: EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF CORROSION RATE

AND SLUG FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

IN HORIZONTAL, MULTIPHASE PIPELINE/

A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY OHIO UNIVERSITY

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE MASTER OF SCIENCE

XIANLING ZHOU , AUGUST, 1993

ABSTRACT

Most oil and gas production involving water and carbon dioxide production has increased flow related corrosion in multiphase pipeline. Understanding the cause in order to reduce the corrosion rate for different pipeline flow regimes is a subject of great importance. Experiments were conducted on a loop connected by plexiglass and PVC pipes with a operating pressure of 20psi and a temperature of 40C.A stationary slug was used to measure the corrosion rate, shear stress, turbulent intensity and slug flow characteristics for mixtures of ASTM artificial sea water and Conoco LVT-200 oil. Typical results show that the higher the flow rate, the larger the corrosion rate. Corrosion rate increases with an increase in shear stress. Shear stress, void fractions and pressure drops separately

increase with an increase in Froude number. It is also concluded that flow conditions and fluid properties characteristics and corrosion rates. have significant effects on flow

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to express my most sincere appreciation to my advisor Dr. W. P. Jepson for his valuable advice and guidance during the course of this study, without his constant support and encouragement, this work would not have been completed.

I wish to thank Dr. J. Stubbins, Dr. C. Baloun, and Dr. J. Y. Sun for
their helpful suggestions on this work, Ms. Jordan for her great help in organizing and editing thesis, and all fellow graduate students for their cooperation and assistance on this research. The financial support from NSF IIUCRC corrosion in multiphase systems center is gratefully acknowledged. Finally, I have a special gratitude to my parents and my husband, Quan, for their love, encouragement, patience and understanding.

LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES 1.0 INTRODUCTION 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 3.0 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURE
3.1 Description of Flow Loop

3.2 Description of Test Section

3.3 Test Methods and Procedures

- Deoxygenation process - Corrosion rate measurement - Void fraction and oil-water concentration analysis - Pressure drop measurement
-

Chemistry composition analysis

4.0 RESULTS 4.1 Corrosion / Erosion Rate

- Full pipe flow withiwithout C02 bubbled in - Slug flow

4.2 Shear Stress / Turbulent Intensity 4.3 Void Fraction / Oil concentration 4.4 Pressure Drop 4.5 Relation of Corrosion Rate and Flow Characteristics
5.0 CONCLUSIONS

L,Isrr OF REFERENCES APPENDICES Appendix - A: Froude Number Calculation Appendix - B: Calibration of Hot - Film Sensor for the

Measurement of Wall Shear Stress Appendix - C: Working Principle of Electrical Resistance Appendix - D: Working Principle of Linear Polarization Resistance
69
70

Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3 Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 4.1.1 Figure 4.1.2 Figure 4.1.3 Figure 4.1.4 Figure 4.1.5 Figure 4.1.6

Flow patterns in water - gas systems Flow regime map of 50% oil and 50% water Typical slug unit Slug types Comparison of a real moving slug and a stationary slug Schematic layout of flow system Test section Viscosity vs. temperature of working fluids Corrosion rate vs. liquid velocity for full pipe flow (compared with deWarrd value) Corrosion rate vs. oil percentage for full pipe flow without C02 bubbled in at V=1.3m/s Comparison of corrosion rate for full pipe flow withlwithout C02 bubbled in Comparison of corrosion rate between present data and deWaard value for C 0 2 bubbled flow Corrosion rate vs. time for full pipe flow of saltwater only and oil only at V= 1.3m/s Corrosion rate vs. time for full pipe flow of 20% oil & 80% saltwater at V=l .Om/s and 40% oil & 60% saltwater at V=1.8ds
34

32

33

Figure 4.1.7

Corrosion rate vs. time for full pipe flow of

60% oil & 40% saltwater at V=1.3ds and for C02

35

bubbled in flow of 80% oil & 20% saltwater at V=1.3mls

Figure 4.1.8 Figure 4.1.9 Figure 4.1.10 Figure 4.2.1 Figure 4.2.2 Figure 4.2.3 Figure 4.2.4 Figure 4.2.5 Figure 4.2.6 Figure 4.2.7 Figure 4.5.1 Figure 4.5.2 Figure 4.5.3

Corrosion rate vs. Froude number at bottom of pipe Corrosion rate vs. Froude number at top of pipe Corrosion rate vs. oil percentage for slug flow Shear stress and turbulent intensity of saltwater only Shear stress and turbulent intensity of oil only Shear stress and turbulent intensity of 20% oil & 80% saltwater Shear stress and turbulent intensity of 40% oil & 60% saltwater Shear stress and turbulent intensity of 60% oil & 40% saltwater Shear stress and turbulent intensity of 80% oil & 20% saltwater Shear stress for different fluids at Fr-10 Corrosion rate vs. shear stress Corrosion rate vs. void fraction Corrosion rate vs. pressure drop

Figure 4.1 11 Comparison of corrosion rate for slug flow

Table 3.1 Table 4.1.1 Table 4.1.2 Table 4.3.1 Table 4.3.2 Table 4.3.3 Table 4.4.1

Physical properties and flow velocity calibration coefficients of working fluids Equilibrium corrosion rate Equilibrium corrosion rate Void fraction Void fraction Void fraction Pressure drop

1. INTRODUCTION
In the initial production of an oil well, only oil and gas are produced. Often carbon dioxide and water are pumped down the oil well to enhance the oil and gas production as the well gets older. In remote places such as offshore or in Alaska, the oil, gas, carbon dioxide and sand etc., are transported to central gathering facilities where they are separated. This multiphase flow causes a great deal of flow related corrosion problems in the pipelines. A corrosion inhibitor can be used in an attempt to form a thin protective layer on the inside of pipe wall to prevent corrosion. However, due to transient conditions in the pipelines, many inhibitors are not effective. Maintenance and replacement costs of pipelines are extremely expensive. An understanding of corrosion processes and the effect of the multiphase flow is a subject of great importance. All corrosion processes involve interaction between a metal and contacting fluids. The relative motion between the fluid and the metal surface will in general affect the rate of the corrosion reaction (Sydberger, 1987). Ellison and Wen (1981) proposed a rational classification for flow effects on corrosion. There are three fundamentally different mechanisms for the interaction between fluid flow and corrosion: convective mass transfer controlled corrosion; phase transport controlled corrosion; and

erosion-corrosion. Sydberger, (1987) also distinguished these three mechanisms, explaining that the mechanisms can accelerate the corrosion either by increasing convective mass transfer, or by eroding protective corrosion product layers. For some metal-fluid systems, however, a high flow velocity can prevent corrosion in the multiphase fluids by promoting the formation of a stable surface film or by removing corrosive species/phases from the metal surface (Sydberger, 1987). When transporting multiphase liquid and gas mixtures in horizontal pipelines, many flow regimes exist. These include stratified, intermittent and annular flow(Figure 1.1). The stratified flow regime, which contains three different flow types, namely, smooth stratified, wavy stratified and roll wave, is defined as two separate stratified phases flowing with gas above the liquid phase. This flow regime generally appears at low gas and liquid flow rates. The intermittent flow regime includes plug flow and slug flow. The slug flow being common in most flow lines when high liquid and gas flowrates are required to maintain production rates. Understanding the mechanisms involved in this regime is very important. Annular flow is defined as a liquid film flowing at the pipe wall and the gas flows in the core. This flow regime is normally present at high gas velocities. ( Figure
1.2).

FLOW PATTERN IN WATER GAS SYSTEM

WAVY STRATIFIED

ROLLING WAVE

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

- 0

SLUG FLOW

ANNULAR

Figure 1.1

A typical slug can be characterized by five sections: the liquid film,

the gas bubble zone, the mixing zone, the slug body, and the slug tail (Figure 1.3). Slugs are formed when a liquid wave grows on the stratified film and bridges the pipe to form a lump of liquid or slug. Since the gas velocity is much greater than the liquid velocity, this slug is accelerated to close to the gas velocity. The slug front assimilates the slow moving liquid film ahead of it and the mixing zone is created and high levels of turbulence are produced. This mixing zone entrains the fast moving gas which is above the slow moving liquid film and passes it back to the slug body. After the passage of the slug, liquid is shed from the slug tail and eventually combines with fresh incoming liquid to form a film on which the next slug will propagate. Jepson (1989) showed that high velocity slugs can cause high turbulence and shear forces at the pipe wall. They can

destroy the protective inhibitor film, remove corrosion products o r prevent adquate inhibitor performance. Based on the study of the effect of slug flow characteristics on corrosion rates in oil and gas pipes, Sun and Jepson (1992) demonstrated that when the Froude number is increased, shear stress and turbulent intensity increase, and corrosion rates also increase. Therefore, slug characteristics such as slug length, velocity and frequency, void fraction and pressure drop are very important parameters in investigating the relationship between the slug flow and the corrosion

processes. There has been much work studying the flow regimes and slug characteristics. Jepson (1987) suggested a stationary slug can reflect the flow mechanisms in the mixing zone of true slug. However, further measurements of corrosion rates under different flow conditions and slug flow characteristics are necessary. The purpose of this work is to study the relationship between the flow characteristics and corrosion rates. Based on this, experiments have been conducted in the following two major areas:
(1) Study of the corrosion rates at different flow conditions and working

fluids. In addition, the content of dissolved gas, e.g. oxygen and carbon dioxide; the dissolved metal ion, especially iron; and the pH value were tested simultaneously.

(2) Utilization of stationary slugs to study the slug flow characteristics.

The oil, water and gas fractions in the slug, the wall shear stress and flow turbulent intensity, and the pressure drop across the slug were all measured. From these measurements, the effect of the flow characteristics on the corrosion process are examined.

1. Liauid film 2. .One 3. Mixing zone 4. Slug bbdy 5. Slug tail

* -

Figure 1.3 Typical Slug Unit

- Vs
Mixing Zone

T r

-+vo

V - Vs t

Mixing Zone

V - Vg t

4 -

vt-vo

Figure 2.2 Comparison between real moving slug (top) and a stationary hydraulic jump (bottom).

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
There has been much research examining slug flow. The first

a realistic model of slug flow w s proposed by Dukler and Hubbard (1975),

who found that liquid is entrained at the slug front, accelerated to the slug velocity and then passed back through the slug. Jepson (1989) developed a physical model for the prediction of transition to slug flow. The model assumes that the slug forms as a result of a hydraulic jump which just touches the top wall of the conduit. This, together with a 'breaking dam' assumption at the rear of the slug, provides the necessary and sufficient conditions for the formation of a stable slug. There are several different types of slug (Figure 2.1). Their 'strength' is proportional to the Froude number calculated in the liquid film ahead of the slug (Jepson ,1989). The equation is as follows:

Where Vt = the translational velocity of the slug

Vf = the velocity of the liquid film

bff the effective height of liquid film, =

the area of flow devided by width of the film

F ~ P - 1.7 Undular jump 1

Fr

1.7 - 2.3 Weak jump

Roller

Fr f= 2.5-4.5 Oscillating jump

F r r 4.5 - 9.0 Steady jump

Fr ~ 9 . 0 Strong jump

Figure 2.1

Strength of hydraulic jump as function of Froude numbers (Chow, 1 9 5 9 )

10

g = the accelation due to gravity Jepson(1989) showed that even at low Froude numbers, there is little mixing at the front of the slug. When the gas and liquid flow rates are increased, the intensity of the mixing region increases and a strongly turbulent zone is formed at the slug front. At high Froude numbers, within the mixing area at the front of the slug, the lower part of the pipe experiences high shear rates. Pulses of gas bubbles are released that hit the bottom of the pipe and can collapse similar to a cavitation process. It can be seen that there are intermittent regions of high shear stress that accompany the passage of each slug. These high shearing forces may destroy an inhibitor layer close to the wall. Also, from field measurements, Green (1990) reported that there is a significant relationship between high velocity slug flow and corrosion rate. Slug flow characteristics have been experimentally studied for many years. Kordyban (1963) presented experimental techniques used to study the mechanism of two-phase slug flow in a horizontal tube. The results showed that the velocity of the slug appeared to be a stronger function of air flow rate than of liquid flow rate, while the frequency of slugs was a strong function of liquid flow rate. The magnitude of pressure fluctuations varied considerably from slug to slug for a given value of air and water flow rate.

11

Based on the measurements of velocity distribution, slug length, frequency and translation speed throughout a slug flow, Kvernvold et al.
( 1 984) showed that slug lengths are relatively constant for his flow

conditions. Crowley et al. (1984) studied the effects of liquid viscosities and gas densities on slug characteristics. Experiments were conducted on a

horizontal, 17cm ID pipe for gas superficial velocities of 1.2, 2.4, 3.6 mls and liquid superficial velocities of 0.6, 1.2, 1.8 m/s respectively. The fluids used were water (lcp viscosity), Newtonian liquid (400 cp) and gas. The results showed that liquid viscosity has a significant effect on two phase slug flow characteristics while gas density has only little effect. Kouba and Jepson (1989) examined the Froude number both in the film ahead of slug and in the slug body, translational velocity of slug, slug length and frequency. Experiments were carried out for gas and liquid superficial velocities ranging from 0.8 to 20 m/s and 0.3 to 3 mls respectively. Typical results showed that the Froude number ahead of slug is always greater than unity, and the Froude number is basically less than unity after the front. This proves that a slug is a hydraulic jump that propagates along a pipe. Results that indicate significant effects of the pipeline inclination on both liquid fraction and pressure drop have been presented by Kokal and

12

Stanislav (1989). The experimental pipelines used were 25m long with diameters of 2.58, 5.12, and 7.63cm respectively and with inclinations of
-9, -5, - 1, 0, 1, 5, 9 degrees. The liquids used were oil and water with air

as the gas. The necessary conditions for the existence of stable slugs were investigated by Lunda and Asheim (1989) and Ruder et al. (1989). Lunda and Asheim reported that slug growthldissipation depends on changes in superficial gas velocity and liquid holdup ahead of the slug. Lower gas velocities result in a shorter slug while higher gas velocities increase slug length. Ruder et al., however, predicted two necessary conditions. One defines a minimum gas velocity, the second defines a minimum height of the liquid layer for stable slug. Due to the high velocity and transient nature of slug flow, it is very difficult to take accurate measurements on real moving slug. Jepson (1987) suggested that a stationary slug (i.e. hydraulic jump) can be formed in both horizontal and inclined pipes. The stationary slug is formed by forcing liquid and gas under a gate. The hydraulic jump is formed somewhere in the pipe, and it can be moved and made stationary at a given location by controlling the back pressure in the pipe. Figure 2.2. shows a comparison between a real moving slug and a stationary slug. The stationary slug formed by a hydraulic jump can accurately reflect the flow mechanisms in

13

the mixing zone of true slug flow, and the measurements in a stationary slug are much easier than in a fast moving real slug. Both chemical and physical variables of the working fluids are also important factors in determining the corrosion rates. B. Mishra et al. (1992) reviewed and modified the previous work on factors affecting carbon dioxide(C02) - corrosion. They found that the formation of protective scales or a passive film on bar steel is a main factor affecting the final corrosion rate. Iron carbonate (FeC03) is the chief final product of the corrosion reaction of steel in carbon dioxide (C02) - environments. Factors affecting iron carbonate scale formation (dissolution) were temperatures, carbon dioxide partial pressures, pH value, material composition, flow velocity and time. The overall corrosion reaction is as follows: C02 + Hz0 $ H2CO3 H2C@
(2)

+ Fe $ FeC03 + H2

(3)

The above reactions show that the low concentrations of Fez+ and high C02 levels can enhance corrosion process. By measuring corrosion rate of steel at 90C and C02 partial pressure of 0.27 MPa, Videm et al. (1989) and Murata et a1.(1985) found the corrosion rate increased with decreasing pH especially below a pH of 3.8. B. Mishra et al. (1992) showed that the

14

temperature affects carbon dioxide solubility and the type and formation of corrosion product. For oxygen content and crude oil concentration, Lotz and Sydberg (1988) found that a sudden addition of oxygen (1 0 to 1500 ppb) resulted in a moderate increase in corrosion rate. Crude oil is not corrosive and provides a barrier to water accessing the metal as long as the crude oil contacts the metal surface. (B. Mishra et al., 1992). Based on the modified deWaard-Milliams equation (1975): log V,,,, Where V,,,,
= 5.8 - 1710 1 T

+ 0.67 log ( ~ ~ 0 2 )

(4)

= nomogram corrosion rate

T = temperature, K
~ ~ = mo1% 0 2

C02 * total pressure P, bar with the

de Waard et. al. (1991) corrected the model by multiplying V,,,,

related physical and chemical factors which can cause deviations from the above equation. They concluded that the effect of dissolved Fe++ on the C02 corrosion rate can be described by the changes in pH caused by the F'e++. deWaard-Milliams equation predicts the C02-corrosion for water saturated with corrosion product. A correction factor is needed for unsaturated water. There are several techniques for corrosion measurement. The electrochemical methods are usually applied to liquid phase systems. These

15

methods include the measurement of electrode potential, galvanic currents, electrical resistance and alternating current(AC) impedance (Mercer, 1985). The electrical resistance(ER) method relies on the fact that the DC ohmic resistance of a wire will increase with decrease in its cross-section. The corrosion rate is monitored from changes in the electrical resistance of a test probe. The linear polarization resistance(LPR) method obtains the corrosion rate by combining the linear polarization resistance measurement with an a1ternating current impedance(AC) method for resistance

compensation. The corrosion rate is proportional to the corrosion current density. LPR methods are less appropriate for the multiphase flows because of the low conductivity of the oil film on the probe. Based on the use of weight loss coupons and electrical resistance probes(ER) in atmosphere corrosion tests, Mckenzie and Vassie (1985) concluded that the weight loss coupon is the best method for long term corrosion measurement, while electrical resistance probe is more sensitive and suitable for shorter term corrosion measurements.

16

3.EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURE

The experimental facility used for this research was developed by Jepson (1987) and is used for the purpose of studying the relationship between corrosion rate and flow characteristics of oil, water and carbon dioxide mixtures in a horizontal multiphase pipeline.

3.1 Description of Flow Loop

The facility consists of a closed loop system and the schematic layout is shown in Figure 3.1. The oil and water are pumped from the liquid tank into the PVC pipe where an orifice plate measures the flow rate which is controlled by adjusting the valve on the liquid recycle line. The flow is then forced under gate G to form a fast moving liquid film in the plexiglass horizontal pipeline which is 9m long . Compressed carbon dioxide from high pressure cylinders is first passed into an expansion tank to maintain the required pressure for each run. It is then forced into the system at point H. The flow rate is measured with a Cole Parmer gas flow cell. Downstream from gate G, a hydraulic jump (stationary slug ) is

formed in the pipe and maneuvered to the test section where it is made stationary by controlling the gas inlet at H and the back pressure regulator

Layout of The Experimental System

A
C D

A. Liquid Tank B. Pressure Gauges C. Liquid Recycle D. Liquid Feed - 3 "PVC E. Orifice Plate Manometer F. Test Section - 4" Plexiglass

73

G. Flow Height Control Gate H. CO2 Feed Line I. VENT wlvalve J. Heater K. Safety Valve L. Back Pressure Regulator
Figure 3.1

Irl

18

at L. The strength of the slug depends on Froude number. Its calculation is described in Appendix A.

3.2 Description of Test Section The test section is illustrated in Figure 3.2 . At position E, a TSI flush mounted, hot film sensor was used to measure the mean wall shear stress and turbulent intensity at the bottom of the pipe. In order to prevent the probe from burning out, great care was taken to ensure that the probe was immersed in the liquids during the test. The test period was controlled within one hour. The voltage signal from the probe was passed to an IFA 100 anemometer system which converted the signals through a MetraByte's Model DAS20 AD converter in order to store the data in digital form. The data was then processed using the TSI Anemometry Software Package, Model DAP, and 386 computer. By moving the slug to different axial locations, it was possible to measure the wall shear stress and turbulent intensity at several points, before, at the front of, and within the slug. The probe was calibrated with each working fluid using full pipe flow. The calibration details are presented in Appendix B. Downstream from the wall shear probes, at locations A and B, linear polarization probes, electrical resistance probes and coupon specimens were flush mounted at the top and bottom of the pipe to test the corrosion rates. Following the corrosion rate

Test Section
I:,. ....,., ....,, ...,: .....,.
:..

...... ..:..... ......

3: A .... .... .. ...

.... .. . .... ... ...... .....,. .... ... .... ....... ..., .'...I. ....:.: .... ... .... . .... ... .... .. .. ... .+:. .... ... ..... ....... ,...,.

Direction of Flow

A. LPR Probes or sample coupon B. ER Probes C. Sample Tube D. Pressure Tappings E. Shear Probe Mountings F. Temperature Probe

Overall Length - 6 ft.

Figure 3.2

20

probes, there were three pressure tappings (D) to allow the pressure drops before, within and across the slug to be measured using differential U tube manometers. A sampling tube (C) was used to take fluid samples for chemical composition analysis, void fraction and oil-water concentration measurements.

3.3 Test Methods and Procedures

All the measurements were carried out by using different working fluids under the constant temperature 40C and a constant pressure of 20psi. For the liquids, ASTM standard artificial sea water and Conoco LVT-200 oil were selected as working fluids. Their physical properties are shown in Figure 3.3 & Table 3.1. For the multiphase system, 20% oil & 80% salt water, 40% oil 60% salt water, 60% oil & 40% salt water and 80% oil & 20% salt water mixtures were prepared as working fluids. The total liquid volume was 290 gallons. Carbon dioxide was used for the gas phase.

Beaxy gemtion-process
Before any data was taken, a deoxygenation procedure was used to ensure that the corrosion measurement was not affected by the existence of oxygen in the system. Carbon dioxide was passed through the system and

3
2.5 n

Viscosity vs Temperature
~ a ~ ~ I 8 ~ ~ I ~ ~ ~ ~ I ~ ~ . ~ I ~ r a 8 1 r 8 n t I v ~ Q ~ I a

*LVT-200
*Saltwater
*Water -

.2 I 0
.3 C

PI C

w
C rl ,

8 1.51' 0.5 o ~ ~ ~ ~ ' 1 ~ p ~ ' s 9 ~ 3 ' t s n n I B ~ a ~ ' m ~ a n 1 8 m ~

.h

V)

20

25

30

35 40 45 Temperature (C)

50

55

60

Table 3.1 Physical properties at a temperature of 40C and velocity calibration coefficients for different fluids Fluids
* / 100% O 20% / 80% 40% / 60% 60% / 40% 80% / 20%

Density (gm/cm3)
1.025 0.985 0.945 0.905 0.865

Viscosity (CP>
1.33 1.48 1.64 1.79 1.95

Velocity Calibration Coefficient

0.00247 1 0.002524 0.00258 1 0.002642 0.002707 0.002776

100%/ 0

0.825

2.10

* LVT-200 oil percentage / Salt water percentage

23

element to the protected check element, the corrosion rate can be determined by the instrument (Appendix C.). For a given probe, the corrosion rate is calculated as:

Corrosion Rate (MPY) = Change in Dial Reading * 0.365 * Probe Factor(5) Change in Time (Days) e.g. If the change in dial reading is 1.0 during 1 hour, the probe factor is 10, the corrosion rate(MPY) = 1.0 * 0.365 * 10 * 24 / 1 = 87.6 The test period depends on the time required to reach the equilibrium corrosion rate for each specific test.

A model 9030 CORRATER instrument was used as the linear

polarization resistance(LPR) corrosion rate monitor. The probe is flush mounted and the corrosion current density can be obtained by combining the linear polarization resistance measurement with an alternating current impedance(AC) method for resistance compensation. The corrosion rate is proportional to the corrosion current density (Appendix D.). Coupon weight loss is a traditional method for measuring the corrosion rate. The specimens used were made of 1018 carbon steel and analyzed using the ASTM standard method as follows. The dimensions and weight of the specimens were accurately measured before exposure in the
fl uid. Following exposure, the corrosion deposit was removed both

chemically and mechanically. The detail procedure is as follow: (i) Clean the coupon with acetone to remove the grease & oil. (ii) Ultrasonic cleaning to remove loosely bound particles. (iii) Chemical treatment to remove the corrosion products. HCl SnC12 Sb203
1000d
@ 15C - 25C for 10 - 25 min.

50gms 20gms

(iv) Cleaning with distilled water.

(v) Brushing with a clean brush.

(vi) Washing with acetone, dry with hot air. The specimen was then reweighted and the corrosion rate calculated from the loss in weight from the given surface area during a given time interval.

(lorrosion as Loss in Thickness =

Weight loss (6) Corroding area * Density of material

Yc&d fraction and oil- water concentration test

Void fraction and oil-water concentration were obtained at five positions across a vertical diameter and two distances of 30 and 60cm into the slug body with the Froude numbers of 6, 10 and 12. A 62.5 rnl in

25

volume and l m long glass pipe with valves at both ends was connected to the sampling tube. The sampling fluids were taken by opening both valves and closing them simultaneously when the flow was isokinetic. A graduated glass cylinder was used for storing the sample fluids and oil-water separation. By taking readings of both total liquid volume VL and water volume VjT, the void fraction and oil concentration can be easily calculated:

Void Fraction = 62.5 - VL 62.5

Oil Concentration = VL - Vw Vr,

(7)

Where VI, = The total liquid volume, ml Vw=The water volume, ml

Pressure~drnpmeasurement
Pressure drop measurements were taken for all the working fluids with Froude numbers of 6, 10 and 12 from the liquid film to 30cm and 4Ocm within the slug. A differential U tube manometer filled with

MERIAM 175 liquid (density= 1.75gmIcm3) was selected to take the

readings.

Chemistry composition measurement During the experiment, fluid samples were taken from the sample tube for chemistry composition measurements. Titrets Carbon Dioxide K1920 Model 100-1000 ppm was selected to test the carbon dioxide concentration in the working fluids, and VACUettes Iron R-600 1B Model 0-100 was also used to investigate the content of iron during the test. In addition, Model 955 Accumet Mini pH meter from Fisher Scientific was used as the pH value monitor. All the above analysis were taken several times during a specific run.

..

4. RESULTS

4,.1 Corrosion/Erosion Rate

The equilibrium corrosion rates for the various working fluids under different flow conditions are presented in Tables 4.1.1 and 4.1.2.

E'dLgiLpeflow wWwithout C07. bubbled in For the full pipe flow without C02 bubbled in, three liquid flowrates were completed. Figure 4.1.1 shows that higher liquid flow rates produce larger corrosion rates for each fluid. However, the effect of flowrate on the corrosion rate for the pure salt water was greater than for the oil & water mixtures. As the oil concentration was increased, the corresponding corrosion rate decreased at the same liquid flowrate. Figure 4.1.2 shows that, for a liquid velocity of 1.3 mlsec, the corrosion rate decreases from
49 mils/yr for saltwater to 28 mils/yr for the LVT 200 oil. This is due to

less water being close to the wall. The de Waard equation gives the

07 corrosion rate of 5 . milslyr with a operating pressure of 20psi and a

temperature of 40C at the system pH value. This corrosion rate is similar to the measured values for saltwater. This is expected since the de Waard equation may be used for single phase full pipe flow but it does not

28

consider the effect of flow velocity and oil concentration. The comparison is shown in Figure 4.1.1. Figure 4.1.3 gives the differences in corrosion rate for full pipe flow with and without C02 bubbled in. At the same liquid flow rate, with

C102 bubbled in there was a much higher corrosion rate with pure salt
water. The corrosion rate increased from 32 to 110 milslyr and 65 to 180 milslyr respectively, at both low and high liquid flowrates. However, for a mixture of 20% oil & 80% salt water, the increase in corrosion rate was less. In addition, the effect of bubbling in C 0 2 decreased with an increase in oil concentration. At liquid flow rate of 1.3m/s, the corrosion rate decreased from 50milslyr at 40%oil to 33milslyr for both 60%and 80% oil irrespective of whether COa bubbled in or not. For the oil only flow, the corrosion rate was 28milslyr. There may be however, small traces of saltwater in the system which cannot easily be detected. Figure 4.1.4 shows the corrosion rate comparison of the present data
and de Waard value. It can be seen that the de Waard value is much lower

than the measured values for saltwater but close to the measured values for mixture containing 20% oil. For the above two flow conditions, detailed information of the chemical compositions of the working fluids, the time required to reach the

Table 4.1.1 Corrosion Rates at Different Fluids and Flow Conditions

LVT-200 Oil / Salt Water

29

Flow Condition

Equilibrium Corrosion Rate (milslyr)

I

Salt Water Only

Full Pipe Without C02

LPR(T/B~* ER(T/B) Coupon V=0.9 35 32

V4.3 50
hC

49
70

Full Pipe V=0.9 With C02 V=1.77 Fr=5.7 Slug Flow

V=l .O

110 180 85/60 47.1147. 30

121

129.6 197.4

*
80175 381120 34

30

Table 4.1.2 Corrosion Rates at Different Fluids and Flow Conditions LVT-200 Oil , Salt Water Flow Condition Fr=6 40%/60% Slug Flow Fr=lO Fr=12 Full Pipe V=l .3 Without CO;. Fr=6 60%/40% Slug Flow Full Pipe With C02 80% / 20% F-10 Fr=12 V=1.3 Fr=6 Slug Flow Fr=lO Fr-12 .?dl Pipe 2 Without ~ 0 V=1*23 LVT-200 Oil Only Slug Flow Fr=7 Fr=10.7 Equilibrium Corrosion Rate (milslvr) LPR(T/B) ER(T/B) Coupon *I20 */27 23/30
*i74

20137 45/62 32 16 25 47 33 15 24 39 28 8118.5 7/35

b

60180

* * * * *
I

* *
0 0 0

* - Not Available ** - Corrosion Rate at Top/Bottom

Corrosion Rate vs. Velocity for the Full Pipe Flow (compared with deWaard)
100
8 r b 1 1 8 I T 1 r 1 1 1 a 1 1 8 1 1 r r 1

40% LW-200 Oil & 60% Salt Water 60% LW-200 Oil & 40% Salt Water L T m io l V - ol ny

----- -+
4

20

l l l l l l l l l l l l l , , l l l l I

0 0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

Liquid Velocity, mfsec

Figure 4.1.1

Corrosion Rate vs. Oil Percentage for the Full Pipe Flow without CO, Bubbled in, V=1.3mls
100
1 ' " 1 " ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 " '

80
3

9 ,

+ Corrosion Rate, mils/Y

41

160-

20

0 " " " " " " ' " " " '

LVT-200 Oil Percentage, %

Figure 4.1.2

Comparison of Corrosion Rate witwwithout CO, Bubbled in

Salt Water (3nly(with C02) 20% Oil & 80% Salt Water(* C02) Sl Water Only(with0ut 0 2 ) at --r--20% Oil & 80% Salt Water( without C02)

--e--

"

'

"

'

;
I . . . I , . . I . . . I . . . I . . .

0.8

1.2 1.4 1.6 Liquid Velocity, d s e c

1.8

Corrosion Rate vs. Velocity for the C02 Bubbled in Flow (compared with deWaard)

+ Oil & 80% Salt Water@resent) 20%

80 -

40

0 0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

Liquid Velocity, m/sec

Figure 4.1.4

I+

--0- Corrosion Rate(LPR-B)

Corrosion Rate(ER-B)

15 20 25 T i e , hr Full Pipe Flow of Salt Water,V=1.3111/~, TEmOC, 02=20ppb,CO2=7O0ppm,Fe=30ppm, pH=5.4

10

30

I-e-

Corrosion Rate(ER-B)

10

Time, hr Full Pipe Flow of LVT-200 Oil, V=1.3m/s, TEMP=40C, 02=10ppb, CO,=350ppm, Fe=lOppm, pH=6
figure 4.1.5

+Corrosion Rate(LPR-B)
+Corrosion
Rate(ER-T)

Time, hr

Full Pipe Flow of 20%LVT-200Oil and 80% Saltwater, V=l .Om/s, TEMP=-=-C, 02=15ppb, C02=350ppm, Fe=lOppm, pH=5.4

10 Time. hr

15

20

25

Full Pipe Flow of 40%LVT-200 Oil and 60% Salt Water, V = 1.8m/s, TEMP = 40C, O2= 15ppb. 450ppm, Fe = l0ppm. pH=5.4

CT=

figure 4.1.6

-6-

Corrosion Rate (ER-B)

Time, hr

Full Pipe Flow of 60% LVT-200 Oil and 40% Salt Water, V=1.3m/s, TEMP.=4OC, 0,=25ppb, CO2=5OOppm,Fe=15ppm, pH=5.5

I--8-

Corrosion Rate

~
1

~
3

1
4 Time, hr

1
6

1
8

CO, Bubbled in Flow of 80% LVT-200 Oil and 20% Salt Water, V=1.3m/s, V =2-2.5m/s, TEMP.=4OC, 02=30ppb, C02=300ppm, Fe=lOppm, pH=5.6
I

Figure 4.1.7

36

equilibrium corrosion rate and the comparison of ER and LPR reading for some specific measurements are illustrated in Figures 4.1.5 to 4.1.7. It can been seen that for full pipe flow, it takes about ten hours to reach the equilibrium corrosion rate. The oxygen content was always less than 30ppb. The Fe ion content increased from zero and after prolonged periods could reach as high as 30ppm, in general this value was less than lppm. The pH values varied between 5 - 6 for each test. ER and LPR results were relatively close with pure salt water and low oil content fluids, but because of the low conductivity oil film forming on the probe, the LPR didn't work well at high oil content flows.

S The corrosion rate versus the Froude number at the bottom and top of the pipe are presented in Figures 4.1.8 and 4.1.9. The corrosion rate at the bottom of the pipe was greater than that at the top except for the salt water only at a Froude number of 6, where they were of comparable magnitude. Further, the corrosion rate at the bottom of the pipe increased with an increase in the Froude number for each fluid, while the corrosion rate at the top of the pipe decreased with some compositions. This is due to the high levels shear stress at the bottom, large amount of gas being entrained at the slug front, and more gas being present near the top at the

37

higher Froude numbers. In addition, at the lower Froude numbers, the values of corrosion rate of the oillwater mixtures were relatively close to 2Omilslyr which is much less than for pure saltwater. At the higher Froude numbers, a significant difference was found for each oillwater

concentration (Figure 4.1.8). At a Froude number of 12, the corrosion rate was 62, 47, 39, and 37milslyr for oil concentrations of 40%, 60%, 80%, and oil only respectively. At the lower Froude numbers, there is little turbulence in the mixing zone. However, as the Froude number increases, the intensity of turbulence increases, the corrosion rate is enhanced. The effect of oil percentage on corrosion rate at the bottom of the pipe is shown in Figure 4.1.10. It was found that an increase of oil percentage in a mixture decreased the corrosion rate. However, a substantial corrosion rate is present at all concentrations. The time required to reach the equilibrium corrosion rate was around 2 -3 hours which was much less than for the full pipe flow. It seems that the high shear forces and turbulence in the mixing zone can remove corrosion products and increase the rate of corrosion materials to the pipe wall. Figure 4.1.11 shows the comparison of the present corrosion rate with those of Sun and deWaard. The corrosion rates from Sun's work are in general higher than the present. This is probably due to the higher

200

Equilibrium Corrosion Rate at the Bottom of the Pipe vs. Froude number for Slug Flow - +-+- Salt Water Only
-e- H
~ " ' 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 r ~ i ~ 1 z 1 1 ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ l r

160
\ w

40% - + 0 i l t 60% Salt Water 60% 0il t 40% salt water + Oil& 20% Salt Water 80% *Oilonly

20% Oil & 80% Salt Water

5;

120 -*

d
.C(

80

40

Froude Number
Figure 4.1.8

Equilibrium Corrosion Rate at the Top of the Pipe vs. Froude Number for the Slug Flow

I
Salt Water Only 20% LVT-200 Oil & 80% Salt Water -+- 40% LVT-200 Oil & 60% Salt Water ---B)--LVT-200 Oil Only
--0--

-a-

Froude Number
Figure 4.1.9

39
Corrosion Rate vs. Oil Percentage at Different Froude Number

20

40

60

80

100

LVT-200 Oil Percentage, %

Figure 4.1.10

Comparison of Corrosion Rate

1 ' 4 ' ' 1 ' ' ' ' 1 ' ' ' ' 1 ' ' ' ' l ' ' ' ' J ' ' 1 ' _

Salt Water Only @went) 20% Oil & 80%Salt Water @resent) -A40% Oil & 60% Salt Water (present) +Salt Water Only (Sun) - b20% Oil & 80%Salt Water (Sun) -8 40% Oil & 60% Salt Water (Sun) - t (de Waard)
'+ ,

- B

0
l ~ ~ ~ ~ l , t , , l t # a # ~ , , , , l ~ ~ t ~ l + , ~ ~ l # , #

9 10 Froude Number
Figure 4.1.11

11

12

13

40

viscosity of the oil used by Sun. For saltwater, the corrosion rate calculated from de Waard's equation is close to the measured values at the low Froude numbers, but it is much lower at the higher Froude numbers and also those of Sun's values. When oil is present, the deWaard equation seems to give a conservative estimate of the corrosion rate at low Froude numbers, but gives an underestimate at high Froude numbers.

4.2 Shear Stress I Turbulent Intensity

The shear stress and turbulent intensity were measured for the various fluids under the different slug flows. Figures 4.2.1 & 4.2.2 illustrate the shear stress and turbulent intensity of pure salt water and pure LVT-200 oil. The results show that in the mixing zone at the slug front, there are regions of high shear forces and high levels of turbulence. The magnitude of the shear stress and turbulence increased with an increase in Froude number. In addition, the shear stress for the oil was much larger than the water at each Froude number. This is expected because the shear stress is affected by the

physical properties of the fluids. The mean values of shear stress were 16 NIm2, 24 N/m2 for salt water and 25 N/m2, 82 N/m2 for oil at both Froude numbers of 5.7 and 10.6. However, the turbulent intensity of the oil was lower than the salt water. This decreases the ability of the slug front to

41

entrain gas. The largest values were 27% for salt water and 18% for oil at a Froude number of 10.7. Turbulent intensity is calculated from the shear stress measurements by taking the standard deviation and dividing by the mean shear stress. The shear stress and turbulent intensity of the mixtures containing 20%, 40%, 60% and 80% oil are presented separately in Figure 4.2.3 to 4.2.6. By comparing these data, a big difference of shear stress between the mixture containing 20% oil to the other three mixtures is noticed. At a Froude number of 12, the mean values were 30 NIm2, 105 NIm2 and 140 N/m2 for the oil concentrations of 20%, 40% and 60% respectively. There seems to be a phase inversion occurring between the mixture containing 20% oil and the mixture containing 40% oil. The shear stress and turbulent intensity for these mixtures continue to increase with an increase in Froude number. However, for the mixtures with the high oil content, there was no apparent difference of the turbulent intensity under the different Froude numbers. In each of the above cases, the shear stress changed substantially across the slug front, the greatest change occurring at high Froude numbers. These changes existed within 20cm and 30cm from the slug front, the area normally defined as the mixing zone of the slug flow (Figure 4.2.7). The turbulent intensity was also shown to change rapidly at

Shear Stress for Salt Water Only

30-aa
~ l ~ ~ ~ l , , , , , , , l , , , l , , , l , , , l , , ,

Shear Stress, Fr=9

A
10

0888~88~000

CI

.,..,,,.,.
8
O 8
I ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~

A A * ~ ~ 4 4 * ~ A

Distance to the Slug Front, cm

Turbulent Intensity for Salt Water Only

I ' " I ' ' ~ I ~ ' ~ ' ~ ' ' ' [ " '

Turbulent Intensity, F ~ 5 . 7 Turbulent Intensity, Fr=9 Turbulent Intensity, F ~ 1 0 . 7

L

A 0

w w
A

.
A
0 0
. , . I

A
0

1 3

2,.$

n
n
.

0
A
0

00

0
, . ,

. .

00
I . , . I

-40

-20

20

40

60

80

100

120

Distance to the Slug Front, cm

Figure 4.2.1

Shear Stress for LVT-200 Oil

150

p 6 2
w w

100

cn

50

0 Distance to the Slug Front, cm

Turbulent Intensity for LVT-200 Oil

30

0 -40 -20 0 20

40

60

80

100

120

Distance to the Slug Front, cm

Figure 4.2.2

Shear Stress for 20% LVT-200 Oil and 80% Salt Water
30 25
. ~ . l . ~ n l r ~ . l ~ . . , ~ m . l . ~ . , . m z l . . m

20:

A
A

A
A

A
A A

Shear Stress, Fr=6 1 Shear Stress, Fr=lO Shear Stress, Fr=12

W
A A

15 10

w
A

0 0

Distance to the Slug Front, cm

Turbulent Intensity for 20% LVT-200 Oil and 80% Salt Water

Turbulent Intensity, Fr=lO

Distance to the Slug Front, cm

Figure. 4.2.3

Shear Stress for 40% LVT-200 Oil and 60% Salt Water

Shear Stress, Fr=lO

Distance to the Slug Front, cm

Turbulent Intensity for 40% LVT-200 Oil and 60% Salt Water 30
25
@ 0
~ ~ t ~ ~ ~ ~ m ~ ~ l ~ ~ ~

20

3
CI

Turbulent Intensity, Fr=lO Turbulent Intensity, F-12

I
A

a 3
Q)

15;
10

0 O . A

0
5
0

A
A

" " " " " " " " " " " " ' 1 ' " 1 " ' -

Distance to the Slug Front, cm

Figure 4.2.4

Shear Stress for 60% LVT-200 Oil and 40% Salt Water 150
a m m l m . . l a s . l m m n l . . . l ~ ~ ~ I . * ~ I ~ l g

A A

p 100 Z rri z b
m -0"

3
50

..' . . - .
A

Shear Stress, F ~ 1 0

M a
A

0
Distance to the Slug Front, cm

Turbulent Intensity for 60% LVT-200 Oil and 40% Salt Water

30

"

'

'

"

"

'

"

'

"

'

"

'

Turbulent Intensity(%), F-10

A
d

. . . .
0
A.

A A

P.

I
. . . 1 . . .

a
100

0 -40

-20

20

40

60

80

120

Distance to the Slug Front, cm

Figure 4.2.5

Shear Stress for 80% LVT-200 Oil and 20% Salt Water

Dsac to the Slug Front, cm itne

Turbulent Intensity for 80% LVT-200 Oil and 20% Salt Water

D s a c to the Slug Front, cm itne

Figure 4.2.6

Shear Stress for the Different Fluids at Fr = 10

I
1 1 ,

+
A

m
@ +

A H

'

+
% 4

x a E !

o Salt Water Only 20% LVT-200 Oil & 80% Salt Water 40% LVT-200 Oil & 60% Salt Water 60% LVT-200 Oil & 40% Salt Water 80% LVT-200 Oil & 20% Salt Water x LVT-200OilOnly

Distance to the Slug Front, cm

Figure 4.2.7

49

some distance from slug front into slug body with the steepest change areas being 30cm
-

60cm from the slug front. Further, instantaneous values of

the shear stress can be much greater than the mean values. Instantaneous shear stresses in excess of 500 NIm2 were noted at the high Froude number.

4.3 Void Fraction / Oil concentration The void fraction for various fluids are listed in Tables 4.3.1, 4.3.2 ;and 4.3.3.

In each case, the void fraction is always smaller at the bottom of the
pipe than at the top. At a Froude number of 10 and a position of 30cm to the slug front, the void fraction varied from top to bottom with the values of 0.392 to 0.043 for 20% oil, 0.568 to 0.176 for 40% oil, 0.680 to 0.259 for 60% oil and 0.614 to 0.165 for 80% oil respectively. An increase in the Froude number causes an increase in the amount of gas entrained. For 80% oil & 20% water at 30cm into the slug, the average void fraction increased from approximately 23% at a Froude number of 6 to 55% at a Froude number of 12. In addition, as the Froude number increases, the length of the mixing zone increases. This enhances the mixing process and allows inore gas to be passed back into the slug body. A more homogeneous flow was also observed at higher Froude numbers. Hence, at the medium to high

50

Froude numbers, the void fraction at the distance of 60cm to the slug front was similar but smaller than the void fraction at the 30cm to the slug front. It is noted that not all the gas is passed through the slug. Some of the gas is returned to the gas pocket ahead of the slug. The void fraction increased with an increase in oil concentration. The oil concentrations were tested at the same positions for void fractions for the mixtures of 40% oil & 60% water and 80% oil & 20% water. The results showed that the data were relatively close to the input compositions.

4.4 Pressure Drop The results of pressure drop are presented in Table 4.4.1. Three test positions indicate separately the pressure drop within the film, across the slug front and somewhere within the slug body. It was seen in each case that the pressure drop increased with an increase in Froude number. As the Froude number increased from 6, 10, to 12, the length of mixing zone increased. By comparing the pressure drop at the position of 30cm and 60cm within the slug, at the low Froude number, there is little change between these two positions, while at the high Froude number, a substantial difference still exists. The pressure drop at a position of 30cm within the slug increased from 0.349, 0.647, to 0.767psi for 20% oil; 0.308, 0.461, to 0.506psi for 40% oil; 0.301, 0.530, to

Table 4.3.1 Void fraction distributions for different compositions of liquid at different Froude number at 30cm & 60cm within the slug ( i.e. from the jump front) salt water only Location *
.

LVT-200 oil only Location * 3Ocm 60cm

Froude Number 30cm 60cm

Fr = 5.7

1 2 3 4 5 6

0.272 0.22 0.18 0.12 0.07 0.05

0.456 0.36 0.168 0.1 0.05 0.02

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.32 0.26 0.21 0.15 0.08

0.38 0.34 0.32 0.24 0.18 0.175 0.18 0.16

Fr = 10.7

1 2 3 4 5 6 0.64 0.61 0.58 0.47 0.14 0.056 0.296 0.272 0.232 0.224 0.2 0.12

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0.65 0.62 0.6 0.58 0.52 0.38 0.22 0.12

0.45 0.38 0.37 0.35 0.3 0.3 0.26 0.22

Distance to the top of the pipe (mm) 1 = 0.1,2 = 9.94,3 = 20.15,4 = 39.9,5 = 58,6=84.5 (for salt water only) 1 =0.1,2=8.29,3 = 17.34,4=29.38,5 =45.09,6=62.28,7=75.44,8 =93.45 (for LVT-200 oil only)

Table 4.3.2 Void fraction distributions for different compositions of liquid at different Froude number at 30cm & 60cm within the slug ( i.e. from the jump front) 20% oil & 80% water Location * 30cm 60cm 30cm 60cm 40% oil & 60% water

Froude Number

Fr=6

1 2 3 4 5

0.251 0.171 0.125 0.016 0.061 0.264 0.208 0.144 0.128 0.088

0.285 0.192 0.04 0.04 0.029

0.24 0.152 0.12 0.136 0.08

Fr= 10

1 2 3 4 5 0.392 0.3 12 0.197 0.205 0.043 0.2 0.144 0.205 0.1 17 0.107

0.568 0.376 0.336 0.232 0.176

0.344 0.304 0.304 0.24 0.216

Fr = 12

1 2 3 4 5 0.664 0.6 0.648 0.38 1 0.235

0.45 1 0.52 0.427 0.28 0.224

0.6 16 0.552 0.464 0.248 0.184

0.4 0.336 0.312 0.28 0.248

Distance to the top of the pipe (mm) 1 = 5,2 = 20,3 = 45,4 = 65,5 = 85 (for 20% oil & 80% water) 1 = 5,2 =26,3 = 48,4 = 64,5 = 82 (for 40% oil & 60% water)

Table 4.3.3 Void fraction distributions for different compositions of liquid at different Froude number at 30cm & 60cm within the slug ( i.e. from the jump front) 60% oil & 40% water Location * 30cm 60cm 30cm 60cm 80% oil & 20% water

Froude Number

Fr=6

1 2 3 4 5 0.386 0.5 14 0.34 1 0.249 0.173 0.448 0.284 0.170 0.101 0.176

0.383 0.308 0.249 0.099 0.099

0.269 0.158 0.112 0.04 0.04

Fr= 10

1 2 3 4 5 0.680 0.700 0.672 0.560 0.259 0.485 0.569 0.523 0.346 0.395

0.614 0.607 0.552 0.267 0.165

0.394 0.387 0.314 0.229 0.235

Fr= 12

1 2 3 4 5 N/A

N/A

0.633 0.7 12 0.655 0.477 0.221

0.443 0.439 0.429 0.331 0.320

Distance to the top of the pipe (mm) 1 = 5 , 2 = 17,3 = 4 1 , 4 = 64,5 = 83

Table 4.4.1 Pressure Drop LVT-200 Oil/ Sea Water Froude number 0* 6 Salt Water Only 9 12 6 20%/80% 10 12 6 40%/60% 10 12 6 60%/40% 10 12 0.024 0.041 0.106 0.037 0.050 0.126 0.053 0.147 0.230 0.052 0.128 0.151 0.062 0.165 0.23 1 Pressure Drop (psi) 30 cm 0.367 0.774 1.003 0.349 0.647 0.767 0.308 0.461 0.506 0.301 0.530 0.647 0.232 0.472 0.632 60 cm 0.432 0.876 1.455 0.41 1 1.038 1.320 0.408 0.925 1.214 0.349 0.749 1.008 0.354 0.697 0.875

6
80%/20% 10 12

Distance to the slug front: O = Pressure drop at position of slug front * 30cm = Pressure drop at position of 30cm within the slug 60cm = Pressure drop at position of 60cm within the slug

55

0.647psi for 60% oil and 0.232, 0.472, to 0.632psi for 80% oil. As stated before, the turbulence decreased with an increase in oil concentration, so the pressure drop across the slug front and within the slug body decreased with an increase in oil fraction. At a Froude number of 12 and a position of 60cm within the slug, the pressure drop decreased from 1.455, 1.320, 1.214, 1.008 to 0.875psi with an increase in oil concentration from 0, 20%,
40971, 60% to 80%.

4.5 Relation Between Corrosion Rate and Flow Characteristics Figure 4.5.1 predicts some correlation between corrosion rate and shear stress. The results show that the corrosion rates of water increase from 75, 105 to 120milsN as the shear stress increase from 17, 21 to 25NImA2; the corrosion rates of 20% oil & 80% water increase from 23, 72 to 86nlils/Y as the shear stress increase from 8, 19 to 30N/mA2;while the corrosion rates of 60% oil & 40% water increase from 16, 25 to 47rnilslY as the shear stress increase from 15, 80 to 145N/mA2.It shows that when the oil fraction increases, the effect of shear stress on corrosion rate decreases. This is probably linked to the slower chemical reactions of the corrosion processes at the higher oil concentrations. The relation between corrosion rate and average void fraction at 30cm from the slug front is showed in figure 4.5.2. The average values of

56

void fraction are calculated by integration of the local values. The high void fraction means there are more gas bubbles in the mixing zone. It can
be seen that the corrosion rate increases with increase in void fraction for

a11 oillwater compositions. This is to be expected since more carbon dioxide is available to enhance the corrosion chemistry. Figure 4.5.3 presents the effect of pressure drop through the mixing zone on corrosion rate. The graph shows that the corrosion rate increases with the increasing pressure drop for all conditions. An apparent difference exists between the salt water and the mixture containing 20% oil and that for the 40% and 60% oil. This is probably because of the phase inversion and the lower ability of oil entraining gas in the slug front. The pressure drop mostly depends on the turbulence levels in the mixing zone.

10

100

Shear Stress, NhA2

Figure 4 5 1 ..

Corrosion Rate vs. Void Fraction

140
I ~ " s I ' L ~ s I L s 9 -

--4- water +20%oil&80%wateI - 3 40% ol & 60% water 1 i + , 60% oil & 40% water

+------0
0.1
I , . . , I . . I I I . . , . l , . . ,

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Void Fraction
Figure 4.5.2

Corrosion Rate vs. Pressure drop

140
r

+Water -+20% oil & 80% water -40% oil & 60% water - 60% oil & 40% water +

"

'

"

'

"

'

0 0.2
I ,
a ,

0.4

0.6

0.8 1 Pressure Drop, psi

Pigure 4.5.3

1.2

1.4

5. CONCLUSIONS
Several conclusions can be drawn from the experimental results. 'These conclusions are applicable to the study of flow characteristics and corrosion in multiphase pipelines. In examing the corrosion rate under different experimental conditions, it can be concluded that the flow conditions and properties of fluid have significant effect on corrosion rate. The higher the liquid flow rates and Froude numbers, the higher the corrosion rates in the flow conditions of full pipe flow and slug flow. The corrosion rates decrease with an increase in oil fraction. In the full pipe flow, the corrosion rates at the top and the bottom are relatively close, and the corrosion rates increase with carbon dioxide 1)ubbled in. In slug flow, the corrosion rates at the top and the bottom are different, the corrosion rates at the bottom are in general higher than at the top. Both ER and LPR probes work well in the fluids containing low oil percentage. LPR probes have to be used with caution at the high oil fractions. Shear stress increases with an increase in Froude number and oil fraction, Shear stress and turbulent intensity change rapidly within the

60

mixing zone of the slug. For slug flow, void fraction at the bottom of the pipe is always smaller than at the top of the pipe, and void fraction increases with an increase in the Froude number and the oil concentration. The pressure drop across the slug front and within the slug body increases with an increase in the the Froude number and a decrease in the oil fraction. The length of the mixing zone increases with an increase in Froude number. Corrosion rates increase with increasing shear stress with all fluids. This agrees with Sun and Jepson (1991). The corrosion rate increases with increasing Froude number because of the substantial increase in wall shear and turbulent intensity at these higher Froude numbers. Corrosion rates from Sun's measurements are in general higher than that from the present measurements because of using the higher viscosity oil. The de Waard equation can be used for full pipe flow of saltwater but only with caution for multiphase flow. This equation does not reflect the true corrosion rate in multiphase flow systems, as it does not consider the effect of flow conditions and oil compositions. Higher void fraction causes a larger corrosion rate since more carbon dioxide exists in the liquids and this enhances the corrosion reaction. Corrosion rate increases with an increase in pressure drop. A higher

61

pressure drop within the slug indicates a larger energy loss there. This is associated with greater turbulence in the flow within the mixing zone.

LIST OF REFERENCES
Crowley, C. J., R. G. Sam, G. B. Wallis, and D. C. Mehta, "Slug Flow in a Large Diameter Pipe: I. Effect of Fluid Properties," paper presented at AICHE Annual Meeting, San Francisco, California, November, 1984. Dukler, A. E. and M. G. Hubbard, "A Model for Gas-Liquid Slug Flow in Horizontal and Near Horizontal Tubes," Industry Engineering Chem., Fundam., 1 4(4), 1975. de Waard, C., U. Lotz and D. E. Milliams, "Predictive Model for C 0 2 Corrosion Engineering in Wet Natural Gas Pipelines," Corrosion, December, 1991. de Waard, C. and D. E. Milliam, "Carbonic Acid Corrosion of Steel", Corrosion, 31(5), 177, 1975. Ellison, B. T. and C. J. Wen. Am. Inst. Chem. Eng. Symp. Ser., 1981.77.161. Green, A. S., B. V. Johnson and H. Choi, "Flow-Related Corrosion in Large-Diameter Multiphase Flowlines," SPE paper 20685, 1990. Jepson, W. P., "Modeling the Transition to Slug Flow in Horizontal Conduit ," The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 67, October, 1 989. Jepson, W. P., "The Flow Characteristics in Horizontal Slug Flow," paper presented at 3rd International Conference on Multi-Phase Flow, The Hague, Netherlands, May, 1987.

Kouba, G. E. and W. P. Jepson, "The How of Slug in Horizontal, Two Phase Pipelines," paper presented at the Twelfth Annual Energy-Sources 'Technology Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Texas, January, 1989. Kokal, S. L. and J. F. Stanislav, "An Experimental Study of Two-Phase How in Slightly Inclined Pipes: 11. Liquid Holdup and Pressure Drop," Chemical Engineering Science, 44(3), 681-693, 1989. Kordyban, E. S., "Experimental Study of the Mechanism of Two-Phase Slug Flow in Horizontal Tubes," paper presented at Winter Annual Meeting of the ASME Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, November, 1963. Kvervold, O., V. Vindoy, T. Sontvedt, A. Saasen and S. Selmer-Olsen, "Velocity Distribution in Horizontal Slug Flow," International Journal of Multiphase How, 10(4), 441-457, 1984. Iatz, U. and T. Sydberger, "CO2 Corrosion of C. Steel and 13Cr Steel in 13article-laden Fluid, Corrosion, 44(11), 800, 1988. Lunda, 0. and H. Asheim, "An Experimental Study of Slug Stability in Horizontal Flow," paper presented at 4th International Conference on Multiphase Flow, Nice, France, June, 1989. Mercer, A. D., "Test Method for Corrosion Inhibitor," British Corrosion Journal, 20(2), 61, 1985. Mishra, B., S. Al-Hassan and M. M. Salarna, "Physical Characteristics of Iron Carbonate Scale Formation," paper presented at the NACE Annual Conference and Corrosion Show, April 22-26, 1992. Mckenzie, M. and P. R. Vassie, "Use of Weight Loss Coupon and Electrical Resistance Probes in Atmospheric Corrosion Test," British Corrosion

Murata, T., E. Sato and R. Matsuhashi, "Factors Controlling Corrosion of Steels in C02 Saturated Environment," Advanced in C 0 2 Corrosion, NACE, Houston, TX, 1985. Ruder, Z., P. J. Hanratty and T. J. Hanratty, " Necessary Conditions for the Existence of Stable Slugs," International Journal of Multiphase Flow, 15(2), 1989. Schlichting, H., "Boundary Layer Theory," 6th ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1 8 x . Sydberger, T., "Flow Dependent Corrosion: Mechanisms, Damage Characteristics, and Control," British Corrosion Journal, 22(2), 83-89, 1987. Sun, J. and W. P. Jepson, "Slug Elow Characteristics and Their Effect on Corrosion Rates in Horizontal Oil and Gas Pipelines," paper preaented at the 67th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of the SPE, Washington, DC, October 6-7, 1992. Videm, K. and A. Dugstad, "Corrosion of Carbon Steel in an Aqueous Carbon Dioxide Environment: Part 1," Material Performance, 28(3) ,63, 1989.

Appendix A. Froude Number Calculation Froude number is defined as the ratio of inertial force to gravity. In this work, the Froude number of the stationary slug can be calculated by using the effective film height and film velocity before the slug front . The calculation is as follows:

h - Maximum film height W - Gate width A - Wetted area R - Pipe radius bff Effective film height Vf - Film velocity

Appendix B Calibration of Wall Shear Hot Film Sensor

In the usual operation of hot film sensors, the sensor temperature is maintained at a constant value by a standard hot-film anemometry circuit. A laminar thermal boundary layer grows on the probe in the direction of flow and the instaneous average heat transfer coefficient for the probe is proportional to the square of the voltage drop. In an ideal developing laminar boundary layer, the heat transfer coefficient for the probe is proportional to one third of the surface shear stress. Since the sensor temperature is high enough so ambient temperature variations have a little effect on the system calibration parameters. Usually in that case, only the constants A and B in the calibration equation need to be determined.

Where: ZW = mean wall shear V = anemometer bridge voltage

The hot film sensor was calibrated with full developed turbulent flow in the pipe for each fluid. The fluid temperature was maintained at 40C during both calibration and measurement.

For fully developed flow within a smooth pipe

Where Ve is the superficial velocity, p is the density of working fluid, f is the friction factor and calculated by Prandtl's smooth circular tube equation (Schlichting, 1968), which is given by the following equation:

Where Re is the Reynolds Number Figure B.l and B.2 show the calibration curves for all the working fluids.

3.7

3.8

3.9

4.1

4.2

4.3

Voltage A 2

Calibration Curve for 20% LVT-200 Oil and 80% Salt Water

Voltage A 2 Calibration Curve for 40% LVT-200 Oii and 60% Salt Water
2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1

.............................

-y = -1.66% + 4.0871~R= 0.9H)r19

' " 00 " " " . . ~ ' * . . . ' * . ~ ~ ' . ~ ~ . "

0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95

0.65

Voltage A 2

Figure B1

Calibration Curve for 60% LVT-200 Oil and 40% Salt Water
2

1.8

3 <
m

1.6

b
$
1.4 1.2

m C

1
0.9

0.95

1.05

1.1

1.15

1.2

1.25

Voltage A 2

Calibration Curve for 80% LVT-200 Oii and 20% Salt Water
1.9

1.2 1.12 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.2 1.22 1.24 1.26

Voltage A 2

1.4-..

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Calibration Curve for LVTdOO Oil

1.2

1.5

1.55

1.6

1.65

1.7

1.75

Voltage A 2

-----Instrument

Probe

Figure C. 1

Diagram of electrical bridge circuit

Appendix C. Working Principle

Where R, p, 1, W, A and t are separately the resistance, the resistivity, the length, the width, the cross-section area and the thiclcness of the specimen, k is a constant

Where suffix T and R refers to the test element and reference element of the probe. The thickness of the test element can then be calculated from the measured ratio RT/RR
-=

corrosion rate in mils/yr during the exposure period of T years

Figure D.l Electrical Analog of Electrodes in Flowing Water System

Appendix D. Working Principle The value of Rp is determined by making two electrical measurements:
(1) a low-frequency measurement wherein Cd impedance >> Rp

(2) a high-frequency measurement wherein Cd impedance << Rp

RLP= 2Rp+ RS
RHI= Rs

1 ~ = ~ , ~ Constant

RL~RL~ -