ABSTRACT

An object locator is a device designed to assist its user in finding misplaced household and personal objects in a home. We probably spend hours every month looking for items around the home, often in a similar situation. In fact, almost every person in the world suffers this problem. But now this is not really a big problem because now theres an inexpensive gadget to help people quickly find important items by tagging them and using an RF locator to pinpoint their position in seconds. Advantages of such locators include extensibility and low maintenance. In the past few decades, an unprecedented demand for wireless technologies has been taking place. Mobiles, Laptops, assistants (PDAs), and mobile phones, to name just a few examples, are becoming part of the everyday life of a growing number of devices that communicate wirelessly. Radio and infrared (IR) are currently the main parts of the electromagnetic spectrum used to transmit information wirelessly. IR is becoming more popular every day and it is being preferred due to its inherent advantages like low power requirements, security, effective short distance communication as compared to its Radio counterpart. So we are using this technology in our project. In this project we aim to design and build a hardware model of IR receiver and simple TV remote can be used as the transmitter

CONTENTS
1.INTRODUCTION 6

2.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

3.COMPONENTS 3.1. Timer IC - NE555 3.2. Transistor - SL 100, BC 148, SK100 3. 3 Diode 3.4. Voltage Regulator IC 7805 3.5. Light Emitting Diode 3.6. IR receiver ICTK1838 3.7. Dual j-k flipflop-IC4027 3.8. Resistors 3.9. Capacitors 3.10. 9V,3V Battery 3.11 Relay 3.12. Loud speaker 9 13 14 19 20 22 22 24 26 28 ...29 36

4. CIRCUIT OPERATION 5. WORKING 6. ADVANTAGES 7. LIMITATIONS 8. FUTURE SCOPE 9. REFERENCES

37 39 39 39 39 40
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INTRODUCTION "Where did I put my car keys?" is a question that we must have heard many times in our life! How often have you put something down and then spent ages looking for it? Well, our group decided to invent a gadget that would end this frustration! The idea was to develop small "tags" that could be clipped onto items which are often misplaced. These tags would be designed so that if they received a uniquely coded signal from an IR transmitter, they would emit a bleeping sound. A simple TV remote could be used to do this. The idea being, if you are looking for an item which has the tag attached, you could go to the transmitter and press the associated button. The transmitter would then send out a coded signal for a specific tag and voila, our item has been located! An object locator system comprises an activation unit and a remote locator where the remote locator may be attached to an easily misplaced object, such as a key or key-ring. The activation unit comprises additional functionality to induce the operator to carry it routinely so that it might be available at distant sites if needed. In one embodiment, the activation unit comprises a cellular telephone. In another embodiment, the activation unit comprises a wrist watch with an integral transmitter. The activation unit, when triggered, generates an activating signal. The remote locator receives the activating signal and announces its location. Communication from the activation unit to the remote locator may be direct or indirect, and may be via radio frequency electromagnetic, optical, or acoustic means. We can use a simple TV remote as a transmitter

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

COMPONENTS LIST The various components required for implementation of our circuit are listed as follows. 3.1. Timer IC - NE555 3.2. Transistor - SL 100, BC 148, SK100 3. 3 Diode 3.4. Voltage Regulator IC 7805 3.5. Light Emitting Diode 3.6. IR receiver ICTK1838 3.7. Dual j-k flipflop-IC4027 3.8. Resistors 3.9. Capacitors 3.10. 9V,3V Battery 3.11 Relay 3.12. Loud speaker 9 13 14 19 20 22 22 24 26 28 ...29 36

3.1. TIMER IC NE555: The NE-555 was invented by the Herr. Hans. R. Camenzind in 1970, the NE-555 went on to become a legend in the Electronics industry, the chip possibly deriving its "nick-name" from the three 5K resistors, R7, R8 and R9, all of which form the very unique " five - five five " resistor combination. The standard NE-555 can be a stand-alone compact device, yet powerful enough to perform basic timing functions or as a versatile timer or even as a simple oscillator to create tones of various pitches up to the ultrasonics of 200KHz.

Pin Diagram :

Pin Description : The connection of the pins is as follows: Pin Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 GND TRIG OUT Purpose Ground, low level (0 V) OUT rises, and interval starts, when this input falls below 1/3 VCC. This output is driven to +VCC or GND.

RESET A timing interval may be interrupted by driving this input to GND. CTRL THR DIS "Control" access to the internal voltage divider (by default, 2/3 VCC). The interval ends when the voltage at THR is greater than at CTRL. Open collector output; may discharge a capacitor between intervals.

V+, VCC Positive supply voltage is usually between 3 and 15 V.

The NE-555, in figure above is supplied in a plastic package 8 pin DIP (Dual IN-Line package). The NE-556 timer is a dual version of the NE-555 and comes in a standard 14-pin DIP plastic package, with two NE - 555 timers within. The NE-558 was a quad version of the NE-555with four distinct NE-555's within the one package, incidentally in a 14 pin DIP case, however it was scheduled to be discontinued due to its lack of popularity and also more importantly, its own inherent internal "noise" problems.

IC NE555: The 555 monolithic timing circuit is a highly stable controller capable of producing accurate time delays or oscillations. Features: Turn off time less than 2s Max operating frequency greater than 500 kHz. Output can source and sink currents up to 200 mA. Timing from microseconds to hours.

Basic NE-555 One-Shot ( Monostable ) Operation: A monostable circuit produces a single output pulse when triggered. It is called a monostable because it is stable in just one state: 'output low'. The 'output high' state is temporary. The duration of the pulse is called the time period (T) and this is determined by resistor R1 and capacitor C1: Time period, T = 1.1 R1 C1 T = time period in seconds (s) R1 = resistance in ohms ( ) C1 = capacitance in farads (F) The time period is multiplied by 1.1 because, the capacitor charges to 2/3 = 67% so it is a bit longer than the time constant (R1 C1) which is the time taken to charge to 63%.

555 monostable output, a single pulse:

555

monostable

circuit

with

manual

trigger:

Monostable operation: The timing period is triggered (started) when the trigger input (555 pin 2) is less than 1/3 Vs, this makes the output high (+Vs) and the capacitor C1 starts to charge through resistor R1. Once thetime period has started further trigger pulses are ignored. The threshold input (555 pin 6) monitors the voltage across C1 and when this reaches 2/3 Vs the time period is over and the output becomes low. At the same time discharge (555 pin 7) is connected to 0V, discharging the capacitor ready for the next trigger.

The reset input (555 pin 4) overrides all other inputs and the timing may be cancelled at any time by connecting reset to 0V, this instantly makes the output low and discharges the capacitor. If the reset function is not required the reset pin should be connected to +Vs.

Applications : In the monostable mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot". Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free switches, touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) etc

3.2. TRANSISTOR SL 100, BC 148, SK100: The SL 100 and BC148 are a general purpose silicon, NPN, bipolar junction transistors .SK 100 is a PNP transistor .If the T0-92 package is held in front of one's face with the flat side facing toward you and the leads downward, the order of the leads, from left to right is collector, base, emitter.

SL100 - NPN - 50V 500Ma: SL 100 is an low power NPN transistor.

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3.3 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

Figure 7: Typical diode packages in same alignment as diode symbol. Thin bar depicts thecathode. A modern semiconductor diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor like silicon that has impurities added to it to create a region on one side that contains negative charge carriers(electrons), called n-type semiconductor, and a region on the other side that contains positive charge carriers (holes), called p-type semiconductor. The diode's terminals are attached to each of these regions. The boundary within the crystal between these two regions, called aPN junction, is where the action of the diode takes place. The crystal conducts conventional current in a direction from the p-type side (called the anode) to the ntype side (called thecathode), but not in the opposite direction. Another type of semiconductor diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from the contact between a metal and a semiconductor rather than by a p-n junction. Currentvoltage characteristic A semiconductor diodes behavior in a circuit is given by its currentvoltage characteristic, or IV graph (see graph below). The shape of the curve is determined by the transport of charge carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region that exists at the p-n junctionbetween differing semiconductors. When a p-n junction is first created, conduction band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (vacant places for electrons) with which the electrons

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recombine. When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor (dopant) on the N-side and negatively charged acceptor (dopant) on the P-side. The region around the p-n junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator. However, the width of the depletion region (called the depletion width) cannot grow without limit. For each electron-hole pair that recombines, a positively charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the Pdoped region. As recombination proceeds more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the depletion zone which acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a built-in potential across the depletion zone. If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow (unless electron/hole pairs are actively being created in the junction by, for instance, light. see photodiode). This is the reverse bias phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in substantial electric current through the p-n junction (i.e. substantial numbers of electrons and holes recombine at the junction). For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.7 V (0.3 V for Germanium and 0.2 V for Schottky). Thus, if an external current is passed through the diode, about 0.7 V will be developed across the diode such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is said to be turned on as it has a forward bias. A diodes 'IV characteristic' can be approximated by four regions of operation.

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Figure 5: IV characteristics of a P-N junction diode (not to scale). At very large reverse bias , beyond the peak inverse voltage or PIV, a process called reverse breakdown occurs which causes a large increase in current (i.e. a large number of electrons and holes are created at, and move away from the pn junction) that usually damages the device permanently. The avalanche diode is deliberately designed for use in the avalanche region. In the zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A zener diode contains a heavily doped p-n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material, such that the reverse voltage is clamped to a known value (called the zener voltage), and avalanche does not occur. Both devices, however, do have a limit to the maximum current and power in the clamped reverse voltage region. Also, following the end of forward conduction in any diode, there is reverse current for a short time. The device does not attain its full blocking capability until the reverse current ceases. The second region, at reverse biases more positive than the PIV, has only a very small reverse saturation current. In the reverse bias region for a normal P-N rectifier diode, the current through the device is very low (in the A range). However, this is temperature dependent, and at sufficiently high temperatures, a substantial amount of reverse current can be observed (mA or more).

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The third region is forward but small bias, where only a small forward current is conducted. As the potential difference is increased above an arbitrarily defined cut-in voltage or onvoltage or diode forward voltage drop (Vd), the diode current becomes appreciable (the level of current considered appreciable and the value of cut-in voltage depends on the application), and the diode presents a very low resistance. The currentvoltage curve is exponential. In a normal silicon diode at rated currents, the arbitrary cut-in voltage is defined as 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The value is different for other diode types Schottky diodes can be rated as low as 0.2 V, Germanium diodes 0.25-0.3 V, and red or blue lightemitting diodes (LEDs) can have values of 1.4 V and 4.0 V respectively. At higher currents the forward voltage drop of the diode increases. A drop of 1 V to 1.5 V is typical at full rated current for power diodes. Shockley diode equation The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law (named after transistor coinventor William Bradford Shockley, not to be confused withtetrode inventor Walter H. Schottky) gives the IV characteristic of an ideal diode in either forward or reverse bias (or no bias). The equation is:

where I is the diode current, IS is the reverse bias saturation current (or scale current), VD is the voltage across the diode, VT is the thermal voltage, and n is the ideality factor, also known as the quality factor or sometimes emission coefficient. The ideality factor n varies from 1 to 2 depending on the fabrication process and semiconductor material and in many cases is assumed to be approximately equal to 1 (thus the notation n is omitted).

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The thermal voltage VT is approximately 25.85 mV at 300 K, a temperature close to room temperature commonly used in device simulation software. At any temperature it is a known constant defined by:

where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature of the p-n junction, and q is the magnitude of charge on an electron (theelementary charge). The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law is derived with the assumption that the only processes giving rise to the current in the diode are drift (due to electrical field), diffusion, and thermal recombination-generation. It also assumes that the recombinationgeneration (R-G) current in the depletion region is insignificant. This means that the Shockley equation doesnt account for the processes involved in reverse breakdown and photon-assisted R-G. Additionally, it doesnt describe the leveling off of the IV curve at high forward bias due to internal resistance. Under reverse bias voltages (see Figure 5) the exponential in the diode equation is negligible, and the current is a constant (negative) reverse current value of IS. The reverse breakdown region is not modeled by the Shockley diode equation. For even rather small forward bias voltages (see Figure 5) the exponential is very large because the thermal voltage is very small, so the subtracted 1 in the diode equation is negligible and the forward diode current is often approximated as

The use of the diode equation in circuit problems is illustrated in the article on diode modeling.

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3.4VOLTAGE REGULATOR IC 7805: 7805 5V Integrated Circuit 3Terminal Positive Voltage Regulator A voltage regulator generates a fixed output voltage of a preset magnitude that remains constant regardless of changes to its input voltage or load conditions. There are two types of voltage regulators: linear and switching. A linear regulator employs an active (BJT or MOSFET) pass device (series or shunt) controlled by a high gain differential amplifier. It compares the output voltage with a precise reference voltage and adjusts the pass device to maintain a constant output voltage. A switching regulator converts the dc input voltage to a switched voltage applied to a power MOSFET or BJT switch. The filtered power switch output voltage is fed back to a circuit that controls the power switch on and off times so that the output voltage remains constant regardless of input voltage or load current changes. The 7805 fixed voltage regulator is a monolithic integrated circuit in a TO220 type package designed for use in a wide variety of applications including local, onboard regulation. This regulator employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown, and safe area compensation. With adequate heat-sinking it can deliver output currents in excess of 1.0 ampere. Although designed primarily as a fixed voltage regulator, this device can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.

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3.5 LED A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962,[2] early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able

to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for lighting, automotive (particularly brake lamps, turn signals and indicators)

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3.6 IR RECEIVER-IC TK1838: Detects burst frequency generated by an IR transmitter. Features: High immunity against ambient light. Low power consumption. High sensitivity. Continuous transmission possible

3.7 IC CD4027 It is a dual J-K Master/Slave flip flop with set and reset. The JK flip-flop augments the behavior of the SR flip-flop (J=Set, K=Reset) by interpreting the S = R = 1 condition as a "flip" or toggle command. Specifically, the combination J = 1, K = 0 is a command to set the flip-flop; the combination J = 0, K = 1 is a command to reset the flip-flop; and the combination J = K = 1 is a command to toggle the flip-flop, i.e., change its output to the logical complement of its current value. Setting J = K = 0 does NOT result in a D flip-flop, but rather, will hold the current state. To synthesize a D flip-flop, simply set K equal to the complement of J. The JK flip-flop is therefore a universal flip-flop, because it can be configured to work as an SR flip-flop, a D flip-flop, or a T flip-flop. NOTE: The flip-flop is positive-edge triggered (rising clock pulse) as seen in the timing diagram.

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A circuit symbol for a Positive edge triggered JK flip-flop, where > is the clock input, J and K are data inputs, Q is the stored data output, and Q' is the inverse of Q The characteristic equation of the JK flip-flop is:

and the corresponding truth table is: JK Flip Flop operation Characteristic table J K Qnext 0 0 Qprev 0 1 1 0 0 1 Comment hold state reset set toggle Q 0 0 1 1 Qnext 0 1 0 1 J 0 1 X X K X X 1 0 Excitation table Comment No change Set Reset No change

1 1 Qprev

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JK flip-flop

JK flip-flop timing diagram

Features: Wide supply voltage range High noise immunity

Low power

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3.8. RESISTOR : A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with Ohm's law: V = IR A resistor restricts the flow of current. Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire .The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, the maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Units of resistance : The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. Symbol of resistance :

Resistor color coding : Resistor values are normally shown using colored bands. Each color represents a number as shown in the table. Most resistors have 4 bands:

The first band gives the first digit. The second band gives the second digit. The third band indicates the number of zeros. The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this may be ignored for almost all circuits.
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Electrical energy is converted to heat when current flows through a resistor. Usually the effect is negligible, but if the resistance is low (or the voltage across the resistor high) a large current may pass making the resistor become noticeably warm. The resistor must be able to withstand the heating effect and resistors have power ratings to show this. The power, P, developed in a resistor is given by: P = I R or P = V / R where: P = power developed in the resistor in watts (W) I = current through the resistor in amps (A) R = resistance of the resistor in ohms ( ) V = voltage across the resistor in volts (V)

Every resistor falls into one of two categories: fixed or variable. A fixed resistor has a predetermined amount of resistance to current, while a variable resistor can be adjusted to give different levels of resistance. Variable resistors are also called potentiometers and are commonly used as volume controls on audio devices. A rheostat is a variable resistor made specifically for use with high currents. There are also thermisters which either raise or lower resistance when temperature rises or drops; and light-sensitive resistors wer ratings of resistors:

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3.9.CAPACITOR : A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. Capacitors store electric charges. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes. The effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Operation : A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region called the dielectric medium though it may be a vacuum or a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device. The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them. C = Q / V Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes: C = dq / dv.
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Energy storage: Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the electric field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is given by: W = 1 / 2 CV2

Current-voltage relation:

The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a charge q(t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through the dielectric layer of a capacitor, rather an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the voltage as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is added to represent the initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation. v(t) =1 / C * i(t) dt Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form, i(t) = C * dv /dt The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field rather than the electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L.

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Capacitor symbol : Examples : Circuit symbols :

Capacitor markings: Most capacitors have numbers printed on their bodies to indicate their electrical characteristics. Larger capacitors like electrolytic usually display the actual capacitance together with the unit (for example, 220 F). Smaller capacitors like ceramics, however, use a shorthand consisting of three numbers and a letter, where the numbers show the capacitance in pF (calculated as XY x 10Z for the numbers XYZ) and the letter indicates the tolerance (J, K or M for 5%, 10% and 20% respectively). Additionally, the capacitor may show its working voltage, temperature and other relevant characteristics. Example : A capacitor with the text 473K 330V on its body has a capacitance of 47 x 103 pF = 47 nF (10%) with a working voltage of 330 V. Applications: Capacitors have many uses in electronic and electrical systems. They are so common that it is a rare electrical product that does not include at least one for some purpose.
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3.10. 9V BATTERY: An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first battery (or "voltaic pile") in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, batteries have become a common power source for many household and industrial applications.

There are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are designed to be used once and discarded, and secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed to be recharged and used multiple times. Miniature cells are used to power devices such as hearing aids and wristwatches; larger batteries provide standby power for telephone exchanges or computer data centers.

Symbol :

3.11 RELAY: A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations. A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly drive an electric motor is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead
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using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays". Basic design and operation

Simple electromechanical relay A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core, an iron yoke
which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that attracts the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate
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quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing. Types Latching relay A latching relay has two relaxed states (bistable). These are also called "impulse", "keep", or "stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This is achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing coils with an over-center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in position while the coil is relaxed, or with a remanent core. In the ratchet and cam example, the first pulse to the coil turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil example, a pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type of relay has the advantage that it consumes power only for an instant, while it is being switched, and it retains its last setting across a power outage. A remanent core latching relay requires a current pulse of opposite polarity to make it change state. Reed relay A reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The switch has a set of contacts inside an evacuated or inert gas-filled glass tube which protects the contacts against

atmospheric corrosion; the contacts are made of magnetic material that makes them move under the influence of the field of the enclosing solenoid. Reed relays can switch faster than larger relays, require only little power from the control circuit, but have low switching current and voltage ratings. Mercury-wetted relay A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted with mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less) where the mercury reduces the contact resistance and associated voltage drop, for low-current signals where surface contamination may make for a poor contact, or for high-speed applications where the mercury eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are position-sensitive

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and must be mounted vertically to work properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these relays are now rarely used. See also mercury switch. Polarized relay A polarized relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to increase sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th Century telephone exchanges to detect faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on screws, so a technician could first adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to set the critical current that would operate the relay. Machine tool relay A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools, transfer machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number of contacts (sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted from normally-open to normally-closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly installing many relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of automation in such industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller (PLC) mostly displaced the machine tool relay from sequential control applications. Contactor relay A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting loads, although contactors are not generally called relays. Continuous current ratings for common contactors range from 10 amps to several hundred amps. High-current contacts are made with alloys containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to oxidize; however, silver oxide is still a good conductor.Such devices are often used for motor starters. A motor starter is a contactor with overload protection devices attached. The overload sensing devices are a form of heat operated relay where a coil heats a bi-metal strip, or where a solder pot melts, releasing a spring to operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary contacts are in series with the coil. If the overload senses excess current in the load, the coil is de-energized. Contactor relays can be extremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use where noise is a chief concern.

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A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components, increasing long-term reliability. With early SSR's, the tradeoff came from the fact that every transistor has a small voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount of current a given SSR could handle. As transistors improved, higher current SSR's, able to handle 100 to 1,200 Amperes, have become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they may be falsely triggered by transients. Solid state contactor relay A solid state contactor is a heavy-duty solid state relay, including the necessary heat sink, used for switching electric heaters, small electric motors and lighting loads; where frequent on/off cycles are required. There are no moving parts to wear out and there is no contact bounce due to vibration. They are activated by AC control signals or DC control signals from Programmable logic controller (PLCs), PCs, Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) sources, or other microprocessor and microcontroller controls. Buchholz relay A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oilfilledtransformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the transformer if gas is produced rapidly in the transformer oil. Forced-guided contacts relay A forced-guided contacts relay has relay contacts that are mechanically linked together, so that when the relay coil is energized or de-energized, all of the linked contacts move together. If one set of contacts in the relay becomes immobilized, no other contact of the same relay will be able to move. The function of forced-guided contacts is to enable the safety circuit to check the status of the relay. Forced-guided contacts are also known as "positive-guided contacts", "captive contacts", "locked contacts", or "safety relays". Overload protection relay Electric motors need overcurrent protection to prevent damage from over-loading the motor, or to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the motor windings. One type of electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating
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element in series with the electric motor. The heat generated by the motor current heats a bimetallic strip or melts solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts. Where the overload relay is exposed to the same environment as the motor, a useful though crude compensation for motor ambient temperature is provided. Pole and throw

Circuit symbols of relays. (C denotes the common terminal in SPDT and DPDT types.) File:Relaycov.jpg The diagram on the package of a DPDT AC coil relay Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays. A relay will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil in one of three ways:

Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form A contact or "make" contact. NOcontacts can also be distinguished as "early-make" or NOEM, which means that the contacts will close before the button or switch is fully engaged.
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Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form B contact or "break" contact. NCcontacts can also be distinguished as "late-break" or NCLB, which means that the contacts will stay closed until the button or switch is fully disengaged.

Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits: one normallyopen contact and one normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It is also called a Form C contact or "transfer" contact ("break before make"). If this type of contact utilizes a "make before break" functionality, then it is called a Form D contact.

The following designations are commonly encountered:

SPST Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be connected or disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. It is ambiguous whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The terminology "SPNO" and "SPNC" is sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity. SPDT Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either of two others. Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in total. DPST Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals. Equivalent to two SPST switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has six terminals in total. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of each). DPDT Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over terminals. Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has eight terminals, including the coil.

The "S" or "D" may be replaced with a number, indicating multiple switches connected to a single actuator. For example 4PDT indicates a four pole double throw relay (with 14 terminals). EN 50005 are among applicable standards for relay terminal numbering; a typical EN 50005-compliant SPDT relay's terminals would be numbered 11, 12, 14, A1 and A2 for the C, NC, NO, and coil connections, respectively Relay: A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the
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coil of the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. Features: Relays can switch AC and DC. Relays can switch high voltages. Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A). Relays can switch many contacts at once

3.12. Loud speaker: A loudspeaker (or "speaker") is an electro-acoustic transducer that converts an electrical signal into sound. The speaker moves in accordance with the variations of an electrical signal and causes sound waves to propagate through a medium such as air or water.

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CIRCUIT OPERATION

The ICs NE555, CD4027 and the IR sensor TK1838 get the supply voltage from IC 7805 which in turn gets the supply from the 9V battery. The capacitor C1 which is connected between the output terminal and common terminal (i.e. gnd) of the IC LM7805 is used to improve the transient response and the out put impedance. The output of IR sensor TK1838 is normally high. It responds to a frequency of 38khz.When it detects IR light of appropriate frequency the output goes low. The capacitor C5 is connected to avoid noise and false triggering. The timer IC NE555 is used in monostable mode of operation. The timing period is triggered (started) when the trigger input (555 pin 2) is less than 1/3 VCC, this makes the output high (+VCC) and the capacitor C2 starts to charge through resistor R2. Once the time period has started further trigger pulses are ignored. The threshold input (555 pin 6) monitors the voltage across C2 and when this reaches 2/3 VCC the time period is over and the output becomes low. At the same time discharge (555 pin 7) is connected to 0V, discharging the capacitor ready for the next trigger. The reset input (555 pin 4) overrides all other inputs this instantly makes the output low and discharges the capacitor. The reset function is not required, hence the reset pin is connected to +VCC.

Output of the IR sensor acts as a trigger for the timer IC .The resistance R2 (100k) and capacitance C2 (10F) determine the ON time of the IC which is given by:TON=1.1RC Therefore the ON time is 1.1 second .The capacitor C4 is connected to ground noise pickup while the combination of R3, C3 is used to avoid false triggering of the monostable NE555.The IC CD4027 is a Dual J-K Master/Slave flip flop. Each flip flop has independent J, K, Set, Reset and clock inputs. These flip-flops are edge sensitive to the clock input and change state on the positive-going transition of the clock pulse. Set and reset are

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independent of the clock (grounded in this case). The J-K flip-flop is used in the toggle mode. Both the J and K terminals are connected to VCC. Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the first. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits, the link is magnetic and mechanical. The relay RL1 is 9V, 100 SPDT (i.e. Single Pole Double Throw) switch. The current requirement for the relay is given by (Voltage rating)/ (Coil Resistance). In this case the current requirement is 90mA. Back-EMF diode 1N4007 is connected across the relay for the protection of transistors and ICs from the brief high voltage spike produced when the relay is switched off. Diode is connected 'backwards' so that it will normally not conduct. Conduction only occurs when the relay coil is switched off, at this moment current tries to continue flowing through the coil and it is harmlessly diverted through the diode. Without the diode no current could flow and the coil would produce a damaging high voltage 'spike' in its attempt to keep the current flowing. SL 100 is an npn transistor enclosed in a metal casing (better heat dissipation) and is used in a open collector mode. The output current of the J-K flip-flop is low (0.88 mA at 25 C) which is much less than that required by the relay, SL 100 is used to amplify the current. LED2, LED3, and LED4 are used to display the status of each output stage during circuit operation.

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WORKING: The IR sensor detects the IR light from the transmitter and its output goes low. This acts as a trigger for the timer IC555 which is used in the monostable mode of operation. The output of the timer IC goes high. This toggles the J-K flip flop, whose Q output drives the relay through SL100 npn transistor The second part of the circuit is basically a two-stage amplifier with a feedback arrangement.when the loop is connected the base of the T1 is shorted to its

emitter.Hence the base current cease to flow and the circuit doed bot oscillate.When the loop os broken base current flows through T1 and the circuit starts oscillating,sounding an alarm.

ADVANTAGES: Can be controlled by any ordinary TV/VCR/VCD remote. Can be used to switch devices which require high voltage and high current. Can be used to switch any other 9V logic device by using the output across the relay coil terminal In the buzzer cuircuit since both the transitors are made from the silicon very little power is drawn from the battery. LIMITATIONS: The operating distance is limited by the transmitting power of the IR source. Two units (not needed to operated simultaneously) cannot be juxtaposed. Requires external DC power supply. Due to the relay the circuit becomes bulky and requires high input power

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FUTURE SCOPE: We can further improve the circuit in that instead of using the simple IR, which is a highly directional, we can further incorporate the technologies like BLUETOOTH or RFID so that we can operate this from very high distance REFERENCES: www.electronicsforu.com www.datasheetarchive.com www.kpsec.freeuk.com

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