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Groundwater Flow
Pressure and pressure head Elevation head Total head Head gradient Discharge Darcys Law Hydraulic conductivity Permeability Transmissivity Lab / Field Methods of determination of K Unsaturated flow Flow nets
Pressure
Pressure Newton:
F = ma
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Hydrogeology
at water table
relative to atmospheric, so P = 0
= ghp
P = 0 (= Patm)
P Pressure Head (increases with depth below surfac w ce) Head
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Elevation
Hydrogeology
Elevation Head
Water
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Elevation
Hydrogeology
Total Head
For
our purposes: T t l head = Pressure head + Elevation Total h d P h d El ti head Water flows down a total head gradient
P = 0 (= Patm)
Total Head (constant: hydrostatic equilibrium m)
Elevation
Elango, L
Hydrogeology
= pressure head
z = elevation head h = total head
= pressure head
z = elevation head h = total head
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Hydrogeology
Head Gradient
Change
in head divided by distance in porous medium over which head change occurs dh/dx [unitless]
S. Hughes, 2003
Elango, L
Hydrogeology
Hydraulic Gradient
Contour Map Maps Topographic Gradient In hydrogeology, hydraulic head gradient is driving force Hydraulic Gradient = Change in Head / Length rate at which water flows through is proportional to gradient
Discharge
Q
m3/d /day
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Hydrogeology
Permeability Permeability: a measure of an earth material to transmit fluid, but only in terms of material properties, not fluid properties, depend on the size of pore spaces and to what degree the pore spaces are connected. Hydraulic conductivity: ability of material to allow water to move through it, expressed in it terms of m/day (distance/time). Function of the size and shape of particles, and the size, shape, and connectivity of pores.
S. Hughes, 2003
Elango, L
Hydrogeology
Q = KIA
Q = Discharge = volumetric flow rate, volume of water flowing through an aquifer per unit time (m3/day) A = Area through which the groundwater is flowing, cross-sectional area of flow (aquifer width x thickness, in m2) S. Hughes, 2003
What is K?
K = Hydraulic Conductivity = coefficient of permeability
Porous medium
K is a function of both:
The Fluid
K = Q / IA
L3/ T x L2 /
L T
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Hydrogeology
Groundwater Flow
Darcys Law Discharge through porous media is proportional to the p p hydraulic gradient and area of cross section
Q=KAi
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www.twdb.state.tx.us/gam
Darcy velocity Rearrange the equation to Q/A = KI known as the flux (v), which is an (v) apparent velocity (Darcy velocity)
apparent velocity velocity of water through an aquifer if it were an open conduit Flux doesn't account for the water molecules actually following a tortuous path in and out of the pore spaces. spaces They travel quite a bit farther and faster in reality than the flux would indicate. Not a true velocity as part of the column is filled with sediment
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Hydrogeology
Linear/pore velocity
Actual groundwater velocity is higher than that determined by Darcys Law.
High
Low
Sorting of material affects groundwater movement. Poorly sorted (well graded) material is less porous than well-sorted material.
S. Hughes, 2003
Elango, L
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Hydrogeology
The Smaller the Pore Size The Larger the Surface Area The Higher the Frictional Resistance The Lower the Permeability
High
Low
Less n High K
High n Less K
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Hydrogeology
Material Unconsolidated Clay Sand Gravel Gravel and sand Rock Sandstone Dense limestone or shale Granite
Porosity (%) 45 35 25 20 15 5 1
only for slow movement(ie laminar). Type of flow is controlled by the "Reynolds Number". Thi dimensionless quantity is the ratio of This di i l tit i th ti f inertial forces and viscous forces The utility of the Reynolds Number is that we can learn the general nature of the flow with no additional calculations at all NR = vD/ density viscosity D dia of pipe v velocity
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Hydrogeology
Darcy's law is only valid for slow, viscous flow; fortunately, most groundwater flow cases fall in this category. Typically any flow with a Reynolds number less than one is clearly laminar, and it would be valid to apply Darcy's law. Experimental tests have shown that for flow regimes with values of Reynolds number up to 10 may still be Darcian. Reynolds number for porous media flow is expressed as
where is the density of water (units of mass per volume), v is the specific discharge (not the pore velocity with units of length per time), d30 is a representative grain diameter for the porous medium (often taken as the 30% passing size from a grain size analysis using sieves), and is the viscosity of the fluid.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darcy's_law
Laminar Region
Darcys L OK D Law
Grad h
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Hydrogeology
Transmissivity
Need Mechanism to Compare Aquifers
Measure of the amount of water that can be transmitted horizontally through a unit width by the full saturated thickness of the aquifer under a hydraulic gradient of 1
Q = -KA (h / L) Transmissivity T = KB
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Hydrogeology
Homogeneous vs Heterogenous
Variation as a function of Space
Homogeneity same properties in all locations
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Hydrogeology
Isotropy vs Anisotropy
Variation as a function of direction Isotropic same in direction Anisotropic changes with direction
Homogeneous, Isotropic
Kz
(X2, Z2)
Homogeneous, Anisotropic
(X1, Z1)
Kx
Heterogeneous, Isotropic
Heterogeneous, Anisotropic
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Hydrogeology
Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity Empirical Methods Laboratory Method Constant Head Permeameter Falling Head Permeameter Field Methods Tracer tests Pumping tests
Empirical Methods
Grain-Size Analysis Particle density Bulk density Porosity
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Hydrogeology
Elango, L
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Hydrogeology
Field methods
Tracer method dying reagent used as a solvent note the time interval for reaching to adjacent well. Pumping test method Pump out the water from well and note down the time for drawdown and recovery (Next Unit!)
Elango, L
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Hydrogeology
Tracer methods
Results
are only approximate as - the holes has to be closer or travel time long - flow direction need to be known, otherwise many holes are necessary - stratification, first arrival may be thro faster f t route t Point dilution Tests
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Hydrogeology
Salt solutions, such as sodium chloride, are frequently used. They have many disadvantages. Big quantities must be injected (tens or hundreds of kilos for each injection) in order to obtain a detectable signal (measured as an increase in conductivity, or by using selective electrodes). The charged waters are heavier and tend to descend to the bottom of the aquifers. Effect on environment, their toxicity (either of the ion itself or of the quantities injected) and their possible biological uptake is to be considered. The choice is therefore limited: Na+, Li+, K+ (for the cations) and Cl-, I-, Br- (for the anions). However, some use ions toxic for the environment, such as Cu, Zn, Co, Cr, or Pb !
Fluorescent substances are most commonly used Some dyes are strongly suspected to be carcinogens mostly due to the impurities it contains Photo-decomposition, biodegradation by microorganisms and chemical reactions with other substances present in the aquifer result in degradation products that are dangerous for the environment Three tracers that are safe are: fluorescein, Tinopal CBSx and Rhodamine WT d Rh d i The most commonly used is sodium fluorescein (Uranine), because it is non- toxic in low concentrations (LD50 1700 mg/kg) and is relatively inexpensive [Parriaux et al., 1988]
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Hydrogeology
Pumping tests
S. Hughes, 2003
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Hydrogeology
Qal
WT
Aquitard
Qal
Aquitard Qal
well
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Hydrogeology
Water table contours in drainage basins roughly follow the surface topography, but depend greatly on the properties of rock and soil that compose the aquifer: Variations in mineralogy and texture
WT contours
S. Hughes, 2003
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Hydrogeology
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Hydrogeology
N
408
404
Well
402
400
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Hydrogeology
More on gradients
Three
point problems:
More on gradients
Three
point problems:
h = 10m
(2 equal heads) lh d )
h = 10m
Gradient
h = 9m
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Hydrogeology
More on gradients
Three
point problems:
h = 11m
(3 unequal heads) lh d )
Best guess for h = 10m h = 10m
Gradient
h = 9m
Groundwater Movement
Determine flow direction from well data:
Well #1 4252m elev depth to WT = 120m 4220 (WT elev = 4132m) 4180 4200 Well #2 4315m elev depth to WT = 78m ( (WT elev = 4237m) ) 1. Calculate WT elevations. 2. Interpolate contour intervals.
4240
4260
S. Hughes, 2003
Elango, L
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Hydrogeology
Unsaturated Flow
A
saturated porous medium meaning all the id th voids are filled with water. fill d ith t Unsaturated zone - the pore space is only partially filled with water, the remainder of the pore space is taken up by air. We are interested in the hydraulics of the liquid phase transport of water in the unsaturated zone.
Most
recharge of groundwater systems occurs during the percolation of water through the unsaturated zone. The movement of water in the unsaturated zone is controlled by both gravitational and capillary forces. Capillarity results from 2 forces: the mutual attraction between water molecules cohesion and the cohesion, molecular attractions between water and different solid materials adhesion.
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Hydrogeology
Steady-state Steady-
flow of water in the unsaturated zone can be determined from a modified form of Darcys law. Steady state -refers to a condition in which moisture content remains constant Steady-state unsaturated flow (Q) is Steadyproportional to the effective hydraulic conductivity (Ke), the cross-sectional area cross(A) through which the flow occurs and occurs, gradient direction to both capillary forces and gravitational forces:
= KeA [(hc z) / z] d h/d l Ke the effective hydraulic conductivity is the K of material that is not completely saturated It is less than the saturated K for saturated. the material: (hc z) / z is the gradient due to capillary forces (surface tension) and d h/d l is the gradient due to gravity.
Q
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Hydrogeology
Water
Physical principles (potential theory and capillary forces) Water retention and hydraulic conductivity Parameterization of soil hydraulic y properties
What is a soil ?
Soil
is the product of mechanical, chemical, and biological weathering of a parent material (mostly rocks)
Texture: Grain size distribution of mineral particles Structure: Spatial arrangement of soil particles
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Hydrogeology
Soil texture
Grain
size distribution
Determined by: wet sieving (sand fraction) and pipette analyses (silt and clay)
USDA textural
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Hydrogeology
M + W + A = 1
W + A = pore volume or
porosity
total volume
v = water volume
soil volume
matrix
water
air
[cm3
cm-3]
mass of water *100 Gravimetric water content g = mass of dry soil [%] Volumetric air content
[cm3 cm-3]
Porosity
[cm3 cm-3]
= L + W
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Hydrogeology
Soil texture
Sand Sandy clay Silt clay clay peat volcanic ash
Bulk density
b (g cm3)
v (cm cm)
VWC
1.2 - 1.7 1.2 - 1.7 1.2 - 1.6 0.7 - 1.3 0.1 - 0.5 0.1 - 0.5
0.35 - 0.55 0.25 - 0.55 0.40 - 0.50 0.50 - 0.65 0.60 - 0.90 0.60 - 0.90
destructive
Indirect methods: Measurement of physical parameters which are related to soil water content (e.g. dielectric permittivity or bulk conductivity)
non-destructive
Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) Frequency Domain Reflectometry (FDR) Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)
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Hydrogeology
1.
2 2.
t k weight of ri g fill d with fr h ight f ring filled ith fresh take wet soil
3. 4.
dry probe at 104 for at least 48 hours determine weight loss of dried soil Example:
volume Kopecky-ring = 100 cm net weight ring = 90 g weight ring & wet soil = 275 g weight ring & dry soil = 240 g weight wet soil = 185 g weight dry soil = 150 g mass lost by drying = 35 g or 35 cm volumetric water content = 35cm3 100 cm-3 = 0.35 cm3cm-3 bulk density and volumetric water content can be determined at the same probe
Adhesion and cohesion are responsible for the binding of water within capillaries adhesion is the physical property of different substances to attract each other by molecular forces (e.g. soil particles and water) cohesion is the physical property of a substance to attract each other by molecular forces (e.g. surface tension)
< 0 = hydrophilic
> 0 = hydrophobic
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Hydrogeology
Capillarity
Driving force of water movement in unsaturated soils is the capillary force Capillary rise depends on pore diameter and surface tension
z
P =
2 R
pressure P
Within soils surface tension depends on curvature radius of the meniscus, which depends on the pore properties and the liquid phase!
water within the capillaries has a lower pressure compared to the free atmosphere t t k water out of th capillaries, th same f r as th capillary f r t r t f the ill ri ill r force to take the force the has to be applied
Capillary forces
In general, soil do not consist of only one capillary. Moreover soils consist of a bundle of different capillaries with different pore diameters. diameters
The potential at which water will be held by the soil matrix due to capillary forces will be called matric potential m [cm]. Per definition the matric potential will be assigned negative in the vadose
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Hydrogeology
Water retention
Water retention (() or (h) ) is the dependency between volumetric water content () and the matric ( potential or pressure head ( or h) (
residual water content (log10 h = 6) = r
6 5 4
log10 h [cm ]
adsorption region
capillary region
3
air entry value
0,4
0,5
bundles
Model
of capillary
Water retention
simplified model of the soils relationship between (h) and pore size distribution
capillary rise full saturation
i = water filled cross section; i = water filled cross section of pore class i
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Hydrogeology
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Hydrogeology
(h ) = r +
(1 + ( h ) )
s r
n m
s = saturated water content [cm3 cm-3] r = residual water content [cm3 cm-3]
= air entrance value [cm-1]
1/n
mostly m = 1-
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Hydrogeology
r
cm cm 0.068 0.095 0.078 0.057 0.045 0.100 0.100 0.065 0.034 0.070 0.089 0.067
3 -3 3
s
cm cm 0.38 0.41 0.43 0.41 0.43 0.38 0.39 0.41 0.46 0.36 0.43 0.45
3 -3 3
cm 0.008 0.019 0.036 0.124 0.145 0.027 0.059 0.075 0.016 0.005 0.010 0.020
-1
n 1.09 1.31 1.56 2.28 2.68 1.23 1.48 1.89 1.37 1.09 1.23 1.41
Ks cm day-1 da 4.80 6.24 24.96 350.20 712.80 2.88 31.44 106.10 6.00 0.48 1.68 10.80
Schaap, M.G., F.L. Leij, and M.Th. Van Genuchten. 2001. Rosetta: A computer program for estimating soil hydraulic parameters with hierarchical pedotransfer functions. Journal of Hydrology. 251:163-176.
0,4
3 -3 [cm cm ]
0,3
0,2
0,1
0 0 1 2 3 log h [-cm] 4 5 6
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Hydrogeology
Darcys law
Henry Darcy 1856
H q = K z
water or Darcy-flux [m s-1] permeability [m s-1]
hydraulic gradient
Darcys law is only valid in saturated media and if the pores are not too small or large It is not valid at the pore scale
q = K
H z
increase of tortuosity
K [cm min ]
-1
0,2
0,1
0 0 1 2 log h [-cm] 3 4
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Hydrogeology
Richards Equation
Continuity equation for water flow in combination with lamina flow equation of Buckingham-Darcy.
continuity equation Darcy or Buckingham Darcy
q = z t
q = K
H z
H h = K (h ) = z K (h ) z 1 t z z
only valid if: air phase is continuous (limited mobility of the air phase)
no water transport within the gas phase no deformation of the solid phase (rigid medium = no swelling or shrinking)
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Hydrogeology
HYDRUSHYDRUS-1D/2D/3D
numerical water, heat, and solute transport model
solves numerically Richards equation for the water flow Richards
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