AZTechnicalHandbook 2012

CONTENTS
Page 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13,14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22,23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31,32 33 34 Content Introduction Aerodynamicshowshapeaffectsdrag Axlesforkaxles;stubaxles;rearaxles BatteryCapacity BatteryCare BatteryInstallation;dimensions;weight;considerations Brakescalliper/vee;drum/hub;disc DriveTrainshealthandsafety;reliability;sprockets;tension;chain Gearingconstantgear;constantcurrent;constantspeed GearingCalculations Harnesses ImpactResistantFoams Materialswood;steel;aluminium;plastics;fabric MotorCoolingaircooling;watercooling MotorMounting MotorPerformanceGraph Performancespeed;efficiency;endurance RollBars SteeringGeometrystability;caster;Ackermann;centrepointsteering;camber(P.21) SteeringGearingaltering;reducingplay;TurningCircle Tracking Tyres Weightrollingresistance;acceleration;hillclimbingability;weighingyourcar WeightDistribution40/60rule;polarmomentofinertia Wheelssizes;wheelskins WheelBearings WiringDiagram;ElectricalComponents HowtoFindYourCrashHelmetSize AbouttheAuthor

INTRODUCTION
Themindislikeaparachute,itisonlyanygoodifitisopen.Thishandbookdoesnottellyouhowto makeacar.Whatitdoesisgiveyouoptionsandknowledgesuchthatyoucanmakeinformed decisions. Backin1999whenGreenpowerstarted,alltheteamswereclimbingthelearningcurvetogether. Nowadaysitisdifficultfornewteamstocatchupastheyinevitablymakethesameoldmistakesas theygothroughthelearningprocess.Thisbookisdesignedtospreadexperienceandinformationso thatteamsenteringthecompetitionjointhelearningcurveatahigherlevel. Ialsohopethereismuchinthebookthatwillbeofinteresttoexperiencedteams.Knowledgeis nevercompleteandhavinganinsightintoanalternativeapproachisalwaysuseful.Thereisnoone rightanswertodesigningandbuildingacompetitivecar.WhilstIhavedoneallIcantoensurethe contentiscorrect,thatdoesnotmeanthattherearenotbetterideasorotherwaysofdoingthings successfully. Goodluckandhappybuilding. MichaelJoseph 3

AERODYNAMICS
Aerodynamicdragisenemynumberoneagainsttheperformanceofacar.Thisisbecause aerodynamicdragincreasesasthesquareofthespeed.Thepowertoovercomethisdragincreases asthecubeofthespeed. Example:Acardoublesitsspeedfrom15mphto30mph.Theaerodynamicdraghasgoneup2X2=4 timesandthepowerrequiredhasgoneup2X2X2=8times. FurzePlattSchoolprovidedthesefiguresfortheircar: Speed(mph) Windresistance(watts) Rollingresistance(watts) 9 6 26 19 55 55 25 120 72 30 221 88 35 335 101 38 442 111 Forlowwindresistanceyouhavetomoveaslittleairaspossiblebythesmallestpossibleamount andthencarefullyputitbackwhereyoufoundit.Thismeansthatyouneedtokeepthefrontalarea toaminimumwithanaerofoilshapehavingalowsurfaceareaandgoodsurfacefinish.Remember thespeedoftheairflowoverthecarwillbefasterthantheroadspeedbecauseithasfurthertogo thanthesurroundingair.Youalsoneedtobeawarethatifyousqueezeairthroughasmallgap,say betweenthewheelsandthebodywork,thelocalairspeedcanbeverymuchhigherjustwherethe unaerodynamicbrakesarefitted. Howshapeaffectsdragforagivenfrontalarea:

Anaerofoilshapearoundstructuralcomponentsi.e.Axlesupports/Rollbarscanbeachievedlike this.... ....andthencoveredintape. 4

AXLES
ForkAxles: Aerodynamicdragpenaltyforsupportingaxleonbothsides.Thismaybemitigatediftheextraspace thissystemprovidescanbeusedtomakeabettershapedbody.Axlescanbelighter,at10mmor less. StubAxles: Needtobe12mmdiameterormore.Anylessandtheyarepronetobendorbreak. Axlesshouldbemadefromatough,hightensilesteele.g.EN8orEN24 RearAxleOptions:

Correcttrackingandalignmentisessential.Manufactureyourchosensysteminajigandcheck alignmentintheeventofanaccident.Toachievethisyouwillneedtoworkfromadatumwhichwill beverydifficultifyourplanformisanaerofoilshape. Onewheeldriveissufficientwithouttheneedforaheavydifferential. 5

BATTERYCAPACITY
Thecapacityofabatteryismeasuredastheamountofcurrentitcansupplyovertime(amp/hours). Ifyouthenmultiplythisbythevoltageyougettheenergycontent(watt/hours).Therealityisyou areunlikelytogetthestatedcapacitybecauseitwillvarydependingonthetemperature,battery conditionandtheratecurrentistakenfromit. TheMRT35TVRLA(valveregulatedleadacid)AGM(absorbedglassmat)batteryhasacapacityof 35A/hrmeasuredatthe20hourrate.Thismeansthatthebatterywilldeliver1.75Aovera20hour periodat200C.Theefficiencyofabatteryislowerathigherdischargerates.Forthisreason,ifthe batteryisdischargedat17.5Aitwillbedischargedwellbeforetheexpected2hours. Note: Thehigherthemotorcurrentthelowerthebatterycapacity. HighCurrent=Hotmotor=lessbatterycapacity=lessmiles! Thecarmusthavealowenoughgeartocopewithinclinesandheadwindsandpossiblybothatthe sametime. Donotbegreedyforspeed.Itiscounterproductive.Gearthecartokeepthemotorrevvingathigh speed/lowcurrent.Addresscarproblemsofaerodynamicsandrollingresistancetomakethecar fasterandgofurther. Eachbatteryis12V.Apairwiredinserieswillgivetherequired24V.Batteriesmustbedisconnected andloaded/unloadedintoandoutofthecarseparately.ThisistomeetHealthandSafety Regulationsandtoavoidinjury.(SeepageonManualHandling). Tocheckthetruecapacityofabatteryitneedstobecheckedunderload.Makeupaboardwith12V lightbulbsofthedesiredloadandplotgraphs,timinghowlongittakestodischarge.Minvoltage 10.5V.Lessthan10.2Vandpermanentdamagewilloccur. TheMRT35Tbatteryisdesignedforoptimumperformanceat200C.Abovethistemperature,battery lifewillbedecreased.Belowthistemperature,batterycapacitywillbereduced.

BATTERYCARE
Treatedwithcare,yourbatterieswillgivereliableperformanceformanyseasons.Batteriesdonot die,teamskillthem.Thisisunnecessaryandexpensive. DO: Rechargeassoonaspossibleafteruse Remember,AGMbatteriesmustbechargedontricklerateonly,atamaximumof4amps.Any higherandtheymayventandreducebatterylife Keepbatteriesinawarmplace.Youwillincreasetheircapacity.Keepsparesetsinaninsulated container.Protectfromairflow,windchill,onthecar Cyclenewbatteriesacoupleoftimesbeforearacetobringthemuptospecification Protectthemfromvibrationinthecarusingsomethinstripsofclosedcellfoamunderthe batteries Colourcodearoundtheterminalstohelppitcrew.Red+veBlueve Insulateterminalstoavoidshortcircuits Usequickreleasebatteryclipswhicharearegulationrequirement.Makesurepitcrewknow howtofitthemcorrectly Useashortlinkwhenconnectinginseriessothatitisimpossibletoconnectacrossthe terminalsofonebattery Useabatterytrolleyatalltimesinthepitsandpaddock.Batteriesshouldbesecuredandonly stackedonebatteryhigh DONOT: Dischargea12Vbatterybelow10.2Vasirreversibledamagewilloccur Overheatbatteriesasitshortenstheirlife.Optimum20C Dropbatteriesonthefloororallowthemtofallofftrolleys.Internaldamagecancauseinjury Stackbatteriesontopofeachotheronbatterytrolley Leavedischarged Leavethemonacoldconcretefloor Sticktapeorlabelsoverthebatteryventhole 7

BATTERYINSTALLATION
T2.5Thebatteriesmustbefirmlysecuredtothechassisofthevehicleusingrigidfixingsi.e.no webbingorelasticstraps,andmustnotbeabletomoveinanydirectioninthosefixings.Overcentre clipsmustbesecuritypinned. Anyovercentreclipmustbefittedwithalockingpinordevicesuchthatitcannotpossiblycome undoneaccidentally. BatteryDimensions: Length196mm Width131mm Height161mm Batteryweight: 10.5kgx2 Whendesigningthecaritisworthconsidering: MountingthebatteriesaslowaspossibletolowertheCentreofGravity(CofG) T4.1Thetopofthebatteriesmustbebelow360mmfromgroundlevel.A6mmdiameterholeshould bedrilledthroughanysolidfloorsadjacenttothebatteriestoallowheightmeasurement. MountingthebatteriesclosetotheCofGtoreducethePolarMomentofInertia. (seepageonWeightDistribution) Positioningbatteriesclosetothemotortoreducethelengthofcableandthevoltagedrop lossesalongthem Protectingthemfromcoldairbyputtingtheminsideinsulatedboxes Easeofaccessforquickreplacementinthepits DriverProtection T2.6Batteriesmustbeseparatedfromthedriverbyabulkhead,orcontainedinarigid,covered, ventilatedbox,whichmustnotbeabletoshortcircuitbatteryterminals.Batteriesmustbelocated withinthebodyworkofthevehicle. 8

BRAKES
T8.1Thevehiclemusthaveaneffectivebrakingsystemthatwillpreventitbeingpushedfrom standstillwiththebrakesapplied. Assuming: WeightofDriver 54kg WeightofBatteries 21kg WeightofChassisandMotor 50kg TotalWeight 125kg TheallupweightofaGreenpowerFormulacarisconsiderablymorethanabicycle. KineticEnergy=1/2mV Fromtheformulayoucanseethatanincreaseinroadspeedgivesanevengreaterincreaseinkinetic energy.Thisinertianeedstobebroughttoastop.Aheavycargoingfasttakessomestopping. T8.2Aminimumoftwoindependentbrakesystemsmustbefitted.Bothwheelsoneitherfrontor rearaxlesmusthavethesametypeofbrakesuchthatthecarbrakesinastraightline.Thisisin additiontoanyelectricalbrakingsystemthatmightbeincorporated. Frontwheelbrakesarelesslikelytoskidbecauseofthepitchingmomentontothefrontwheels underbraking Ifusingfrontwheelbrakes,makesuretheyaresetupevenlyorthesteeringwillbeaffected especiallyifnokingpinangletogivecentrepointsteering Toavoidtotalbrakefailure,twoseparatebrakecablesortwoseparatehydrauliclinesare required Acablefailureononebrakemustnotaffecttheotherbrake.Ifpulleybalancesystemsareused theyneedtoaddressthis HydraulicTpipeworkisnotacceptableaslossoffluidcancausetotalfailure ADrumBraketorquearmandmountingneedstobestrongenoughtotaketheloads Brakelightswitchneedstobefittedtobrakeoperatingarmorlever Ensurebrakesarenotrubbingduringpreracepreparation

CalliperorVeebrakes

Thesearenotrecommended.Theymaybeadequateinthedrybutcanbehopelessinthewet DrumorHubbrakes Effectiveandneatwherespaceandaerodynamicdragareconsiderations Discbrakes Veryeffectiveandreasonablypriced.Tendencytorubwhenoff 9

DRIVETRAIN
HealthandSafety: Chains,belts,sprocketsandpulleysneedtobeguardedtoprotectthedriverandpitcrew.Guardsmust coverthetopandsides.Itisalltooeasyforthecartorollforwardsormotortoinadvertentlyrunwhen fingers,hairorclothingareinthewrongplaceatthewrongtime. Reliability: Toothbeltsandgearshavebeenusedsuccessfully.Chainshaveanastyhabitofcomingofftheir sprockets.Evenwiththecorrecttensionandsprocketalignment,thecarwillflex,twistandbounce, causingittocomeoff.Achainbeginstocomeoffbyridingupthesideofthesprocketteeth.Itthen ridesoverthetopoftheteethandbecomesderailed.Preventthisfromhappeningbyfittingaguide closetowherethechaincomesontothesprocket.Nylonchoppingboardwithaslotjustwiderthan thechainmakesanexcellentguideandhaslowfrictionshouldthechainrub.Alternativelyfitplates eithersideofthesprocketorchainring. CRITICALAREATOBEGUARDED Sprockets: Thegreaterthenumberofteeth,thelesslikelythechainistobreakbecausetheloadisspreadover moreteeth.Thedrivewillbemoreefficientbecausethelinkangularmovementisless. Tension: Anyeccentricityinthesprocketswillcausethechaintosnatchandflap.Makesurewhenyoucheck thetensionthatyoudoitseveraltimeswiththechainindifferentpositions.Tootightanditwillload themotor,tooslackanditcouldcomeoff. Chain: Bicyclechainringsand1/8or3/32inchchainisadequateforaGreenpowercar.Havingjoinedachain witharivettool,makesurethatyoudonothaveastifflinkandmarkitwithpaintorTipexincaseit needstoberemovedagain.Retensionandlubricatethechainbeforeeveryrace. Industrial(3/8inch)chainandsprocketsareheavybutreadilyavailableinawiderangeofsizesoff theshelfandareeasytomount. 10

GEARING
Thetricktoperformanceistobalancetheresistanceofthecar(aerodynamicsandrollingresistance) withthecharacteristicsofthemotorandthecapacityofthebatteries.Thisisachievedthroughthe transmissionand/ormotorcontroller.Herearetheoptions,allofwhichhavebeenusedonNational Finalwinners. ConstantGearCar: Asinglegearcarmakesconstructionanddrivingeasy.Frictionallossesarekepttoaminimum.The problemishavingaveryhighcurrentdrawwhenpullingawayfromastandstill,inaslowcorner, climbingahillorintoaheadwind.Ifthesearepresentonthetrackandthecarisovergeared,the resultisaburntoutmotorandflatbatteries.Onalevelcircuitwithouttoomuchspeeddifferential onalap,thesinglegearcarwillperformverywell. ConstantCurrentCar: Fittinggearswillkeepthecurrentrangewithinamuchnarrowerband.Theclosertheratiosthe narrowertheband.Thecarwillperformefficientlywhenpullingaway,climbinganddescendinghills, infastandslowsituationsorwithstrongheadwindsandtailwinds.Thefirstproblemisthe installationbecausethemotorrpmhastobereducedintoaderailleurorepicyclicgearbox.Thiscan bedonewithalargechainringonthewheelorthroughalayshaft.Iftherevsaretoohigh,gearswill jump,bemissed,orchainscomeoff.Frictionallossesincreasewithgears.Tractionislostduring everygearchangeunlessusingaconstantlyvariabletransmission.Thenextproblemisknowing whentochangegear.Someformofammeter,revcounterorelectronicindicatorsystemisrequired forthedriver. ConstantSpeedCar: TheproblemwithaConstantCurrentCaristhatwhenitreachesahill,theindicatorsystemwill advisethedrivertochangedownwhichisallveryefficientbutindoingsothemotorwillproduce lesspowerandsothecarslowsdownevenmore.Tomakeupforlosttimeclimbinghillsthecarhas togofasteronotherpartsofthelapandisthentryingtoclimbuptheaerodynamicdragcurve. Tradingtopspeedforheadwind/hillclimbingabilitycanbedonethroughanintelligentgearbox. Aboveatargetspeedtheindicationsgointoreversal.i.e.goinguphillchangeupanddownhill changedown.Toprotectthemotor,theelectroniclogicneedstoincludeacurrentlimiter.Very complicated.

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GEARINGCALCULATIONS
CircumferenceofTyre=TyreDiameterx WheelSpeed= MotorSpeedxTeethonMotorSprocket TeethonWheelSprocket WheelSpeedxTyreCircumference=Distancetravelledperminute Multiplyby60anddivideby5280togetMilesperHour Examplefor16wheel,14Tdrivesprocket,50Twheelsprocket. Circumference=410mmx3.143=1.289m=4.229ft WheelSpeed= 1850rpmx14=518rpm 50 (Motor1850rpmapproxequals15Amps) 518X4.229=2190.6ft/minX60=131437ft/hr5280=24.9mph Theaboveexampleisforasinglegear,reasonablyaerodynamiccar.Thecarwillprobablygofaster thanthiswithadownhill/tailwindandslowerwithanuphill/headwind.Withthisgearing,ifthecar goesslowerthan18mph,forevenashortperiod,itwillbedrawing45Ampsandindangerofcooking themotorandkillingthebatteries.Goonthesafesideandgearyourcarforaslowerspeed(bigger wheelsprocket)whichwillkeepthemotorrevshighandthecurrentdrawlow.Whenyouhave successfullycompletedafullracedistanceonyourbatteriesyoucanthenconvertexcessenergyinto alittlemorespeed.Workupwardsfromaconservativespeed.Aimingforanunrealistictopspeed willonlybringdisappointment. Ifusingalayshaftbetweenthemotorandthewheel,multiplytheprimarygearratiobythe secondarygearratiotogettheoverallratio.E.g.3:1+5:1=15:1

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HARNESSES
T10.4SafetyEquipment Thevehiclemustbefittedwithaminimumfourfixingpoint,50mmwidthsafetyharness,withsecure fixingpointsontherollbarorchassis.Harnessshoulderstrapfixingpointsshouldbecloseto shoulderheightandneckwidth.Thoughtshouldbegiventothedesignoftheseatandharnessto preventsubmariningintheeventoffrontalimpactandlapstrapsmustbeabletobefullytightened beforeshoulderstraps.Lapstrapsmustfullytightenaroundthedriverswaistwithoutadditional paddinginfrontofthedriver.

Beltstoohighwillnot helpinrollover

Beltstoolowwillnot helpinfrontalcollision

Lapstrapmustrunacrosslapnearcrotchnotagainststomach. Lapstrapadjustmentneedstobeaccessible. Tightenlapstrapsbeforeshoulderstraps. Crotchstraporlargefrontliptoseattopreventsubmarining. Harnessendsshouldprotrudeatleast100mmbeyondthebuckle,withendsfoldedandsewn.

AnchorPoints Largewashersobelt cannotpullthrough chassisstructure

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HARNESSSELECTION
From2013acrotchstrap(showninblue)willberequiredtopreventsubmarininginthefollowing conditions.

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IMPACTRESISTANTFOAMS
Suitableflexibleimpactresistantfoamsarerequiredbotharoundthecockpitsidestoprotecta substantialpartofthedriversbody,fromthefloortothecockpitopeningandinfrontofthe bulkheadatthefrontofthecar. Onlyclosedcelltypesaresuitable.

Inclosedcellfoam,thebubblesofgasareallsealedandbondedtogether Inopencellfoamsthestructurecansuckinairorwaterlikeasponge.Theseprovidepoor impactresistance.

Suitableclosedcellfoams: Thislistisnotexhaustivebutwouldinclude; Polyethylene(PE)crosslinkedfoam.BrandsincludePlastazoteAlveolenAlveolitAlveolux JiffycelStratocellTMNomapackPrimafoam. EthyleneVinylAcetateCoploymer(EV,VAandEM)crosslinkedfoam.BrandsincludeEvazote Supazote Polypropylene(PPA)crosslinkedfoam. AlloftheaboveareCFC,HCFCandVOCfree.Theyarechemicallyinertandresistanttooils,solvents anddiluteacids. Unsuitablefoams: Thislistisnotexhaustivebutwouldinclude; Expandedorextrudedrigidpolystyrene(EPS),polyurethane(PU),polyisocyanurate(PIR)or phenolicfoam.BrandsincludeStyrofoam,Celotex,KingspanandEcoTherm. Theabovearemorecommonlyusedfortheirinsulationpropertiesinconstruction.Theyareprone tobreakingunderimpactloads. PolyurethaneSprayfoams(fromacan).Theseareavailableinbothopenandclosedcellvariants butneitherissuitable. PolyvinylChloride(PVC)foam. WhilstGreenpowerrecommendminimumthicknessesintheTechnicalRegulations,thethickerthe foamthebetter.

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MATERIALS
Useappropriatematerialsdependingonthetasktowhichtheywillbeput. Wood: Totallyorganic,nontoxic,energyefficient,environmentallyfriendly,biodegradable,100% useable,recyclableandrenewableinyourlifetime.TreesabsorbCO2andproduceoxygen. Verystrongincompression. Woodistoughduetothefibresinthegrainbutpronetosplittingifbenttoofar. Forbending:soak,steamorlaminate. Easytomark,cutandjoin. Joinbyjointing,glueing,screwingorbolting. Steel: Strong,hardwearing,heavy,bendable,machineable. Canbecastintocomplicatedshapes.Grainstructureisballlikeandbrittle. Usingheattobend,rollorshapeiscalledforgingandmaintainsthegrainstructurelikebricksin awalltomaintaintoughness. Jointogetherbysolder,braze,welding,boltsorrivets. Aluminium: Lightweightandeasytomachine.Threetimeslessstrongthanmildsteelsothematerialmay needtobethreetimesasthick. Excellentthermalconductivity. Verypowerhungrytoproduce. Joinbybonding,bolts,rivetsorwelding. Plastics: Vastrangeofmaterialsfromcarboncompositestofoams. Somearegoodforenergyabsorption. Idealformakingsmooth,lightweight,doublecurvatureforms. Deformsatlowtemperature.Canbetransparent. Bondorbolttogether. Healthandsafetyconsiderations. Fabrics: Cottonisacheapandnaturalmaterialthatcanbetaughtenedwithaircraftdopetoprovidea lightweightskin.Manmadeequivalentsareheatshrinkable. Carbon,glassorKevlarcanbecombinedwithresinorPUtoformcomposites.

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MOTORCOOLING
The24VdcFracmomotoriscontinuouslyratedat240W.Morepowerisavailablebutthehigher currentwillincreasetheresistanceinthearmaturewindings,pushupthetemperatureanddecrease itsefficiency.Acoolingsystemwillbebeneficial.Beforelookingatalternativeoptionsitisimportant tothoroughlyunderstandtheMotorGraphs(seerelevantsection).Itismuchbettertotreatthe causesofhotmotorsthantotreatthesymptoms. Youshouldbeabletoplaceyourhandonamotor,ifitstoohottotouch,itisoverloaded.Continue racingandyouwilldetectanacridsmellastheinsulationbreaksdownfollowedbytheplasticbrush holdersmeltingfollowedbysomeonereachingfortheirchequebook. T1.2Themotorissealedandmustnotbeopened.Nomachiningordrillingofthecasingisallowed. T1.3Coolingofthemotorisallowed,butnotthroughtheuseofwaterormethodsusingpriorenergy input(e.g.ice),orpowerfrombatteriesotherthanthemainvehiclebatteries. AirCooling: Acumbersomeramairventthatputsuptheaerodynamicdragofthecarcouldincreasethemotor temperatureratherthancoolit.Likewise,fanbladesfittedtotheshaftwillsimplygivethemotor moreworktodoanditwillgethotter.Heatsinksfittedtotheendplatesortothemotorcylindrical casingwilldissipateheatinproportiontotheirsurfacearea.

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MOTORMOUNTING
ThestandardFracmomotorbaseplateisattachedtothemotorbytwoAllenscrews.Theyhave beenknowntocomeloosesoputtheminwithalittleLoctiteonthethreads. Forefficiencyandreliability,makesurethemotorsitshorizontaltothechassisandperpendicularto thedrivetrain. Keepthedrivesprocketasclosetothemotoraspossible.Ifitisontheendoftheshaftthemoment armcanpullthewholethingoutofalignmentandloadthemotorbearings. Unfortunatelythebaseplatemountingholesaretuckedinunderthemotorcasing.Thismeansthat thefixingboltscanbedifficulttogetatifitisattachedtothefloorofthecar.Sincethechainorbelt tensionisoftenadjustedbymovingthemotor,considerhingingthemotorfromabulkhead.Access totheadjustmentnutsistheneasier.

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MOTORPERFORMANCEGRAPH
Tomaximiseyourcarperformanceandtoavoidburningoutmotorsitisimportanttounderstand themotorcharacteristics.Thegraphisquitesimpleeventhoughatfirstglanceitlookscomplicated.

Atstartup,positionA,themotorwillrunuptomaxrpmatB. Mechanicalpoweroutput=AngularVelocity(rpm)XTorque. Atstartuptherpmiszerosopoweriszero. Flatoutthetorqueiszerosothepowerisagainzero. Maxpowerisinthemidrangeatthetopofthearc. PoweratD=poweratEbutthecurrentatEishugecomparedtothatatD. AtEtherewillbeexcessivebatterydrainandmotoroverheating.Dontgothere. OperatebetweenDandCformaximumefficiencyandacoolmotor.Dothisbyfittinggears,havinga currentlimiterorbyusingasensiblesinglegearandkeepingthethrottleflatout. Donotbegreedyfortopspeedbyovergearing,oryouwilloperatebetweenEandA. Togofaster,improvethecaraerodynamicsandlowertherollingresistance.(seerelevantsections). Foractualvalues,seethemanufacturersgraphsavailableontheGreenpowerwebsite.

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PERFORMANCE
Performance=Speed+Efficiency+Endurance Speed: Thespeedofanycarforagivenpowerisafunctionofitsrollingresistanceanditsaerodynamic drag.Thelatterincreasesasthesquareoftheroadspeed.Forexample:Ifyoudoublethespeedofa car,itwillhavefourtimesthedragwhichwillrequireeighttimesthepowertoovercomeit. (SeeAerodynamicssection) Efficiency: Thisisaresultofminimisingthedragandrollingresistanceandthenmatchingthecarperformance withthebatteryperformanceandthemotorcharacteristicsthroughthetransmission.Overgearthe carandyouwillnotonlycookthemotorbutyouwillreduceyourbatterycapacity.Thecarwillgo sloweroverthelengthofarace. Endurance: Thiscomesdowntoreliability,frequencyandspeedofpitstopsandavoidingdrivererrors.Weeksof workspentshavingoffafewsecondsalapcanbeblowninaninstantbyaspinorwaitingfora recoverytruck. Towinyouneedmoreperformancethanyourcompetitors.Asmalldropinspeedwillsaveyoua wholeloadofdrag,improvetheefficiencyandmaygiveyouanetperformancegain.

Aerodynamicdragandrollingresistancearedifficulttomeasure.Eachcarwillhaveabestspeed.Do notaimforaspeedbasedonothercars.Gearforalowcurrenttofinishtheracewithenergyto spare.Measurewhatisleftandworkfromthere.Improvethedragandrollingresistance.

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ROLLBARS
Thehumanheadisverydenseandsupportedbyastrongneck.Itisnotdesignedtocarrytheweight ofacarwhichcouldbeinexcessof150kg.Inanaccidenttheimpactcouldeasilybe4G=600kg. Couldyourrollbartakealoadofhalfaton? KineticEnergy=mV2wheremismassandVisvelocity.Theheavierthecarandthefasteritgoes thegreatertheprotectionrequired. Loadsonthestructurecanbefromalmostanyangle. Anchorpointsandmountingarecritical.Avoidweakeningthestructurebydrillingholesexceptat theverybottom.Clampingorweldingarepreferable. Thegreaterthetriangulationthestrongerthestructure. Alinebetweentherollbarsmustclearthedriversheadby50mm.Thisistoallowforslackinthe seatbelts.Thetallertherollbarthestrongeritmustbe. Rollbarsmustbeabletorollanddissipatetheenergygently.Donothavespikesorteebar extensionsthatcoulddigin.Squarerollbarsaretobeavoidedfortheytoowilltransmitsnatch sidewaysloadsonthedriversneck.Asquarerollbarwillnotbeabletocarrytheloadasevenly. CarscananddorollveryeasilyevenwithalowCofG.Reasonscouldbehittingorslidingoffakerb, turningintoacornertoofastandtight,orifcarstouchandclimbwheels. Rememberyouareresponsibleforthesafetyofyourdrivers.Donotloadyourresponsibilityonto theracescrutineers.

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STEERINGGEOMETRY
Steeringneedstobesafe,stable,efficient,freefromplayandprovidepositivefeel. Stability: Thismeansthatifthesteeringwheelisturnedandthenletgoitwillreturntothestraightahead positionofitsownaccord.Toillustratestability,imagineaballinasaucerasshownbelow.

Neutral

Stable

Unstable

CasterAngle: Stabilityisachievedwithcasterangleaswiththeforksonabicycleangledforwardsratherthan beingvertical.Thegreatertheanglethegreaterthesteeringloads.10oisaboutright. AckermannAngle: Whenacarturnsacornertheinnerwheelneedstoturnmorethantheouterorthetyreswillscrub. Ackermannisachievedbypointingthesteeringrodstothemiddleoftherearaxleorbymakingthe steeringarm/trackrodangleobtuse.

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CentrePointSteering(CPS): Spokedwheelhubsarewiderelativetothewheeldiameter.Ifthehingeaxisistomeetthetyre contactpointthenaheftykingpinangleisrequired.WithCPSthesteeringislessaffectedbybumps intheroadorbyfrontwheelbrakes. CamberAngle: Toreducethekingpinangle,oldcarsusingbumpyroadsoftenhadpositivecamber.Underheavy corneringthetyretendedtorolloffthewheelrim.Totransfersomeofthelateraltyreloadontothe spokes,negativecamberisemployed.Toomuchandthecarwillhaveahighrollingresistance.

CasterangleandKingpinanglewillcausethewheelstocamberfavourablyinaturn.Thismeansthey willleanoverlikeabicycle.Unfortunatelythetwoanglesdocompound.Thismeansthatwithafour wheelcarwitharigidchassisandwithoutsuspension,theouterwheelwillliftinaturn.Skippingina turnwillcausetyrewear.

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STEERINGGEARING
Itisimportantthatthegearingiscorrectforthespeedofthecar.Toohighanditwillbefartoo directandoversensitive.Toolowanditmaynothaveenoughlockfortightcorners.Greenpower carswithcablesattachedtothesteeringwheelorhandlebarswillhaveonlylimitedmovement available.Inthiscaseasimpledroparmorbellcrankarrangementwillbesufficient.Rackandpinion gearingisanoptionbutcansufferfromexcessiveplay. Tolowerthegearingandreducethesteeringloads: Reducethelengthofthedroparm Increasethelengthofthesteeringarm Fitabiggerdiametersteeringwheel Toreducetheplayinthesteeringsystem: Designtolimittheuseofuniversaljoints,splinedshaftsandthenumberofrodendconnections Usecomponentswithlowerclearancetolerances

TURNINGCIRCLE
AssumingthatAckermannsteeringgeometryisused,calculatingtheturningcircleofavehicleis relativelystraightforwardandcanprovetobeaveryusefulfactortoknowwhilstintheearlystages ofdesign. Toomuchsteeringlockcanbedangerousandcontributetoacarrollingover.SteeringStopsneed tobefittedtolimittherateofturnathighspeed.30isasuggestedmaximummovement. Tochecktheturningcirclewillbeadequateatthedesignstage.Applyfulllockandcalculateor measureABasshownbelow,thisistheturningradius.Bydoublingthisnumberyouwillhave calculatedtheturningcirclediameter. 24

TRACKING
Donotunderestimatetheimportanceofcorrecttracking.Checkitbeforeeveryrace.Withpoor tracking,itisliketryingtodriveinsand.Therollingresistanceincreases,dramaticallyslowingthe car,themotorwillheatup,andthetyreswillwearout. Trackthecarfullyloadedwithdriverandbatteriesastheweightdistributioncanmakeadifference. Therearemanywaystocheckthewheelalignmentbutthesimplestistolaytwostraightedges alongthetyresandmeasurethetrackaheadandbehindthewheel.WhenA=Bthewheelsare aligned.Ifanythingerronthesideoftoeinasthetrackingwillmovetowardstoeoutatspeed withrearwardsteeringarmsasclearancesinthesteeringmechanismaretakenup.

Remembertochecktherearwheelseveniftheyareonacommonaxle.

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TYRES
Highpressuretyresfor16and20wheelshavenogiveinthewirecord. Problem: Fittingtyreswiththumbsisdifficultifnotimpossible Fittingwithtyreleverscausestheinnertubetogetdamagedorpinchedresultinginpunctures Plastictyreleversbendorbreak Solution: Ensurerimtapeisinplace Fitonesideoftyreovertherim Newinnertubesarepackedflat.Whilstinthisstate,i.e.beforeanyinflation,foldthetubeback onitselfandholdinplacewithathinstripofmaskingtape.Workyourwayroundfromthevalve addingthetapestrips.Donottaperightroundorthetapewillnotreleasewhenyouinflate.You willnowhaveatubethatisverticallyflatratherthanhorizontallyflat.Thiswillholdtheedges outofthewayofthetyreandavoidpinches. Fittapedupinnertubeontoriminsidethetyre Diametricallyoppositethevalve,fittheotherhalfofthetyreandensureitisdeepintothewell oftherim Workevenlywiththethumbsuptowardsthevalve Usemetaltyreleversforthefinaldifficultstretchtakingcarenottodamagetheinnertube Checkaroundbetweeneachtyrecordandtherimtomakesurethatyoucannotseeanyinner tube Inflatethetyre.Themaskingtapestripswillnowsliporbreak.Checktherearenobulges.Inflate toracepressure Scrutineering: Carsmustonlycometoscrutineeringwithfullyinflatedtyres.Nocanvasmustbevisible.Check forskidpatchesandwear 26

WEIGHT
Aheavycarwillhaveahighrollingresistance,pooracceleration,slowerhillclimbingabilityand greaterbrakeenergy.Weightisminorcomparedtoaerodynamicdragbecauseitonlyincreases resistanceindirectproportiontospeed. RollingResistance: Thisiscomprisedofflexingofthetyretreadandsidewalls,tracking,sizeofwheelsandfrictioninthe wheelbearings.Tounderstandthistrypushingaheavygardenrollercomparedtoalightweight bicycle.Trypushingacarwithaflattyre.Allthatpushandshovecomesfromthemotortakingaway preciousbatteryenergy. Acceleration: Thehigherthecarweighttheslowertheaccelerationrate. HillClimbingAbility: Potentialenergy=massxgravityxheight Aheavycarwillrequiremoreenergytopushitupahillforagivenspeed.Notallthisenergyis recoveredcomingbackdownagainbecausetheaerodynamicdragwillbegreaterasthecargoes faster. Whatdifferencedoesitmake? Asaguide:At30mph,a10kgincreasewillslowthecardownby0.4mphwhichovera4hourrace equals1.6milesorjustover3minutes. Toweighyourcar: Makethreeblocksthethicknessofapairofbathroomscales.Onalevelsurfacemeasuretheload undereachwheelinturn,thenaddthemalltogether.Averylightcarincludingmotorbutexcluding batteriesanddriverwillweigh30kg.Aheavycarwillweighinexcessof60kg.Manycarsabovethis weighthavewontheNationalFinalandthemainreasonliesintheiraerodynamics.

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WEIGHTDISTRIBUTION
Designthecartoavoid: RollingOver Spinning Skidding 40/60Rule: Forgoodhandlingwhencorneringandbraking,aimfor40%ofthecarweightonthefrontwheels and60%ontherear.Underbrakingthereisapitchingmomentforwardsandsomeofthe60%will transfertothefrontwheels. PolarMomentofInertia: Ideallykeeptheheaviestitems(batteries,driver,motor)ascloseaspossibletotheCentreofGravity andkeeptheCofGaslowaspossible.

ThiscarhasahighpolarMomentofInertia.Itislikeadumbbellandwillbeinclinedtospinwhen corneringatspeedespeciallyonawetordamptrack. Carswithashortwheelbasewillspinmoreeasily.

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WHEELS
BiggerWheels: Lowerrollingresistance Lesstyrewear SmallerWheels: Lessaerodynamicdrag Lessbendingmomentonspokesandaxles Requireasmallersprocket Popularsizesare16(349)and20(406): 16(349): DesignedforfoldupBromptonbicycles.Goodrangeoflowrollingresistance,highpressuretyres someofwhichhaveKevlarbandingtoresistpunctures. 16(305): Thesearenotthesamesizeasthe349s.Theyaremadeforchildrensbikes.Tendtobecheaper,of inferiorqualityandhaveapoorselectionofsuitabletyres. 20: MainlyusedonrecumbentsorBMXbikes.Hubs,steeringandbrakecomponentscanbeboughtoff theshelfandadaptedforGreenpoweruse.Tyrechoiceisgood. WheelSkins: Toappreciatetheaerodynamicdragfromspokedwheels,runthecarindoorsonabenchandfeel thedraughtcreated.Itisevenhigherwhenthecarisinmotion. Stiffacetatediscscanbecutandcabletiedtothespokes.Heatshrinksolarfilmisneaterand availablefrommodelshops.Thisstickswelltowoodbutnotsowelltoanaluminiumrim.Forthe wheelcentre,PUfoamglueathinplywoodringtothespokes.Filmcanbestucktotherimwithslow settingsuperglueorPrymolandtuckedovertobeheldbythetyre. Tocaterfortheconicalshape,makeasinglecutasaradiusandoverlap.Gentlytaughtenwithaheat gunoraniron.Remembertomarkthepositionofthevalve.Checktyrepressureandpatchbefore everyrace.

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WHEELBEARINGS
Toreducewearandminimiserollingresistanceitisimportantthatbearingsareproperlyadjusted (cupandcone)orset(journalbearings). AlthoughmostGreenpowercarsusebicyclewheels,theloadsonthemareverydifferent.Ona bicycle,thehubsaresupportedonbothsidesandtheaxialloadisalwaysperpendiculartothe spindle.Onacarthereareadditionalsideloadswhencorneringandveryoftenthehubisonly supportedononeside.

Donotovertightencupandconebearings. Withjournalbearings,makesurethatthehubisspinningaboutthebearingsandnotaroundthe axle.Theaxleshouldgriptheinnerringofthebearingbygentlytighteningthewheelnutsothatthe bearingsarenippedbetweentheaxleshoulderandthetophatwasher.

Journalbearingscomeasshieldedorsealed.Botharesuitable.Bewareofremovingplasticseals toreducefrictionasdirtanddustcansoondestroyanyadvantage.

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WIRINGDIAGRAM
ANCILLIARYCIRCUIT(5AORLESS)

ELECTRICALCOMPONENTS
Greenpowerrequiresallelectricalinstallationstobesafe.Thismeans: Mustuseafuseorcircuitbreakertoautomaticallyandsafelydisconnectthepowerintheevent ofafault(otherwisethecarmaycatchfire.) Cablesmustbeofthecorrectcrosssectionalarea CablesProperlyinsulated CablesCorrectlyterminated CablesSecured Cablesmustnotchafe Fusesorcircuitbreakers? Youcanuseeither.Higherfuseorbreakerratingsmeanlargercables,oryourwiringwillbecomethe fuse.Theregulationsspecify70Amaximum.Sizedependsuponthemaximumcurrentyouwould expecttopullthroughtheload.Startingcurrentisverymuchlargerthantherunningcurrent.Size yourprotectiondevicetohandlethemotorstartingcurrentorelsethefusewillbloworthecircuit breakerwilltrip.Checkthemotorcharacteristicgraphs,gearingandthecharacteristicsofyour chosenfuseorbreaker. Foryourancillarycircuitthesuggestedfuseratingis5Amaximum.

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Cables Allcablesmustbeinsulatedtopreventtheconductorsfromcontactinganyothermetallicpartsthat wouldcauseexcessivecurrentstoflow.Thesizeofthecable(mm2)mustbesufficienttocarrythe currentthatwilltripyourfuseorcircuitbreaker. Examplefromtablebelow.70Aratedtripmustbeconnectedwith10mm2cablesthatcancarry65A continuously. Crosssectionalarea(mm2) 70CInsulationtemperature rating 105Insulationtemperature rating

1.0 1.5 2.5 4.0 6.0 10.0 16.0

MaximumContinuousCurrent(A) 15.5 20 27 37 47 65 87 20 25 34 45 57 78 104

Theratingsshownareforcablesinopenairatamaximumambientof30C. Terminations Onceyouhavechosenyourcablesize(baseduponyourfuseorcircuitbreakerrating)thenchoose suitableterminations.Crimptypeconnectionsareveryreliableiffittedcorrectly.Beverycareful withthecurrentratingofterminationsyouchoosetheymustalsocarryenoughcurrenttoblow yourtripmethodifafaultdevelops. Security Makesureallofyourcablesaremechanicallysecureandcannotbedisturbedbythedriversgetting in,oroutof,thecar.Ensuretheycannotchafeonsharpedges.

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HOWTOFINDYOURCRASHHELMETSIZE
Useatapemeasuretodeterminethecircumferenceofyourhead.Placethetapemeasureabove yourearsandaboutaninch(2.54cm)aboveyoureyebrows.Trynottowrapthetapetootightly takeyourtimeandtakeafewsetsofmeasurementstofindthecommonaverage.Onceyouhave determinedyourheadcircumferencecheckthesizingguidebelow.Ifyourheadfallsbetweentwo sizes,alwaystrythelargersizefirst. MotorcycleHelmetSizeConversions HelmetSize ChildSM ChildL/XL Child2XL 2XS XS S M L XL 2XL 3XL HeadCircumference(CM) 4950 5152 5354 5152 5354 5556 5758 5960 6162 6364 6566 HatSize 61/861/4 61/263/8 65/863/4 63/861/2 65/863/4 67/87 71/871/4 73/871/2 75/873/4 77/88 81/881/4 HeadCircumference(Inches) 193/4201/8 211/4 207/8211/4 20201/2 207/8211/4 213/822 221/2227/8 231/4235/8 24241/2 243/4251/4 255/826

NOTE:Thesesizesaremeantasaguidelineonlyassometimesmanufacturersdointerpretsizes differently. HowtoTestforaGoodHelmetFit Oncethehelmetison,checkforthefollowing: Thetopofyourheadshouldbeincontactwiththehelmetinteriorsothatthetoppadpresses firmlyagainstyourhead Thecheekpadsshouldmakelighttomediumcontactwithyourcheeks Nowtryandinsertyourfingersintothehelmet.Thereshouldnotbeanyspacebetweenyour foreheadandthehelmetinterior Tryandrotatethehelmetbackandforthandtotherightandleft.Thehelmetshouldmoveyour skinonyourheadandfaceasitmoves.Ifthepaddingismovingoveryourhead,thenyouneed totryasmallersize Next,fastenyourstrapsothatitistightenougharoundyourjawwithoutsuffocatingyou.Then tryandpushthehelmetoffbyplacingyourhandsatthebackofit.Onceyou'vedonethis,try thesamethingbutfromthefronttotheback. YoushouldNOTbeabletopullthehelmetstrapoveryourchin. Lastly,makesurethatyouarecomfortablewithyourfieldofvisionwhenthehelmetison.

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AbouttheAuthor: Onleavingschool,MichaelJosephdidamechanicalengineeringapprenticeshipwithRollsRoyce AeroEnginesbeforebecomingaperformanceengineer.Atthistimehelearnttoflylightaircraftand subsequentlyflyingbecameanewcareerasanairlinepilot. WithhisowntwosonstakinganinterestinengineeringandhavingseentheveryfirstGreenpower race,MichaelpersuadedtheWealdSchooltoenterunderhisleadership.Withthestudents,hewas responsibleforbuildingthreecarsallofwhichwereprimarilymadefromwood.TheSussexTrug, SuperTrugandSlipperyTrugwereallhighlysuccessfuloverasevenyearperiodculminatingin victoryatthe2006NationalFinal. OnretirementasaBritishAirwaysCaptainandfromtheWealdSchoolTeam,Michaelwas GreenpowersChiefScrutineerfrom20072011.HenowrunsElectroad,designingandbuilding electricmotorsandcomponentsforelectricvehicles.Someoftheseareavailablethroughthe GreenpowerShop.TheElectroadSimpleTrugwonTheCorporateChallengein2009and2011.

Greenpower
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