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NUMERICAL STUDY OF BASE BLEED EFFECTS ON AERODYNAMIC
DRAG FOR A TRANSONIC PROJECTILE
Jan-Kaung Fu
a
; Shen-Min Liang
b
a
Department of Aeronautics, Chinese Air Force Academy, Kangshan, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
b
Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
To cite this Article Fu, Jan-Kaung and Liang, Shen-Min(1993) 'NUMERICAL STUDY OF BASE BLEED EFFECTS ON
AERODYNAMIC DRAG FOR A TRANSONIC PROJECTILE', International Journal of Computational Fluid Dynamics, 1:
3, 249 273
To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/10618569308904475
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10618569308904475
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Comp. Fluid Dyn., 1993, Vol. I, p. 249-273 O 1993 Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, S.A.
Reprints available directly from the publisher Printed in the United States of America
Photocopying permitted by license only
NUMERICAL STUDY OF BASE BLEED EFFECTS
ON AERODYNAMIC DRAG FOR A TRANSONIC
PROJECTILE
JAN-KAUNG FU
Department of Aeronautics, Chinese Air Force Academy,
Kangshan, Kaohsiung, Taiwan 82012, R. O. C.
SHEN-MIN LIANG
Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Cheng Kung University,
Tainan, Taiwan, R. O. C.
(Received 10 September 1992; in Jinaljorm 16 April 1993)
ABSTRACT
A numerical study is made t o analyze the performance of a secant-ogive-cylinder projectile in the
transonic regime in terms of aerodynamic drag. At transonic speeds, the base drag contributes a major
portion of the total aerodynamic drag, and hence affects projectile's performances significantly. The
base bleed method is applied t o reduce the base drag by varying the value of parameters, the bleed
quantity ( I ) and the bleed area ratio (G). The implicit, diagonalized, symmetric Total Variation
Diminishing (TVD) scheme, accompanied by a suitable grid, is employed t o solve the thin-layer
axisymmetric Navier-Stokes equations coupled with the Baldwin-Lomax turbulence model. The
computed results show that, in comparison with the case without base bleed, an increase in bleed
quantity or a higher injection speed due to a smaller bleed area ratio at fixed bleed quantity can result
in a base (and total) drag reduction. At Mach number 0.96, the reductions in base drag and total drag
can be as high as 64% and 44%, respectively, for I = 0.1 and 0 = 0.3.
1. INTRODUCTION
The secant-ogive-cylinder (SOC) configuration, as shown in Figure 1, has become
one of the standard models for the artillery projectile and/or the missile shell
design'.'. The critical aerodynamic behaviour of projectiles in the transonic regime
can be attributed in part to the complex shock structure existing on the projectile.
Since axisymmetric bodies, like missiles, artillery projectiles and bullets,.often have
a blunt base, the corresponding base drag is usually an appreciable part (typically
about 50%) ' . ~ of the total aerodynamic drag for the transonic speed flight, and
significantly influences the projectiles performances such as the flight range and the
terminal velocity. The pressure and viscous components of aerodynamic drag
generally cannot be reduced significantly without adversely affecting the stability of
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J. - K. FU AND S.-M. LlANG
Figure 1 Configuration of a typical SOC projectile, Ref. I .
the shell; thus, the reduction in base drag becomes a major and direct consideration
for improving the performance of a projectile. A significant amount of work in
reducing the base drag for axisymmetric bodies has been done in the past three
decades mainly by means of b o a t t a i ~ i n ~ ~ - ~ and base bleed4-7. Although in the
transonic regime an additional wave drag is induced by shock wave developed on
the boattail portion, nevertheless, boattailing can effectively reduce the base drag,
leading t o a total drag reduction, due t o the fact that the area of the base region
and extent of flow expansion at the base corner are reduced5-'. While, the base
bleed method is by injecting a small amount of mass flow into the base region in
order t o increase the base pressure, and leads t o a base drag reduction. This concept
of mass injection at the projectile base has been widely studied for supersonic
but fewer dat a are available in the transonic flow r e g i n ~ e ~ - ~ . Thus, the
accurate prediction of the effect of base bleed, in terms of bleed quantity and bleed
area, on the total aerodynamic drag becomes essential for the transonic projectile
shell design.
In the past fifteen years, earlier experimental research programs were
predominantly in the supersonic regime; but in recent years1-*, efforts have been
extended t o the transonic regime. However, in experiments, the individual drag
components, especially the base drag and skin friction drag, are difficult t o
measure, and the cost of experimental measurements (together with limited
transonic fa'dities) are very expansive. Due t o the recent advances in computer
processors, significant progress in numerical procedures3s4"3~14 has been achieved;
thus, numerical simulation is a 'good' approach for predicting all individual drag
components for projectiles on a cost-effective basis.
In the transonic regime, the flow over a SOC projectile is quite complicated
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DRAG FOR A TRANSONIC PROJECTILE 25 1
mainly due t o the instantaneous existences of the fast flow expansion at nose-
cylinder juncture, the interaction between shock waves and turbulent boundary
layer, and the flow separation near the base corner followed by a recirculatory flow
in the base region. Since this complex flow structure often causes numerical
instability due t o improper grid distribution and/or numerical scheme, such as the
Beam-Warming schemels which produces spurious oscillation near the shock
waves. Thus, it is needed t o adopt a robust scheme and proper grids for obtaining
an accurate calculation of transonic flows over the projectiles.
In addition t o producing the oscillating solution near the shock wave, the
traditional central-differencing schemes generally often require special tuning of the
artificial viscosity t o reduce the numerical oscillations. In order t o overcome these
difficulties, an implicit, diagonalized, symmetric Total Variation Diminishing
(TVD) ~c h e r n e ' ~. ~' , accompanied by a suitable grid1', is employed t o solve the thin-
layer axisymmetric Navier-Stokes equations1' coupled with the Baldwin-Lomax
turbulence modelz0. The linearized conservative implicit (LCI) form of TVD
schemez1 is adopted in this study. The TVD scheme not only can avoid numerical
oscillations but also can satisfy the entropy condition so that no expansion shock
is capturedzz."'. Like many shock capturing schemes, the TVD scheme has a
second-order accuracy in regions of smoothness and is first-order accurate at points
of extrema. The assessment of TVD schemes for inviscid- and turbulent-flow
computations by Chen et al.% revealed that the symmetric TVD method requires
less CPU time per iteration and has a faster convergence rate than the upwind TVD
schemes in two-dimensional computations, although both symmetric and upwind
TVD schemes have almost identical accuracy and stability limit.
The objectives of this research are (1) to investigate the flow structure (especially
in the base region) of the SOC projectile with and without base bleed in transonic
regime at zero angle of attack, and (2) t o study systematically the effects of bleed
quantity (I) and bleed area ratio (G) on the variations of nose (or head) pressure
drag (CDH), viscous drag (CDV), base drag (CDB), respectively, and finally the total
drag ( Cm) coefficients. But, the combined effect of boattailing and base bleed is not
considered here.
2. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION
2.1. The Axisymmetric Thin-Layer Navier-Stokes Equations
For an axisymmetric projectile at zero angle of attack, the equations governing the
flow are the azimuthal-invariant Navier-Stokes equations, which can be obtained
from the three-dimensional Navier-Stokes equations. Figure 2 shows the notation
for the Cartesian coordinates x, y, z, the cylindrical coordinates x, 6, R and the
transformed coordinates t , q , 5.. where E, q and r represent the longitudinal, the
circumferential and the near normal coordinates, respectively. For high Reynolds
number flow, the transformed nondimensional axisymmetric thin-layer Navier-
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252 J. - K. FU AND S. -M. LlANG
(a) Cone-cylinder body (b) x = const. plane
(c) 4 = const. plane
Figure 2 Axisymmetric body and coordinate system.
Stokes equations can be written as19
where
with
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DRAG FOR A TRANSONIC PROJECTILE
and
Here U, V, Ware the contravariant velocity components, and the Jacobian, J, is
defined as
Let computations be performed on the 4 = 0 plane. Then, in equation (2d), R = z ,
Rt = zr and Rr = zr for 4 = 0. The metric terms &, qx, qr and Si. are zero when
equations (2a) through (2c) are used, and the rest of the metric terms can be found
in Reference 19.
Although equation (1) contains only two spatial derivatives, it retains all three
momentum equations. In particular, the circumferential velocity is not assumed to
be zero, and computations for spinning projectiles or swirling flow can be
accomplished.
It should be noted that the thin-layer approximation has been widely applied for
computing high Reynolds number turbulent flows over proje~tiles4.L23'4325 . The
validity of the thin-layer approximation was studied by Degani and schiffZ5 who
found that less computing time (about 11%) is required for the thin-layer
approximation compared with the full Navier-Stokes equations, while the change
(or improvement) in the solution (including the separated region) of the full
Navier-Stokes equation is very small (less than 0.5%). The two-layer algebraic
turbulence model of ~al dwi n- ~omax~O is employed. The advantage of this
turbulence model is that it is simple to implement and there is no special need to
determine the outer edge of the boundary layer.
2.2. Grid Generation
In general, it is convenient to use a 0-type grid for the projectile with a basez6. In
this study, the grid generation procedure is based on the numerical approach of
Sorenson's elliptic solverz7 and a simple tangent stretching interpolation method2'.
Once the coordinates of the body and the outer boundary are specified, the elliptic
solver is used to generate a coarse grid (in the r direction). Then, the stretching
interpolation is used to obtain a final grid, as shown in Figure 3. The grid for the
whole computational domain and the local grid near the base region are shown in
Figures 4 and 5, respectively. Grid points are clustered near the body surface as well
as regions with high gradients, and stretched in the far field.
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Figure 3 Local grid near a SOC projectile.
Figure 4 Overview of a 110 x 60 0-type projectile grid.
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Figure 5 Local grid near the base corner.
3. NUMERICAL PROCEDURE
3. I . Approximate Factorization
Approximate factorization method of Beam and warmi ngI5 is applied t o equation
(I), t o obtain a semi-finite-difference equation
where h = At , and A, e and M are the Jacobian matrices defined as
Equation (3) contains two implicit operators in which each operator will produce
a block tridiagonal matrix. The inversion of the block-tridiagonal matrices is the
most time-consuming part of the computation. The overall computational work of
this part can be reduced by introducing a diagonalization of the blocks in the
implicit operators29 and by neglecting the viscous flux ~acobi an~' ~" . Since A and
e can be diagonalized, A = TAF' and e= T ~ A ~ T F ' , where matrices Tc and Tr
consist of the right eigenvectors of A and e, respectively, and the elements of
diagonal matrices A, A' are the corresponding eigenvalues. After neglecting the
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256 J. - K. FU AND S. -M. LlANG
viscous Jacobian on the implicit side and factoring the similarity matrices TE and
Tr outside the spatial derivatives ac and a,, from equation (3) one obtains
3.2. The Symmetric TVD Method
Let t = n At, E = J Af, { = /A{, A'= AtlAf, Xr = At/A{, and ajm+1/2, Tj+1/2, _ T ~ I / Z
denote the quantities a;", Ti, Tcl evaluated at &j+l/z,i. Hence, the values of Qj+l/2,r
and & . r + m are evaluated at the cell surfaces, respectively, using Roe's averaging
procedure32. The final diagonalized form of the symmetric TVD scheme can be
written in the
The detailed form of M can be found in Reference 33.
The term R^( &") on the right hand side of equation (5a) is of the form
where the numerical flux function Ej+ 1/2.1 can be expressed asz1
and Dj+1/2 is the explicit dissipation term. The definition of D is given in
Reference 16.
4. BOUNDARY AND INITIAL CONDITIONS
4. I. Wall Boundary Conditions
The body surface is mapped t o the constant { line ({ = 0) in the computational
domain. On the impermeable surface of a rigid body without spinning, the no slip
condition must be satisfied. While for projectiles with base bleed, the subsonic mass
injection boundary condition is used34. It should be noted that since the amount
of the bleeding air flow is small such that the subsonic mass injection boundary
condition corresponds (or reduced) t o a linear extrapolation if the change in
pressure (Ap =p, - PI ) between the wall pressure, p, and the pressure at first grid
off the wall, pl, is small (about 10% of pl ) . Furthermore, the bleeding air flow used
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DRAG FOR A TRANSONIC PROJECTILE 257
in the present study is assumed t o have a temperature close t o that in the base region
such that the effect of temperature of the bleeding air flow is negligible.
Due t o the absence of a measured wall bleed distribution, a uniform distribution
of surface bleed is employed. The amount of air flow injected into the base region
is specified on the body surface by the mass flow rate mj (=pj uj Aj ), where Aj
denotes the bleed area. Rather than specifying mj, however, it is customary and
convenient to specify the bleed quantity, I, which is defined as4
where 3 is the area ratio Aj/Ab, with Ab the base area. Note that both the bleed
quantity I and the area ratio a are two parameters in the base bleed method for
the base drag reduction. Given I, 3, M, and the extrapolated density pj from the
first interior point off the body surface, the injection velocity uj can be calculated
from equation (8), and v and w are set equal t o zero.
The pressure on the body surface can be obtained from the normal momentum
equation l9
where n denotes the normal direction of the body surface. The total energy e is
obtained from
4. 2. Far Field Boundary Condition
The far field boundary condition is imposed at !: = r,,, (line ED) for an 0-t ype grid
system. On the inflow boundary (Wf,,. < 0), all physical variables, Qi, are fixed at
freestream values for both supersonic and subsonic flows. On the outflow boundary
(Wf,, > 0), all variables Qi are extrapolated from the first interior point off the
outer boundary for M, > 1. While for M, < 1, the same conditions used in
supersonic flow are used except that the total energy e is obtained from equation
(10) with fixed freestream pressure p, and the other extrapolated quantities. Since
the downstream boundary adopted in the present study is far enough (25 calibers)
such that the effect due t o the base bleed on the downstream boundary condition
is small and can be neglected, the simple extrapolation for all of the variables is
used on the downstream boundary (line CD) for both bleeding and non-bleeding
cases.
4. 3. Centerline Boundary Condition
The symmetric condition is applied on the centerlines of projectile ahead of the
nose ([= 0) and aft of the base ((= (,,,). A second-order extrapolation is used
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258
J . - K. FU AND S . - M. LlANG
such that alp = &( pu) = ac(pv) = ar e = 0, and the momentum in the z-direction
(pw) is set equal to zero.
4.4. Initial Condition
In this study, all flow variables are set to the free-stream values initially, then the
boundary conditions are enforced gradually during the iteration process. This slow
impulsive start accompanied with a smaller value of the Courant number, CFL,
helps to reduce the initial transient errors, especially for viscous flows, and to
ensure that no numerical instability is produced during the initial computing
process.
4.5. Selection of Time Step
To maintain numerical stability, the required time step generally is a function of
local grid spacings. Thus, if a constant time step is used for solving the transonic
flows on a highly stretched grid, the smallest time step associated with the smallest
spacing must be used, and the CPU time required for the computations will be
relatively high. For obtaining a fast converged steady-state solution, a spatially
varying time step is used such that more uniform Courant numbers are used
throughout the flow field. This is an effective strategy for a stretched grid system.
The stability criterion for an explicit scheme is used with a larger Courant number,
CFL. The time step varies according to3'
where a is the local sound speed. In the first 50 iterations, a smaller CFL (around
1 .O) is used for avoiding the occurrence of numerical instability. As the iteration
proceeds, the Courant number is increased to a larger value (between 1.5 and 3.0)
for fast convergence and less CPU time.
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Transonic turbulent flows over a zero angle-of-attack SOC projectile with base
bleed are considered. The projectile model has a 3-caliber secant-ogive-nose
followed by a 3-caliber cylinder. All the present computations were performed on
an ALLIANT computer FX2800. A series of computations were based on the
conditions of a stagnation temperature of 580' R and a Reynolds number of
4.6 x l o6 based on the model, length, L. The axisymmetric projectile flows are
computed on the qi = 0 plane, and the flow domain chosen has an outer boundary
about 25 calibers from the projectile. The computational grid used, as shown in
Figure 4, has 110 points in the streamwise direction and 60 points in the direction
normal to the projectile surface. This grid system is clustered near the body surface
with a minimum spacing of A r,i, = 4.2 x lO-'d to ensure that there are at least two
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DRAG FOR A TRANSONIC PROJECTILE
259
grid points inside the laminar sublayer. Steady-state solutions are achieved when the
residual measured by the root-mean-square error in all five conservative variables
is less than 1.5 x The transonic flows over the same SOC projectile for the
case of no base bleed have been studied by the authors36 using the present TVD
scheme, and obtained reasonable and accurate results for all the drag components
and total drag predictions. These computed results for the case of no base bleed are
used for the comparison with the bleed case in this study. Six Mach numbers
ranging from 0.9 to 1.2 are chosen here, and the base bleed takes place over 90%
of the base area.
5. 1. Effect of Bleed Quantity
For determining the effect of mass flow rate of base bleed on the base drag
reduction, five different bleed quantities ( I = 0.025, 0.05, 0.10, 0.15 and 0.20) with
a bleed area ratio of 0.9 are chosen, where I is defined in equation (8). Figures 6
and 7 show the Mach contours and pressure contours of a SOC projectile at Mach
number of 0.96 with bleed quantities of 0 and 0.1, respectively. It is found that
there exist two strong expansions at the nose-cylinder juncture and the base corner,
respectively. For the both cases, the flow structure are almost identical except in the
base region due to the base bleed. The predicted location of a shock wave on the
cylinder is in close agreement with the shadowgraph reported by Kayser and
whiton' . The supersonic region near the base corner (due to the fast flow
expansion) is reduced by the base bleed, and the pressure (or pressure gradient) in
the base region is increased (or decreased) as bleed quantity increases. The velocity
vector fields in the base region for the corresponding cases are shown in Figure 8.
It can be seen that the core of the recirculatory flow moves toward downstream for
the bleed case.
The computed distributions of the pressure coefficient, C,, on the projectile
surface for the above cases are shown in Figure 9. It is found that the pressure
coefficient on the projectile surface is independent of the base bleed except on the
base where the pressure is increased. The distribution of C, beyond the base (x = 6)
represents the pressure coefficient along the symmetry axis, [ = Cmar The pressure
along the symmetry axis is increased from the base, reaching a maximum at the
reattachment point, and followed by a downstream recovery. The predicted
reattachment points are at about x = 7.3 and 7.6 for I = 0 and 0.1, respectively.
Moreover, the peak of the pressure distribution along the symmetry axis is
decreased after base bleed. For the non-bleeding case (I= O), as shown in
Figure 9(a), the Kayser's experiment2 gives higher value of C, on the base surface,
this may be due to a sting is mounted on the projectile base and hence cause some
disturbances on the base pressure. Figure 10 represents the comparison of the base
drag coefficient, Cm, for I= 0 case. The present computed results at all chosen
Mach numbers were well predicted compared with those by the MCDRAG code".
Some large discrepancies between the Kayser's experiments2 and the predictions by
the Beam-Warming schemeL3 at lower Mach number were observed. Note that, in
Kayser's experiments, the higher pressure on base surface due to the existence of
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(b) Pressure contour
Figure 6 Transonic flow over a projectile, M, = 0.96, I = 0.
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(a) Match contour
Figure 7 Transonic flow over a projectile with base bleed, M, = 0.96, G = 0.9, I = 0.1.
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1. - K. FU AND S.-M. LIANG
( a) I = 0
0 I
5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7. 5
X
(b) I =0. 1
Figure 8 Velocity vector field in the base region, M, = 0.96, a = 0. 9.
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DRAG FOR A TRANSONIC PROJECTILE 263
0.6 8.0
0.6 8.0
.
0.4-
0.4-
Present result
- 6.0
0.2 -
0.0-
Cp on t he base - 4.0e
-0.2-
-0.4 -
2.0
-0.6-
-0.8 -0.6-0.4 -0.2 0.0
-0.6
CP
0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
X
(a) I = 0
A EXP ERI MENT~ I = O] Ref. 1
Present result
- 8.0
0.2 -
a
u
Cp on t h e base ; 4.0 #
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8-0.6-0.4 -0.2 0.0
'
- - 0.8,< . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
X
(b) I = 0 . 1
Figure 9 Comparison of pressure distribution on a projectile. M, = 0. 96, G = 0. 9.
o EXPERI MENT[ I = ~ ] Ref. 1
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J. - K. FU AND S.-M. LlANG
0.35
-*- MCDRAC (371
Q.
---
E X P E R I M E N T A L . [ ~ ~
+- -
BE AM- WARMI NG [13
0.30- Present result
MACH NUMBER
Figure 10 Comparison of base drag coefficient of a projectile, I = 0.
the sting leads to a reduction in base drag. And, Hsu et a1.I4 commented the
underpredicted base drag (for M, < 0.98) obtained by the Beam-Warming scheme
is due to an oscillation in the pressure distribution along the base even though a
converged solution was obtained.
The computed head pressure drag coefficient, CDH and viscous drag coefficient,
CDV are found to be independent of the base bleed for Mach numbers from 0.9 to
1.2 (see Table 1). The variations of the base drag coefficient (CDB) and the total
Table 1 Comparison of drag components and drag reduction with different base bleed rates, 8 = 0.9
Mach No. Bleed Rate Head Drag Visc. Drag Base Drag Total Drag CDB ACm ACDB
I ( Q70)
- -
M, CDH CDV CDB Cm Cm Cool,-o CDB(I-o
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0 . 0 5 i . . , . , , ~ , , l , , , , l , , . , l , , , , , , . , ,
I
-0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 c
BLEED RATE, I
Figure 11 Variation of base drag coefficient of a projectile, G = 0.9.
0 . 1 1
-0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.10 C
BLEED RATE, I
Figure 12 Variation of total drag coefficient of a projectile, 3 = 0.9.
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J:K. FU AND S.-M. LlANG
. I . I , . . . . I . . . , , , , , . ( r ! . , , . . , .
0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
MACH NUMBER
Figure 13 Variation of base drag coefficient, G = 0.9.
MACH NUMBER
Figure 14 Variation of total drag coefficient, G = 0.9.
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DRAG FOR A TRANSONIC PROJECTILE 267
drag coefficient (Cm) with base bleed for different Mach numbers are shown in
Figures 11 and 12, respectively. It can be seen that both the base drag and total drag
decrease with increasing bleed quantity. The variations of the base drag coefficient
and total drag coefficient with various freestream Mach numbers at different bleed
quantities are shown in Figures 13 and 14, respectively. These results indicate that
the base bleed used for reducing the base drag is more effective for the supersonic
flows than that in the subsonic flows. As listed in Table I, for larger bleed quantity
(say, I = 0.2), the base drag reduction is over 50% for all three Mach numbers, and
the weights of the base drag reduce from 68.6%, 67.0% and 58.8% for the case of
no base bleed to 51.4070, 50.4% and 38.8% of the total drag at Mach numbers 0.9,
0.96 and 1.2, respectively. While, the reduction in the total drag is about 35.7%,
34.4% and 32% for Mach numbers 0.9, 0.96 and 1.2, respectively. It should be
noted that for the bleeding cases around I 2 0.1, there may be theoretically
inconsistent for the application of the thin-layer concept to describe the base flow.
However, for I = 0.1 case, it is found that the computed base drag coefficient from
the full Navier-Stokes equations computation differs from the result of the thin-
layer approximation only by I%, but the former needs larger computing time
(about 15%).
5.2. Effect of Bleed Area Ratio
To study the effect of bleed area on the base drag reduction, three different bleed
area ratios, B = 0.9, 0.6 and 0.3 were selected, where B is defined in Section 4.2.
The calculations are performed for case of Mach number 0.96. The Mach contours
and pressure contours of a SOC projectile with bleed quantity of 0.1 for bleed area
ratio of 0.3 are shown in Figures 15(a) and 15(b), respectively. Comparing with the
result of the B = 0.9 case as shown in Figure 6, the supersonic zone near the base
corner is further reduced and the pressure in the base region is increased as bleed
area ratio decreases. This is due to the higher injection speed resulted from a
smaller bleed area for fixed bleed quantity, and hence a higher momentum is
injected into the base region. The velocity vector field in the base region for the
corresponding case shown in Figure 16, it is found that the recirculatory flow is
disappeared. Figure 17 shows the corresponding computed distributions of the
pressure coefficient on projectile surface. The result shows that the pressure
distribution on the projectile surface is also independent of the bleed area ratio; but
on the base the pressure distribution increases with decreasing bleed area ratio. The
peak of the pressure distribution on the symmetry axis, [ = [ , , , decreases with the
bleed area ratio. The predicted head drag and viscous drag are almost independent
of the bleed area ratio (see Table 2).
The variations of the base drag coefficient and total drag coefficient with base
bleed for different bleed area ratios are shown in Figures 18 and 19, respectively.
It can be seen that both the base drag and the total drag decrease with bleed area
ratio and with increasing bleed quantity. The reduction rates in both the base drag
and total drag increase with decreasing bleed area ratio for bleed quantity from 0
to 0.2. From Table 2, it is seen that the reduction in base drag, for I = 0.1, is 40%
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268 J.-K. FU AND S.-M. LIANG
(:::-r--------:------------..,
<TI
o
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Cl
N
c::
0=--[r-. 0-'2 -0 0=>'-7r-,. 0
X
(a) Match contour
c:)-r- -;--__
en
C::J
co
C:J
r.....
C:J
10
(:J
1'1
':.1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 J:O 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
X
(b) Pressure contour
Figure 15 Transonic flow over a projectile with base bleed, Moo = 0.96, w= 0.3, 1=0.1.
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DRAG FOR A TRANSONIC PROJECTILE
---""'=- - - -
-=- --
------ - -=== -
.." -
o --=- -----.- - -
-=---===.::::. -
----......


=-
== _:::::ss:-: __ -
c
o
269
6.0 8..5
x
1.0 7.S 5.0
Figure 16 Velocity vector field in the base region, Moo = 0.96, 1= .1, w= 0.3.
(L8
----- 8.0
0.4-
EXP ER1MENTp=O.O;
Present result 1=0.1
6.0
0.2
':
0.0
a.
4.0
U
on the base
-0.2
0.5
0,4
-0.4- 0.3
0::: 0-.2
2.0
0.1
-0.6
0.0
-0'.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0-
---
Cp
-0.8
--
0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
X
Figure 17 Comparison of pressure distribution on a projectile, Moo = 0.96, w= 0.3.
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270 1. - K. FU AND S.-M. LLANG
Table 2 Comparison of drag components and drag reduction with different base bleed rates, M, = 0.96
Bleed
Area. Bleed Rate Head Drag Visc. Drag Base Drag Total Drag CDB ACDO ACDB
t% I (%) CDH CDV CDB Cm C,(,.o - 0
- - - - - - -
for Ci = 0.6 case and 64.2% for = 0.3 case. For the case of G = 0.3 and I = 0.2,
the reduction in base drag can be as high as 88.3% and the base drag occupies only
about 19% of the total drag instead of about 67% for no base bleed; the reduction
in total drag is about 60%.
It should be noted that at fixed bleed quantity, a smaller bleed area ratio produces
a same effect as a larger bleed quantity does. However, a large bleed quantity needs
large pumping power; thus, in order to effectively reduce the base drag by the base
bleed method, a smaller bleed area ratio (0.3 6 G 6 0.6) accompanied with a small
bleed quantity ( I 6 0.1) is suggested. But, the bleed area ratio can not be unlimited
small since it also needs tender of a higher pumping pressure for same bleed
quantity.
. . . . I . " ' , , " . ' I ' - . . , . ' r ' , " . '
- 0. 05 0. 00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 I
BLEED RATE, I
Figure 18 Variation o f base drag coefficient, M, = 0.96.
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DRAG FOR A TRANSONIC PROJECTILE
27 1
0. 05
- 0. 05 0. 00 0. 05 0. 10 0. 15 0. 25
BLEED RATE, I
Figure 19 Variation of total drag coefficient, M, = 0.96.
6. CONCLUSIONS
The transonic flows over a secant-ogive-cylinder projectile with base bleed have
been successfully simulated by solving the axisymmetric thin-layer Navier-Stokes
equations, using an implicit, symmetric TVD scheme. The computed results show
that the base drag and total drag can be reduced by increasing the bleed quantity
or by decreasing the bleed area ratio at fixed bleed quantity (i.e. increasing the
injection speed). For the case of a = 0.3 and I = 0.2, the reductions in base drag and
total drag can be as high as about 88% and 60%, respectively. It is suggested that
a smaller bleed area ratio (0.3 $ G $ 0.6) associated with a small bleed quantity
(I < 0.1) can obtain a better effect in the aerodynamic drag reduction. It is
concluded that the present TVD scheme is robust enough for the predictions of
transonic flows over a projectile with or without base bleed, and can be an effective
tool for the design of high-performance projectiles.
I . Kayser, L. D. and Whiton, F. (1982) "Surface pressure measurements on a boattailed projectile
shape at transonic speeds", U.S. Army. Ballistic Research Laboratory Technical Rept. ARBRL-MR-
03161.
2. Kayser, L. D. (1984) "Base pressure measurements on a projectile shape at rnach numbers from 0.91
to 1.20", U.S. Army, Ballistic Research Laboratory. Aberdeen Proving Ground, Md., ARBRL-MR-
03353 (AD A141341).
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272 J.-K. FU AND S.-M. LlANG
3. Sahu, J. . Nietubicz, C. J. and Steger, J. L. (1982) "Numerical computation of base flow for a
projectile at transonic speeds", AIAA Paper No. 82-1358.
4. Sahu, J., Nietubicz, C. J. and Steger, J . L. (1985) "Navier-Stokes computations of projectile base
flow with and without mass injection", AIAA Journal, 23 (9), 1348-1355.
5. Sedney, R. (1966) "Review of base drag", US . Army Ballistic Research Laboratory, Aberdeen
Proving Ground. Md., Rept. 1337 (AD 808767).
6. Tanner, M. (1975) "Reduction of base drag", Prog. Aerospace Sci., 16 (4). 369-384.
7. Sykes, D. M. (1970) "Cylindrical and boat-tailed afterbodies in transonic flow with gas ejection",
AIAA Journal, 8 (3), 588-590.
8. Schetz, J . A., Billig. F. S. and Favin, S. (1980) "Approximate analysis axisymmetric supersonic base
flows with injection". AIAA Journal. I8 (8). 867-868.
9. Addy, A. L. (1970) "Thrust-minus-drag optimization by base bleed and/or boattailing", Journal of
Spacecraft, 7 (11). 1360-1361.
10. Bowman, J. E. and Clayden, W. A. (1968) "Boat-tailed afterbodies at M = 2 with gas ejection",
AIAA Journal. 6 (lo), 2029-2030.
11. Sullins, G. A, , Anderson. J. D. and Drummond, J . P. (1982) "Numerical investigation of
supersonic base flow with parallel injection", AlAA Paper 82-1001.
12. Deiwert, G. S. (1984) "Supersonic axisymmetric flow over boattails containing a centered propulsive
jet". AlAA Journal, 22 (lo), 1358-1365.
13. Sahu. J. (1986) "Drag predictions for projectiles at transonic and supersonic speeds". US. Army
Ballistic Research Laboratory, Aberdeen, Proving Ground, Md., Memorandum Report BRL-MR-
3523 (AD A171462).
14. Hsu. C. C.. Shiau. N. H. and Reed, C. W. (1988) "Numerical simulation of transonic turbulent flow
past a real projectile", AlAA Paper 88-0218.
15. Beam, R. M. and Warming, R. F. (1978) "An implicit factored scheme for the compressible Navier
Stokes equations", AIAA Journal. 16 (4), 393-402.
16. Shiau, N. H. and Hsu, C. C. (1988) "A diagonalized TVD scheme for turbulent transonic projectile
aerodynamics computation", AlAA Paper 88-0217.
17. Yee, H. C. (1985) "On symmetric and upwind TVD schemes", Proceedings of the 6th GAMM
Conference on Numerical Methods in Fluid Mechanics. or NASA-TM 86842.
18. Fu, J. K. (1991) "A numerical study on drag reduction of turbulent transonic flow over a
projectile", Ph.D. Dissertation, Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Cheng Kung
University. Tainan, Taiwan. R.O.C.
19. Nietubicz. C. J.. Pulliam. T. H. and Steger, J . L. (1979) "Numerical solution of the azimuthal
invariant thin-layer Navier-Stokes equations", AlAA Paper 79-0010.
20. Baldwin, B. S. and Lomax, H. (1978) "Thin-layer approximation and algebraic model for separated
turbulent flows", AlAA Paper 78-257.
21. Yee. H. C. and Harten, A. (1987) "Implicit TVD schemes for hyperbolic conservation laws in
curvilinear coordinates", AIAA Journal, 25, 266-274. Also (1985) AlAA Paper No. 85-1513.
22. Harten, A. (1983) "A high resolution scheme for the computation of weak solutions of hyperbolic
conservation laws", Journal of Compulalional Physics, 49, 357-393.
23. Yee. H. C.. Warming, R. F. and Harten. A. (1983) "Implicit total variation diminishing (TVD)
schemes for steady state calculations", AlAA Paper No. 83-1902.
24. Chen, M., Hsu, C. and Shyy, W. (1989) "Assessment of TVD schemes for inviscid and turbulent
flow", AlAA Paper No. 89-1795.
25. Degani, D. and Schiff. L. B. (1986) "Computation of turbulent supersonic flows around pointed
bodies having crossflow separation". Journal of Compulafional Physics, 66, 173-196.
26. Steger, J . L., Nietubicz, C. J . and Heavey, K. R. (1981) "A general curvilinear grid generation
program for projectile configurations". U.S. Army Ballistic Research Laboratory, Aberdeen
Proving Ground, Md., Memorandum Report ARBRL-MR-03142 (AD A107334).
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other shapes by the use of Poisson's equation", NASA TM-81198.
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29. Pulliam. T. H. and Chaussee, D. S. (1981) "A diagonal form of an implicit approximate
factorization algorithm", Journal of Compulolionol Physics, 39. 347-363.
30. Pulliam, T. H. (1984) "Euler and thin-layer Navier-Stokes codes: ARCZD, ARC3DU, Notes for
CFD User's Workshop, Tullahoma, Tennessee.
31. Pulliam. T. H. and Steger, J. L. (1985) "Recent improvements in efficiency, and convergence for
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DRAG FOR A TRANSONIC PROJECTILE 273
32. Roe, P. L. (1981) "Approximate Riemann solver, parameter vectors, and difference schemes",
Journal of Computational Physics, 43, 357-372.
33. Hu, C. L. and Liang. S. M. (1989) "Numerical investigation of thrust-reversing nozzle using an
implicit TVD scheme", AlAA Paper 89-2899.
34. Wang. J. C. T. (1993) "Design and development of airframe and propulsion system", Notes for
Workshop on Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan,
Taiwan.
35. Anderson, W. K., Thomas, J. L. and van Leer, B. (1985) "A comparison of finite volume flux vector
splittings for the Euler equations", AlAA Paper 85-0122(1985).
36. Fu. J. K. and Liang, S . M. (1992) "Computations of turbulent transonic flow over a projectile with
or without spinning', Proceedings of the 34th Conference of the Aeronautical and Astronautical
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37. McCoy, R. L. (1981) 'McDrag - A computer program for estimating the drag coefficients of
projectiles", US . Army, Ballistic Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground. Md., ARBRL-
TR-02293 (AD A0981 10).
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