no external system memory access, and the lack of this overhead means that instructions of this type execute faster than those which make external references to system memory. The purpose of internal processor register banks is to provide temporary storage for variables and calculations.

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

CH: 4
4.1

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
DATA TRANSMISSION SIGNALS

Analogue Signals Analogue signals are what we encounter every day of our life. Speech is an analogue signal, and varies in amplitude (volume) and frequency (pitch). The main characteristics of analogue signals are, Amplitude This is the strength of the signal. It can be expressed a number of different ways (as volts, decibels). The higher the amplitude, the stronger (louder) the signal.

FIG 4.1: SIGNAL AMPLITUDE

Frequency This is the rate of change the signal undergoes every second, expressed in Hertz (Hz), or cycles per second. A 30Hz signal changes thirty times a second. In speech, we refer to it as the number of vibrations per second, as the air that we expel out of our mouth pushes the surrounding air at a specific rate.

FIG 4.2: SIGNAL FREQUENCY

One cycle is defined as a point on the wave to the next identical point. Numbers of cycles are per second determining the frequency of the signal.

4.2

DIGITAL SIGNALS

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Digital signals are the language of modern day computers. Digital signals normally comprise only two states. These are expressed as ON or OFF, 1 or 0 respectively. The following diagram shows a digital signal.

FIG 4.3: DIGITAL SIGNAL SHOWING TWO STATES, 0 AND 1

4.3

DATA TRANSMISSION CIRCUITS

The following is a discussion on the THREE main types of transmission circuits, simplex, half duplex and full duplex. Simplex Data in a simplex channel is always one way. Simplex channels are not often used because it is not possible to send back error or control signals to the transmit end. An example of a simplex channel in a computer system is the interface between the keyboard and the computer, in that key codes need only be sent one way from the keyboard to the computer system.

Fig 4.4: Simplex (one-way) channel Half Duplex A half duplex channel can send and receive, but not at the same time. Its like a one-lane bridge where two way traffic must give a way in order to cross. Only one end transmits at a time, the other end receives.

FIG 4.5: HALF-DUPLEX CHANNEL

Full Duplex

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Data can travel in both directions simultaneously. There is no need to switch from transmit to receive mode like in half duplex. Its like a two lane bridge on a two-lane highway.

FIG 4.6: FULL-DUPLEX CHANNEL

4.4

PARALLEL AND SERIAL DATA

Data may be transmitted between two points in two different ways. Lets consider sending 8 bits of digital data (1 byte). Parallel Each bit uses a separate wire. The organisation looks likes,

Fig 4.7: Parallel Interface To transfer data on a parallel link, a separate line is used as a clock signal. This serves to inform the receiver when data is available. In addition, another line may be used by the receiver to inform the sender that the data has been used, and its ready for the next data.

FIG 4.8: PARALLEL INTERFACE TIMING

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Each bit is sent over a single wire, one after the after. The organisation looks like,

FIG 4.9: SERIAL INTERFACE

No signal lines are used to convey clock (timing information). There are two ways in which timing information is encoded with the signal so that the sender and receiver are synchronized (working on the same data at the same time). If no clock information was sent, the receiver would misinterpret the arriving data (due to bits being lost, going too slow). Parallel transmission is obviously faster, in that all bits are sent at the same time, whereas serial transmission is slower, because only one bit can be sent at a time. Parallel transmission is very costly for anything except short links.

4.5

DATA TRANSMISSION TECHNIQUES

There are TWO main methods of sending data, asynchronous and synchronous. Asynchronous Serial Transmission Because no signal lines are used to convey clock (timing) information, this method groups data together into a sequence of bits (five - eight), then prefixes them with a start bit and a stop bit. The purpose of the start and stop bits was introduced for the old electromechanical tele-typewriters. These used motors driving cams which actuated solenoids which sampled the signal at specific time intervals. The motors took a while to get up to speed, thus by prefixing the first bit with a start bit, this gave time for the motors to get up to speed, and thus acted as a reference point for the start of the first bit. At the end of the character sequence, a stop bit was used to allow the motors/cams etc to get back to normal, in addition, it was also need to fill in time in case the character was an end of line, when the tele-type-writer would need to go to the beginning of a new-line. Without the stop character, the machine could not complete this before the next character arrived.

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

FIG 4.10: ASYNCHRONOUS SIGNAL SHOWING START AND STOP BITS

Synchronous Serial Transmission In synchronous transmission, the line idle state is changed to a known character sequence (7E), which is used to synchronize the receiver to the sender. The start and stop bits are removed, and each character is combined with others into a data packet. The data packet is prefixed with a header field, and suffixed with a trailer field which includes a checksum value (used by the receiver to check for errors in sending).

FIG 4.11: SYNCHRONOUS DATA

The header field is used to convey address information (sender and receiver), packet type and control data. The data field contains the users data (if it can't fit in a single packet, then use multiple packets and number them) or control data. Generally, it has a fixed size. The tail field contains checksum information which the receiver uses to check whether the packet was corrupted during transmission.

4.6

DATA COMMUNICATIONS TERMINOLOGY


an explanation of common terms applicable to data

The following is communications.

Channel A channel is a portion of the communications medium allocated to the sender and receiver for conveying information between them. The communications

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medium is often subdivided into a number of separate paths, each of which is used by a sender and receiver for communication purposes. Baud Rate The baud rate of a data communications system is the number of symbols per second transferred. A symbol may have more than two states, so it may represent more than one binary bit (a binary bit always represents exactly two states). Therefore the baud rate may not equal the bit rate, especially in the case of recent modems, which can have (for example) up to nine bits per symbol. For example, a Bell 212A modem uses Phase Shift Keying (PSK) modulation, and each symbol has one of four phase shifts (of 0(deg), 90(deg), 180(deg), or 270(deg)). Since it requires two bits to represent four states (00, 01, 10, and 11), the modem transmits 1,200 bits/s of information, using a symbol rate of 600 baud. Bits per Second In data communications, a bit per second (abbreviated bps or bit/sec) is a common measure of data speed for computer modems and transmission carriers. As the term implies, the speed in bps is equal to the number of bits transmitted or received each second.

Bandwidth

Bandwidth is the frequency range of a channel, measured as the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies that the channel supports. The maximum transmission speed is dependant upon the available bandwidth. The larger the bandwidth, the higher the transmission speed.

4.7

DATA TRANSMISSION PROTOCOLS

A protocol is a set of rules which governs how data is sent from one point to another. In data communications, there are widely accepted protocols for sending data. Both the sender and receiver must use the same protocol when communicating. BY CONVENTION, THE LEAST SIGNIFICANT BIT IS TRANSMITTED FIRST.

ASYNCHRONOUS PROTOCOLS
Asynchronous systems send data bytes between the sender and receiver. Each data byte is preceded with a start bit, and suffixed with a stop bit. These extra bits serve to synchronize the receiver with the sender. Transmission of these extra bits (2 per byte) reduce data throughput. Synchronization is achieved for each character only. When the sender has no data to transmit, the line is idle and the sender and receiver are NOT in

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synchronization. Asynchronous communications.

protocols

are

suited

for

low

speed

data

SYNCHRONOUS PROTOCOLS
Synchronous protocols involve sending timing information along with the data bytes, so that the receiver can remain in synchronizations with the sender. When the sender has no data to transmit, the sender transmits idle flags (a sequence of alternating 0's and 1's) to maintain sender/receiver synchronization. Data bytes are packaged into small chunks called packets, with address fields being added at the front (header) and checksums at the rear of the packet. There are TWO main types of synchronous protocols used today, character orientated (bisync) and bit orientated (hdlc).

4.8

TYPES OF DATA CIRCUITS AVAILABLE

Public communication carriers offer a number of different circuits to clients. The following section discusses some of the common circuits available. Switched Dial-Up Lines The most common circuit provided by public communication carriers are dial-up telephone circuits. Subscribers send routing information (i.e., the dialed number) to the network, which connects them to the receiver, and then follow this with the information (speech). Switched circuits are not permanent. They exist only for the duration of the connection, and are switched by the public network (it connects the circuits). Switched dial-up lines are not generally suited to data transmission, but are used heavily for some types of services (e.g., Bulletin Boards). Using a modem, a user can use his phone line to dial up a network provider via the phone line and connect to the Internet. At present, speeds up to 56Kbps are possible over standard dial up telephone circuits. Datel (data over dial-up telephone circuit) The public communications carrier provides a dial-up line and modem for the user. The line may be used for speech or data, but not at the same time. The circuit is non-permanent and is switched. The user dials the number, and when the other end modem replies, flicks a switch which connects the modem and disconnects the telephone. It is suited to low speed, intermittent, low volume data requirements. Datel was 300bits per second and is no longer offered. Leased Lines A leased line is a permanent non-switched end to end connection. Data is sent from one end to the other. There is no requirement to send routing information along with the data. Leased lines provide an instant guaranteed method of delivery. They are suited to high volume, high speed data requirements. The cost of the line (which is leased per month), is offset against that of toll or other

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rental charges. In addition, the leased line offers a significantly higher data transmission rate than the Datel circuit. Very high speeds can be achieved on leased lines. The cost varies, and goes up according to the capacity (speed in bits per second) that the customer requires. Packet Switched Circuits Connection is made to the public communications carrier packet network. This is a special network which connects users which send data grouped in packets. Packet technology is suited to medium speed, medium volume data requirements. It offers cheaper cost than the Datel circuit, but for large volumes, is more expensive than the leased circuit. Special hardware and software is required to pocketsize the data before transmission, and depacketize the data on arrival. This adds to the cost (though this equipment can be leased). Packet switched circuits exist for the duration of the call.

ISDN
ISDN refers to a new form of network which integrates voice, data and image in a digitized form. It offers the customer a single interface to support integrated voice and data traffic. Rather than using separate lines for voice (PABX system) and data (leased lines), ISDN uses a single digital line to accommodate these requirements. The basic circuit provided in ISDN is the 2B+D circuit. This is two B channels (each of 64Kbits) and one D channel (of 16Kbits). The D channel is normally used for supervisory and signaling purposes, whilst the B circuits are used for voice and data. ISDN is great for transferring a reasonable amount of data in a short time. It is a dial up on demand service. A lot of Radio stations use ISDN to transfer songs, and companies use it for internet access like dialing up a mail server in another site periodically during the day to transfer email. ISDN is not suited for permanent 24 hour connections. It becomes too costly if used for extended periods. A leased line is a far better option if permanent connection is required.

4.9

BASIC NETWORK COMPONENTS

The basic components of a large scale computer network are as shown below

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FIG 4.12: BASIC COMPONENTS OF A LARGE SCALE NETWORK

Host Computer The host computer provides a centralized computing environment for the execution of application programs. Terminals and peripheral devices are connected to it via front-end processors. It is a large scale main-frame computer with associated disk and tape storage devices. Terminal A terminal is an input device used by a user. It consists of a keyboard and console screen. Most terminals are non-intelligent, in that all processing is performed by the host computer. Data typed at the keyboard is sent to the host computer for processing, and screen updates are sent from the host computer to the console screen of the terminal. Terminals are generally connected via a serial link, though it is now becoming popular to connect terminals via network connections like token ring or Ethernet. A terminal is dependant upon the host computer. It cannot work as a standalone; all processing is done by the host computer. Local Local refers to the location being the same site as the host computer. For instance, local processing means that all processing is done locally, on site, without the need for sending the data somewhere else to be processed. Often, it will be located in the same room or building. Remote Remote refers to an external location other than the present physical site. To support terminals in different cities, these remote terminals are connected to the host computer via data communication links. In general, we could say that a remote terminal is connected via a data communication link (utilizing a modem). Front End Processor A front end processor (sometimes referred to as a communications processor) is a device which interfaces a number of peripheral devices (terminals, disk units, printers, tape units) to the host computer. Data is transferred between the host computer and front end processor using a high speed parallel interface. The front end processor communicates with peripheral devices using slow speed

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serial interfaces. The purpose of the front end processor is to off-load the work of managing peripheral devices from the host computer, allowing it to concentrate on running applications software. The FEP provides the interface between the host computer and the data communications network which comprises all the terminals or other host computers. Concentrator A concentrator is a device which combines a number of low speed devices onto a number of high speed channels. It does this by combining the data from each sub-channel and sending it over the links. Concentrators take advantage of the idle time during transfers, and use this idle time by allocating it to another subchannel. This means that concentrators must have sufficient buffer storage for holding the data from each sub-channel. The purpose of using a concentrator is for combining circuits.

FIG 4.13: CONCENTRATOR

Multiplexer A multiplexer is a device which shares a communication link between a numbers of users. It does this by time or frequency division. It is costly to provide a single circuit for each device (terminal). Imagine having 200 remote terminals, and supplying 200 physical lines for each terminal.

FIG 4.14: SEPARATE CIRCUITS SHOWING NEED FOR A MULTIPLEXOR

Rather than providing a separate circuit for each device, the multiplexer combines each low speed circuit onto a single high speed link. The cost of the single high speed link is less than the required number of low speed links.

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FIG 4.15: CIRCUITS COMBINED USING A MULTIPLEXOR

In time division, the communications link is subdivided in terms of time. Each sub-circuit is given the channel for a limited amount of time, before it is switched over to the next user, and so on.

FIG 4.16: TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

Here it can be seen that each sub-channel occupies the entire bandwidth of the channel, but only for a portion of the time. In frequency division multiplexing, each sub-channel is separated by frequency (each channel is allocated part of the bandwidth of the channel).

FIG 4.17: FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

The speed or bandwidth of the main link is the sum of the individual channel speeds or bandwidth. It can be though of as a many to one device.

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CH: 5
5.1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SOFTWARE


WHAT IS SOFTWARE?

A computer can not do anything on its own. It must be instructed to do a desired job. The term software refers to the set of computer programs, procedures, and associated documents (flow charts, manuals etc.), which describe the program, and how they are to be used.

5.2

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Both hardware and software are necessary for a computer to do useful job. Both are complementary to each other. The same hardware can be loaded with different software to make a computer system perform different types of jobs, just as different songs can be played using the same cassette player.

5.3

TYPES OF SOFTWARE

System Software Application Software

1. System Software System Software is a set of one or more programs, designed to control the operation and extend the processing capability of a computer system. In general, a computers system software performs one or more of the following functions: Supports the development of other application software. Supports the execution of other application software. Monitors the effective use of various hardware resources, such as CPU, memory, peripherals, etc. Communicates with and controls the operation of peripheral devices, such as printer, disk, tape etc.

2. Application Software Application Software is a set of one or more programs, designed to solve a specific problem, or do a specific task. The programs included in an application software packages are called application programs.

FIRMWARE
Computer software in conventional systems is supplied on storage media like CDs, floppies, tapes, disks, etc. However, with the advancement in technology, and the reduction in hardware cost, today, software is also being made available by many computer manufacturers on read-only memory (ROM) chips. These ROM chips can easily be plugged into the computer system, and they form a part

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of the hardware. Such programs (software), which are made available on hardware, are known as Firmware. There are many terms used for process of accessing software including running, executing, starting up, opening, and others. Software is stored on a disk or tape whether that disk is a floppy, hard disk, CD, tape or one of the dozens of other storage devices available. There are millions of different pieces of software available for almost every conceivable need. Software is available commercially through stores and mail order and also available on the Internet. Software is also available through an Open Source license which allows anyone to use the Open Source software free of charge as long as the license is maintained. If you can't find the application that you need software development companies can custom design software for you. The largest software companies offer packages of software or suites that include many of the programs that the average person or business needs. Software packages or suites contain programs that work together and share information, making it easier to combine that information in versatile ways. For example when writing a letter you can get the mailing address from an address book, include a letterhead from a graphics program and included a financial chart from a spreadsheet and combine this collection of information in the body of the letter.

5.4

COMMERCIAL, SHARE WARE & OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE:

The three basic types of software are; commercial, shareware and open source software. Some software is also released into the public domain without a license. Commercial software comes prepackaged and is available from software stores and through the Internet.Shareware is software developed by individual and small companies that cannot afford to market their software world wide or by a company that wants to release a demonstration version of their commercial product. You will have an evaluation period in which you can decide whether to purchase the product or not. Shareware software often is disabled in some way and has a notice attached to explain the legal requirements for using the product. Open Source software is created by generous programmers and released into the public domain for public use. There is usually a copyright notice that must remain with the software product. Open Source software is not public domain in that the company or individual that develops the software retains ownership of the program but the software can be used freely. Many popular Open Source

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applications are being developed and upgraded regularly by individuals and companies that believe in the Open Source concept.

5.5

OPERATING SYSTEMS

All computers need some sort of Operating System (OS). The majority of modern home computers use some form of Microsoft's operating systems. The original Microsoft operating system was called DOS (Disk Operating System) though most computers use Windows. Windows comes in various versions beginning with version 3.x then 95, 98, ME and currently XP. A few computers use IBM's O/S2. Apple's Mac use their own operating system beginning with OS 1 though most modern Macs use version 8.x or 9.x. Apple's latest version is OS 10.1.x. In the past large companies and institutions would have an operating system design exclusively for them but as the commercial operating systems become more sophisticated the benefits of this practice is becoming less apparent. Some computer professionals, Internet Service Providers (ISP) and mainframe computer users use an operating system such as UNIX (or a variant such as Linux), Windows NT or 2000 (Win2k) or one of the other network or server based operating systems. There are many smaller operating systems out there. The problem is that software is currently being developed only for the main operating systems and only the newest versions of these OS. Many older computers with unique operating systems have lots of software already developed for them but there is very little new software being developed for the older computers. The older proprietary operating systems are less likely to offer technical support than the more modern operating systems. The operating system controls the input and output or directs the flow of information to and from the CPU. Much of this is done automatically by the system but it is possible to modify and control your system if you need to. When you turn your computer on it first needs to load the operating system sometimes referred to a booting up. Basically the computer starts from scratch every time you turn the power on. It checks all its components and will usually display a message if there is a problem. Loading the system is usually automatic. Once the system is loaded the user can start the application or program that they are going to use. Most computer users will run Microsoft Windows, Mac OS or Linux as their operating system. These OS are Graphic User Interface (GUI) which allows the user to control or run the computer using a Mouse and Icons. The user simply moves the mouse on a flat surface, rolls the trackball, or moves their hand over the touchpad to control a pointer. They then choose the option they want by pressing a button or touching the pad.

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Without a GUI the user controls the computer using the keys on the keyboard. This is referred to as a Command Line Interface (CLI)

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CH: 6

APPLICATIONS OF SOFTWARE

Computer programs allow users to complete tasks. A program can also be referred to as an application and the two words are used interchangeably. Examples of software programs or applications would be the Operating System (DOS, Windows 9x/Millenium/XP, O/S2, UNIX, MacOS 9.x/10.x and various others), Word processor (typing letters), Spreadsheet (financial info), Database (inventory control and address book), Graphics program, Internet Browser, Email and many others.

6.1

USING SOFTWARE

As well any document that you create, graphic you design, sound you compose, file you make, letter you write, email you send or anything that you create on your computer is referred to as software. All software is stored in files.

6.1.1 FILES & DOCUMENTS


Once you have typed or created a new document or file on your computer, you will have to decide what to do with it. You could print it right away using a Print command and then Exit or Quit your program without saving it, but most of the time you will want to Save your document for future use. The computer saves its information on a disk, most often the hard disk, and the users determine where and when the file or document is saved.

6.1.2 FOLDERS & DIRECTORIES


On the disk are directories or collection of folders. These directories or folders could be compared to a filing cabinet. All files are stored in a directory. Most hard disks have many directories or folders and files can be stored in any of them. Directories can have sub-directories and sub-sub-directories many levels down. The directory immediately below the current directory is called the child directory. The directory immediately above the current one is called the parent directory. The top of the directory structure is called the root directory. When a user adds or installs a new program on the computer the installation process will usually create a new directory or folder to store the application's files.

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Users can create and delete directories or folders as the need arises. An older version of DOS requires the directory be emptied of files before it can be deleted. When removing a directory always check before deleting it to make sure that it doesn't contain files you need. You can easily move files from one folder or directory to another using menu commands, drag & drop using the mouse or a file utility. It is important to understand your computer's directory structure as a file can be misplaced if it is saved in the wrong directory. One of the main problems new users have is creating a filing system. Modern operating systems address the 'filing problem' by automatically creating a (My) Documents folder. By saving files or documents in this folder you will always know where to look for your files. Create sub-folders within this folder for your main projects. Examples could be a separate folder for your correspondence called Letters or a folder for images called Graphics or Pictures. The main Documents folder can also be renamed to what every name you want it to be called.

6.1.3 SAVING FILES OR DOCUMENTS


In order to save a new document or file you must first choose the Save command. Most modern software places this command in a menu which you access with the mouse button or Alt key. Each file must be given a filename so it can be found easily the next time it is needed. Computers using DOS 6.X or older must follow the 8.3 rule: a filename can only be 1 to 8 characters long followed by a 1 to 3 character extension separated by a dot (period or full stop).Modern operating systems allow computer users to use filenames up to 256 characters. Mac users, Windows 9X & NT/2000 and UNIX/LINUX (along with a few others) use long file names but names using over 32 characters get unwieldy. It is better to use a directory or folder to help describe them and keep common files together. Many modern software programs (applications) add their own extension to filenames. These extensions allow operating systems to recognize certain filenames and associate (match) them to the program that created it. As well as choosing a filename, users must choose a directory and/or disk to store the file in. Make sure that you are consistent and use a logical structure. Once you are sure you know where the file is going to be stored press Enter on the keyboard or press the left mouse button over the word Save or Okay to store the document on a disk, in the directory with the filename you have chosen. Some software programs will automatically save files in specific directory that is created when the program is installed (default settings). You can easily change these settings permanently using the applications Preferences or temporarily at the point of saving the file.

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Some common rules are: All files are saved on a disk or storage device. A disk is usually broken up into directories and sometimes into partitions. A directory or folder is a way of keeping like files in a common area. A partitioned disk, though physically a single disk, is treated like separate disks and given a separate drive letter (and/or name). It is possible to save or move files anywhere that your computer can access. This includes disk (or other storage devices) on your computer, to any directory or sub-directory on your computer or on a network that your computer is connected to. Always make sure that you have chosen the correct directory and filename before pressing Enter or choosing Save.

6.1.4 PRINTING
The promise of a paperless office has not happened though conservation is catching on and it is possible to reduce paper consumption by using your computer more effectively. Having said that many computers are attached to printers and there are many reasons to print out documents that you create on your computer. Most software programs and applications allow the user to print the information that is created in the program. When choosing a printer considers the peripheral equipment that you will need as well as the actual printer. Peripherals include paper, ribbons or ink cartridges, toner and occasionally print heads. You may have to adjust some of the settings for the printer to get the output you want. Density adjustments determine how much ink is placed on the paper or how many dots per inch (DPI). Draft quality will print quicker but creates a fainter copy (less dense). Modern Software has a Preview option which shows what the page will look like when it is printed. Portrait prints the document up and down. Landscape prints the document on its side. Most software allow the user to adjust the margin width or the blank space at the top, bottom, left and right edge of the paper.

6.1.5 EXIT OR QUIT


It is important to Exit or Quit a program, application and the operating system before shutting off the computer. It is a good idea to quit a program when you are finished with it as it takes up memory. Exiting a program should free up the memory that the program was using. Having a number of programs running simply uses up resources that may be needed in another project.

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Exiting properly also saves the program settings so that when you return to the application many changes that were made will still be active. Menus

Menus are the most common way of interacting or controlling your software. Though each program has it's own menu, modern software developers have begun establishing some standardization in how they create their menus. Many programs have a menu called File which controls things like Opening, Saving and Printing your file and Exiting the program. Many also have an Edit menu which contains the main editing commands like Cut, Copy and Paste. The items on the menu are Commands or the features of the program. You choose the command that you want with the keyboard, mouse, trackball or touchpad. Commands control the operation of the software. Menu bars are usually positioned at the top of the screen and are accessed by moving the cursor to the menu and pressing the button (left button if there are two). This displays a pull down menu with a number of commands or features. Depending on how the program works either lets go of the button and move to the command you want then press the button again to choose it or while holding down the button, move to the command and let go to choose it. Menus can also be controlled through the keyboard. The most common way of accessing the menu through the keyboard is by pressing the Alt key and using the Arrow or Cursor Movement keys to move through the menu items, then pressing Enter to choose the item you want. Many menu items can also be accessed using Hot key combinations. One common keyboard combination is to

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first tap the Alt key and then press letter key for the command you want.Menus are created in a hierarchy. Some menu items branch out to give even more choices. Some menu items open Dialog Boxes that allow you to choose from a number of different options. Dialog boxes allow computer users to select different options. Some dialog boxes have 2 or more Tabs which can be clicked to choose more options. Once the options have been chosen press Okay to apply the options. Some dialog boxes have an Apply button which will apply the options that you have chosen without closing the dialog box. Choose Cancel to close the dialog box without applying the changes selected. Note that options set with the Apply button cannot be canceled this way. Modern software places the most popular commands on a toolbar for easier access. Simply click the left mouse button over the menu item to access a particular command. These tool bars can usually be customized and often allow the user to move or Tear Off the menu and drag them to a preferred location or Dock on the screen. Menus can also be customized by adding or removing commands. Windows has a context sensitive menu that is activated with the right button. When the right mouse button is clicked over an object on the screen or area of the screen, a specific menu with commands related to that object will be displayed. Click the left mouse button on the command to choose it.

6.2

INSTALLING NEW SOFTWARE

Most software sold today has an automated install sequence that is activated with the press of a button. The installation process will create a directory, if necessary, to store the files related to the new program, uncompress and copy the files to the directory and often adds itself the desktop (Start) menu. Many installation processes will also copy files to other parts of the computer and register itself with the operating system by updating the registry. Some programs will associate themselves to a certain filename extension. Older softwares many not have this option. The installation procedure is the same though. First create a folder or drawer to store the program and its related files in. This makes it easy to find them and minimizes file clutter in the main directory. Copy the files from the installation disk to the folder that you will be running the program from. A lot of Software is compressed and you may need to uncompress it before you can use it. You then can create a new item, create a short cut to the program or add it to your desktop menu or utility program.

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6.3

BACKING UP FILES

Computer errors and software failures happen occasionally so it is important to backup your files and documents. One simple way to backup your files is to copy them to a disk. If there are only a few small files, a floppy disk will work but if you are backing up lots of large files a CD burner, a second hard drive or tape backup may be needed. You can use a software program to automate backups or do it manually. A manual backup usually involves dragging the files or folders to the backup disk or tape to create the duplicate backup. Store your backup files in a safe place out of the sun and away from electro-magnetic devices such as speakers and wires with strong electrical currents. Every file that you create and plan to keep should be backed up. This includes word processing documents, financial information, databases, photos, etc... Some less obvious files that also need to be backed up are email, Internet Favorites or Bookmarks, and Address Books. Check the help files in your email program on how to back up email. Generally each folder name in your email program is a file containing the individual email messages and copying these files to the backup disk or tape will be sufficient. Software preferences such as customized menus and settings can also be backed up. Check your software's help files to find out where these files are located. A newer software version may be installed on the computer before ever needing the backups so make sure that the newer programs can handle the older file format. When to backup is an individual choice. A company should have a backup policy which explains how and when data should be backed up. It all depends on how important the information is and how difficult it would be to duplicate it in the event of a system failure. If the information is critical an automatic backup system that duplicates the documents immediately may be needed (a Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks (RAID) system is an example). If the files are not critical a weekly backup may be all that is needed. It is impossible to determine when a system failure will occur so it is better to be cautious.The backed up data can then be used as an archive, to recover from a system failure or to transfer data to a new computer system. Simply copy the files to the correct folder to restore them. Backup software will have an automatic recovery feature that will restore the backed up file automatically.

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6.4

COMPRESSION AND DECOMPRESSION

Most software you buy or get off the Internet are Compressed. Computers store information in bytes which are made up of on or off signals. The software applications that use these files need to have all the on and off signals (bytes) in place but when the file is stored they can be modified to take up less space on the storage disk or tape. There are commercial and shareware programs that will compress and decompress files for you. The most popular form of data compression is called zip or stuffit but there are others available as well. Programs are also available to compress and decompress your files as you or the applications you are using require them. This can be a way of making more space available on a hard drive. Windows come with a program that will compress part of your hard disk. Be sure to read the documentation before embarking on a project like compressing a hard drive.

6.5

THE DESKTOP

The Desktop offers many features that make using your computer easier. You can easily start programs or applications, copy and move files from one place to another and drag and drop files and program where you want them on the computer or even on to a program's icon to open a file. Open and save menus are streamlined to allow all applications to have the same basic features plus program specific features. Operating systems are often backwardly compatible with older system so that older programs will run. Usually when new programs are created they are designed to work with the newest operating system to allow them to use all the newest features.

6.5.1 DESKTOP MENU


The Start Button or Apple menu starts programs, opens documents, and accesses most parts of the system. Windows Program and Apple Dock menus can be customized as needed. Program or Dock displays a list of the programs that are installed through Windows and available to use Documents displays a list of the last 15 documents used allowing the user to open them directly from this menu Settings displays system components, such as printers, control panel and taskbar Find/Search has search abilities to find files, folders and phrases in documents on your computer Help displays help topics broken up into contents, index and find components Run allows you to start a program from a command line

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Shut down shuts down the computer, restarts the computer or logs you off a network Favorites and Active Desktop is an option available to Windows 98+ (or Internet Explorer 4x) users
Taskbar (Windows) or Dock (Apple)

Taskbar (windows) or Dock (Apple) displays the program running and windows open to bring a program or window to the front, single click on the item on the taskbar or dock right click in Windows and click hold in Apple to display a menu for the item right click an open area or click hold the separator for a Taskbar or Dock menu the Window system tray on the right of the Taskbar displays indicators for certain tasks (for instance a printer icon will appear when the printer is engaged) click and drag the Taskbar to the top, bottom, left or right and choose Dock properties to place Dock on left, right or bottom drag the Taskbar to extend it and the Dock to make it bigger drag and icon to the Dock or Taskbar to add an alias or shortcut and drag the icon off to remove it the Dock and Taskbar can be hidden until needed Use Start/Settings/Taskbar to customize the Start menu properties and choose Apple/Dock to change the Dock properties

6.5.2 CONTROL PANEL & SYSTEM PREFERENCES


used to change system settings like screen savers, time, screen colors also used to add and remove programs, fonts; add and make changes to hardware and software settings

6.5.3 MY COMPUTER
displays all the components of the computer including disk drives and networks all parts of the computer can be accessed through My Computer's hierarchical structure double click on any icon to view the contents of a disk, folder or run a program

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6.5.4 WINDOWS & FINDER


All programs, folders, tasks and most other operations open in a window.

WINDOWS ARE USED TO: share common attributes through out the entire system contain menus for File, Edit, View and Help which change depending on the task File open, rename, delete or change properties of files and folders Send To used to open files in a specified program create "Shortcuts" Edit move, copy and paste files and folders Undo the last change View change how files are displayed toggles Toolbar and Status bar (Microsoft) sorts files by choosing column name can be set system wide

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Help displays help topics for active application

6.5.5 TOOLBAR
displays icon menu of main options

6.5.6 STATUS BAR


shows current status of the window (Microsoft)

6.5.7 SHORTCUTS & ALIASES


can be created anywhere that is convenient to access a program, file or folder select item and choose Create Shortcut or Make Alias then drag or move it to where it is needed use the right mouse button to drag the item to the target and choose Create Shortcut Here from the menu that appears (Microsoft) when you delete a Shortcut or Alias the original application and its icon remain intact

6.5.8 FAVORITES
Collection of short cuts to documents, programs and websites

6.5.9 PROGRAMS & FEATURES


SOME FEATURES Long file names - document names can now use names up to 255 characters including spaces using any character except \ / : * ? " < > | Plug and Play - many hardware devices like CDs, tape drives, upgrade cards, etc... Will automatically be detected and can be automatically installed on the system 32 bit Preemptive Multitasking - allows users to leave a task running while working on another Right Mouse button - used to display event specific or context sensitive menus (Microsoft) Drag and Drop feature allows files or other information to be dragged from one area and dropped in a new location or into an other application
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Active Windows - make your Desktop behave like a web site (Microsoft) Software Update - automates updating software through the Internet System Information or Profile - provides information about the computer system

6.5.10 USING HELP


to get help about a specific procedure click the help button in the top right corner of the screen Contents list general topics grouped by subject Index list specific topics accessed by scroll bars or typing the topic Find creates an index of words in Help and allows searches by word or phrase click Help Topics to return to the Help menu Troubleshooters will step you through a series of steps to solve computer problems (Microsoft)

6.5.11 MICROSOFT EXPLORER BAR


Folder, Search, Favorites, Radio and History information is displayed on the left side of the window click a folder or link to display contents on the right click plus to expand or show the sub-folders and minus to hide them

6.5.12 USING OLD DOS PROGRAMS


many older DOS programs will run under Window the PIF editor is replaced with a Properties dialogue box note that some DOS programs cannot run in a window and require a full screen

6.5.13 SWITCHING BETWEEN TASKS (PROGRAMS/ APPLICATIONS/ FOLDERS)


depending on your system's resources you can have many programs running at once and easily switch from one to another using various methods while holding down Alt, tap the Tab key to cycle through a menu of running tasks click on the taskbar or dock icon of the task you want to bring it to the front

6.5.14 HINTS & SHORTCUTS


The right mouse button is a great feature of the Windows operating system and can be a real time saver. Right click on;

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an empty space of the desktop to change Desktop Properties, My Computer to display or modify your computer's properties, Network Neighborhood to display and modify your network properties, Start menu item to modify it, Right click an icon to work with it, etc. On a Mac hold the mouse button down to display a context menu.

6.5.15 DIFFERENT METHODS OF OPENING DOCUMENTS AND PROGRAMS


Open a program and use the Open command in the File menu Use the Documents command in the Start or Apple menu to open a recently used document Use the Find command in the Start menu or the Sherlock program on a Mac Double click on an icon in a Folder Right click and choose Open Choose Start, Run and type the application (and path)

6.5.16 CREATING FOLDERS


Use the New Folder option in the File menu (or right click) to create a folder in the active window

6.5.17 MOVING AND DELETING FILES


Use Drag & Drop to drag the file or folder from one folder to another with the right button a menu will appear allowing you to Copy or Move the file or folder (Windows) files on the same disk are moved (hold Ctrl to copy) files on another disk are copied (hold Ctrl to move) Use the Edit menu to Cut the file and Paste it in the destination folder Hold down Shift while deleting a file to by pass the Recycle Bin and permanently delete files

6.5.18 MULTIPLE SELECTION


to select files sequentially click on the first file and move to the last file, hold down shift and click on the last file in the sequence to select files non-sequentially click on the first file and hold Ctrl while clicking the rest the two methods can be used in combination

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6.5.19 ORGANIZING YOUR FILES AND ICONS


It is important to develop a filing system early. Create a folder on your Desktop to store your data. Create sub-folders within that folder to sort the various documents, images, sounds and other files that you create and use. A new folder can be created easily and given a logical name which will help organize data. My Documents or Documents is the default folder created by the operating system and can be used as is or rename

6.5.20 TROUBLESHOOTING
Both Windows and Mac have a number of tools built in to assist in solving computer problems Choosing Help allow Window users to access Troubleshooting Wizards that provide step-by-step suggestions System Information under System Tools provide valuable information and access to other system tools in Window System Profiler under Application, Utilities provide information about the Mac Running a Disk Scan occasionally or on a schedule can solve many simple errors

6.6 WORD PROCESSING


The keyboard of a word processor is similar to that of a typewriter, but its capabilities extend far beyond the typewriters. For example, you don't have to press the Return or Enter key at the end of every line - in word processing, the line "wraps around" when it reaches the margin you've set and allows you to continue typing without stopping, you only press Enter (or Return) when you want to start a new paragraph or insert blank lines. If you make a mistake while typing use backspace or delete to erase it. There are many commercial word processing programs including Microsoft Word, Corel WordPerfect, IBM Star Office and others. Windows comes with WordPad to edit and format documents and Notepad to edit text. Mac OS X comes with Text Edit or SimpleText in previous version. Editing functions such as inserting, deleting, moving, and copying characters, words, lines, and even blocks of text are fast and easy with only a few keystrokes. Advanced programs will number pages, repeat material in the same place on every page automatically, and check the spelling of every word in your document. You print your document only after it looks exactly the way you want it to. Finally, copies of your documents can be stored on a disk, enabling you to retrieve, edit, and print them at any time.

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The text appears at the cursor. Use the space bar to place spaces between words. Use backspace to erase to the left of the cursor and delete to erase to the right of the cursor. Use Enter (or Return) to move the cursor down a line. Word processors allow you to type your text in Bold, Italics or Underline. This is useful when you wish to highlight some word or line in a document. To activate Bold, Italics or Underline click the icon button on the Toolbar, type the text that you wish to have highlighted then press Toolbar icon again when you are finished. The indicator on the Toolbar will appear highlighted as long as the highlight style is on. The text can also be modified by changing the Font. A font is the shape and size of a character of text. The three main types are serif (with tails); sans-serif (without tails); and script (similar to handwriting). Text colours can also be changed. Text can also be indented and tab settings added which modify where the text is placed on the page. Rather than pressing the space bar more than once set tabs where you want the cursor to move to. The page can be modified by changing the margins, adding headers or footers (repeating text on each page), page numbering, graphic images and various other ways. The Insert key toggles between Insert and Type over. Sometimes an indicator on the bottom of the screen will display the typing mode you are in. Normally, any text after the cursor will be pushed across the screen (inserted) as new characters are typed in. With Type over on the new character will just replace the old character at the cursor. Editing text is quite easy once you get used to it. Select text that you want to modify with the mouse or by holding down Shift and using the arrow keys. Holding Control (CTRL) will select text one word at a time. Once you have the text selected use Cut (Ctrl-X) to cut the text off the page and into a clipboard. Use Copy (Ctrl-C) to transfer a copy of the selected text to the clipboard. Use Paste (Ctrl-V) to paste the text into the document at the cursor. The Windows clipboard will only hold a single selection of text which is replaced with each new cut or copy.

6.7 DATABASE
A Database is a collection of information stored in a way that makes it easy to retrieve, modify and search. A database can be stored in a single file with all the information stored together in a single table which is called a flat database or stored in multiple tables with some common access information referred to as a relational database.

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There are many commercial database programs including Microsoft Access, Corel Paradox, FileMaker, IBM DB and others. There are also an Open Source databases (such as MySQL). Each person or item in a database has its own Record. Each piece of information about that person or record is stored in Fields. All the information in all the records makes up the Database. Each Field can have information typed into it. Use the Tab key to move forward through the Field and the Shift-Tab to move backwards. Many databases also allow users to use the arrow keys to move around as well. Though many fields only allow a single line of input some allow multiple lines. When the cursor reaches the bottom of a field with multiple lines the text will scroll upwards to show any information that is below the line of sight. If there is more text in the field than there is room on the screen using the arrow keys to move the cursor through the text? It is possible to mask individual fields to make data entry easier. For instance the field for phone numbers can be formatted to only allow numbers to be entered. There are many different ways to use information in a database. In order to use it you can search for or display information using various filters to allow or disallow certain records to display. This is referred to as a query. The data can be arranged to create reports and print the information in a specific format. It is crucial that the information typed into a Database or information updated be saved before leaving the program. Many data errors can be traced back to power-failures or accidental computer shut downs. The data can also be used by other programs for things like invoicing and form letters. The data from a database can be merged with forms created in other programs for a wide range of uses.

6.8 SPREADSHEET
Spreadsheets are used to work with financial information. Spreadsheet charts are laid out in numbered rows and lettered columns. Where the row and column intersect is called a cell. The cell is referred to by the letter and number of the intersection called the cell address. The first cell in a chart is at the intersection of column A and row 1 and is referred to as Cell A1. Some commercial Spreadsheets are Microsoft Excel, Corel QuatroPro, Lotus 123 and others. Tax and accounting software are also spreadsheets. A B C 1

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When working with numbers in a spreadsheet, refer to the 2 cell addresses when creating mathematical formulas. This is 3 because any changes you make to a single cell will be automatically updated without having to reenter the numbers in the rest of the cells. Use the plus sign (+) to add; the minus (-) sign to subtract; the asterix (*) to multiply; and the back slash (/) to divide. Spreadsheets use formulas to create simple to complex mathematical equations. A sheet can be built to handle the financial needs of businesses. Most of the standard editing features are available in the spreadsheet such as Bold, Italics, Underline, Move, Copy and Paste. Information from a spreadsheet can be displayed in chart form. Most spreadsheet programs include templates to handle many of the average financial needs of a home user or small business. These templates can be modified or customized to personalize them for your own needs. Most modern spreadsheet programs allow users to work on many sheets at once and access information from any of the sheets in the workbook group.

6.9 GRAPHIC IMAGES, SOUNDS & ANIMATION


Computer graphics are anything that can be displayed on the screen except the text and sometimes even text falls into the graphics category if it is saved in a graphics format.

Corel Photo Paint

Corel Draw Macromedia Freehand Adobe Illustrator ULead ...and many others

Macromedia Fireworks Adobe Photoshop LView

There are basically vector/structured.

two

types

of

computer

graphic,

bitmapped

and

Bitmapped graphics are images that are mapped to the monitor or screen. The screen is made up of tiny dots called pixels. These dots can display various colours depending on the type of computer hardware and software you have.

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Using shades of red, green and blue (RGB) an image can be displayed on the screen by mapping different colours to the screen in different sequences. Vector graphics use objects created from mathematical formulas to represent things like lines, curves, fills, line thickness, etc. to create the image. Each type of graphic has its own advantages and disadvantages. Older versions of HTML were only able to recognize bitmapped graphics so most graphics created for the Internet, using standard HTML, were created or converted to a bitmap format. The newest version of HTML or XHTML is able to display vector graphics but not all browsers are able to display this graphics. Within each of the two main types there are dozens of different formats. Graphics formats are distinguished by their filename extensions. The three main bitmapped format graphics used on the Internet are .gif, .jpeg (.jpg) and .png. There are many others including .bmp, .tiff (.tif), .pcx, .ppm, .tga and a lot of others. Some of the structured formats are .ai, .cmx, .eps, .wpg, .cgm and a lot of others. Bitmapped graphics can be created and modified in a paint program and vector or structured graphics can be created and modified in a draw program.The main tools in a graphics program allow you to select a section of a picture, erase part of a picture, fill a defined area, select a color, magnify a section, draw free hand, and draw with various tools such as a straight line; a curved line; a rectangle; an oval; and a polygon. You can also modify a drawing by changing the size, color, placement, and, depending on the program, hundreds of other modifications. SOUND Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) or .mpg is multimedia format that is an attempt to create standardization among the various formats available. MPEG has made it possible to place audio content on your website without having it sound tiny and hollow or taking an extreme amount of time to download. There are many different formats for sound including; Microsoft's .wav, Sun's .au & .snd, Real Networks RealAudio, .ra (*), and various others. You may have heard .mid files play when visiting various websites. Musical Instruments Digital Interface (MIDI) files are basically sound tracks which use a collection of sounds contained in the .mid file to play a tune. To create a sound file you will need an audio program. You can then record with a microphone or off a prerecorded medium. Your computer will need to have a sound card properly installed and a speaker to hear your recording. You can save the sound file to play back later. ANIMATION

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With the advent of faster computers comes animation. Though it has been around for years the modern computer has made it possible to include animation in programs without causing them to slow down (much). As with every multimedia format there are a number of types. You may have seen .gif animations on websites. A GIF animation is a series of separate images or frames that display one after the other to give the impression of movement. Other formats are Audio Visual Interleave's .avi, the aforementioned mpg, Microsoft's Media Player .wmv, Apple's Quick Time .qt, .aif(*) & .mov, Real Networks Real Video .rm(*), Macromedia's Flash creates Shockwave .swf, and JavaScript as well as various others. There are various animations or multimedia players available for a free download off the Internet. To create animations, sounds or graphics you will need a program that has the capabilities you want. Visit the various multimedia company websites to read up on their product to see if they can do what you want. (Hint: to find a companys website, type www. replace this with the companies name.com"). Most companies offer free trials that you can download from their website.

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CH: 7

INTERNET AND WEB DEVELOPMENT

7.1

INTERNET

The Internet or the Net is a collection of computers, all linked together, to share information globally. It was first developed in the U.S. by two universities who were both working on the same contract and wanted to share their data. They were faxing information back and forth and then retyping it until they came up with a piece of software called Unix to UNIX Copy Program or UUCP. The Internet was born and has mushroomed outward from that point. There are 4 things that are necessary to "get on the net" with a full graphic interface (picture, sounds, animation, etc...) A computer - preferably with a fast processor (around 100 MHz or more) and lots of memory (16 meg or more) A modem - preferably 56,000 baud or high speed digital Browser Software - often installed with your operating system or can be downloaded off the Internet An ISP - An Internet Service Provider is a service that connects your home or office computer to the Internet Once you have purchased an account with an ISP you will be given an account name. This is often your email address as well. You will also be given a password and should also be provided with instructions on how to change the password to a unique and personalized. The generic password provided with your account should be change to one of your own. Protect your password as you would protect any personal identification number (PIN) number. The ISP will also provide information on how to configure your software. This can be simple or difficult depending on your Operating System. Once configured you simply run the software to connect your computer's modem to the ISP's modem, giving you access to the Internet. There are a number of pieces of software that work together to connect you to the Internet. The first and most complicated is the dialer or socket software. This is the software that makes the physical connection with the ISP's computer and the internet. This needs to be configured only once but you will need instructions from your ISP on how to do this as each ISP has a different setup.

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The second piece is an Internet browser. This is the program that locates websites for you and allows users to maneuver around (surf) the World Wide Web and view web pages. The two most popular today are AOL's Netscape Navigator and Microsoft's Internet Explorer though Mosaic was the first and still used by some people. Opera is another. Before graphic browsers Lynx was the most popular browser and is still available for text browsing. There are also a number of different ones and new ones being developed every once in a while. Some ISPs have a proprietary type of browser though most have given up this practice as it limits the users abilities to browse the Internet. Type the URL or web address of the website that you want to visit in the address bar of your browser and press Enter or click Go. Collect your favorite websites by adding them to your Favorites or Bookmarks. To go to a Favorite or Bookmark, click on the menu and click on the link.

7.2 EMAIL
Email is the electronic equivalent of sending a letter through the mail. There are many different mail reading programs or applications that control email but the basic functions are all the same. An email address directs a message to the recipient. Email addresses are made up of... the account name (often the users first initial and then the last name (sometimes only 8 characters) then the @ symbol then the name of the user's ISP The last 2 or 3 characters describe the type of service called the top level domain name. For example .com stand for commercial site, .ca noncommercial site in Canada, .mil - U.S. military, .gov - U.S. government, .au - noncommercial site in Australia, .net - network, etc... Recently 2 new TLDs were added; .biz, .info. As well as sending and receiving mail the recipient can; save the address for future reference in an address book reply to the original message forward the message to a third party edit a message Check the spelling and a wide range of other options. One of the services provided by your ISP is to provide a storage area or mailbox to collect email in. Email software programs control the transfer of this stored email by downloading the messages from your mailbox on your ISP's computer to your own computer. You must be connected to the Internet to do this.

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An email message is made up of two parts; the header information and the body. The recipient's address (to), the subject, the sender's email address as well as other information are contained in the header. The content of the message is in the body. You can find out information about an email message by viewing the header content. Most email programs had a 'view header' option in the menu. Some companies offer free email service that you can sign up for. These free services rely on advertising for revenue so your recipient will also receive an advertisement with the email. Usually email is accessed through a web browser where the user composes and reads their mail online. The benefit is that you can easily access your mail from any internet terminal and the address is easily disposable (if it gets added to a junk mail list for instance). The disadvantage is that it doesn't have the legitimacy of a business address and it may be difficult to complete transactions. You can also attach files to email messages to send picture, sound, documents, videos and other types of file with your email. Some email programs automatically open attachments such as photos and html code. Change the program's properties or options to turn this feature on or off. Unrequested or spam email has become a problem on the internet. A large percentage of the email sent is this unrequested email which takes up bandwidth and causes prices to rise. Businesses must take time to sort through spam to find the legitimate email which also takes time and money. Most ISPs provide software that will filter out the worst of this email. If you find that you are receiving a lot of unrequested email contact your ISP to see if they can provide you with spam filters.

7.3 EMAIL ATTACHMENTS


An attachment is a computer file or files place inside an email message. Email was originally designed to handle only plain text (no formatting, ie. bold, centering, etc.) which was transferred from one computer to another in a format called ASCII. ASCII is a standard across all computer types which make e-mail universal. Today many modern email programs allow HTML (hypertext markup language) to be included in email messages which allow you to format your email messages with font sizes, bold, centre and such. The recipient must have an HTML capable email reader to see the formatting otherwise they will get a document marked up with HTML tags. To attach a document to an email message drag the file attachment to the body of the message and drop it. An attachment can also be added by choosing File Attachment from the menu. Most modern email programs place a button on the

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Toolbar usually in the shape of a paper clip that you can click. A dialog box will open that allows you to browse and select the file that you want to attach. You can attach more than one file to a single email message. Don't move the original document until the message has been sent. Most documents created on computer, such as word processing documents (Word, WordPerfect, etc.) or spreadsheet documents (Excel, Quatro, etc.) or graphic files (Corel Draw, Paint Shop, or .gif and .jpg files) are stored in their own unique binary code format. This binary format is determined by the program that the file is created with. Email documents are created as text files so in order to send a binary file or document via email, it must first be encoded into a text format and then attached to the email text message. Such an 'encoded' document may end up looking something like this:

UgAAANAAAAALAAAAAgD//zQAQgBvAGQAeQAgAFQAZQB4AHQAAABCAG8AZAB5 ACAAVABlAHg ANMFCwAAAQAACwDT0wQdAAATAAD//wUAsAQAmA0AEA4AaBAAK5sdANPUGxk AgAEAAAgAigI AACKAooCGQDU1BpXAIABAQAIAAAAAAAAAAAAHAD0GlwSGgkAABEJAAAAYAAYE QAAECoAVAB ZQBzACAATgBlAHcAIABSAG8AbQBhAG4AAAAAAAAAVABUAAAAVwDU1AILAAABA AELANTUAws

These lines are all printable or lower-ASCII characters and can be sent via email. When it gets to your computer and you want to view the document, it first must be decoded or converted back to its binary format before it can be opened. Today this is typically handled by your Email program. There are several common encoding standards, the most popular being encoding, mime, and bin hex. Not all email packages support even these three, let along all the non-standard ones. If someone sends you a document encoded in a format that your email program doesn't support the email program will not decode the attachment. The attached file must be loaded into a program to be viewed. If the attached document was originally created in MS-Word you need MS-Word on your computer to work with the document. Most modern software suites can import documents from other suites, but typically it's best to have the correct matching program. Most modern email programs work hand-in-hand with your operating system to try and open the correct program required to view the document sent as an attachment. This is done by matching the file extension such as .jpg, .gif, .doc, etc... With a registered file type. Viruses can also be transferred via email attachments. Because your email software handles the decoding of programs
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sent as attachments it is easy to infect your computer simply by opening an infected attachment. Always check email attachment with an anti-virus program before opening them.

There are several reasons why an attachment will not display properly or at all: 1. The encoded file is corrupted and cannot be decoded. This is usually due to damage in transit and happens very seldom these days. 2. The encoding type is not supported by your e-mail program and so the file cannot be decoded back to its original type. 3. The attached document was created in a program that you don't have on your computer or is not a registered file type. 4. the email program has an option set which automatically locks attached files When sending an attachment you should think about whether the intended recipient has the same program on their computer. When you are sending an attachment to someone you should always use a standard encoding process (the one that comes with your email program is usually best) and send the document in a format that the recipient can view. If in doubt, ask them first by email. Macs users should be aware that most Windows user won't be able to decode a bin hex file. If your email software automatically locks attachments and you want to view the attachment you can change the programs settings by modifying the Preferences or Options. If the formatting isn't important it's better to copy your text from the original program and then paste it into the body of a plain text email message rather than sending an attachment. Everybody's email software can read this 'plain text' ASCII format.

7.4

INTERNET - NEWSGROUPS & DISCUSSION GROUPS

Newsgroups are discussion groups that are going on all the time. You can write a message and post it to a newsgroup in the morning and come back to read a reply to the message in the afternoon. You can also reply to other's messages.

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There are thousands of news groups covering as many topics. Some are moderated, meaning that a person who has knowledge or an interest in a certain topic will receive the message and read it before posting it. This keeps the discussion on topic. Most are not moderated and the discussion can go anywhere but it can be a great way to get a quick reply to your questions. As well as the public newsgroups many organizations and companies will provide discussion groups of bulletin boards that focus on areas related to their own topics. This can be a great spot to find out more about an organization, find a solution to a problem you are having and participate in the discussions related to that company or organization. One problem with posting a message to a discussion or newsgroup is that unscrupulous companies mine the newsgroups for email addresses and then send unsolicited email (spam) to the poster. It is recommended that you disguise your email address using your email software preferences or the bulletin board settings. Many newsgroups have a publicly accessible faq. A faq is a collection of frequently asked questions that have been posted many times to a newsgroup. You may get a gentle reminder or a completely rude and insulting comment if you post a question that is on the faq. It is acceptable to post a question as where the faq is located and you may find that frequent posters will mention the faq in their message.

7.5

INTERNET - NAVIGATION

World Wide Web (WWW) is a collection of web pages connected together with hyperlinks. Each document or page has a unique address that allows you to find it among the millions of other documents on the Web. The address is called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) or sometimes a Uniform Resource Indicator (URI). When you chose a new link by clicking on it or by typing it into the address field your browser sends a request for that document and displays it on the screen. That link can be to a different section of the current document, another document on the same website as the original or on another website anywhere in the world. Web pages are designed using hypertext markup language or HTML.

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Designing a basic HTML page is not difficult after mastering a few simple codes or if you are planning a website you can have a Web Developer to create one for you. The key to the web are the links to different, useful or interesting pages. Many web page users will collect links to their favorite sites or web pages and add them to a bookmark or favorites list. Receiving information from another computer is called downloading. When a user chooses a web page to go to, the browser automatically downloads the information from the page and displays it on the users computer screen. The user can also choose to download specific files. Sending information to another computer is called uploading. To place a web page on a website the developer must upload the file from their computer to the ISPs server. Being Online means being connected to another computer, whether that computer is your ISP, your friends computer across town or a remote office computer, through a modem, or digital connection. Going Offline means disconnecting your computer from the remote connection.

7.6

INTERNET OTHER

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) allows users to transfer files and documents from one computer to another. There are a few different software programs that will make this process quite simple. If you are designing a website you can use FTP to update your website. Computer users can also use an ftp program to download files and software off the internet. Many companies and universities offer FTP sites that contain software which can be downloaded and used on your computer. A search for 'FTP' will display dozens of ftp programs that can be used to download software. Internet Relay Chat (IRC) allows users to participate in real-time discussions with other users through the Internet. A user logs on to an IRC site and then types messages and replies to others messages as they are written. Often an IRC discussion has a topic and users will join to discuss this topic. Other IRC discussions are free flowing and regardless of how centered the discussion is it can take some time to sort out the different threads of discussion in a busy IRC. They are also used for online conferences with a famous or knowledgeable person contributing their time to answer questions and present information. Along the same theme are online game sites where Internet users can compete against other users on the Net. Instant Messaging software, such as ICQ and MSN allows users to find friends and contacts through the Internet and communicate with them in real time. Users maintain a list of contacts which the software will notify when they are online and contact is available. To use an instant messaging service it is

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necessary to have registered software available on the Internet. Instant messaging allows you to chat, send messages and files and various other features but only with people you choose. Often the software and registration is free.

7.7 INTERNET - SEARCH


Search Engines make finding things on the Internet relatively easier. Search engines are run by companies that collect information from the Internet, sort and categorize it and present the information to the user based on keyword searches or through directory listings. It is worth taking some time to learn how to make an effective keyword search as the amount of information that these search engines provide can be overwhelming. It is common to be provided with 10s of thousands of references to any given search term. By narrowing your search to a specific phrase you can target your searches more effectively. Many search engines require that you enclose a search phrase in quotes (e.g. "the cat in the hat"). Different search engines will display different results and sort those results differently. If you don't find the information you want on one search site try another. Some search companies offer Meta searches which are compiled from a number of different search engines' results. Most search sites offer directory listings as well. The information is categorized in a hierarchy from general categories to specific categories. To find a specific web site follow the links down to the category that matches your interest. The results from a search are a list of pages with links to the documents that match your search. Each search engine has a different way of displaying the results but generally you will see a list with the name of the organization or title of the page. You may also see a short description of that web page. Clicking on the title will take you to that page. Though there are hundreds of search engines on the Internet there are only a couple dozen that the majority of people use. If you choose "customize" in your browsers search tool you will see a list of some of these search engines. Website Search As well as Internet searches many websites offer a website search feature to help visitors find information on that specific website. Generally there will be a button marked 'Search' beside a text field. Enter your query to display links to the pages that match.

7.8

ECOMMERCE

Electronic Transactions on the Internet are becoming common place. Books, software and even groceries can be bought and sold with the click of a button (and a credit card). The biggest problem with doing business over the Internet is

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the lack of common standards around security. There are dozens of different standards involving hundreds of different methods. The Internet, by its nature, is an open system which means that information can flow freely from one computer to the next. Information transmitted through the Internet can be intercepted and copied at any point along the path. For this reason it is not a good idea to send confidential information like credit card numbers through the Internet the same way you might send an email to a friend. In order to send confidential information you must be sure that your private information can not be intercepted along the way. The most common method is Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). A transaction computer with an order form for the product that you wish to purchase creates a secure connection which ensures that all the information that you send to it is not accessible to anyone else. If information from a secure connection is intercepted it will be encrypted making it useless to persons with malicious intent. Most small businesses will not find it economical to setup their own secure server and can purchase a service from a third party which offers a transaction service. These services vary but all require a setup fee and some form of payment for transactions performed on their secure server. This payment can involve a monthly fee, a transaction fee, a percentage of the transaction, a credit card company fee or a combination of some/all of these fees. When considering hiring a transaction service a company should decide whether they want to setup their own merchant agreement with the credit card companies or pay the transaction service to use theirs. Some transaction companies retain a percentage of receipts for security deposit until a proven transaction record is established anywhere from 30 to 90 days. Some allow limited outside development of the forms used on the secure server and others insist that the forms be developed in-house. Another model is the Secure Electronic Transaction (SET). This model requires that the customer download and install a wallet into which they enter their password protected credit card information. The SET system development was promoted by the major credit card companies to provide a safe and secure environment for online transactions. The SET "wallet" model requires that the customer obtain a Digital Certificate from a Certified Authority (CA) which they then use to perform the transaction. The Certified Authority, usually the bank or financial institution that the customer deals with, verifies the validity of the Certificate to the merchant. The customer enters their personalized password to verify that they have the authority to use the Certificate and the transaction is made. This model allows

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customers to use their credit cards to purchase items from merchants without transmitting their actual credit card details to the merchant. The merchant uses their merchant agreement with the credit card company to complete transactions, process refunds and verify the validity of the customers credit card information. Though still in its infancy, many billing companies have begun Internet transaction projects using the SET model to allow their customers to pay their bills, check their account status and much more.

7.9

INTRODUCTION TO WEB DEVELOPMENT

Web developers and designers create the websites that makeup the Internet. These series of articles are meant to introduce web development and provide resources but not replace the benefits of taking a course through one of your local education centers. At a very basic level the Internet is one computer connected to another computer through a phone line, cable or wireless signal; communicating with each other. Add to this the ability to connect to any other computer and communicate with it in fractions of a second and you have the Internet in a nutshell. The terms 'net' or 'web' are a way of visualizing this interconnectedness.

7.9.1 BASIC CONCEPTS


When working on a website there are a couple of key concepts that need to be understood. The local computer is the one you work on to develop your website. The remote computer or server is the one that contains website and serves up the web pages to your visitors. For security reasons servers require you to log on before you can work on them. Always consider the file on the server to be the original copy as this is the one that visitors will see. If you need to make changes to an existing web page retrieve a copy of the original from the website first. If more than one person is updating the website, this will avoid overwriting someone else's changes. This also allows you to test the new page(s) before publishing it to the website. Hypertext Markup Language or HTML is the language that is at the core of all documents on the Internet. It was created by Tim Berners-Lee. The language has evolved to work with the larger XML language. Extensible Hypertext Markup Language (XHTML) allows developers to build websites that take advantage of this broader language. An HTML or XHTML document is a text document with instructions for browsers on how to display the web page (Note: HTML and XHTML are used interchangeably through these documents). Hyperlinks tie all

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the documents together integrating the website and connecting it to the rest of the "Net".

7.9.2 PROTOCOLS
Around the mid 90's with the introduction of HTML and graphic capable browsers the Internet has taken off as a major communication tool accessible to vast number of people. As there is no one organization that owns the Internet there are a number of protocols that have been established to make this communication work. These protocols are overseen by the World Wide Web Consortium or the W3C. As of January 2000 the W3C recommends that HTML documents should comply with XHTML 1.0 standards. Visit http://www.w3c.org/ for more information on this and many more Internet protocols and standards. The protocol that connects the computers together and directs the transfer of information has stabilized on Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Error correction is built into this protocol so you can be fairly confident that visitors are seeing the website as it was meant to be viewed. The three main graphic media formats are Graphic Interchange Format (.gif), Joint Photographic Experts Group (.jpg) and Portable Network Graphic (.png).There are many sound media format though Moving Picture Experts Group (.mpeg) and Window Audio (.wav) are currently the most popular. Musical Instrument Digital Interface (.mid) format is a way of storing complete songs in relatively small files. The standards around video and animation media are less straight forward. Streaming technology allows content providers to send information such as audio and video media in a controlled stream rather than as a complete file. There are currently three main formats; Real Audio (.ra, etc), Microsoft (.asf, .wmv, etc) and Apple (.mov, etc). Simple animations can be created using a .gif format. The .mpeg format is very popular as a video/audio format and modern players will attempt to play .mpeg files as they download. Another popular format for animation is Macromedia (.swf).

SEPARATING LAYOUT AND DESIGN


HTML is used to layout the document using the tag structure and styles are used to create the design. For example use tags to define a paragraph but use a style to indent and change the colour of the text in the paragraph.

7.9.3 ROLE OF THE WEBMASTER


The Webmasters role is to oversee the entire website whether they are maintaining the entire site themselves or the site is being maintained by various

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other people. Their role is to keep the site consistent with company or organizational policy, ensure that the site is working properly (i.e. links work, graphics display etc...) and answer questions that are generated from the website. In smaller organizations most often the Webmaster is also the Web Developer. Even if the Webmaster isn't involved in the day to day site maintenance the person taking on this role must have a good understanding of HTML.

7.9.4 ROLE OF THE WEB DEVELOPER


The Web Developer's role is to layout, markup and develop the web content. Their strengths are a strong understanding of HTML and grounding in web server technology. Though a developer will often use a HTML editor or publisher, the core language of the Internet is HTML and that design tool is simply interpreting the hypertext markup language for the developer. If the developer doesn't understand HTML he will, very quickly, find himself in a crisis. Another skill that is not always required but good to have is an understanding of a programming or scripting language. Developers usually use cascading style sheets (CSS) to create complex site-wide formatting of documents and to create dynamic HTML documents. Adding and modifying JavaScript is also a common required task. Many sites also incorporate programs based on a variety of different languages such as Perl, PHP, ASP, etc. Many websites use databases for various functions including updating information, displaying user specific data, submitting queries and tracking transactions as well as many other functions. Knowledge of a range of Simple Query Language (SQL) languages may also be necessary.

7.9.5 ROLE OF THE WEB DESIGNER


A designer's skills are geared to graphical design and visual content. Their job is to create the visual imagery for the site. A background in graphic design and a sense of style are required skills. A designer must also understand HTML and CSS to be able to use these languages when formatting a document.

7.9.6 HTML AND/OR PUBLISHERS


As mentioned it is important that the designer have a strong basis in HTML. That being said much of the design work done today is created in a web design software application. Web design software has improved over the years to become a useful and even required tool of a designer. There are many commercial programs available. Microsoft's FrontPage and Macromedia's Dream weaver are two examples. Mozilla Composer is a free yet versitile web page editor. It takes a bit of practice to understand the quirks of the software but it is a very useful tool. As well as

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commercial products there are many shareware software packages that range from HTML text editors to complete GUI applications. Regardless of the development tools that you use you will find that you are constantly referring back to your favorite text editor. Microsoft's WordPad or Apple's Text Edit (SimpleText) are free options but a good text editor is worth the cost. Which ever application you use be sure to save all HTML documents as a text file.

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CH: 8

COMPUTER NETWORKS

Most people working in office with more than a couple of computers will be using some form of network. As networks become easier to setup and maintain more home users are also setting up networks to share resource such as disk space, printers, Internet connections and access to software. A network is basically two or more computers connected through a cable or wire which share resources. Network software controls how the computers communicate. There are dozens of different types of networks which are impossible to cover in an introduction article. This article focuses on home and small business networks using some version of the Window operating system. To connect computers each of the computers needs a network card with a connection that allows a cable to be connected to it. Computers can be connected directly through a bi-directional cable or through an other piece of hardware called a hub. The hub then connects all the computers in your local network together. Both solutions cost about the same but a hub allows more than two computers to connect. A hub can also be used to connect two local area networks together to create a wide area network. Some form of network software is required. This network protocol software is installed through the network preferences. NetBIOS was commonly used though recently a secure TCP/IP protocol has been developed. The network protocol determines how computers become part of the network and how they are recognized. The network must have a name and you can use some creativity at this point. Each computer must also have a unique name that other computers on the network can access them with. If all goes well this is all you need but often there will be a conflict that can be resolved by establishing exactly how the computer will communicate. To solve these types of conflict your network needs a set DNS server address and each computer in the network needs to be assigned a unique IP address. The addresses usually are in the range of 192.168.x.x where x means any number between 0 and 255. Once these numbers have been entered your network should be functioning with each computer able to see the other computers on the network. You must also decide which resources you want to share. You may want to make a disk or folder available, a printer or tape backup system so that everyone can use it. You may also want to have parts of the network that are either not accessible or accessible only through a password. File and print sharing must be enabling on the computer that will share its resources or host computer and they determine how they are accessed by other computers or clients.A computer with

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an Internet connection can also share that connection with other computers on the network but you should check with your ISP what their policy on sharing Internet connections is. Sharing an Internet connection also raises some serious security issues. Many cable high speed Internet connections use the Network Neighborhood settings to create the Internet connection and connecting your home or office network to this existing system can cause problems. Though you may want to allow a computer in another room of the house to access files or run programs on your computer you probably don't want the kid down the block to have that same access. Security on networks begins with passwords. Everyone who wishes to access the network must logon with a username and password. If someone cancels the password challenge they will be able to access the files and programs on that individual computer but can't access any of the network resources. Specific passwords for important folders or disks can also be set or access to folders or disks can be forbidden. Unlike server/client networks where the server must be running before the computers can communicate the peer-to-peer network that comes packaged with Windows allow any computers that are turned on to communicate with other. Other computers in the network become accessible as user turns them on. Networks can also be open to remote secure access through a virtual private network. A VPN allows a computer to connect to a computer or network through the Internet.

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CH: 9

COMPUTER SECURITY

There is a lot of discussion these days about computer security as more people use email and more services such as banking, mail orders and subscriptions become available through the Internet. But how secure is the Internet and what is computer security?

9.1

COMPUTER VIRUSES

A virus is a program designed by a computer programmer (malicious hacker) to do a certain unwanted function. The virus program can be simply annoying like displaying a happy face on the user's screen at a certain time and date. It can also be very destructive and damage your computer's programs and files causing the computer to stop working. The reasons why hackers create viruses are open for speculation. The most quoted reason is simply to see if it can be done. Other reasons are Ludite based "smash the machine" motivations, antiestablishment/anti-corporate actions, criminal intent, and various others that range into the "conspiracy theory" realm.

9.1.1 VIRUSES TAKE TWO BASIC FORMS


One is a boot sector virus which infects the section of a disk that is first read by the computer. This type of virus infects the boot or master section of any disks that it comes in contact with. The second is a program virus that infects other programs when the infected program is run or executed. Some viruses infect both and others change themselves (polymorphic) depending on the programs they encounter. Though viruses do not damage computer hardware there have been attempts to create programs that will do things like run the hard drive until it fails or lodge itself in the computer's clock (which has a rechargeable battery) allowing it to remain active even months after the computer has been unplugged. Other viruses affect certain microchips (BIOS chip for instance). These microchips need to be modified under normal computer use but the virus program can produce changes which cause them to fail. Other viruses will affect the characters or images displayed on the screen which may give the impression of monitor failure. Viruses can cause a great deal of damage to the computers it infects and can cost a lot of time and money to correct it. Computer viruses have been around for a long time, even before computers became widely used and they will likely remain with us forever. For that reason computer users will always need ways to protect themselves from virus programs. The main, common feature of

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a virus is that it is contagious! Their sole purpose is to spread and infect other computers. A computer gets a virus from an infected file. The virus might attach themselves to a game, a program (both shareware and commercial) or a file downloaded from a bulletin board or the Internet. You cannot get a virus from a plain email message or from a simple text file! That is because the virus needs to be 'run' or executed before it can take effect. This usually happens when the user tries to open an infected program, accesses an infected disk or opens a file with an infected macro or script attached to it. A plain email message is made up of text which does not execute or run when opened. Modern email programs provide the ability to allow users to format email messages with HTML and attach scripts to them for various purposes and it is possible for a malicious hacker to attempt to spread a virus by building a virus script into an HTML type of email message. When you are accepting software or scripts on Internet sites or reading mail from unknown senders it is best not to run a program from that site or sender without checking it with an anti-virus program first.

9.1.2 PROTECT YOURSELF


You can take safeguards against virus infection. The first thing is to get an antivirus program. Most reputable companies that create virus protection programs release an evaluation copy that an Internet user can download for free and use for a certain amount of time. This anti-virus program will be able to check your computer for viruses and repair damage or delete files that are infected with viruses. You may have to replace infected files that cannot be repaired. The second thing you can do is purchase a copy of the program. The reason for this is that viruses are constantly being created. When you purchase an antivirus program you are also purchasing periodical updates which keep your antivirus program up-to-date and able to deal with new viruses as they are encountered. Commercial virus programs also allow the user to customize when and how the program will check the computer for viruses. You will need to renew this updating service periodically. If you find that your computer has been infected with a virus use an anti-virus program to clean your computer and make sure to check all the disks that you use. This includes all the hard drives on your computer(s) and all your floppy disks and CDs as well as any media that you save information on. Remember that the virus can easily re-infect your computer from one infected file! A discussion of viruses would not be complete without mentioning hoaxes. Malicious people without programming skills will send out fake virus warnings

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causing people to take unnecessary measures which often cause your computer harm. One example tries to get the unsuspecting computer user to delete an important system file by warning them that it is a virus. A legitimate virus warning will provide a link to a website operated by an anti-virus company with more information about that virus. Don't forward a virus warning until you have checked out whether it is legitimate.

9.2

COMPUTERS & SECURITY

Before the Internet, computer security was limited to 'closed systems' or network computers such as offices or banks where only people physically in the office could use the computer system. It was quite easy for the network supervisor to set up user names and passwords and since that time people have become used to logging on before they can use these types of computers or resources. With the advent of the Internet, computer users can now work in an 'open system' and security has become much more complicated. Even though you can now connect your home or office computer to the Internet and perform remote transactions without leaving the building you still want to be sure that the transaction is secure. The transaction takes place through the Internet by bouncing the information through various computers before it reaches, for example, the bank's computer. You want to be sure that no one observes the transaction along the way and collects or modifies your transaction information. This is where computer security comes in. There are many different types of security systems though most use a process called encryption. When you connect to your bank or other service to make a transaction you are often required to send your account number or user name as well as a Personal Identification Number (PIN) or password for verification. This information should only be sent after establishing a secure connection. If you are using an Internet browser you will see a small closed lock appearing in the window of the browser. Once you are connected to a secure server any information you send or receive is scrambled or encrypted using a mathematical formula and then reassembled or decrypted at the other end. The computer user usually will not notice this happening as they perform their secure transaction. Anyone with criminal intent who intercepts your transaction will be treated to a stream of garbled nonsense (e.g.. qANQR1DBwU4D560EJv6XqrMQB)! If this is the first time you use a new service you most often will need to setup an account and possibly download a small piece of software called a plug in which allows your computer to create the secure connection or link. The transaction often involves the exchange of a small file that keeps track of the transaction and can act as a flag or bookmark when you next visit that website. These small files are called cookies and are set by the website you are visiting.

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They can contain information such as the type of server you are connecting from, the type of browser you are using, the last site you visited and any information you volunteer. You can view the information stored in the cookie. Try a search for 'cookie' to find the cookies folder. Windows users can view any cookies they are storing in the folder C:\Windows\Cookies\.

9.3

SETTING UP SECURITY

As the most people won't be setting up their own secure server the scope of this section is limited to the topics of protecting email and small business or organizational transactions. Email can be protected using a service or an application (program). There are others but the two that stand out currently are S/MIME and PGP. S/MIME requires the user to register with a 3 party service which issues a digital id that you attach to your message. Though this is usually a commercial service there is often a free introductory period. PGP is free for personal use or a commercial application for business use and is run from your own computer. Both methods allow users to sign or attach a digital identification to the email message which verifies, to the recipient, that the message is from the original person or organization and that the information wasn't tampered with in transit. These methods also allow the user to encrypt their message so that anyone intercepting the message wouldn't be able to read it. You can also decide the level of encryption from low; in which a nerd with some good software and enough time on their hands could possibly decrypt to high (128 bit) which would take a whole mountain of experts weeks to decrypt if even then. Most of us will choose somewhere in between as this process involves increased time and file size. Both methods use key pairs of public and private keys. Your public keys are sent to everyone that you communicate through email with. Your public key can be sent through various methods including posting it to an internet service or sending it as part of an email message. Public keys can also be post on your website in a file. Your friends and associated can add your public key to a file called a key ring). When someone wants to send you a secure email the sender encrypts their messages with your public key. When you receive the email you must decrypt it using your private key. Many email programs will automatically verify that the message is authentic. You will need to type in your password to view the message. Encryption also involves using the key pair but in reverse. Once your message is completed you encrypt the file using the recipient's public key ensuring that only the recipient can ever access that message with their private key. (Editor's note: Don't lose your private key!). Small businesses and organizations that wish to offer transactions over the Internet or Ecommerce can take their chances and set up an unsecured system,

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set up their own secure server or purchase a service from a third party. There are various types including service that take a percentage of the transaction and/or charge a service fee and/or charge for each transaction. Some organizations are more reliable and you should always shop around before committing to a service. Because this type of service is so new the length of time a company has been operating is not always a way to decide. Things to watch for are downtime. If your companys website is operating properly yet the customer or user can't access the transaction server because it is down, too busy or misconfigured they will easily be put off perhaps entirely. Watch for contracts that lock you in as the market is still developing and prices tend to fluctuate. It is easy to switch services by simply changing the address on your website's order forms.

9.4

SECURITY AND WEBSITES

As was stated at the beginning of this document the nature of the Internet is an open system. Having said that there are many reasons and many ways to set up a secure or closed system with in this open framework. Private or member based discussion groups, private files or folders, protected databases, copyright material to name a few all need some way of allowing them to be distributed to the intended recipient only. Also many businesses are creating Intranets which are closed systems only accessible to registered users. An Intranet can provide a way of making company information easily accessible and allows branch offices to communicate with each other easier.

9.5

ACCOUNT SECURITY

Your website itself is protected by your ISP's software. When you attempt to access your web space to change or modify a file using a shell or ftp you are challenged to send your username and password. This is the first line of protection and adequate for many website administrators.

9.6

SERVER SECURITY

The server that your website is installed on is the second line of protection. Most servers have security features built in to them allowing users to password protect folders or build scripts to send a username/password challenge to a user trying to access a file or folder. This allows website administrators the ability to create discussion groups within their site or to place confidential documents or information that is made available only to registered users on their own website. Unfortunately some ISP either doesnt make this option available, charge a premium to use them or only allow their own employees to set them up.

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9.7

THIRD PARTY SECURITY

Another option includes contracting the protection of private files to a separate service, pay a third party to host a private discussion group or obtain web space on another server that allows access to security options. The entire Internet is as close as your computer connection and whether the file the user is viewing is stored in your own current web space or on another server is usually immaterial. When your customers, employees or members moves from one page to another the consistency of the website is the maintained by the design, not the address of the separate pages. It is also possible to control the address that is displayed if required.

9.8

SOFTWARE SECURITY

Another option is to use JavaScript or Java applets to control how customers or members access secure features. This option is only available to users who are using Java enabled browsers. Scripts and applets can control access to documents and databases, create content on the fly based on user input, detect the browser the visitor is using and direct them to the proper page, retrieve cookies and use that information to determine whether a user has access to a certain area or not, as well as many other uses.

9.9

COPYRIGHT

Copyright is to protect using the same process as any original material (books, artwork, film, etc...). Anything that a user gets off the Internet should be treated as privately owned information unless otherwise noted. Anyone posting private information to the Internet should be aware that copyright law is not the same in every country and may be difficult to enforce. It is possible to set up a page that won't be stored on the users computer once they leave the site but that will only slow down not stop users who want to obtain information posted on a website. Notices of copyright are often added to the main page of a website sometimes with a link to a page describing the details of how the content can be used.

9.10 IS SECURITY NECESSARY?


Though you may think that it is not necessary to setup security systems there are many reasons to consider it. I have come across a number of examples of people forging documents and email. A digital signature will be the only way to verify whether a document is genuine or not. Many organizations need to discuss draft articles, changes to bylaws and other documents that could cause problems if they were made public before they are approved. A secure directory within your website is an ideal spot to store sensitive material making it available for members and people who have the proper password.

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One common malicious act is to search websites for email addresses and then add them to spam distribution lists. Unfortunately there is very little that can be done to counter this other than removing your email address from your web site but this makes it difficult for your customers to contact you. Whether you decide to add a security component to your web site project initially it is a good idea to think about or have a discussion about web site security when planning the site. You should also review your security systems periodically whether that is changing your password or reviewing and updating your security system.

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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS Computer fundamentals 1. The time required to perform operations in a unit time is a) Processing speed of computer b) Computing speed C) The processor to generate pluses d) The signals in one micro second

2. 1KB =? a) 128 bytes b) 256 bytes c) 512 bytes d) 1024 bytes 3. An operating system cable of loading more than one programme in memory at a time is called a _________________ operating system a) Multi Application b) Multitasking c) Multi Programming d) Multi language 4. A computer virus

a) Is a program b) Spreads widely through the air c) Replicates itself d) A and C only 5. Microwave transmission, coaxial cables and fiber optics are examples of a) Modems b) Routers c) Communication media d) Ring networks 6. An ink Jet printer is an example of a (n)

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a) Laser printer b) Impact printer c) LCD printer d) Non - Impact printer 7. Data and instructions are put into primary storage by a) Memory b) Secondary storage c) The control unit d) The ALU 8. Software that is written especially for a of business is called as a) Freeware b) Word processing c) Shareware d) Vertical market software

9.

The computer to which a users computer connects in order to access the internet is

called a a) server b) Super computer c) Notebook d) PDA 10. Which of the following is not one of the three fundamental characteristics of a computer? a) High cost b) Reliability c) Speed d) Storage capability

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