WHAT IS A WIND TUNNEL?

A wind tunnel is a research tool used in aerodynamic research which can be used to study the effects of air moving past solid objects. Wind tunnels were first proposed as a means of studying vehicles

(primarily airplanes) in free flight. The wind tunnel was envisioned as a means of reversing the usual paradigm: instead of the air's standing still and the aircraft moving at speed through it, the same effect would be obtained if the aircraft stood still and the air moved at speed past it. In that way a stationary observer could study the aircraft in action, and could measure the aerodynamic forces being imposed on the aircraft. These find vast application in automobile and aircraft industry to test the prototype for aerodynamic conditions such as drag force, lift force on the prototype. Later, wind tunnel study came into its own: the effects of wind on manmade structures or objects needed to be studied, when buildings became tall enough to present large surfaces to the wind, and the resulting forces had to be resisted by the building's internal structure. Determining such forces was required before building codes could specify the required strength of such buildings.

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BASIC FLOW PARAMETERS INVOLVED IN WIND TUNNEL

1. Laminar/Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow is the movement of fluid in thin parallel layers which slide one over
the other much like sheets of paper. Each layer experiences strong viscous forces from adjacent layers and these forces have a damping effect on disruptions in the flow so that flow downstream of an obstacle quickly returns to its undisturbed state.

Turbulent flow is the highly random and chaotic flow that occurs at high Reynolds
numbers characterized by the formation of eddies and vortices of various sizes. Unlike laminar flow, in which fluid behaviour is determined primarily by viscous forces, flow behaviour in turbulent flow is determined by inertial forces.

2. Fluid Viscosity
Viscosity is often defined as a measure of how resistive a fluid is to flow or deformation. Viscosity can be linked somewhat to friction experienced by solid objects, but unlike the frictional forces between solids, viscous forces are independent of pressure. Viscosity is ultimately caused by cohesive intermolecular forces, and can be expressed mathematically as the ratio of shearing stress on a fluid to its velocity gradient. For gases viscous forces increase appreciably as the temperature of the gas increases. This is due to the fact that as temperature increases, so does the kinetic energy of the molecules and so there is an increase in rate of intermolecular collisions. To a good approximation, the viscosity of a gas goes as the square root of its temperature.
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3. Skin Friction Drag

Skin friction drag is the component of the total drag, also called parasitic or profile drag, experienced by a body in a fluid flow due directly to frictional forces between the fluid and the surface of the body. Assuming no boundary layer separation occurs, skin friction is the sole source of friction.

4. Reynold Number
The Reynolds number is a dimensionless constant used to distinguish laminar from turbulent flow in a pipe or channel or sometime around an immersed object, with lower values corresponding to laminar flow and higher ones to turbulent flow. The Reynolds number is calculated using mean velocity, pipe diameter, density, and viscosity, and is valid for any fluid. The Reynolds number is also dependent upon the geometry of the pipe, as well as the roughness of the walls.

5. Boundary Layers
Boundary layers are regions of fluid located immediately adjacent to an immersed object or wall in which flow velocities are governed by viscous forces. Drag forces and most of the heat exchange experienced by the object are due to fluid in this region. Boundary layers typically begin as a very thin region of laminar flow that thickens with increasing Reynolds numbers and then gradually transitions to a turbulent layer flowing over a viscous sublayer. Flow outside of the boundary layer is independent of Reynolds number criteria.

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CONSTRUCTION

Filter

There are six major components of a wind tunnel: 1. Filter 2. Contraction Chamber 3. Settling Chamber or Gauze 4. Working Section 5. Diffuser section 6. Fan

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1. Filter:
Filters are installed at the inlet section of the turbine before contraction chamber. As the name suggests, they are used to remove the dust and small dirt particles from the air. Dirt particles should not enter the system because it causes undesired turbulence in the flow.

2. Contraction Chamber:
Contraction is the major part of a wind tunnel because this section decides the flow properties in the test section. Area of contraction chamber decreases gradually along the length. Contraction area ratio is the single most important factor that decides the flow uniformity, possibility of flow separation and flow speed in the test section. For wind tunnel designing, contraction area ratio is chosen so as to avoid the flow separation because this decreases the effective area available for testing. Contraction chamber length is kept sufficient long to minimize boundary layer separation at the exit.

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3. Settling Chamber:
Air cleaned through the filter enters the settling chamber. Main purpose of settling chamber is to straighten the flow. Turbulence from settling chamber is transferred to test section which is never desirable as it can result in undesired forces experienced in test section. For better simulation of experimental conditions, turbulence should be kept to minimum. Settling chamber section generally consist of honeycomb and wire mesh screens. This aid in smoothing the flow. Settling chamber should be designed long enough to accommodate honeycomb and mesh screens at appropriate intervals. Also longer length of settling chamber helps in killing turbulency. A very long settling chamber may result in boundary layer separation.

Honeycomb

Honeycomb is basically a wider mesh with significant cell length in flow direction. Out of the cross-section choices of square, circular and hexagonal, later is generally the preferred choice. Honeycomb reduces the larger eddies and lateral turbulence of the flow. They also reduce the cross flow component.

Screens

Screens are wire meshes are installed to reduce the mean flow non uniformities and fluctuations of the flow. They also remove larger eddies and cross flow components similar to honeycomb.

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4. Test Section:
This part of the wind tunnel is used for carrying out experiments or simulating experimental conditions. In this section, flow is almost longitudinal with negligible lateral components. Each wind tunnel has a limit on maximum flow velocity. The whole wind tunnel is designed based on the test section area, test section length and maximum flow speed desired.

5. Diffuser:
This section is designed to recover the static pressure that occurs from entry of contraction chamber to exit of test section. To achieve this, the area of diffuser increases gradually along the length. A long diffuser section results in more pressure loss due to viscous effects. The recovery of static pressure from

kinetic energy reduces the power required to drive the wind tunnel.

6. Fan:
Axial or radial fans can be used to power the wind tunnels. Generally axial fans are preferred because they produce static pressure rise with no significant change in axial velocity

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WORKING

Air is blown or sucked through a contracting duct equipped with a viewing port and instrumentation where models or geometrical shapes are mounted for study. Typically the air is moved through the tunnel using a series of fans. For very large wind tunnels several meters in diameter, a single large fan is not practical, and so instead an array of multiple fans are used in parallel to provide sufficient airflow. Due to the sheer volume and speed of air movement required, the fans may be powered by stationary turbofan engines rather than electric motors.

The airflow created by the fans that is entering the tunnel is itself highly turbulent due to the fan blade motion (when the fan is blowing air into the test section - when it is sucking air out of the test section downstream, the fan-blade turbulence is not a factor), and so is not directly useful for accurate measurements. The air moving through the tunnel needs to be relatively turbulence-free and laminar. To correct this problem, closely-spaced vertical and horizontal air vanes are used to smooth out the turbulent airflow before reaching the subject of the testing.

Due to the effects of viscosity, the cross-section of a wind tunnel is typically circular rather than square, because there will be greater flow constriction in the corners of a square tunnel that can make the flow turbulent. A circular tunnel provides a smoother flow.

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The inside facing of the tunnel is typically as smooth as possible, to reduce surface drag and turbulence that could impact the accuracy of the testing. Even smooth walls induce some drag into the airflow, and so the object being tested is usually kept near the centre of the tunnel, with an empty buffer zone between the object and the tunnel walls. There are correction factors to relate wind tunnel test results to open-air results.

Lighting is usually recessed into the circular walls of the tunnel and shines in through windows. If the light were mounted on the inside surface of the tunnel in a conventional manner, the light bulb would generate turbulence as the air blows around it. Similarly, observation is usually done through transparent portholes into the tunnel. Rather than simply being flat discs, these lighting and observation windows may be curved to match the cross-section of the tunnel and further reduce turbulence around the window.

Various techniques are used to study the actual airflow around the geometry and compare it with theoretical results, which must also take into account the Reynolds number and Mach number for the regime of operation.

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MEASUREMENT OF AERODYNAMIC FORCES

Knowing the air velocity and pressures, various aerodynamic forces can be calculated. Various methods are listed below which help us to determine pressure and velocity.

Air velocity through the test section is determined by Bernoulli's principle. Measurement of the dynamic pressure, the static pressure, and (for compressible flow only) the temperature rise in the airflow.

Direction of airflow around a model can be determined by tufts of yarn attached to the aerodynamic surfaces.

Direction of airflow approaching an aerodynamic surface can be visualized by mounting threads in the airflow ahead of and aft of the test model.

Dye, smoke, or bubbles of liquid can be introduced into the airflow upstream of the test model, and their path around the model can be photographed.

Pressures on the test model are usually measured with beam balances, connected to the test model with beams or strings or cables.

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Pressure distributions across the test model have historically been measured by drilling many small holes along the airflow path, and using multi-

tube manometers to measure the pressure at each hole.

Pressure distributions can more conveniently be measured by the use of pressuresensitive paint, in which higher local pressure is indicated by lowered fluorescence of the paint at that point.

Pressure distributions can also be conveniently measured by the use of pressuresensitive pressure belts, a recent development in which multiple ultra-miniaturized pressure sensor modules are integrated into a flexible strip. The strip is attached to the aerodynamic surface with tape, and it sends signals depicting the pressure distribution along its surface.

Pressure distributions on a test model can also be determined by performing a wake survey, in which either a single pitot tube is used to obtain multiple readings downstream of the test model, or a multiple-tube manometer is mounted downstream and all its readings are taken (often by photograph).

Metal pressure chambers were used to store high-pressure air which was then accelerated through a nozzle designed to provide supersonic flow. The observation or instrumentation chamber ("test section") was then placed at the proper location in the throat or nozzle for the desired airspeed.

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For limited applications, Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) can augment or possibly replace the use of wind tunnels. It should be noted that, for situations where external turbulent flow is present, CFD is not practical due to limitations in present day computing resources. For example, an area that is still much too complex for the use of CFD is determining the effects of flow on and around structures, bridges, terrain, etc.

The most effective way to simulative external turbulent flow is through the use of a boundary layer wind tunnel: Wind tunnel tests in a boundary layer wind tunnel allow for the natural drag of the Earth's surface to be simulated. For accuracy, it is important to simulate the mean wind speed profile and turbulence effects within the atmospheric boundary layer. Most codes and standards recognize that wind tunnel testing can produce reliable information for designers, especially when their projects are in complex terrain or on exposed sites.

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FLOW VISUALIZATION
Because air is transparent it is difficult to directly observe the air movement itself. Instead, multiple methods of both quantitative and qualitative flow visualization methods have been developed for testing in a wind tunnel.

Smoke:
Smoke is generated and flown past the model to study the pattern of flow.

Oil:
When oil is applied to the model surface it can clearly show the transition from laminar to turbulent flow as well as flow separation.

Optical methods:
Some flows reveal their patterns by way of changes in their optical refractive index. These are visualized by optical methods known as the shadowgraph, schlieren photography and interferometry. More directly, we can employ the light attenuation or laser-induced fluorescence techniques.

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Evaporating Suspensions:
Evaporating suspensions are simply a mixture of some sort or fine powder, talc, or clay mixed into a liquid with a low latent heat of evaporation. When the wind is turned on the liquid quickly evaporates leaving behind the clay in a pattern characteristic of the air flow.

Tufts:
Tufts are applied to a model and remain attached during testing. Tufts can be used to gauge air flow patterns and flow separation.

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Sublimation:
If the air movement in the tunnel is sufficiently non-turbulent, a particle stream released into the airflow will not break up as the air moves along, but stay together as a sharp thin line. Multiple particle streams released from a grid of many nozzles can provide a dynamic three-dimensional shape of the airflow around a body. As with the force balance, these injection pipes and nozzles need to be shaped in a manner that minimizes the introduction of turbulent airflow into the airstream. High-speed turbulence and vortices can be difficult to see directly, but strobe lights and film cameras or high-speed digital cameras can help to capture events that are a blur to the naked eye. High-speed cameras are also required when the subject of the test is itself moving at high speed, such as an airplane propeller. The camera can capture stop-motion images of how the blade cuts through the particulate streams and how vortices are generated along the trailing edges of the moving blade.

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WIND TUNNEL CLASSIFICATION

There are many different kinds of wind tunnels, an overview is given below:

Based on Flow Speed:

Low speed wind tunnel Supersonic wind tunnel Hypersonic wind tunnel Transonic wind tunnel Spin wind tunnel

Based on Shape:
Open circuit wind tunnel Closed circuit wind tunnel

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FLOW SPEED BASED WIND TUNNELS

Low speed wind tunnel:

Low speed wind tunnels are used for operations at very low mach number, with

speeds in the test section up to 400 km/h (~ 100 m/s, M = 0.3). They are of open-return type, or return flow. The air is moved with a propulsion system made of a large axial fan that increases the dynamic pressure to overcome the viscous losses.

Supersonic wind tunnel:

Supersonic tunnels work in a way that seems contrary to logic. As the throat of a wind tunnel constricts, one expects the velocity of the air rushing through it to increase. It therefore seems logical that a model should be placed at the constricted part of such a tunnel in order to take advantage of the high-velocity airflow. But the reality is that as the airspeed approaches Mach 1, the air compresses and also heats up as it piles up at this constricted part. Only when the air gets past this constriction does it actually move faster than Mach 1, as the energy stored in both the compression and in the heat of the air converts to kinetic energy. Put another way, all of this stored energy has to convert to another form and this form consists of large amounts of air moving very fast through the wind tunnel. This is how a supersonic wind tunnel works, with the model placed in a section of the tunnel where the throat actually expands.

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Hypersonic wind tunnel:

Many of the same principles used in supersonic tunnels were also used in hypersonic tunnels to explore speeds greater than Mach 5. But several other problems occur in these types of tunnels. One is that the power requirements to accelerate the air are tremendous, so most hypersonic wind tunnels do not operate continuously but store up tremendous amounts of compressed air and release it in a brief burst. This is why many hypersonic tunnels have large storage tanks for holding compressed air. Another problem is that as the air moves out of the constriction chamber it cools as its heat energy is converted to kinetic energy. In a hypersonic tunnel, the air can cool so much that it actually liquefies. This is not simply a case of the moisture in the air condensing. The air itself turns to liquid. In order to prevent this from happening, the air is deliberately heated as it is compressed in a "settling chamber" before being released. In a Mach 10 wind tunnel, for example, air is heated to 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit (1649 degrees Celsius) so that it does not liquefy when it is released.

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Transonic wind tunnel:

Transonic wind tunnels are able to achieve speeds close to the speeds of sound. The highest speed is reached in the test section. The Mach number is approximately one with combined subsonic and supersonic flow regions. Testing at transonic speeds presents additional problems, mainly due to the reflection of the shock waves from the walls of the test section. Therefore, perforated or slotted walls are required to reduce shock reflection from the walls. Since important viscous or inviscid interactions occur (such as shock waves or boundary layer interaction) both Mach and Reynolds number are important and must be properly simulated. Large scale facilities and/or pressurized or cryogenic wind tunnels are used.

There are "spin tunnels" that test how aircraft behave when they fly out of control and start spinning, a situation that is commonly referred to by pilots as "departure from controlled flight." These tunnels test whether the pilot can recover in this situation or needs to parachute out of the airplane. There are "free flight" tunnels where models are actually "flown" by remote control by a pilot sitting in a control booth and sending signals to the model through a wire tether. There are also blastfurnace-type tunnels for testing how spacecraft and missiles act in high temperature airflows such as they encounter when reentering the Earth's atmosphere. And there are magnetic tunnels, where the model is held stable inside the tunnel by powerful magnetic fields so that more accurate measurements can be taken.

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SHAPE BASED WIND TUNNELS 1. Open circuit wind tunnel:

This type of wind tunnel is open at both ends. The chances of dirt particles entering with air are more so more honeycombs (mesh to clean incoming air) are required to clean the air.

Open type wind tunnels can further be divided into two categories:

a) Suck down tunnel: With the inlet open to atmosphere, axial fan or centrifugal blower is installed after test section. These types of wind tunnels are not preferred because incoming air enters with significant swirl.

b) Blower tunnel: A blower is installed at the inlet of wind tunnel which throws the air into wind tunnel. Swirl is a problem in this case as well but blower tunnels are much less sensitive to it.

2. Closed circuit wind tunnel:

Outlet of such wind tunnel is connected to inlet so the same air circulates in the system in a regulated way. The chances of dirt entering the system are also very low. Closed wind tunnels have more uniform flow than open type. This is usually a choice for large wind tunnels as these are more costly than open type wind tunnels.

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