Chapter 2 Physics behind horizontal axis and vertical axis turbines

2.1 Lift force P1V1Z1 A P1V1Z1 Net Aerodynamic Force P1V1Z1

Lift

Thrust B P2V2Z2 Weight P2V2Z2

Drag

P2V2Z2

Fig. 2.1.1. Schematic diagram of a fluid flow around an airfoil with forces acting on it (Lift Force - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). The fluid flowing around an airfoil exerts an aerodynamic force on it. Lift is defined here as the component of this force in the direction perpendicular to the oncoming flow whereas drag force is the component along the flow direction as shown in the fig 2.1.1. The Bernoullis equation describes the lift force acting on the airfoil. At points A and B, above and below the airfoil the Bernoullis energy equation is given by

(2.1.1)

where

are the pressure head, velocity head and potential head of the system.

So at same potential head,

(2.1. 2) Since > , > .

So there is a net force P2P1 acting at the bottom (B) of the airfoil causing the lift. 2.2 Blasius Theorem P Contour y dz pdx x pdy

Fig. 2.2.1. Forces acting on an element of a body (Kundu & Cohen, 2010). In a general cylindrical body of arbitrary cross-section as shown in the fig 2.2.1, drag D and lift L are the x and y components of the force exerted on it by the surrounding fluid. Only normal pressures are acting in inviscid flow, the forces on a surface element dz are

(2.2.1) Defining it as complex quantity i'

(2.2.2)

where conjugate (2.2.3) after integrating equation 2.2.2 (2.2.4) where c: counter-clockwise The Bernoullis equation without the gravity (zero potential head)

(2.2.5) where u, v are the components of velocity in x and y direction.

(2.2.6) So, (2.2.7)

since in a closed loop, (2.2.8) | | (2.2.9) where ; ; | | (2.2.10) and | | , so after rearranging, ( ) (2.2.11) where

(2.2.12) The above equation is the Blasius theorem and applies to every plane steady irrotational flow. The theory holds true to any contour surrounding the body provided that there are no singularities between the body and the contour chosen (Kundu & Cohen, 2010).

2.3 Kutta Zhukhovsky lift theorem

P r y U x

dz

dA Contour C

Fig. 2.3.1. Domain of integration for the Kutta-Zhukhovsky theorem (Kundu & Cohen, 2010). From a large distance from the body the flow is considered to be laminar as shown in the fig 2.3.1. So all singularities are located near the body at z = 0 (Kundu & Cohen, 2010). The complex potential is considered in the form

(2.3.1) where is uniform flow potential and U is the scale variation of velocity in length scale; is

source and sink with m defining the intensity of the velocity in the radial direction at source or sink; is clockwise vortex with circulation and is doublet with as 0 and

x = .
The mass efflux of the sources is absorbed by the sink as the body contour is closed. So m=0.

Hence,

(2.3.2) and ( ) ( ) (2.3.3) To integrate zero. So, (2.3.4) since z=re-i Hence, (2.3.5) Since the drag force D is zero so the lift force L = U and independent of the contour or shape of the body. around the contour 0 - 2, the terms except the coefficient of 1/z becomes

2.4 Potential flow models Potential flow models that have been used for decades as the primary design tool for vertical axis turbines can be categorized as momentum models and vortex models; a detailed review of these methods is discussed by Paraschivoiu, (2002) and Nabavi, (2007). 2.5 Momentum models Momentum models based on Glauerts Actuator Disc Theory and Blade Element Theory are that the total change in the axial momentum across the actuator disc equals the aerodynamic forces exerted on the blades in the axial direction and is also equal to the pressure difference across the disk (Laoulache). Bernoullis energy equation is then used in each stream tube to find a relation between pressure and velocity in the wake. Since the momentum equation becomes invalid at high tip speed ratios and high rotor solidities so these models are not functional in these higher ranges (Paraschivoiu, 2002). The main momentum models developed are the Single Streamtube model, the Multiple Streamtube model and the Double-Multiple Streamtube model. The first and simplest Single Streamtube model was first developed by Templin, (1974, June) for determining the performance of a vertical axis turbine. This model assumes that the rotor is enclosed in a single streamtube and the flow velocity within the streamtube is assumed to be uniform as shown in fig 2.5.1(a). Although this model is elegant in its simplicity and but only predicts overall performance for lightly loaded blades and is incapable of estimating the heavy loads on the blades with high solidities and blade tip speed as it requires a more precise knowledge of the variations of flow velocity across the rotor. To account for these large variations, Wilson et al. used a sinusoidal method to predict the velocity across the width of turbine. (a)
V

(b) V1 V2 V3
Streamtube

Va
3 V1a V2a V a

Blade flight path Vw V1w V2w V3w

Fig. 2.5.1. (a) Single streamtube model (b) Multiple streamtube model (Alidadi, 2009, June).

Multiple Streamtube Model developed by Strickland, (1975, October) is an advanced model where the streamtubes are aerodynamically independent as shown in fig 2.5.1(b). The momentum balance with identical streamtube velocity is determined individually for each streamtube. Although the model holds better results than the Single Streamtube Model, the results are only valid for lightly loaded blades. In further development, Double-Multiple Streamtube model for the vertical axis turbine shows the differences between the upwind and downwind passes of each blade by dividing the each multiple streamtube into two parts: upwind and downwind (Paraschivoiu, 1981, February). The momentum balance is then determined separately for each half of each streamtube as shown in the figure 2.5.2. Despite the fact, that this model resembles the calculated values with the experimental results better as compared to the results of Multiple Streamtube model, this model appears to have convergence problems, especially on the downstream side and at higher tip speed ratios (Islam, 2008).

V 1

Upstream

V1U

V1D

Downstream

V2

V2U V3U

V2D V3w

V3

Fig. 2.5.2. Schematic of Double Multiple Streamtube Model (Nabavi, 2007, and Alidadi, 2009, June).

2.5.1 Single Actuator Disc Analysis in Vertical Axis Turbine In 1-D single actuator disc double streamtube model, there is an elemental resisting torque d due to elemental drag force dD, the inflow factors a1 and a2 at radius r on either side of the disc and h is the length at radius r as shown in fig 2.5.1.1. (Newman, 1983, December).

dr h V r V dD2 h0 dD1

dr
V(1-a1)

V(1-2a1)

V(1-a2)

V(1-2a1)

dr

Fig. 2.5.1.1. Actuator disc for vertical-axis turbine (Newman, 1983, December).

Since the turbine is rotating in a clockwise direction, so dD1 > dD2. The overall drag force is given by

(2.5.1.1) Now the torque is given by

(2.5.1.2) Assuming zero loss of energy due to blade section drag

(2.5.1.3) From equations 2.5.1.2 and 2.5.1.3

(2.5.1.4)

therefore,

 (2.5.1.5) where is tip speed ratio. For Cp = + ve, a1 > a2 & Cp max. for each r ( or x )

(2.5.1.6)

also from equation 2.5.1.4,

(2.5.1.7) since, a1 > a2 ; 1/3 a11/2 and a2 1/3 The solution of the quadratic of a2 is given by

(2.5.1.8) The values of n can be determined from the assumed values of a1 in the equation 2.5.1.7, thereby determining the corresponding values of a2 from the equation 2.5.1.8. The relation of a1 and a2 with respect to x is plotted in the fig 2.5.1.2.

a1

a2 a

x
Fig. 2.5.1.2. Axial induction factor a as a function of x (Newman, 1983, December).

Cp is determined finally by integration of equation 2.5.1.5 numerically using Simpson rule. The results depend on the shape of the blade outlines. Three different profiles are identified as mentioned in the table 2.5.1.1.

Table 2.5.1.1. Turbine Silhouettes (Newman, 1983, December). h Rectangular Parabolic Triangular h0 h0 2/3 h0 1/2 h0

At very large tip speed ratio, the above theoretical curves are limited to 16/27. The vertical axis turbine tends to this limit with a slower pace than the horizontal axis turbines with significant less power output for small tip speed ratio.

Cp

Fig. 2.5.1.3: Comparison of power coefficients between experimental and the ideal Betz Limit (Newman, 1983, December). 2.5.2 Double/multiple Actuator Disc Analysis in Vertical Axis Turbine V(1 f1) A A1 p A1 p1 p2 A V(1 a1) p3 p4 V(1 a2) V(1 f2) A p

Fig. 2.5.2.1. Schematic diagram of double actuator disc (Newman, 1983, December). In a single rotation of the blades in Darrieus turbine, the torque is greatest when the blades are in upstream and downstream, so its quite logical to represent the turbine with a double actuator disc (Newman, 1983, December). The one-dimensional analysis of a single disc with maximum Cp = 16/27, is reformulated with two discs. The area of each disc is considered as A whereas A1 is the area of the upstream disc as shown in the figure 2.5.2.1. From continuity theorem,

(2.5.2.1) The flow through the inner annulus A1 and outer annulus A A1 of the front disc is given by, From Bernoullis equation,

) (2.5.2.2)

Linear momentum equations ignoring side pressure is given by

(2.5.2.3) From equations 2.5.2.2 and 2.5.2.3, ( Therefore, (2.5.2.4) which is same as single actuator disc theory. For the inner flow at A1, the Bernoullis equation is given by, )

(2.5.2.5) Linear momentum equation is then given by

From equations 2.5.2.1, 2.5.2.3, 2.5.2.4, and 2.5.2.5

(2.5.2.6)

The coefficient of power is

From 2.5.2.3, 2.5.2.4, 2.5.2.5, and 2.5.2.6,

(2.5.2.7) For maximum Cp the values of a1 and a2 are found from the equations 2.5.2.8a and 2.5.2.8b,

(2.5.2.8a)

(2.5.2.8b) which are given as,

After substituting the values a1 and a2 in Cp , it is found Cp = 16/25, a result that is close to single actuator disc theory exceeding it by 8% (Newman, 1983, December). For an optimum conditions of a1 and a2 give A1/A = indicating the disc spacing that is comparable to the diameter of each

disc in one-dimensional flow. The analysis with uniform inflow induction factor through double actuator discs establishes that the maximum power coefficient for a vertical axis turbine is 16/25 instead of the more conventional value of 16/27 for a single actuator disc. Again for a multiple actuator disc theory (number of actuator discs greater than six) the power coefficient is found to be 2/3 and the minimum spacing between the disc below which the one-dimensional theory begins to fail is 0.5 times the diameter of the disc (Newman, 1986, February 24). So a two actuator disc model for a Darrieus turbine is found to be satisfactory and the optimum inflow induction factor at each disc can be used to improve the design and structure of the turbine with cambered or alternatively canted aerofoils.

2.6 Vortex models The vortex models calculate the velocity field about the vertical axis turbine from the vorticity effects in the turbine wake. Vortex models use the vorticity transport and Biot-Savart equations for modeling the shed wake and its influence on the blades. The Kutta Zhukhovsky theorem links circulation to lift and conservation of total circulation (Kelvins law) and the strength of the vortex ring can be determined. The computational work is facilitated by modeling the wake in a series of vortex points in 2D or 3D as a lattice composed of overlapping vortex rings. The angle of attack is determined from the wake induced inflow and adding kinematic motion of the blade and the lift and drag is thereby calculated from a lookup table for a given section and Reynolds number. Just like momentum models there are also different vortex models. Larson in 1975 analyzed a cyclogiro windmill using this model, a simplified wake with only two vortices that shed into the wake at each revolution at the points at which the blades flipped from positive pitch angle to a negative angle, and calculated an average velocity by which the vortices proceeded downstream. Holme in 1976 and Wilson in 1978 used a 2D vortex model in vertical axis wind turbine with straight airfoils designed to produce maximum energy extraction. The power coefficient and force coefficient had the same limits as that of horizontal axis wind turbines. Wilson and Walker in 1983 proposed Fixed Wake model in which a vortex sheet wake was used to distinguish the difference between upwind and downwind flows. The computational cost in both the momentum and fixed wake models were found to be same. Fanucci and Walters proposed the first Free Wake Model in 1976 for a straight blade, and was considered the most complex and accurate vortex model for vertical axis turbines. The wake was

modeled by discrete, force-free vortices that were distributed along the blade camber line, convecting downstream with local flow velocity. Strickland, et al., in 1979 and Li in 2008 predicted the output power from a vertical axis turbine by replacing the blade by a vortex filament as shown in the figure 2.6.1.

Fig. 2.6.1: A blade modeled by a vortex filament (Alidadi, 2009, June). The 2D and 3D vortex model named as VDART2 and VDART3 respectively was proposed by Strickland. The code was capable of handling dynamic stall and found to be more accurate than the momentum models and could represent similar wake shapes as observed in experimental water tank tests but was more expensive in execution. Another similar model VDART-TURBO was developed with some concession on accuracy in blade forces but gained significant time savings (Wilson & Walker, 1983, December). Vortex methods could be used for loaded rotors at large tip speed ratios and also handle perturbations both parallel and perpendicular to streamwise velocity unlike momentum models. Also a clear picture could be drawn for designing; positioning blades and their diffusers with support structures, on the basis of the shape of the near wake.

2.7 Panel methods Panel methods are another development of vortex methods and model the geometry using the Laplace equation or the Prandtl Glauert equation for inviscid flows. In VAWT, panel methods can handle 3D effects automatically and sped up the pace of development in the design space. Hess and Smith in 1967 proposed the panel methods at The Douglas Aircraft Company

and found useful in geometry and design analysis with 3D flows. In late 1980s panel methods continued to mature and became more diversified with the coupling of advanced CFD methods. Formulations vary mostly on the basis of velocity or velocity potential boundary conditions, singularity distributions over each panel, Kutta condition implementation method at the trailing edge, order of panel geometry and discretized wake. In addition to these, significant study has to be carried out on viscosity in wake roll-up and vorticity diffusion and dissipation in the context of VAWT. Dixon, et al., in 2008 proposed a 3D, unsteady, multi-body, free-wake panel model for vertical axis wind turbine of arbitrary configuration. The model was intended realistically to treat bladewake interactions, vortex stretching/contraction and viscous diffusion and validated with experimentation conducted with 3D-stereo Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) and smoke trail studies for a straight-bladed VAWT. In final analysis, the tip vortices from a straight bladed VAWT were found to move inwards due to wake roll-up behavior along with self induction. Also wake expansion was found to be asymmetric along the flow downstream and the plane perpendicular to the flow owing wake self-influence and as a result of the cycloidal motion of the VAWT blades.

2.8 CFD Models In VAWT modeling, Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) or other kinds of Navier-Stokes equations are involved in solving the design and structure. Many high quality commercial Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) packages are available in the market used for coding and carrying out validation and verification. Turbulence modeling is an important aspect that RANS solvers use to establish confidence in the results. The results of the 2D VAWT shows the application of dynamic stall particularly at low tip speed ratios (Ferreira, et al., 2007). In 3D VAWT, there is a significant challenge due to its unsteady nature that requires a moving mesh besides high computational cost for its full solution. RANS simulations have some advantages over the potential flow models in different simplifying assumptions, providing valuable analysis in the flow field thereby facilitating the optimization processes and became popular with exponential increase in the computational speed. Since the RANS 3-D simulations for vertical axis turbines are very expensive and time consuming, little work has been done on it so far. In 2007, Guerri, et al., and Jiang, et al., separately studied the

flow phenomenon around a vertical axis turbine with RANS equations and Nabavi, (2007) used FLUENT to solve RANS equations in different operating conditions of vertical axis turbine.

Bibliography
Abe, K., Nishida, M., Sakurai, A., Ohya, Y., Kihara, H., Wada, E., et al. (2005). Experimental and numerical investigations of flow fields behind a small wind turbine with a flanged diffuser. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics , 93 (12), 951-970. Alidadi, M. (2009, June). Duct optimization for a ducted vertical axis hydro current turbine. PhD Thesis, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver. Badawy, M. T., & Aly, M. E. (2000, July, 1 - 7). Theoretical demonstration of diffuser augmented wind turbine performance. World Renewable Energy Congress VI. Part IV, pp. 23002303. Brighton, UK: Pergamon Press. Betz, A. (1920). Das Maximum der theoretisch mglichen Ausnutzung des Windes durch Windmotoren. Zeitschrift fr das gesamte Turbinenwesen , 26, 307 - 309. Buhl, L. M. (2005, August). A new empirical relationship between thrust coefficient and induction factor for the turbulent windmill state. A technical report National Renewable Energy Lab (NREL/TP-500-36834). Ccile, M., Marcel, V., Joao, G., Romain, L., Paul, G., & Francois, A. (2009, October 14 - 16). Design and performance assessment of a tidal ducted turbine. 3rd IAHR International Meeting of the Workshop on Cavitation and Dynamic Problems in Hydraulic Machinery and Systems, (pp. 571 - 581). Brno, Czech Republic. Dixon, K. R., Ferreira, C. S., Hofemann, C., van Bussel, G., & van Kuik, G. A 3D unsteady panel method for vertical axis wind turbines. DUWIND - Delft University Wind Energy Research Institute. Fanucci, J., & Walters, R. Innovative wind machines: The theoretical performance of a vertical axis wind turbine. Proceedings of the VAWT Technology Workshop, Sandia Laboratory Report SAND 76 5586, (pp. III 61 - 93). Ferreira, C. J., van Bussel, G., & van Kuik, G. (2007). 2D CFD simulation of dynamic stall on a Vertical Axis Wind Turbine: verification and validation with PIV measurements. 45th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit /ASME Wind Energy Symposium. Flay, R. G., Phillips, D. G., & Richards, P. J. (1999, March 1 - 5). Development of diffuser augmented wind turbine designs in New Zealand. 1999 European Wind Energy Conference, (pp. 349 - 352). Nice, France. Foreman, K. M. (1983). Size effects in DAWT innovative wind energy system design. ASME, Journal of Solar Energy Engineering , 105 (4), 401 - 407.

Foreman, K. M., Maciulaitis, A., & Gilbet, B. L. (1983, April). Performance predictions and recent data for advanced DAWT models. ASME Solar Energy Division, Grumman Aerospace Corporation, Bethpage, New York, USA . Geurts, B., Ferreira, C. S., & van Bussel, G. J. (n.d.). Aerodynamic analysis of a vertical axis wind turbine in a diffuser. Retrieved June 2011, from http://lr.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/Faculteit/LR/Organisatie/Afdelingen_en_Leerstoelen/Afdeling_AE WE/Wind_Energy/Research/Publications/Publications_2010/doc/GeurtsBen_Torque2010_Paper .pdf Gilbert, B. L., & Foreman, K. M. (1983). Experiments with a diffuser-augmented model wind turbine. Journal of Energy Resources Technology , 105, 46 - 53. Guerri, O., Sakout, A., & Bouhadef, K. (2007). Simulations of the fluid flow around a rotating vertical axis wind turbine. Wind Engineering , 31 (3), 149 - 163. Guntur, S. (2010, September). Optimization studies on the ducted wind turbine. Master of Science Thesis, University of New Hampshire. Hansen, M. O., Sorensen, N. N., & Flay, R. G. (1999, March). Effect of placing a diffuser around a wind turbine. European Wind Energy Conference, (pp. 322 - 324). France. Hess, J. L., & Smith, A. M. (1967). Calculation of potential flow about arbitrary bodies. Progress in Aeronautical Sciences , 8, 1 - 138. Holme, O. (1976, September). A contribution to the aerodynamic theory of the vertical axis wind turbine. Proceeding of the International Symposium on Wind Energy Systems, Paper C4. Cambridge, England. Igra, O. (1977). Compact shrouds for wind turbines. Energy Conversion , 16, 149 - 157. Igra, O. (1976). Design and performance of a turbine suitable for an aerogenerator. Energy Conversion , 15, 143 - 151. Igra, O. (1981). Research and development for shrouded wind turbines. Energy Conversion and Management , 21 (1), 13 - 48. Igra, O. (1976, January). Shrouds for aerogenerators. AIAA Journal , 14, 1481 - 1483. Igra, O. (1977, December). The shrouded aerogenerator. Energy The International Journal , 2 (4), 429 - 439. Islam, M. (2008). Analysis of fixed-pitch straight-bladed VAWT with asymmetric airfoils. PhD Thesis, University of Windsor. Jamieson, P. M. (2009, August). Beating Betz: Energy extraction limits in a constrained flow field. Journal of Solar Energy Engineering , 131, 310081 - 310086. Jiang, Z., Doi, Y., & Zhang, S. (2007, August). Numerical investigation on the flow and power of small-sized multi-bladed straight Darrieus wind turbine. Journal of Zhejiang University: Science A , 8 (9), 1414 1421. Kundu, P. K., & Cohen, I. M. (2010). Fluid Mechanics (Fourth ed.). Burlington, MA, USA: Academic Press, Elsevier Science. Ladson, C. L., Brooks, C. W., Hill, A. S., & Sproles, D. W. (1996, December). Computer Program to Obtain Ordinates for NACA Airfoils. Hampton, Virginia, USA: Langley Research Centre: Nasa Technical Memorandum 4741. Laoulache, R. N. Streamtube theory, a new approach. University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, Mechanical Engineering Department. Larsen, H. (1975, June). Summary of the vortex theory of the cyclogiro. Proceeding of the 2nd National Conference on Wind Engineering Research.

Lawn, C. J. (2003). Optimization of the power output from ducted turbines. Part A: Journal of Power and Energy , 217, 107 - 117, (doi: 10.1243/095765003321148754). Li, Y. (2008). Development of a procedure for predicting the power output from a tidal current turbine farm. PhD thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada. Lift Force - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (n.d.). Retrieved June 5, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lift_%28force%29 Lilley, G. M., & Rainbird, W. J. (1956). A preliminary Report on the Design and Performance of a Ducted Windmill. Cranfield, England: College of Aeronautics. Matshushima, T., Takagi, S., & Muroyama, S. (2006, October 10). Characteristics of a highly efficient propeller type small wind turbine with a diffuser. Renewable Energy , 31, 1343 - 1354. Nabavi, Y. (2007). Numerical study of the duct shape effect on the performance of a ducted vertical axis tidal turbine. MASc thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada. NACA-airfoil Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (n.d.). Retrieved June 9, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NACA_airfoil Newman, B. G. (1983, December). Actuator-disc theory for vertical axis wind turbines. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics , 15 (1 - 3), 347 - 355. Newman, B. G. (1986, February 24). Multiple actuator-disc theory for wind turbines. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics , 24, 215 - 225. Paraschivoiu, I. (1981, February). Double-multiple streamtube model for darrieus wind turbines. Second DOE/NASA Wind Turbines Dynamics Workshop (pp. 19 - 25). Cleveland, Ohio, USA: NASA CP-2186. Paraschivoiu, I. (2002 ). Future trends in the design of Darrieus Wind Turbines. In Wind turbine design with emphasis on darrieus concept (p. 362). Quebec, Canada: Polytechnic International Press. Phillips, D. G. (2003). An introduction on diffuser augmented wind turbine design. University of Auckland. Phillips, D. G., Flay, R. G., & Nash, T. A. (1999). Aerodynamic analysis and monitoring of the Vortec 7 diffuser-augmented wind turbine. IPENZ Transactions , 26 (1), 13 - 19. Sanuki, M. (1950, December). Studies on biplane wind vanes, ventilator tubes and cup anemometers. Papers in Meteorology and Geophysics (Japan) , 1 (2 - 4), 279 - 290. Strickland, J. H. (1975, October). The darrieus turbine: A performance prediction model using multiple streamtubes. Advanced Energy Projects Department. Sandia Laboratory, SAND 750431. Strickland, J. H., Webster, B. T., & Nguyen, T. (1979, December). A vortex model of the darrieus turbine: An analytical and experimental study. ASME Journal of Fluids Engineering , 101, 500 - 505. Tangler, J., & Kocurek, J. D. (2005, January 10 - 13). Wind turbine post stall airfoil performance characteristics guidelines for blade element momentum methods. 43rd AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit. Reno, Nevada, USA: National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL/CP500-36900, (http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy05osti/36900.pdf). Templin, R. J. (1974, June). Aerodynamic performance theory for the NRC vertical axis wind turbine. National Research Council of Canada Report LTR-LA-160. ten Hoopen, P. D. (2009, October 30). An experimental and computational investigation of a diffuser augmented wind turbine, with an application of vortex generators on the diffuser trailing edge. Master of Science Thesis, Delft University of Technology.

Timmer, W. A. (2009, January 5 - 8). An overview of NACA 6-digit airfoil series characteristics with reference to airfoils for large wind turbine blades. 47th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting Including The New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition. Orlando, Florida, USA. Tullis, S., Fiedler, A., McLaren, K., & Ziada, S. (n.d.). Medium-solidity vertical axis wind turbines for use in urban environments. Retrieved June 7, 2011, from (http://www.ontariosea.org/Storage/26/1837_Mediumsolidity_Vertica_Axis_Wind_Turbines_for_use_in_Urban_Environments.pdf) van Bussel, G. J. (2007). The science of making more torque from wind: Diffuser experiments and theory revisited. Journal of Physics: Conference Series , 75, (doi:10.1088/17426596/75/1/012010). van Kuik, G. A. (2007, February). The Lanchester Betz Joukowsky limit. Wiley, New York , 10, 289 - 291. Wilhelm, J. P., Panther, C., Pertl, F. A., & Smith, J. E. (2009, July 19 23). Momentum analytical model of a circulation controlled vertical axis wind turbine. Proceedings ASME 2009 3rd International Conference of Energy Sustainability. San Francisco, California, USA. Wilson, R. E. (1978, September). Vortex sheet analysis of the giromill. Journal of Fluids Engineering , 100, 340 - 342. Wilson, R. E., & Walker, S. N. (1983, December). Fixed wake analysis of the darrieus rotor. Journal of Fluid Engineering , 105, 389 - 393. Wilson, R., & Lissaman, P. Applied aerodynamics of wind powered machines. Oregon State University. Technical Report NSF-RA-N-74-113.