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Aerodynamics deals with the motion of objects in air. These objects can be airplanes, missiles or road vehicles. The Table below summarizes the aspects of vehicle performance directly influenced by aerodynamic design.
Fuel Economy Performance Emissions Maximum Speed Acceleration Directional Stability Stability Response to Flow Unsteadiness Crosswind Sensitivity Engine Cooling Transmission Brakes Condenser Comfort Visibility Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning Wind Noise Dirt Accumulation Splash and Spray 1
AE Dept., KFUPM
Airfoil
AE Dept., KFUPM
lift = L = component normal to V drag = D = component along V or along the body axes axis:
V M A D chord line
normal force = N = component normal to the airfoil chord axial force = A = component along the body chord The point at which the resultant force acts is called the center of pressure. It is convenient sometimes to specify the aerodynamic center which is defined as the point at which the aerodynamic moment, M, is independent of the angle of attack, .
Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni
3
AE Dept., KFUPM
1 2 q = V 2
; P = the freestream pressure
is the freestream density and V is the freestream velocity. Pressure Coefficient: Lift Coefficient: Drag Coefficient: Moment Coefficient:
Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni
CP =
P P q
L CL = q S
D CD = q S
CM = M q Sl
4
= = =
AE Dept., KFUPM
Aerodynamics: Airfoil
An airfoil is simply a section cut of a wing. It is often called infinite wing. The flow characteristics around an airfoil are significantly different from those around a wing. The flow around the airfoil is two dimensional.
higher flow velocity lower pressure V P lower flow velocity higher pressure
AE Dept., KFUPM
Aerodynamics: Airfoil
The pressure and velocity fields around the airfoil are related via the Bernoullis equation V
P lower flow velocity higher pressure higher flow velocity lower pressure
The pressure distribution over Joukowski airfoil at = 10. The pressure coefficient is negative (means lower than the freestream pressure, P) over the Cp top surface and positive (higher than the freestream pressure, P) on the bottom surface of the airfoil. The net imbalance of pressure distribution produces the lift. Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni
1 1 2 P + V = P + V 2 2 2
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
x/c
7
AE Dept., KFUPM
Aerodynamics: Wings
Often called finite wing The flow around a wing is three dimensional; there is a flow in the spanwise direction. The mechanism for generating lift is the same as that for the airfoil, a higher pressure on the bottom surface and a lower pressure over the top surface.
As consequence of the pressure imbalance between the lower and upper surface of the wing, the flow near the wing tips tends to curl around the tips; the flow is forced from the higher pressure This causes the flow underneath the region just underneath the wing tips to wing to move along the spanwise the lower pressure region on the top of direction from the wing root to the tip and the flow on top of the wing to move the wing. from the wing tip to the root. Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni
8
Flow from higher pressure region (lower surface) to lower pressure region (upper surface)
AE Dept., KFUPM
Aerodynamics: Wings
This flow produced a trailing vortex at both wing tips that trails downstream of the wing. For large airplanes such as the Boeing 747, these vortices are powerful enough to cause light airplanes flying closely behind to go out of control. Accidents due to these vortices have occurred and that is one of the reasons for large spacing between aircraft during landing and take-off at airports. The vortices draw the air behind the wind thus inducing a downwash (downward flow) in the neighborhood of the wing. Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni
9
Top view Cross section view
AE Dept., KFUPM
Di = L sin i
The downwash also affects the angle of attack. The angle of attack actually seen by the wing is the angle between the chord line and the local relative wind defined as the effective angle of attack, eff. The geometric angle of attack and the aerodynamic angles of attack eff and i is given by
eff = i
10
AE Dept., KFUPM
Cl
o =
dCl d
Cl = 2
for a cambered airfoil :
Cl = 2 ( L=0 )
The slopes of the lift coefficient for symmetric and cambered airfoils are the same.
o l Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni
= dC / d = 2
11
AE Dept., KFUPM
Cambered airfoil
Cl
o =
dCl d
12
AE Dept., KFUPM
dCL o = = d 1 + o (1 + )
where is the slope of a wing, o is the slope of the airfoil, is the aspect ratio, is a correction factor. The aspect ration is defined as area of the wing.
= b2 / S
13
AE Dept., KFUPM
L '= V
where the L is the lift per unit span of the wing. This relation shows that the lift per unit span is directly proportional to circulation. It is a pivotal relation in ideal incompressible flow theory often called potential flow theory. Thus, a major propel of the potential flow theory is to calculate circulation.
14
AE Dept., KFUPM
15
AE Dept., KFUPM
1 1 2 P + V = P + V 2 2 2
This net imbalance of pressure will produce a finite lift as sketched in Figure. This is often called Magnus effect. Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni
16
V
AE Dept., KFUPM
[ = 0] L=0
1.2
1 CL 0.8
L>0
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 0 5 10 15 20
o
25
30
35
40
17
AE Dept., KFUPM
= 20
b) Uc/U = 1
18
AE Dept., KFUPM
d in cre as e s
19
AE Dept., KFUPM
The flap can increase the maximum lift coefficient by about 200%. High lift devices can also be applied to the leading edge of the wing with the most common is the leading-edge slat.
CL
The leading edge slat can alter the pressure distribution over the wing, reduce the pressure on the top and increase the pressure on the bottom surface. As a the top surface of the wing to higher result, a more lift is generated on the wing. angles of attack and consequently delays stall of the wing. In modern aircraft a Another advantage of the leading-edge combination of leading-edge slat and slat is the delay of flow separation over trailing-flaps is common. 20 AE Dept., KFUPM Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni
d in cre as e s
Aerodynamics: Drag
The drag is an important subject in aerodynamics. A reduction in drag can lead to a reduction in fuel consumption and better performance for a vehicle. The drag coefficient varies from one object to another depending on the particular geometry of that object. For streamlined body such as wing and airfoil, the drag coefficient is low compared to bluff body such as circular cylinder, sphere or road vehicle.
21
AE Dept., KFUPM
Aerodynamics: Drag
Normal Plate Circular Cylinder Streamlined body Half Cylinder Half Cylinder Equilateral triangle Pickup truck Piper PA-16 Clipper Boeing 747
Z X
d d
V V V V
CD = 0.12 CD = 1.2
d d d
CD = 0.017
22
AE Dept., KFUPM
Cd =
D f + Dp q S
The sum of the skin friction drag and the pressure drag is called profile drag. On the other hand, the total drag of a subsonic finite wing in a real case is the sum of the induced drag, Di, and the profile drag,
Di C D = Cd + q S
where the subscript D represents the drag of the wing and the subscript d represent the drag of the airfoil. Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni
23
AE Dept., KFUPM
CD ,i =
e
Elliptic wing
where is the induced drag coefficient and e is the span efficiency factor. For elliptical wing, e = 1 and for other platforms, e < 1. Therefore, the induced drag is minimum for an elliptical platform. In the past, several aircraft have been designed with elliptical wings. However, elliptical wings are more expensive to manufacture than other simple platform such as rectangular wings. The rectangular wing is considered far from optimum. A compromise between the elliptical wing (manufacturing difficulty) and rectangular wing (poor efficiency) is the tapered wing. Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni
24
Rectangular wing
Tapered wing
AE Dept., KFUPM
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
AE Dept., KFUPM
La
a in
Turbulent
26
AE Dept., KFUPM
The flow over streamlined body is usually smooth and the wake behind the body is small. The flow over bluff body, however, exhibits a large wake downstream the body. This wake is caused by separating flow from the body surface with a low-energy recirculating flow inside the wake as shown in the figure below. Dr. Abdullah M. Al-Garni
27
AE Dept., KFUPM
Df
Dp
Dp D f
Turbulent flow is desirable AE Dept., KFUPM
Y X
Z X
Z Y
Cab Back
29
AE Dept., KFUPM
PIV Results
U = 30 m/s
Mean velocity and vorticity Fields
100 80 60 40 y (mm)
20 0 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 0 50 100 150 x ( mm) 200 250
50
100
150 x ( mm)
200
250
30
AE Dept., KFUPM