Antennas and propagation

- resources analysis and news about all elements of antenna technology along with radio propagation, and radio spectrum issues.

Electromagnetic wave, spectrum, & antenna basics

Electromagnetic waves and basic antenna operation Polarisation Antenna feed impedance

Resonance and bandwidth Directivity and gain

RF coax cable, feeder & RF connectors

Antenna RF diplexer Balanced feeder Coaxial feeder / coax cable multipage

RF coax cable connectors Waveguide basics

Antenna technologies

Distributed antenna systems, DAS MIMO technology tutorial

Smart / adaptive antennas

Radio antenna types

Dipole antenna including folded dipole Discone Ferrite rod antenna Five eighths wavelength vertical Horn antenna J pole vertical antenna

Log periodic beam antenna Loop antenna overview Parabolic reflector Quarter wave vertical Yagi Satellite antennas

Radio wave propagation topics

Radio propagation overview Understanding signal path loss and link budgets Multipath propagation Ground wave propagation Tropospheric propagation modes

Meteor burst / meteor scatter communications Electromagnetic waves and propagation Ionospheric propagation basics Satellite propagation

Analysis and case studies from industry experts

Modelling antennas cutting out the clashes Cellular Spectrum Regulation in Europe Practical Applications for Distributed Antenna Systems

Electromagnetic wave, spectrum, & antenna basics

Electromagnetic waves and antenna basics

Antenna basics includes:
E/M waves & antenna operation Antenna polarisation Antenna feed impedance Antenna resonance & bandwidth Antenna directivity & gain

Radio signals are a form of electromagnetic wave, and as they are the way in which radio signals travel, they have a major bearing on RF antennas themselves and RF antenna design. Electromagnetic waves are the same type of radiation as light, ultra-violet and infra red rays, differing from them in their wavelength and frequency. Electromagnetic waves have both electric and magnetic components that are inseparable. The planes of these fields are at right angles to one another and to the direction of motion of the wave.

An electromagnetic wave

The electric field results from the voltage changes occurring in the RF antenna which is radiating the signal, and the magnetic changes result from the current flow. It is also found that the lines of force in the electric field run along the same axis as the RF antenna, but spreading out as they move away from it. This electric field is measured in terms of the change of potential over a given distance, e.g. volts per metre, and this is known as the field strength. Similarly when an RF antenna receives a signal the magnetic changes cause a current flow, and the electric field changes cause the voltage changes on the antenna.

There are a number of properties of a wave. The first is its wavelength. This is the distance between a point on one wave to the identical point on the next. One of the most obvious points to choose is the peak as this can be easily identified although any point is acceptable.

Wavelength of an electromagnetic wave

The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave

The second property of the electromagnetic wave is its frequency. This is the number of times a particular point on the wave moves up and down in a given time (normally a second). The unit of frequency is the Hertz and it is equal to one cycle per second. This unit is named after the German scientist who discovered radio waves. The frequencies used in radio are usually very high. Accordingly the prefixes kilo, Mega, and Giga are often seen. 1 kHz is 1000 Hz, 1 MHz is a million Hertz, and 1 GHz is a thousand million Hertz i.e. 1000 MHz. Originally the unit of frequency was not given a name and cycles per second (c/s) were used. Some older books may show these units together with their prefixes: kc/s; Mc/s etc. for higher frequencies. The third major property of the wave is its velocity. Radio waves travel at the same speed as light. For most practical purposes the speed is taken to be 300 000 000 metres per second although a more exact value is 299 792 500 metres per second.

Frequency to Wavelength Conversion

Although wavelength was used as a measure for signals, frequencies are used exclusively today. It is very easy to relate the frequency and wavelength as they are linked by the speed of light as shown:
lambda = c / f

where lambda = the wavelength in metres f = frequency in Hertz c = speed of radio waves (light) taken as 300 000 000 metres per second for all practical purposes.

Field measurements
It is also interesting to note that close to the RF antenna there is also an inductive field the same as that in a transformer. This is not part of the electromagnetic wave, but it can distort measurements close to the antenna. It can also mean that transmitting antennas are more likely to cause interference when they are close to other antennas or wiring that might have the signal induced into

it. For receiving antennas they are more susceptible to interference if they are close to house wiring and the like. Fortunately this inductive field falls away fairly rapidly and it is barely detectable at distances beyond about two or three wavelengths from the RF antenna.

Antenna polarisation or polarization

Polarisation is an important factor for RF antennas and radio communications in general. Both RF antennas and electromagnetic waves are said to have a polarization. For the electromagnetic wave the polarization is effectively the plane in which the electric wave vibrates. This is important when looking at antennas because they are sensitive to polarisation, and generally only receive or transmit a signal with a particular polarization. For most antennas it is very easy to determine the polarization. It is simply in the same plane as the elements of the antenna. So a vertical antenna (i.e. one with vertical elements) will receive vertically polarised signals best and similarly a horizontal antenna will receive horizontally polarised signals.

An electromagnetic wave

It is important to match the polarization of the RF antenna to that of the incoming signal. In this way the maximum signal is obtained. If the RF antenna polarization does not match that of the signal there is a corresponding decrease in the level of the signal. It is reduced by a factor of cosine of the angle between the polarisation of the RF antenna and the signal. Accordingly the polarisation of the antennas located in free space is very important, and obviously they should be in exactly the same plane to provide the optimum signal. If they were at right angles to one another (i.e. cross-polarised) then in theory no signal would be received. For terrestrial radio communications applications it is found that once a signal has been transmitted then its polarisation will remain broadly the same. However reflections from objects in the path can change the polarisation. As the received signal is the sum of the direct signal plus a number of reflected signals the overall polarisation of the signal can change slightly although it remains broadly the same.

Polarisation catagories
Vertical and horizontal are the simplest forms of antenna polarization and they both fall into a category known as linear polarisation. However it is also possible to use circular polarisation. This has a number of benefits for areas such as satellite applications where it helps overcome the effects of propagation anomalies, ground reflections and the effects of the spin that occur on many satellites. Circular polarisation is a little more difficult to visualise than linear polarisation. However it can be imagined by visualising a signal propagating from an RF antenna that is rotating. The tip of the electric field vector will then be seen to trace out a helix or corkscrew as it travels away from the antenna. Circular polarisation can be seen to be either right or left handed dependent upon the direction of rotation as seen from the transmitter. Another form of polarisation is known as elliptical polarisation. It occurs when there is a mix of linear and circular polarisation. This can be visualised as before by the tip of the electric field vector tracing out an elliptically shaped corkscrew. However it is possible for linearly polarised antennas to receive circularly polarised signals and vice versa. The strength will be equal whether the linearly polarised antenna is mounted vertically, horizontally or in any other plane but directed towards the arriving signal. There will be some degradation because the signal level will be 3 dB less than if a circularly polarised antenna of the same sense was used. The same situation exists when a circularly polarised antenna receives a linearly polarised signal.

Applications of antenna polarization

Different types of polarisation are used in different applications to enable their advantages to be used. Linear polarization is by far the most widely used for most radio communications applications. Vertical polarisation is often used for mobile radio communications. This is because many vertically polarized antenna designs have an omni-directional radiation pattern and it means that the antennas do not have to be re-orientated as positions as always happens for mobile radio communications as the vehicle moves. For other radio communications applications the polarisation is often determined by the RF antenna considerations. Some large multi-element antenna arrays can be mounted in a horizontal plane more easily than in the vertical plane. This is because the RF antenna elements are at right angles to the vertical tower of pole on which they are mounted and therefore by using an antenna with horizontal elements there is less physical and electrical interference between the two. This determines the standard polarisation in many cases. In some applications there are performance differences between horizontal and vertical polarization. For example medium wave broadcast stations generally use vertical polarisation because ground wave propagation over the earth is considerably better using vertical polarization, whereas horizontal polarization shows a marginal improvement for long distance communications using the ionosphere. Circular polarisation is sometimes used for satellite radio communications as there are some advantages in terms of propagation and in overcoming the fading caused if the satellite is changing its orientation.

Antenna feed impedance

When a signal source is applied to an RF antenna at its feed point, it is found that it presents a load impedance to the source. This is known as the antenna "feed impedance" and it is a complex impedance made up from resistance, capacitance and inductance. In order to ensure the optimum efficiency for any RF antenna design it is necessary to maximise the transfer of energy by matching the feed impedance of the RF antenna design to the load. This requires some understanding of the operation of antenna design in this respect. The feed impedance of the antenna results from a number of factors including the size and shape of the RF antenna, the frequency of operation and its environment. The impedance seen is normally complex, i.e. consisting of resistive elements as well as reactive ones.

Antenna feed impedance resistive elements

The resistive elements are made up from two constituents. These add together to form the sum of the total resistive elements.

Loss resistance: The loss resistance arises from the actual resistance of the elements in the aRF ntenna, and power dissipated in this manner is lost as heat. Although it may appear that the "DC" resistance is low, at higher frequencies the skin effect is in evidence and only the surface areas of the conductor are used. As a result the effective resistance is higher than would be measured at DC. It is proportional to the circumference of the conductor and to the square root of the frequency.

The resistance can become particularly significant in high current sections of an RF antenna where the effective resistance is low. Accordingly to reduce the effect of the loss resistance it is necessary to ensure the use of very low resistance conductors. Radiation resistance: The other resistive element of the impedance is the "radiation resistance". This can be thought of as virtual resistor. It arises from the fact that power is "dissipated" when it is radiated from the RF antenna. The aim is to "dissipate" as much power in this way as possible. The actual value for the radiation resistance varies from one type of antenna to another, and from one design to another. It is dependent upon a variety of factors. However a typical half wave dipole operating in free space has a radiation resistance of around 73 Ohms.

Antenna reactive elements

There are also reactive elements to the feed impedance. These arise from the fact that the antenna elements act as tuned circuits that possess inductance and capacitance. At resonance where most antennas are operated the inductance and capacitance cancel one another out to leave only the resistance of the combined radiation resistance and loss resistance. However either side of resonance the feed impedance quickly becomes either inductive (if operated above the resonant frequency) or capacitive (if operated below the resonant frequency).

Efficiency
It is naturally important to ensure that the proportion of the power dissipated in the loss resistance is as low as possible, leaving the highest proportion to be dissipated in the radiation resistance as a

radiated signal. The proportion of the power dissipated in the radiation resistance divided by the power applied to the antenna is the efficiency. A variety of means can be employed to ensure that the efficiency remains as high as possible. These include the use of optimum materials for the conductors to ensure low values of resistance, large circumference conductors to ensure large surface area to overcome the skin effect, and not using designs where very high currents and low feed impedance values are present. Other constraints may require that not all these requirements can be met, but by using engineering judgement it is normally possible to obtain a suitable compromise. It can be seen that the antenna feed impedance is particularly important when considering any RF antenna design. However by maximising the energy transfer by matching the feeder to the antenna feed impedance the antenna design can be optimised and the best performance obtained.

Antenna resonance and bandwidth

Two major factors associated with radio antenna design are the antenna resonant point or centre operating frequency and the antenna bandwidth or the frequency range over which the antenna design can operate. These two factors are naturally very important features of any antenna design and as such they are mentioned in specifications for particular RF ntennas. Whether the RF antenna is used for broadcasting, WLAN, cellular telecommunications, PMR or any other application, the performance of the RF antenna is paramount, and the antenna resonant frequency and the antenna bandwidth are of great importance.

Antenna resonance
An RF antenna is a form of tuned circuit consisting of inductance and capacitance, and as a result it has a resonant frequency. This is the frequency where the capacitive and inductive reactances cancel each other out. At this point the RF antenna appears purely resistive, the resistance being a combination of the loss resistance and the radiation resistance.

Impedance of an RF antenna with frequency

The capacitance and inductance of an RF antenna are determined by its physical properties and the environment where it is located. The major feature of the RF antenna design is its dimensions. It is found that the larger the antenna or more strictly the antenna elements, the lower the resonant frequency. For example antennas for UHF terrestrial television have relatively small elements, while those for VHF broadcast sound FM have larger elements indicating a lower frequency. Antennas for short wave applications are larger still.

Antenna bandwidth
Most RF antenna designs are operated around the resonant point. This means that there is only a limited bandwidth over which an RF antenna design can operate efficiently. Outside this the levels of reactance rise to levels that may be too high for satisfactory operation. Other characteristics of the antenna may also be impaired away from the centre operating frequency. The antenna bandwidth is particularly important where radio transmitters are concerned as damage may ccur to the transmitter if the antenna is operated outside its operating range and the radio transmitter is not adequately protected. In addition to this the signal radiated by the RF antenna may be less for a number of reasons. For receiving purposes the performance of the antenna is less critical in some respects. It can be operated outside its normal bandwidth without any fear of damage to the set. Even a random length of wire will pick up signals, and it may be possible to receive several distant stations. However for the best reception it is necessary to ensure that the performance of the RF antenna design is optimum.

Impedance bandwidth
One major feature of an RF antenna that does change with frequency is its impedance. This in turn can cause the amount of reflected power to increase. If the antenna is used for transmitting it may be that beyond a given level of reflected power damage may be caused to either the transmitter or the feeder, and this is quite likely to be a factor which limits the operating bandwidth of an antenna. Today most transmitters have some form of SWR protection circuit that prevents damage by reducing the output power to an acceptable level as the levels of reflected power increase. This in turn means that the efficiency of the station is reduced outside a given bandwidth. As far as receiving is concerned the impedance changes of the antenna are not as critical as they will mean that the signal transfer from the antenna itself to the feeder is reduced and in turn the efficiency will fall. For amateur operation the frequencies below which a maximum SWR figure of 1.5:1 is produced is often taken as the acceptable bandwidth. In order to increase the bandwidth of an antenna there are a number of measures that can be taken. One is the use of thicker conductors. Another is the actual type of antenna used. For example a folded dipole which is described fully in Chapter 3 has a wider bandwidth than a non-folded one. In fact looking at a standard television antenna it is possible to see both of these features included.

Radiation pattern

Another feature of an antenna that changes with frequency is its radiation pattern. In the case of a beam it is particularly noticeable. In particular the front to back ratio will fall off rapidly outside a given bandwidth, and so will the gain. In an antenna such as a Yagi this is caused by a reduction in the currents in the parasitic elements as the frequency of operation is moved away from resonance. For beam antennas such as the Yagi the radiation pattern bandwidth is defined as the frequency range over which the gain of the main lobe is within 1 dB of its maximum. For many beam antennas, especially high gain ones it will be found that the impedance bandwidth is wider than the radiation pattern bandwidth, although the two parameters are inter-related in many respects.

Antenna directivity and gain

RF antennas or aerials do not radiate equally in all directions. It is found that any realisable RF antenna design will radiate more in some directions than others. The actual pattern is dependent upon the type of antenna design, its size, the environment and a variety of other factors. This directional pattern can be used to ensure that the power radiated is focussed in the desired directions. It is normal to refer to the directional patterns and gain in terms of the transmitted signal. It is often easier to visualise the RF antenna is terms of its radiated power, however the antenna performs in an exactly equivalent manner for reception, having identical figures and specifications. In order to visualise the way in which an antenna radiates a diagram known as a polar diagram is used. This is normally a two dimensional plot around an antenna showing the intensity of the radiation at each point for a particular plane. Normally the scale that is used is logarithmic so that the differences can be conveniently seen on the plot. Although the radiation pattern of the antenna varies in three dimensions, it is normal to make a plot in a particular plane, normally either horizontal or vertical as these are the two that are most used, and it simplifies the measurements and presentation. An example for a simple dipole antenna is shown below.

Polar diagram of a half wave dipole in free space

Antenna designs are often categorised by the type of polar diagram they exhibit. For example an omni-directional antenna design is one which radiates equally (or approximately equally) in all directions in the plane of interest. An antenna design that radiates equally in all directions in all planes is called an isotropic antenna. As already mentioned it is not possible to produce one of

these in reality, but it is useful as a theoretical reference for some measurements. Other RF antennas exhibit highly directional patterns and these may be utilised in a number of applications. The Yagi antenna is an example of a directive antenna and possibly it is most widely used for television reception.

Polar diagram for a yagi antenna

RF antenna beamwidth
There are a number of key features that can be seen from this polar diagram. The first is that there is a main beam or lobe and a number of minor lobes. It is often useful to define the beam-width of an RF antenna. This is taken to be angle between the two points where the power falls to half its maximum level, and as a result it is sometimes called the half power beam-width.

Antenna gain
An RF antenna radiates a given amount of power. This is the power dissipated in the radiation resistance of the RF antenna. An isotropic radiator will distribute this equally in all directions. For an antenna with a directional pattern, less power will be radiated in some directions and more in others. The fact that more power is radiated in given directions implies that it can be considered to have a gain. The gain can be defined as a ratio of the signal transmitted in the "maximum" direction to that of a standard or reference antenna. This may sometimes be called the "forward gain". The figure that is obtained is then normally expressed in decibels (dB). In theory the standard antenna could be almost anything but two types are generally used. The most common type is a simple dipole as it is easily available and it is the basis of many other types of antenna. In this case the gain is often expressed as dBd i.e. gain expressed in decibels over a dipole. However a dipole does not radiated equally in all directions in all planes and so an isotropic source is sometimes used. In this case the gain may be specified in dBi i.e. gain in decibels over an isotropic source. The main drawback with using an isotropic source (antenna dBi) as a reference is that it is not possible to realise them in practice and so that figures using it can only be theoretical. However it is possible to relate the two gains as a dipole has a gain of 2.1 dB over an isotropic source i.e. 2.1 dBi. In other words, figures expressed as gain over an isotropic source will be 2.1 dB higher than those relative to a dipole. When choosing an antenna and looking at the gain specifications, be sure to check whether the gain is relative to a dipole or an isotropic source, i.e. the antenna dBi figure of the antenna dBd figure.

Apart from the forward gain of an antenna another parameter which is important is the front to back ratio. This is expressed in decibels and as the name implies it is the ratio of the maximum signal in the forward direction to the signal in the opposite direction. This figure is normally expressed in decibels. It is found that the design of an antenna can be adjusted to give either maximum forward gain of the optimum front to back ratio as the two do not normally coincide exactly. For most VHF and UHF operation the design is normally optimised for the optimum forward gain as this gives the maximum radiated signal in the required direction.

RF antenna gain / beamwidth balance

It may appear that maximising the gain of an antenna will optimise its performance in a system. This may not always be the case. By the very nature of gain and beamwidth, increasing the gain will result in a reduction in the beamwidth. This will make setting the direction of the antenna more critical. This may be quite acceptable in many applications, but not in others. This balance should be considered when designing and setting up a radio link.

RF coax cable, feeder & RF connectors

Antenna diplexer
An antenna diplexer or Rf diplexer is a unit that in one application can be used to enable more than one transmitter to operate on a single RF antenna. Sometimes these units may be called antenna duplexers. Typically an antenna diplexer would enable transmitters operating of different frequencies to use the same antenna. In another application, an antenna diplexer may be used to allow a single antenna to be used for transmissions on one band of frequencies and reception on another band. Antenna diplexers find many uses. In one common example an antenna diplexer or RF diplexer is used in a cellular base station to allow it to transmit and receive simultaneously. The antenna diplexer enables the same antenna system to be used while preventing the transmitted signal from reaching the receiver and blocking the input. In another application a diplexer may be used by a broadcast station transmitting on several different frequencies at the same time using the same antenna. The use of the diplexer enables a single antenna to be used, while preventing the output from one transmitter being fed back into the output of the other. Small antenna diplexers may be used in domestic environments to allow several signals to run along a single feeder. In one application this may allow a single feeder to be used for television and VHF FM radio reception, or to allow terrestrial television signals and this from a satellite low noise box (LNB) to pass down the same lead. These RF diplexers are normally relatively low cost as the specifications are not nearly as exacting as those used for professional RF diplexer installations.

Basic antenna diplexer concepts

There are a number of ways of implementing RF diplexers. They all involve the use of filters. In this way the paths for the different transmitters and receivers can be separated according to the

frequency they use. The simplest way to implement a diplexer is to use a low pass and a high pass filter although band-pass filters may be used. In this way the diplexer routes all signals at frequencies below the cut-off frequency of the low pass filter to one port, and all signals above the cut-off frequency of the high pass filter to the other port. Also here is no path from between the two remote connections of the filters. All signals that can pass through the low pass filter in the diplexer will not be able to pass through the high pass filter and vice versa.

Basic concept of a high / low pass filter diplexer

A further feature of an RF diplexer is than it enables the impedance seen by the receiver or transmitter to remain constant despite the load connected to the other port. If the filters were not present and the three ports wired in parallel, neither the antenna nor the two transmitter / receiver ports would see the correct impedance.

RF diplexer filter requirements

When designing an antenna diplexer a number of parameters must be considered. One is the degree of isolation required between the ports labelled for the high and low frequency transmitter / receiver. If the diplexer is to be used purely for receiving, then the requirement for high levels of isolation is not so high. Even comparatively simple filters give enough isolation to ensure each receiver sees the right impedance and the signals are routed to the correct input without any noticeable loss. Even levels of isolation of 10 dB would be adequate for many installations. For diplexers that are used to split and combine television and VHF FM radio along a single line, te levels of isolation are likely to be very low. The next case is when the diplexer is to be used for transmitting only. It will be necessary to ensure that the levels of power being transferred back into a second transmitter are small. Power being fed into the output of a transmitter in this way could give rise to intermodulation products that may be radiated and cause interference. It is also important to ensure that the transmitters see the correct impedance, and that the presence of the second transmitter does not affect the impedance seen by the first. Typically levels of isolation between the transmitter ports of 60 - 90 dB may be required. The final case is where one of the ports is used for transmitting, and the other for receiving simultaneously. In this instance very high levels of isolation are required to ensure that the minimum level of the transmitter power reaches the receiver. If high levels of the transmitter signal reach the receiver, then it will be desensitised preventing proper reception of the required signals. Levels of isolation in excess of 100 dB are normally required for these applications.

Band pass filters

Under some circumstances band pass filters may be used. These may be used where comparatively narrow bandwidth is required for either or both of the transmitter / receiver ports. Sometimes a very high Q resonant circuit may be used. By using this approach high degrees of rejection can be achieved. Often repeater stations which receive on one channel and transmit on another simultaneously use diplexers that utilise this approach.

Summary
Although antenna diplexers are mainly used in specialised applications, allowing a single Rf antenna to be used by more than one transmitter or receiver, they are nevertheless a crucial element of many installations. For example cellular technology would be significantly different if they could not be used and the cellular RF antennas for base stations would be considerably more complicated. Similarly antenna diplexers are used in many broadcast applications allowing a single large RF antenna to be used by more than one transmitter.

Balanced antenna feeder

Balanced feeder is a form of feeder that can be used for feeding balanced antennas (i.e. antennas that do not have one connection taken to ground). It is mainly used on frequencies below 30 MHz can offer the advantage of very low levels of loss. The feeder or transmission line is also referred to by other names including twin, two wire, open wire, and sometimes even ribbon feeder. These names often depend upon the type of construction of the particular form. It is used less than coaxial feeder or coax, although it is able to offer some significant advantages over coax in some applications.

Balanced feeder basics

A balanced or twin feeder consists of two parallel conductors unlike coax that consists of two concentric conductors.. The currents flowing in both wires run in opposite directions but are equal in magnitude. As a result the fields from them cancel out and no power is radiated or picked up. To ensure efficient operation the spacing of the conductors is normally kept to within about 0.01 wavelengths. The feeder exists in a variety of forms. Essentially it is just two wires that are closely spaced in terms of the radio frequency of operation. In practical terms manufactured feeder is available and it consist of two wires contained within a plastic sheath that is also used as a spacer between them to keep the spacing, and hence the impedance constant. Another form commonly called open wire feeder simply consists of two wires kept apart by spacers that are present at regular intervals along the feeder. It has an appearance a little akin to a rope ladder.

Twin feeder a form of balanced feeder

Balanced feeder impedance

Like coaxial cable, the impedance of twin feeder is governed by the dimensions of the conductors, their spacing and the dielectric constant of the material between them. The impedance can be calculated from the formula given below.

Where D is the distance between the two conductors d is the outer diameter of the conductors Epsilon is the dielectric constant of the material between the two conductors

Types of balanced feeder

This type of feeder can take a variety of forms. An "open wire" feeder can be made by having two wires running parallel to one another. Spacers are used every fifteen to thirty centimetres to maintain the wire spacing. Usually these are made from plastic or other insulating material. Typically this feeder may have an impedance of around 600 ohms, although it is very dependent upon the wire, and the spacing used. The feeder may also be bought as flat 300 ohm ribbon feeder consisting of two wires spaced with a clear plastic. This is the most common form and is the type that is used for manufacturing temporary VHF FM antennas. If used outside this type absorbs water into the plastic dielectric. Not only does this significantly increase the loss on damp days, but the moisture absorbed causes the wire to oxidise which in turn leads to increased losses over the longer term. The feeder can also be bought with a black plastic dielectric with oval holes spaced at intervals in spacing. This type gives far better performance than the clear plastic varieties which absorb water if used outside

Coaxial feeder or RF coax cable

Coax cable tutorial information includes: Coaxial feeder overview Coax impedance Loss or attenuation Coax power rating Coax velocity factor Coax environmental factors Coax data & specifications Coaxial installation tips

The most common type of antenna feeder used today is undoubtedly coaxial feeder or coax cable. Coax cable, often referred to as RF cable, offers advantages of convenience of use while being able to provide a good level of performance. In view of this vast amounts of coax cable, coax feeder are manufactured each year, and it is also available in a wide variety of forms for different applications.

Applications of coax cable

Coax cable or coaxial feeder is used in many applications where it is necessary to transfer radio frequency energy from one point to another. Possibly the most obvious use of coax cable is for domestic television down-leads, but it is widely used in many other areas as well. While it is sued for domestic connections between receivers and aerials, it is likewise also used for commercial and industrial transmission lines connecting receivers and transmitters to antennas. However it is also sued where any high frequency signals need to be carried any distance. Its construction means that signals that the levels of loss and stray pick-up are minimised. In view of this it is also used in many computer applications. Coax cable was used for some early forms of Ethernet local area networks, although now optical fibres are used for higher data rates, or twisted pairs where frequencies are not so high as these cables are much cheaper than coax.

History of RF coax cable

RF coax cable is a particularly important part of today's RF and electronics scene. It is a component that could easily be overlooked with little thought of how it appeared. In the late 1800s there were a huge number of basic discoveries being made in the field of electricity. Radio, or wireless as it was originally called was not understood well, and the first transmissions were made in the 1890s. Some transmissions were made earlier but not understood. The first known implementation of coax cable was in 1884 when Ernst von Siemens (one of the founders of the Siemens empire) patented the idea, although there were no known applications at this time. It then took until 1929 before the first modern commercial coax cables were patented by Bell Laboratories, although its use was still relatively small. Nevertheless it was used in 1934 to relay television pictures of the Berlin Olympics to Leipzig. Then in 1936 an a coaxial cable was installed between London and Birmingham in the UK to carry 40 telephone calls, and in the USA

an experimental coaxial cable was installed between New York and Philadelphia to relay television pictures. With the commercial use of RF coax cable establishing itself, many other used the cable for shorter runs. It quickly established itself, and now it is widely used for both commercial and domestic applications.

Coax cable basics

Coax cable, coaxial feeder is normally seen as a thick electrical cable. The cable is made from a number of different elements that when together enable the coax cable to carry the radio frequency signals with a low level of loss from one location to another. The main elements within a coax cable are:
1. 2. 3. 4.

Centre conductor Insulating dielectric Outer conductor Outer protecting jacket or sheath

The overall construction of the coax cable or RF cable can be seen in the diagram below and from this it can be seen that it is built up from a number of concentric layers. Although there are many varieties of coax cable, the basic overall construction remains the same:

Cross section though coaxial cable

1.

Centre conductor The centre conductor of the coax is almost universally made of copper. Sometimes it may be a single conductor whilst in other RF cables it may consist of several strands. Insulating dielectric Between the two conductors of the coax cable there is an insulating dielectric. This holds the two conductors apart and in an ideal world would not introduce any loss, although it is one of the chief causes of loss in reality. This coax cable dielectric may be solid or as in the case of many low loss cables it may be semi-airspaced because it

2.

is the dielectric that introduces most of the loss. This may be in the form of long "tubes" in the dielectric, or a "foam" construction where air forms a major part of the material.
3.

Outer conductor The outer conductor of the RF cable is normally made from a copper braid. This enables the coax cable to be flexible which would not be the case if the outer conductor was solid, although in some varieties made for particular applications it is. To improve the screening double or even triple screened coax cables are sometimes used. Normally this is accomplished by placing one braid directly over another although in some instances a copper foil or tape outer may be used. By using additional layers of screening, the levels of stray pick-up and radiation are considerably reduced. The loss is marginally lower. Outer protecting jacket or sheath Finally there is a final cover or outer sheath to the coax cable. This serves little electrical function, but can prevent earth loops forming. It also gives a vital protection needed to prevent dirt and moisture attacking the cable, and prevent the coax cable from being damaged by other mechanical means.

4.

How RF coax cable works

A coaxial cable carries current in both the inner and the outer conductors. These current are equal and opposite and as a result all the fields are confined within the cable and it neither radiates nor picks up signals. This means that the cable operates by propagating an electromagnetic wave inside the cable. As there are no fields outside the coax cable it is not affected by nearby objects. Accordingly it is ideal for applications where the RF cable has to be routed through or around buildings or close to many other objects. This is a particular advantage of coaxial feeder when compared with other forms of feeder such as two wire (open wire, or twin) feeder.

Further reading
There are further articles and pages about coax cable on this site. Topics include the velocity factor, coax cable loss, coax cable power rating, and the environmental considerations for these RF cables. The menu can be seen at the bottom end of the left hand menu.

Coax Impedance / Coaxial Cable Impedance

All forms of feeder including coax cable have a characteristic impedance. The coax impedance is one of the main parameters in its specification, one that governs which type of coax cable is obtained.

Coax impedance / characteristic impedance

All feeders posses a characteristic impedance. For RF coax cable there are two main standards that have been adopted over the years, namely 75 and 50 ohms.

75 ohm coax cable is used almost exclusively for domestic TV and VHF FM applications. However for commercial, amateur and CB applications 50 ohms coax cable has been taken as the standard. The reason for the choice of these two standards is largely historical but arises from the fact that 75 ohm coax cable gives the minimum weight for a given loss, while 50 ohm coax cable gives the minimum loss for a given weight. These two standards are used for the vast majority of coax cable which is produced but it is still possible to obtain other impedances for specialist applications. Higher values are often used for computer installations, but other values including 25, 95 and 125 ohms are available. 25 ohm miniature RF cable is extensively used in magnetic core broadband transformers. These values and more are available through specialist coax cable suppliers.

Coax impedance determination

The impedance of the RF coax cable is chiefly governed by the diameters of the inner and outer conductors. On top of this the dielectric constant of the material between the conductors of the RF coax cable has a bearing. The relationship needed to calculate the impedance is given simply by the formula:

D = Inner diameter of the outer conductor d = Diameter of the inner conductor

Capacitance and inductance

The capacitance of a line varies with the spacing of the conductors, the dielectric constant, and as a result the impedance of the line. The lower the impedance, the higher the capacitance for a given length because the conductor spacing is decreased. The capacitance also increases with increasing dielectric constant, as in the case of an ordinary capacitor.

It is also often necessary to know the inductance of a line as well.

Importance of coax impedance

The coax impedance is one of the major specifications associated with any piece of coax cable. As it will determine the matching within the system and hence the level of standing waves and power transfer, it is a crucial element. It is therefore necessary to ensure that the correct coax impedance is chosen for any system.

Coax cable attenuation / loss

Attenuation is a key specification for all coax cables. The function of a coax cable is to transfer radio frequency power from one point to another. In doing so, in the ideal world, the same amount of power should exit from the remote end of the coax cable as enters it. However in the real world this is not so, and some power is lost along the length of the RF cable, and less power reaches the remote end than enters the RF cable.

Coax cable attenuation

The power loss caused by a coax cable is referred to as attenuation. It is defined in terms of decibels per unit length, and at a given frequency. Obviously the longer the coax cable, the greater the loss, but it is also found that the loss is frequency dependent, broadly rising with frequency, although the actual level of loss is not linearly dependent upon the frequency. For virtually all applications the minimum level of loss is required. The power is lost in a variety of ways:

Resistive loss Dielectric loss Radiated loss

Of all these forms of loss, the radiated loss is generally the least important as only a very small amount of power is generally radiated from the cable. Accordingly most of the focus on reducing loss is placed onto the conductive and dielectric losses.

Resistive loss: Resistive losses within the coax cable arise from the resistance of the conductors and the current flowing in the conductors results in heat being dissipated. The actual area through which the current flows in the conductor is limited by the skin effect, which becomes progressively more apparent as the frequency rises. To help overcome this multi-stranded conductors are often used.

To reduce the level of loss due in the coax cable, the conductive area must be increased and this results in low loss coax cables being made larger. However it is found that the resistive losses increase as the square root of the frequency. Dielectric loss: The dielectric loss represent another of the major losses arising in most coax cables. Again the power lost as dielectric loss is dissipated as heat. It is found that the dielectric loss is independent of the size of the RF cable, but it does increase linearly with frequency. This means that resistive losses normally dominate at lower frequencies. However as resistive losses increase as the square root of frequency, and dielectric losses increase linearly, the dielectric losses dominate at higher frequencies. Radiated loss: The radiated loss of a coax cable is normally much less than the resistive and dielectric losses. However some very cheap coax cables may have a very poor outer braid and in these cases it may represent a noticeable element of the loss. Power radiated, or picked up by a coax cable is more of a problem in terms of interference. Signal radiated by the coax cable may result in high signal levels being present where they

are not wanted. For example leakage from a coax cable carrying a feed from a high power transmitter may give rise to interference in sensitive receivers that may be located close to the coax cable. Alternatively a coax cable being used for receiving may pick up interference if it passes through an electrically noisy environment. It is normally for these reasons that additional measures are taken in ensuring the outer screen or conductor is effective. Double, or even triple screened coax cables are available to reduce the levels of leakage to very low levels.

Coax cable attenuation with time

It is found that the attenuation of coax cables increases over a period of time for a number of reasons. The main reasons are as a result of flexing, and moisture entry into the RF cable. As the degradation and increase in loss depends to some degree on the construction of the coax cable, this may affect he choice of which cable to employ. Although many coax cables are flexible, the level of loss or attenuation will increase, particularly if the RF cable is bent sharply, even if within the makers recommended bend radius. This increase in loss can arise as a result of disruption to the braid or screen, and as a result of changes to the dielectric. At frequencies of 1 GHz with RF cables normally exhibiting a loss of 10 dB, there could be an increase of a decibel or so. Even if a cable is not flexed, there can be a gradual degradation in performance over time. This can be caused by contamination of the braid by the plastictisers in the outer sheath. Additionally moisture penetration can affect both the braid where it causes corrosion, and it may enter the dielectric where the moisture will tend to absorb power. It is found that the loss in coax cables that use either bare copper braid, or tinned copper braid exhibit more degradation than those with silver plated braids, although the later are more expensive. Additionally it is found that braids using tinned copper exhibit about 20% greater loss than those using bare copper, but they are more stable over time. The dielectric also has an effect. It is found that some versions of polyethene can absorb moisture more readily than other types. Although foam polyethene offers a lower level of loss or attenuation when new, it absorbs moisture more readily than the solid types. Accordingly coax cables with solid dielectric polyethene are more suited to environments where the level of loss needs to remain constant, or where moisture may be encountered. Although RF cables are enclosed in a plastic sheath, many of the plastics used will allow some moisture to pass through them. For applications where moisture may be encountered, specialized cables should be used otherwise the performance will degrade. The loss introduced by a coax cable is of paramount importance. Any power that is lost in the RF cable will degrade the performance of the system in which it is used. However the decision of which RF cable to use may not just rest in deciding which cable provides the lowest loss, but in a variety of parameters including its size, weight and also its long term stability

RF coax cable power rating

Although for receiver applications the level of power that coax cable can handle is not an issue, when it comes to medium or high power transmitters, the power handling capacity of the coax

cable becomes very important. If the incorrect type of coax cable is used, it can result in a failure of the cable, and possible damage to the transmitter. For most applications where the power is applied continuously, the limiting factor arises from the heat loss within the cable. If the power in the RF cable is to be pulsed, then it is necessary to check that the operating voltage is not exceeded.

RF coax cable power loss

The major root cause for the limit in power handling capacity of an RF cable is the level of heat caused by the power losses occurring in the cable. If the temperature of the coax cable rises too high, the cable my become deformed and be permanently damaged. For the resistive losses in the coax cable, it is found that most of the heat is generated in the centre conductor. Additionally any heat generated as a result of dielectric losses will be dissipated within the dielectric. It is therefore the construction of the dielectric that is of key importance in determining the power handling capability of the coax cable. Its maximum operating temperature, and its heat transfer coefficient both have a major effect. It can be seen that the lower the losses of the cable the smaller the temperature rise, and the greater the power handling capability is for the cable. As a broad rule of thumb, lower loss cables will have a higher power rating than higher loss RF cables.

RF coax cable derating

Although a power rating may be given for a particular coax cable, it is often necessary to de-rate it to cater for non-optimal operating conditions. The temperature of the environment is one factor. If the coax cable is operating in a high temperature environment, it will not be able to dissipate as much heat, and therefore the operating temperature will rise. Even at the highest foreseeable environmental operating temperature, the RF cable must be able to remain within its maximum internal temperature. Accordingly a de-rating factor is normally applied if the coax cable is to used at high temperatures. If the coax cable is operated under conditions where the VSWR is high, the cable rating needs to be reduced. The reason for this is that when there is a high level of VSWR, there are positions of high and low current along the coax cable. These may be such that they cause the power dissipation to rise significantly in some areas causing higher levels of power to be dissipated locally. Altitude also has an effect, although at significant heights. If the cable is to be operated at altitude and hence under reduced pressure, the any cooling will be less effective. Therefore the temperature rise within the cable will be greater. Although the power handling capability of RF coax cable may not be an issue for many installations, when using medium or high power transmitters the power rating or handling capability of RF coax cable needs to be carefully considered.

Coax cable velocity factor

The speed at which a signal travels within a coax cable is not the same as an electromagnetic wave travelling in free space. Instead it is affected by the dielectric that is used within the coax cable, and this has the effect of slowing the signal down. This can be of great importance in some applications, although for many purposes it does not need to be known.

Velocity factor
The speed at which the signal travels is normally given the designation Vp or Vg and this is the faction of the speed at which the signal travels when compared to a signal travelling in free space. Thus Vp for a signal travelling at the speed of light would be 1.0, and for one travelling at half the speed of light it would be 0.5. The velocity factor of the cable is found to the reciprocal of the square root of the dielectric constant:
Vp = 1 / SQRT (dielectric constant)

Coax cable electrical length

One important factor of a coax cable in some applications is the wavelength of the signals travelling in it. In the same way that the wavelength of a signal is the speed of light divided by the frequency for free space, the same is also true in any other medium. As the speed of the wave has been reduced, so too is the wavelength reduced by the same factor. Thus if the velocity factor of the coax cable is 0.66, then the wavelength is 0.66 times the wavelength in free space. In some instances lengths of coax cable are cut to a specific length to act as an impedance transformed or a resonant circuit, then this needs to be taken into consideration when determining the required length of coax cable. The advantage of using a coax cable with a low velocity factor is that the length of coax cable required for the resonant length is shorter than if it had a figure approaching 1. Not only does this save on cost, but it can also be significantly more convenient to use and house.

Dielectric materials
There is a variety of materials that can be successfully used as dielectrics in coax cables. Each has its own dielectric constant, and as a result, coax cables that use different dielectric materials will exhibit different velocity factors.

Material

Diele ctric const ant 2.3

Veloci ty factor 0.659

Polyethylene

Foam polyethylene Solid PTFE

1.3 1.6 2.07

0.88 0.79 0.695

Dielectric constants and velocity factors of some common dielectric materials used in coax cables.

If resonant lengths of RF coax cable are to be used, then it is necessary to know the velocity factor of the coax cable. It is often possible to determine this to a sufficient degree of accuracy from a knowledge of the dielectric material.

Coax cable environmental resistance

Coax cable, or as it is sometimes called RF cable can be expensive, but it is also required to withstand some harsh environmental conditions. In view of its cost, care needs to be taken otherwise the performance of the coax cable will deteriorate and the RF cable will require replacement. By taking suitable precautions, the life of the coax cable can be maximised and the periodic replacement costs for RF cables can be reduced. There are many factors that affect coax cables to greater or lesser degrees:

Humidity and water vapour Sunlight Corrosive vapours and liquids

Effect of humidity and water vapour on coax cables

One of the biggest enemies for coaxial cable is that of water vapour. If it enters a coax cable then it can significantly degrade its performance, requiring the cable to be replaced. Moisture causes two main effects that give rise to an increase in the level of attenuation or loss in the cable. The first is an increase in resistive loss arising from oxidation of the braid that gives rise to an increase in the resistance of the braid or outer conductor in the coax cable. The second is an increase in the loss arising in the dielectric. Water absorbed into the dielectric heats up when power is passed along the coax cable. This heat is as a result of power loss in the cable. Water vapour, or even water itself can enter the coax cable through a number of ways: Through the termination of the coax cable (i.e. through connector or other termination method) 2. Through pin-holes in the jacket 3. By water vapour transmission through the jacket.
1.

1. Moisture entry through coax cable termination The most obvious method of humidity entering a coax cable is through the termination. One very good example is the small termination box provided with many TV antennas. When used externally these termination enclosures provide little protection against the elements and the coax will quickly deteriorate. Even when a connector is used to terminate the coax cable there will be problems if the coax is used externally. Very few connectors are weather proofed, and even if they are supposedly weatherproof, then it is wise to take additional precautions.

Normally the best method is to use self-amalgamating tape. This tape comes in the form of a roll and appears like thick PVC tape but it has a thin paper backing on one side to keep each layer separate and prevents it amalgamating with itself before use. It is used in a similar way to insulating tape. The backing strip is peeled off and then it is wrapped around whatever it is to be waterproofed - in this case a coax cable termination - overlapping each winding by about 50% of its width to ensure a good seal. When applying the tape keep it stretched so that it is applied under tension. Also it is best to start from the thinner end of the job, i.e. where the diameter of whatever it is being applied to is smallest. Where there is a connector on a cable, start on the cable and work towards the connector. Also when winding ensure that there are no holes of voids in which water could condense or enter. Keep the self-amalgamating tape in intimate contact with whatever it is to be waterproofed. 2. Moisture entry though pin holes in coax cable jacket Most coax cables have some small holes in their jacket along their length. It is therefore quite possible that moisture will enter through any imperfection in the coax cable jacket. If the pin holes are located externally where they can be affected by the weather then moisture will enter. Unfortunately it is very easy for small abrasions to occur during the installation of a cable and these can include small pin holes right through the jacket. Great care must therefore be taken when installing a cable, and in particular when the coax cable is passed trough a wall or other barrier. 3. Water vapour transmission through the coax cable jacket All materials exhibit a finite vapour transmission rate. Accordingly if a coax cable is constantly in contact with moisture, then this will permeate through the jacket. In view of this coax cable should never be buried directly in the ground. Either use some external protection such as a waterproof pipe, and ensure that no water enters it so that small patches of water form in it. Alternatively use the "bury direct" cables that are available. It is also found in airborne applications that the large temperature extremes encountered cause water condensation in the coax cables. This moisture can collect in low areas of the cable causing local areas of corrosion. One method of overcoming this is to fill any voids in the aircraft where coax cable are carried with non-hardening moisture-proof compound.

Effect of sunlight on coax cables

Sunlight has an effect on many substances, and the same is true of coax cable jackets or sheaths. It is particularly the ultra-violet light that causes the degradation to the cables. To increase the life of coax cables, manufacturers use high molecular weight polythene. Polyvinylchloride (PVC) jackets exhibit less than half the life expectancy of the high molecular weight polythene.

Effect of corrosive vapours on coax cables

Using a coax cable in the vicinity of corrosive liquids and vapours can reduce the life of a cable faster than if it was used externally. Salt water is a common problem on sea going vessels, and chemical vapours may be present on other installations requiring coax cables. Although the rigours of the weather can be very tough, some vapours and liquids can speed the deterioration of the coax cable even faster. The use of tin or silver coatings can provide some additional protection but this is not permanent. However it is recommended that specially environmentally hardened cables be used where extreme conditions are anticipated.

Coax cables are normally quite tolerant to being used in a variety of conditions. However to ensure the longest operational life it is best to ensure that they are not exposed to environmental conditions that would cause their performance to deteriorate. If they are then it is necessary to adopt a few precautions to ensure that the coax cable life is maintained for as long as possible.

RF Coax cable data and specifications

There is a variety of different types of coax or coaxial cable that are in widespread use. Different types of coax cable or feeder are needed for different purposes and applications and accordingly it is necessary have specifications and data to be able to determine the required coax type or RF cable type easily. While it would be possible to manufacture an infinite variety of RF cables, standard varieties are specified. There are two basic systems that are used for defining RF cables. One originated in the United Kingdom and its type numbers all start with UR. The other system is American with type numbers commencing with the letters RG. The RG series was originally used to specify the types of coax cables for military use, and the specification took the form RG (RG from Radio Guide) plus two numbers. In some instances these numbers were followed by the letter U which indicated it was for multiple uses. These types of coax cable were all listed in the MIL-HDBK-216 which is now obsolete. Although full MIL specifications are now officially used for specifying most components for military use, the RG series of RF cables continued to be used because of its widespread acceptance. However it should be noted that the RG specifications are no longer maintained so there is no complete guarantee to the exact specification for the particular type of coax cable. A summary of data for some of the more commonly used types of coax or coaxial cable is given below. Most of these RF cables are easily available from RF cable stockists.: Characterist ic impedance 52.5 75 51.0 50 75 75 50 95 125 125 75 50 Outsid e diamet er 8.4 8.4 10.7 12.1 10.3 12.1 30.4 10.7 24.0 25.5 16.0 5.0 Atten @ 100 MHz 1.0 1.0 0.66 0.66 0.76 0.76 0.22 0.75 0.52 0.52 0.46 1.8 Atten @ 1000 MHz 3.8 3.7 2.4 2.6 2.6 2.6 1.2 1.5 2.0 2.0 1.8 7.6

Coax Type

Velocity factor

Comments

RG5/U RG6A/U RG9/U RG10A/U RG11A/U RG12A/U RG20A/U RG22 RG23 RG24 RG34 RG58C/U

0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66

0.66

RG59B/U RG62A/U RG63 RG79 RG108 RG111 RG114 RG119 RG120 RG122 RG213/U RG214/U RG223/U UR43 UR57 UR67 UR74 UR76 UR77 UR79 UR90

75 93 125 125 78 95 185 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 75 50 51 51 75 50 75

6.1 6.1 10.3 12.1 6.0 12.1 10.3 11.8 13.3 4.1 10.3 10.8 5.5 5 10.2 10.3 22.1 5 22.1 21.7 6.1

0.66 0.84

0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.96 0.66

1.2 0.9 0.6 0.6 1.1 0.75 1.1 0.5 0.5 1.7 0.62 0.76 1.58 1.3 0.63 0.66 0.33 1.7 0.33 0.17 1.2

4.6 2.8 2.1 2.1 3.8 2.6 3.8 1.8 1.8 5.5 2.6 2.9 5.4 4.46 2.3 2.52 1.4 7.3 1.4 0.6 4.1

Polythene dielectric Double screened, silver plated copper wire

Similar to RG11A/U Similar to RG213/U Similar to RG58C/U

Similar to RG59B/U dimensions

Data for attenuation figures are typical figures and measured in dB / 10 metres in mm

The RF cables described above are all flexible types. For microwave applications where very low loss is needed, semi rigid coaxial RF cable using a solid copper outer sheath may be used. This type of coax offers superior screening compared to RF cables with a braided outer conductor, especially at microwave frequencies. As the name implies, though, it is not particularly flexible and is not intended to be flexed after it has been formed to the required shape. This RF cable data has been presented as a guide and no liability can be taken for any errors or mistakes in the data. Naturally every care has been taken to ensure the data concerning these RF cables is correct.

RF Coax Cable Installation Guide

RF coax cable is widely used for a variety of professional RF applications where RF power either from a transmitter or to a receiver needs to be transferred from one point to another. While RF coaxial cable is very easy to install, it is necessary to ensure that a number of points are observed to ensure the coax cable installation is satisfactory initially, and then lasts. This is particularly

important because many coax cable installations are external and need to withstand the rigours of the environment. While coax cable may perform perfectly well when first installed, factors such as the ingress of moisture may cause the performance to degrade over time. Accordingly this performance reduction may pass un-noticed until the performance has reduced to a point where it may not be usable. By adopting a few simple precautions, the performance of the RF coaxial cable installation can be preserved and a much slower rate of degradation seen.

Coax cable areas to address

The hints and tips to help install coax cable can be grouped into a number of categories:
1. 2. 3. 4.

Choosing the right coaxial cable Weatherproofing the coax General installation Terminations / connections for the RF cable

Choosing the right coax cable

There is an enormous variety of coax cables on the market, and at first sight the choice may not appear easy. The first decision to make, prior to any installation is to choose the required impedance. Domestic hi-fi and video antenna feeds use 75 ohm coax cable. Professional, CB, and amateur radio standardise on 50 ohm cable. Once this choice has been made the next decision will probably be made on the level of signal loss that is acceptable. Typically the lower the loss, the greater the diameter of the cable, and also its cost. Typically there are several cables with similar performance figures and often the decision of the exact type number will depend on the stock position of suppliers. Once a suitable cable has been found then it can be purchased and installed.

Weatherproofing the coaxial cable

When installing coax cable externally it is very important to ensure the cable is adequately weatherproofed. This is critical because any moisture entering the RF coax cable will produce a considerable increase in the level of loss. If any moisture passes into the dielectric material spacing the inner and outer conductors, this will impair the performance of the dielectric, and increase the level of loss. Moisture will also cause the outer braid to oxidise, and reduce the conductivity between the small conductors making up the braid. It is therefore very important to seal the end of the cable if it is to be used externally, and ensure that no moisture enters. It is also necessary to ensure that the outer sheath of the cable remains intact and is not damaged during installation or further use. An additional method of preventing large amounts of moisture entering the cable is to loop it up and down. In this way it is more difficult for water to enter the cable and then move along it. However if some moister enters the cable it will move into it by capillary action, so it is always best to ensure that the ends are properly sealed and protected.

General installation tips for RF coax cable

All cables have a bend radius. In order to prevent damage they should not be bent into curves tighter than this. If RF coax cable is bent beyond its limit then damage to the inner construction of the cable may result. In turn this can lead to much higher levels of loss. In a similar line, care should be taken to ensure that the cable is not crushed, or likely to be crushed. If the RF cable does suffer damage in this way, the dimensions of the cable will be changed and it will not maintain its characteristic impedance. Additionally if the dielectric between the two concentric conductors in the coax cable is damaged, then there is the likelihood of an increase in the level of loss. While on the subject of physical damage to the cable, it is necessary to ensure that the sheath of the cable remains intact. If it is broken in any place, then this may allow moisture to enter if it is used externally, and this will cause oxidation and moisture retention in the dielectric that will increase the level of loss. On some occasions it is necessary to bury coaxial cable. Ideally, normal cable should not be buried directly as this relies purely on the outer sheath for protection and it is not designed for these conditions. Instead it can be run through buried conduit manufactured for carrying buried cables. This has the advantage that it is easy to replace. However ensure that the conduit does not become water logged. Alternatively solution to using some form of conduit is to use a form of coax cable known as "bury direct". This is designed for being buried, and its outer sheath can withstand these conditions.

Coax terminations / connections

When installing RF coax cable, it is important to terminate the cable correctly. In most instances the coax cable will be physically terminated using an RF connector, the electrical termination being either at the antenna or in the receiver. Accordingly the connections to the connectors must be made correctly and the right quality RF connectors should be used. Although connectors for domestic installations are often poor in terms of their electrical radio frequency performance, there is little alternative to using them in view of the fact that they have to mate with the RF connectors on the equipment. For professional applications, RF connectors can be far better, although it is necessary to ensure that the connectors are suitable for the frequencies used. Some cheap versions of RF connectors may not meet the full specification and can thereby impair the performance of the RF coax cable. It is therefore wide to always buy connectors from reputable sources. By correctly installing a RF coax cable it can provide many years of satisfactory service. However wear, and exposure to the elements will mean that after some time it may be prudent to replace the RF coax cable. As the degradation in performance will be slow, it may mean that this is not noticed. Only when it is ultimately replaced will a major difference be seen.

Antenna technologies

Distributed Antenna System DAS

The concept of a Distributed Antenna System, DAS has many advantages in some applications. A Distributed antenna system, DAS is a network of antennas spaced apart from each other, but

connected to a common source. In this way the DAS is able to provide wireless or radio coverage within a given area. The idea of a distributed antenna system is being adopted increasingly as it enables a number of advantages to be gained. However this is at the cost of a larger more complicated system. Nevertheless, distributed antenna systems are being used in a variety of areas to enable the right coverage to be gained for several applications. Although the concept of distributed antenna systems has been known about for many years, it is with the increased deployment of wireless systems within buildings and other difficult coverage areas that the idea of distributed antenna systems has come to the fore.

Distributed antenna system advantages and disadvantages

Advantages of using a distributed antenna system

Better defined coverage Fewer coverage holes Same coverage using a lower overall power Lowers health risk as a result of using lower overall power levels Individual antennas do not need to be as high as a single antenna for the equivalent coverage Higher cost as a result of additional infrastructure required Possible greater visual impact in some applications as a result of greater number of antennas, although they are likely to be much lower in height.

Disadvantages of using a distributed antenna system

Basic concept of a distributed antenna system

The basic idea behind the distributed antenna system is to utilise several different antennas over the required coverage area. Using this approach the overall power required is less because these more localised antennas can be placed more effectively for a small area, rather than having a single, larger antenna that is a compromise for the wider coverage needed. By adopting a distributed antenna system approach, this helps overcome the shadowing and penetration losses because a line of sight link is available more frequently. As a result the levels of absorption are lower and this means the overall power levels can be reduced.

MIMO Technology Tutorial

- overview or tutorial about MIMO - Multiple Input Multiple Output technology that uses multiple antennas to provide gains in channel robustness and throughput.
MIMO technology tutorial includes: MIMO technology tutorial SIMO, SIMO, MISO, MU-MIMO MIMO spatial multiplexing MIMO coding, inc Alamouti codes

 MIMO antenna beamforming Multi-User MIMO, MU-MIMO Multiple-input multiple-output, or MIMO, is a radio communications technology or RF technology that is being mentioned and used in many new technologies these days. Wi-Fi, LTE (3G long term evolution) and many other radio, wireless and RF technologies are using the new MIMO wireless technology to provide increased link capacity and spectral efficiency combined with improved link reliability using what were previously seen as interference paths. Even now many there are many MIMO wireless routers on the market, and as this RF technology is becoming more widespread, more MIMO routers and other items of wireless MIMO equipment will be seen.

MIMO development and history

MIMO technology has been developed over many years. Not only did the basic MIMO concepts need to be formulated, but in addition to this, new technologies needed to be developed to enable MIMO to be fully implemented. New levels of processing were needed to allow some of the features of spatial multiplexing as well as to utilise some of the gains of spatial diversity. Up until the 1990s, spatial diversity was often limited to systems that switched between two antennas or combined the signals to provide the best signal. Also various forms of beam switching were implemented, but in view of the levels of processing involved and the degrees of processing available, the systems were generally relatively limited. However with the additional levels of processing power that started to become available, it was possible to utilise both spatial diversity and full spatial multiplexing. The initial work on MIMO systems focussed on basic spatial diversity - here the MIMO system was used to limit the degradation caused by multipath propagation. However this was only the first step as system then started to utilise the multipath propagation to advantage, turning the additional signal paths into what might effectively be considered as additional channels to carry additional data. Two researchers: Arogyaswami Paulraj and Thomas Kailath were first to propose the use of spatial multiplexing using MIMO in 1993 and in the following year their US patent was granted. However it fell to Bell Labs to be the first to demonstrate a laboratory prototype of spatial multiplexing in 1998.

MIMO -Multiple Input Multiple Output basics

A channel may be affected by fading and this will impact the signal to noise ratio. In turn this will impact the error rate, assuming digital data is being transmitted. The principle of diversity is to provide the receiver with multiple versions of the same signal. If these can be made to be affected in different ways by the signal path, the probability that they will all be affected at the same time is considerably reduced. Accordingly, diversity helps to stabilise a link and improves performance, reducing error rate. Several different diversity modes are available and provide a number of advantages:

Time diversity: Using time diversity, a message may be transmitted at different times, e.g. using different timeslots and channel coding. Frequency diversity: This form of diversity uses different frequencies. It may be in the form of using different channels, or technologies such as spread spectrum / OFDM. Space diversity : Space diversity used in the broadest sense of the definition is used as the basis for MIMO. It uses antennas located in different positions to take advantage of the different radio paths that exist in a typical terrestrial environment.

MIMO is effectively a radio antenna technology as it uses multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver to enable a variety of signal paths to carry the data, choosing separate paths for each antenna to enable multiple signal paths to be used.

General Outline of MIMO system One of the core ideas behind MIMO wireless systems space-time signal processing in which time (the natural dimension of digital communication data) is complemented with the spatial dimension inherent in the use of multiple spatially distributed antennas, i.e. the use of multiple antennas located at different points. Accordingly MIMO wireless systems can be viewed as a logical extension to the smart antennas that have been used for many years to improve wireless. It is found between a transmitter and a receiver, the signal can take many paths. Additionally by moving the antennas even a small distance the paths used will change. The variety of paths available occurs as a result of the number of objects that appear to the side or even in the direct path between the transmitter and receiver. Previously these multiple paths only served to introduce interference. By using MIMO, these additional paths can be used to advantage. They can be used to provide additional robustness to the radio link by improving the signal to noise ratio, or by increasing the link data capacity. The two main formats for MIMO are given below: Spatial diversity: Spatial diversity used in this narrower sense often refers to transmit and receive diversity. These two methodologies are used to provide improvements in the signal to noise ratio and they are characterised by improving the reliability of the system with respect to the various forms of fading. Spatial multiplexing : This form of MIMO is used to provide additional data capacity by utilising the different paths to carry additional traffic, i.e. increasing the data throughput capability.

As a result of the use multiple antennas, MIMO wireless technology is able to considerably increase the capacity of a given channel while still obeying Shannon's law. By increasing the number of receive and transmit antennas it is possible to linearly increase the throughput of the

channel with every pair of antennas added to the system. This makes MIMO wireless technology one of the most important wireless techniques to be employed in recent years. As spectral bandwidth is becoming an ever more valuable commodity for radio communications systems, techniques are needed to use the available bandwidth more effectively. MIMO wireless technology is one of these techniques.

MIMO Formats - SISO, SIMO, MISO, MUMIMO

- overview and definitions about MIMO formats or configurations: SISO, SIMO, MISO and MIMO for receiver diversity and transmitter diversity, etc..
There is a number of different MIMO configurations or formats that can be used. These are termed SISO, SIMO, MISO and MIMO. These different MIMO formats offer different advantages and disadvantages - these can be balanced to provide the optimum solution for any given application. The different MIMO formats - SISO, SIMO, MISO and MIMO require different numbers of antennas as well as having different levels of complexity. Also dependent upon the format, processing may be needed at one end of the link or the other - this can have an impact on any decisions made.

SISO, SIMO, MISO, MIMO terminology

The different forms of antenna technology refer to single or multiple inputs and outputs. These are related to the radio link. In this way the input is the transmitter as it transmits into the link or signal path, and the output is the receiver. It is at the output of the wireless link. therefore the different forms of single / multiple antenna links are defined as below:

SISO - Single Input Single Output SIMO - Single Input Multiple output MISO - Multiple Input Single Output MIMO - Multiple Input multiple Output

The term MU-MIMO is also used for a multiple user version of MIMO as described below.

MIMO - SISO
The simplest form of radio link can be defined in MIMO terms as SISO - Single Input Single Output. This is effectively a standard radio channel - this transmitter operates with one antenna as does the receiver. There is no diversity and no additional processing required.

SISO - Single Input Single Output The advantage of a SIS system is its simplicity. SISO requires no processing in terms of the various forms of diversity that may be used. However the SISO channel is limited in its performance. Interference and fading will impact the system more than a MIMO system using some form of diversity, and the channel bandwidth is limited by Shannon's law - the throughput being dependent upon the channel bandwidth and the signal to noise ratio.

MIMO - SIMO
The SIMO or Single Input Multiple Output version of MIMO occurs where the transmitter has a single antenna and the receiver has multiple antennas. This is also known as receive diversity. It is often used to enable a receiver system that receives signals from a number of independent sources to combat the effects of fading. It has been used for many years with short wave listening / receiving stations to combat the effects of ionospheric fading and interference.

SIMO - Single Input Multiple Output SIMO has the advantage that it is relatively easy to implement although it does have some disadvantages in that the processing is required in the receiver. The use of SIMO may be quite acceptable in many applications, but where the receiver is located in a mobile device such as a cellphone handset, the levels of processing may be limited by size, cost and battery drain. There are two forms of SIMO that can be used: Switched diversity SIMO: This form of SIMO looks for the strongest signal and switches to that antenna. Maximum ratio combining SIMO: This form of SIMO takes both signals and sums them to give the a combination. In this way, the signals from both antennas contribute to the overall signal.

MIMO - MISO
MISO is also termed transmit diversity. In this case, the same data is transmitted redundantly from the two transmitter antennas. The receiver is then able to receive the optimum signal which it can then use to receive extract the required data.

MISO - Multiple Input Single Output The advantage of using MISO is that the multiple antennas and the redundancy coding / processing is moved from the receiver to the transmitter. In instances such as cellphone UEs, this can be a significant advantage in terms of space for the antennas and reducing the level of processing required in the receiver for the redundancy coding. This has a positive impact on size, cost and battery life as the lower level of processing requires less battery consumption.

MIMO
Where there are more than one antenna at either end of the radio link, this is termed MIMO Multiple Input Multiple Output. MIMO can be used to provide improvements in both channel robustness as well as channel throughput.

MIMO - Multiple Input Multiple Output In order to be able to benefit from MIMO fully it is necessary to be able to utilise coding on the channels to separate the data from the different paths. This requires processing, but provides additional channel robustness / data throughput capacity. There are many formats of MIMO that can be used from SISO, through SIMO and MISO to the full MIMO systems. These are all able to provide significant improvements of performance, but generally at the cost of additional processing and the number of antennas used. Balances of performance against costs, size, processing available and the resulting battery life need to be made when choosing he correct option.

MIMO Spatial Multiplexing

- overview of MIMO - Multiple Input Multiple Output, spatial multiplexing used to provide additional data bandwidth in multipath radio scenarios.
One of the key advantages of MIMO spatial multiplexing is the fact that it is able to provide additional data capacity. MIMO spatial multiplexing achieves this by utilising the multiple paths and effectively using them as additional "channels" to carry data. The maximum amount of data that can be carried by a radio channel is limited by the physical boundaries defined under Shannon's Law.

Shannon's Law and MIMO spatial multiplexing

As with many areas of science, there a theoretical boundaries, beyond which it is not possible to proceed. This is true for the amount of data that can be passed along a specific channel in the presence of noise. The law that governs this is called Shannon's Law, named after the man who formulated it. This is particularly important because MIMO wireless technology provides a method not of breaking the law, but increasing data rates beyond those possible on a single channel without its use. Shannon's law defines the maximum rate at which error free data can be transmitted over a given bandwidth in the presence of noise. It is usually expressed in the form:
C = W log2(1 + S/N )

Where C is the channel capacity in bits per second, W is the bandwidth in Hertz, and S/N is the SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio). From this it can be seen that there is an ultimate limit on the capacity of a channel with a given bandwidth. However before this point is reached, the capacity is also limited by the signal to noise ratio of the received signal. In view of these limits many decisions need to be made about the way in which a transmission is made. The modulation scheme can play a major part in this. The channel capacity can be increased by using higher order modulation schemes, but these require a better signal to noise ratio than the lower order modulation schemes. Thus a balance exists between the data rate and the allowable error rate, signal to noise ratio and power that can be transmitted. While some improvements can be made in terms of optimising the modulation scheme and improving the signal to noise ratio, these improvements are not always easy or cheap and they are invariably a compromise, balancing the various factors involved. It is therefore necessary to look at other ways of improving the data throughput for individual channels. MIMO is one way in which wireless communications can be improved and as a result it is receiving a considerable degree of interest.

MIMO spatial multiplexing

To take advantage of the additional throughput capability, MIMO utilises several sets of antennas. In many MIMO systems, just two are used, but there is no reason why further antennas cannot be employed and this increases the throughput. In any case for MIMO spatial multiplexing the number of receive antennas must be equal to or greater than the number of transmit antennas. To take advantage of the additional throughput offered, MIMO wireless systems utilise a matrix mathematical approach. Data streams t1, t2, ?tn can be transmitted from antennas 1, 2, ? Then n. there are a variety of paths that can be used with each path having different channel properties. To enable the receiver to be able to differentiate between the different data streams it is necessary to use. These can be represented by the properties h12, travelling from transmit antenna one to receive antenna 2 and so forth. In this way for a three transmit, three receive antenna system a matrix can be set up:
r1 = h11 t1 + h21 t2 + h31 t3

r2 = h12 t1 + h22 t2 + h32 t3 r3 = h13 t1 + h23 t2 + h33 t3

Where r1 = signal received at antenna 1, r2 is the signal received at antenna 2 and so forth. In matrix format this can be represented as:
[R] = [H] x [T]

To recover the transmitted data-stream at the receiver it is necessary to perform a considerable amount of signal processing. First the MIMO system decoder must estimate the individual channel transfer characteristic hij to determine the channel transfer matrix. Once all of this has been estimated, then the matrix [H] has been produced and the transmitted data streams can be reconstructed by multiplying the received vector with the inverse of the transfer matrix.
[T] = [H]-1 x [R]

This process can be likened to the solving of a set of N linear simultaneous equations to reveal the values of N variables. In reality the situation is a little more difficult than this as propagation is never quite this straightforward, and in addition to this each variable consists of an ongoing data stream, this nevertheless demonstrates the basic principle behind MIMO wireless systems.

MIMO Space Time Block Coding and Alamouti Codes

- overview of MIMO coding including MIMO precoding, mimo diversity coding, space time diversity coding and Alamouti codes.
In order that MIMO spatial multiplexing can be utilised, it is necessary to add coding to the different channels so that the receiver can detect the correct data. There are various forms of terminology used including Space-Time Block Code - STBC, MIMO precoding, MIMO coding, and Alamouti codes.

Space time block codes

Space-time block codes are used for MIMO systems to enable the transmission of multiple copies of a data stream across a number of antennas and to exploit the various received versions of the data to improve the reliability of data-transfer. Space-time coding combines all the copies of the received signal in an optimal way to extract as much information from each of them as possible. Space time block coding uses both spatial and temporal diversity and in this way enables significant gains to be made. Space-time coding involves the transmission of multiple copies of the data. This helps to compensate for the channel problems such as fading and thermal noise. Although there is redundancy in the data some copies may arrive less corrupted at the receiver.

When using space-time block coding, the data stream is encoded in blocks prior to transmission. These data blocks are then distributed among the multiple antennas (which are spaced apart to decorrelate the transmission paths) and the data is also spaced across time. A space time block code is usually represented by a matrix. Each row represents a time slot and each column represents one antenna's transmissions over time.

Within this matrix, Sij is the modulated symbol to be transmitted in time slot i from antenna j. There are to be T time slots and nT transmit antennas as well as nR receive antennas. This block is usually considered to be of 'length' T.

MIMO Alamouti coding

A particularly elegant scheme for MIMO coding was developed by Alamouti. The associated codes are often called MIMO Alamouti codes or just Alamouti codes. The MIMO Alamouti scheme is an ingenious transmit diversity scheme for two transmit antennas that does not require transmit channel knowledge. The MIMO Alamouti code is a simple space time block code that he developed in 1998.

Differential space time block code

Differential space time block coding is a form of space time block coding that does not need to know the channel impairments in order for the signal to be decoded. The differential space time block codes are normally based upon the more standard space-time block codes. One block-code is transmitted from a set in response to a change in the input signal. This enables the system to work because the differences among the blocks in the set are designed to allow the receiver to extract the data with good reliability.

MIMO Antenna Beamforming

- overview of the basics of MIMO antenna technology including MIMO beamforming antenna technology.
The MIMO antenna technologies used are key to the overall MIMO performance. Additionally MIMO beamforming is an option that is coming to the fore. As various forms of technology improve the MIMO antenna technology can be pushed further allowing techniques like MIMO beamforming to be considered.

MIMO antenna & MIMO beamforming development

For many years antenna technology has been used to improve the performance of systems. Directive antennas have been used for very many years to improve signal levels and reduce interference. Directive antenna systems have, for example, been used to improve the capacity of cellular telecommunications systems. By splitting a cell site into sector where each antenna illuminates 60 or 120 the capacity can be greatly increased - tripled when using 120 antennas. With the development of more adaptive systems and greater levels of processing power, it is possible to utilise antenna beamforming techniques with systems such as MIMO.

MIMO beamforming smart antennas

Beamforming techniques can be used with any antenna system - not just on MIMO systems. They are used to create a certain required antenna directive pattern to give the required performance under the given conditions. Smart antennas are normally used - these are antennas that can be controlled automatically according the required performance and the prevailing conditions. Smart antennas can be divided into two groups: Phased array systems: Phased array systems are switched and have a number of predefined patterns - the required one being switched according to the direction required. Adaptive array systems (AAS): This type of antenna uses what is termed adaptive beamforming and it has an infinite number of patterns and can be adjusted to the requirements in real time.

MIMO beamforming using phased array systems requires the overall system to determine the direction of arrival of the incoming signal and then switch in the most appropriate beam. This is something of a compromise because the fixed beam is unlikely to exactly match the required direction. Adaptive array systems are able to direct the beam in the exact direction needed, and also move the beam in real time - this is a particular advantage for moving systems - a factor that often happens with mobile telecommunications. However the cost is the considerable extra complexity required.

MU-MIMO Multi-User MIMO

- An overview of the basics of MU-MIMO Multi-User MIMO - a form of advanced Multiple Input Multiple Output technology including MIMO-BC and MIMO-MAC.
Multi-user MIMO or MU-MIMO is an enhanced form of MIMO technology that is gaining acceptance. MU-MIMO, Multi-user MIMO enables multiple independent radio terminals to access a system enhancing the communication capabilities of each individual terminal.

MU-MIMO exploits the maximum system capacity by scheduling multiple users to be able to simultaneously access the same channel using the spatial degrees of freedom offered by MIMO. To enable MU-MIMO to be used there are several approaches that can be adopted, and a number of applications / versions that are available.

MU-MIMO basics
MU-MIMO provides a methodology whereby spatial sharing of channels can be achieved. This can be achieved at the cost of additional hardware - filters and antennas - but the incorporation does not come at the expense of additional bandwidth as is the case when technologies such as FDMA, TDMA or CDMA are used. When using spatial multiplexing, MU-MIMO, the interference between the different users on the same channel is accommodated by the use of additional antennas, and additional processing when enable the spatial separation of the different users. There are two scenarios associated with MU-MIMO, Multi-user MIMO: Uplink - Multiple Access Channel, MAC: The development of the MIMO-MAC is based on the known single user MIMO concepts broadened out to account for multiple users. Downlink - Broadcast Channel, BC : The MIMO-BC is the more challenging scenario. The optimum strategy involves pre-interference cancellation techniques known as "Dirty Paper Coding", DPC - see below. This is complemented by implicit user scheduling and a power loading algorithm

MU-MIMO Multi-User MIMO advantages

MU-MIMO, Multi-user MIMO offers some significant advantages over other techniques: MU-MIMO systems enable a level of direct gain to be obtained in a multiple access capacity arising from the multi-user multiplexing schemes. This is proportional to the number of base station antennas employed. MU-MIMO appears to be affected less by some propagation issues that affect single user MIMO systems. These include channel rank loss and antenna correlation - although channel correlation still affects diversity on a per user basis, it is not a major issue for multi-user diversity. MU-MIMO allows spatial multiplexing gain to be achieved at the base station without the need for multiple antennas at the UE. This allows for the production of cheap remote terminals - the intelligence and cost is included within the base station.

The advantages of using multi-user MIMO, MU-MIMO come at a cost of additional hardware antennas and processing - and also obtaining the channel state information which requires the use of the available bandwidth.

MIMO-MAC

This form of MU-MIMO is used for a multiple access channel - hence MIMO and it is used in uplink scenarios. For the MIMO-MAC the receiver performs much of the processing - here the receiver needs to know the channel state and uses Channel Sate Information at the Receiver, CSIR. Determining CSIR is generally easier than determining CSIT, but it requires significant levels of uplink capacity to transmit the dedicated pilots from each user. However MIMO MAC systems outperform pointto-point MIMO particularly if the number of receiver antennas is greater than the number of transmit antennas at each user.

MIMO-BC
This form of MU-MIMO is used for the MIMO broadcast channels, i.e. the downlink. Of the two channels, BC and MAC, it is the broadcast channel that is the more challenging within MUMIMO. Transmit processing is required for this and it is typically in the form of pre-coding and SDMA, Space Division Multiple Access based downlink user scheduling. For this the transmitter has to know the Channel State Information at the Transmitter, CSIT. This enables significant throughput improvements over that of ordinary point to point MIMO systems, especially when the number of transmit antennas exceeds that of the antennas at each receiver.

Dirty Paper Coding, DPC

Dirty Paper Coding, DPC is a technique used within telecommunications scenarios, particularly wireless communications to provide efficient transmission of digital data through a channel that is subject to interference, the nature of which is known to the transmitter. The Dirty Paper Coding, DPC, technique consists of precoding the data so the interference data can be read in the presence of the interference. The pre-coding normally uses the Channel State Information. To explain Dirty Paper Coding, DPC, an analogy of writing on dirty paper can be used. Normally black ink would be used, but if the paper is dirty, i.e. black, then the writing cannot be read. However if the writing was in white, although it could not be read on white paper, it would be perfectly legible on black, or dirty paper. The same technique is used on the data transmission, although the nature of the interference must be known so that the pre-coding can be incorporated to counter the effect of the interference. Multi-user MIMO is still in its infancy, and many developments are underway to determine the optimum formats for its use. Coding types as well as levels of channel state indication are being determined as these use up valuable resource and can detract from the overall data throughput available. However the significant gains that can be made by using MU-MIMO, multi-user MIMO mean that it will be introduced in the foreseeable future.

Smart Antennas Tutorial

- an overview, summary, or tutorial about the basics of smart antennas or the adaptive antenna array and smart antenna technology used with SDR, cognitive radio, MIMO, and other new technologies.
Smart antennas and smart antenna technology using an adaptive antenna array are being introduced increasingly with the development of other technologies including the software defined radio, cognitive radio, MIMO and many others. Smart antenna technology or adaptive antenna array technology enables the performance of the antenna to be altered to provide the performance that may be required to undertake performance under specific or changing conditions. The smart antennas include signal processing capability that can perform tasks such as analysis of the direction of arrival of a signal and then the smart antenna can adapt the antenna itself using beam-forming techniques to achieve better reception, or transmission. In addition to this, the overall antenna will use some form of adaptive antenna array scheme to enable the antenna to perform is beam formation and signal direction detection.

Smart antenna functions

While the main purposes of standard antennas are to effectively transmit and receive radio signals, there are two additional functions that smart antennas or adaptive antennas need to fulfil: Direction of arrival estimation: In order for the smart antenna to be able provide the required functionality and optimisation of the transmission and reception, they need to be able to detect the direction of arrival of the required incoming signal. The information received by the antenna array is passed to the signal processor within the antenna and this provides the required analysis. Beam steering: With the direction of arrival of the required and any interfering signals analysed, the control circuitry within the antenna is able to optimise the directional beam pattern of the adaptive antenna array to provide the required performance.

Types of smart antenna

With considerable levels of functionality being required within smart antennas, two main approaches or types of smart antenna technology have been developed: Switched beam smart antennas: The switched beam smart or adaptive antennas are designed so that they have several fixed beam patterns. The control elements within the antenna can then select the most appropriate one for the conditions that have been detected. Although this approach does not provide complete flexibility it simplifies the design and provides sufficient level of adaptivity for many applications. Adaptive array smart antennas: Adaptive antenna arrays allow the beam to be continually steered to any direction to allow for the maximum signal to be received and / or the nulling of any interference.

Both types of antenna are able to provide the directivity, although decisions need to be made against cost, complexity and the performance requirements regarding which type should be used.

Summary
With many applications including MIMO, Software Defined Radio - SDR, and Cognitive Radio CR requiring antenna systems to be more adaptive and provide greater levels of adaptivity, Smart antenna technology or adaptive antenna technology will become more widely used.

Radio antenna types

Dipole antenna
- overview, summary, tutorial about the basics of the dipole antenna or dipole aerial that is widely used on its own and as the basis for other RF antenna designs.
Dipole antenna tutorial includes: Dipole antenna Dipole length calculation Dipole feed impedance Folded dipole antenna

The dipole antenna or dipole aerial is one of the most important and commonly used types of RF antenna. It is widely used on its own, and it is also incorporated into many other RF antenna designs where it forms the radiating or driven element for the antenna. The dipole is a simple antenna to construct and use, and many of the calculations are quite straightforward. However like all other antennas, the in-depth calculations are considerably more complicated.

Dipole antenna basics

As the name suggests the dipole antenna consists of two terminals or "poles" into which radio frequency current flows. This current and the associated voltage causes and electromagnetic or radio signal to be radiated. Being more specific, a dipole is generally taken to be an antenna that consists of a resonant length of conductor cut to enable it to be connected to the feeder. For resonance the conductor is an odd number of half wavelengths long. In most cases a single half wavelength is used, although three, five, . . . . wavelength antennas are equally valid.

The basic half wave dipole antenna

The current distribution along a dipole is roughly sinusoidal. It falls to zero at the end and is at a maximum in the middle. Conversely the voltage is low at the middle and rises to a maximum at the ends. It is generally fed at the centre, at the point where the current is at a maximum and the voltage a minimum. This provides a low impedance feed point which is convenient to handle. High voltage feed points are far less convenient and more difficult to use. When multiple half wavelength dipoles are used, they are similarly normally fed in the centre. Here again the voltage is at a minimum and the current at a maximum. Theoretically any of the current maximum nodes could be used.

Three half wavelength wave dipole antenna

Dipole polar diagram

The polar diagram of a half wave dipole antenna that the direction of maximum sensitivity or radiation is at right angles to the axis of the RF antenna. The radiation falls to zero along the axis of the RF antenna as might be expected.

Polar diagram of a half wave dipole in free space

If the length of the dipole antenna is changed then the radiation pattern is altered. As the length of the antenna is extended it can be seen that the familiar figure of eight pattern changes to give main lobes and a few side lobes. The main lobes move progressively towards the axis of the antenna as the length increases. The dipole antenna is a particularly important form of RF antenna which is very widely used for radio transmitting and receiving applications. The dipole is often used on its own as an RF antenna, but it also forms the essential element in many other types of RF antenna. As such it is the possibly the most important form of RF antenna.

Dipole antenna length calculation & formula

- notes and details about the dipole antenna length calculation & formula.
The length of a dipole is the main determining factor for the operating frequency of the dipole antenna. Typically a dipole is a half wavelength long, or a multiple of half wavelengths. However the dipole length is not exactly the same as the wavelength in free space - it is slightly shorter.

Dipole length variation from free space length

Although the antenna may be an electrical half wavelength, or multiple of half wavelengths, it is not exactly the same length as the wavelength for a signal travelling in free space. There are a number of reasons for this and it means that an antenna will be slightly shorter than the length calculated for a wave travelling in free space. For a half wave dipole the length for a wave travelling in free space is calculated and this is multiplied by a factor "A". Typically it is between 0.96 and 0.98 and is mainly dependent upon the ratio of the length of the antenna to the thickness of the wire or tube used as the element. Its value can be approximated from the graph:

Multiplication factor "A" used for calculating the length of a dipole

Dipole length formula

It is quite easy to use In order to calculate the length of a half wave dipole the simple formulae given below can be used:
Length (metres) = 150 x A / frequency in MHz Length (inches) = 5905 x A / frequency in MHz

Using these formulae it is possible to calculate the length of a half wave dipole. Even though calculated lengths are normally quite repeatable it is always best to make any prototype antenna slightly longer than the calculations might indicate. This needs to be done because changes in the thickness of wire being used etc may alter the length slightly and it is better to make it slightly too long than too short so that it can be trimmed so that it resonates on the right frequency. It is best to trim the antenna length in small steps because the wire or tube cannot be replaced very easily once it has been removed. Computer simulation programmes are normally able to calculate the length of a dipole very accurately, provided that all the variables and elements that affect the operation of the dipole can be entered accurately so that the simulation is realistic and therefore accurate. The major problem is normally being able to enter the real-life environmental data accurately to enable a realistic simulation to be undertaken.

Dipole antenna feed impedance

- Notes and overview about the feed impedance of a dipole antenna - what affects it, how it may be determined, & other key details.

The feed impedance of a dipole antenna is of particular importance. To ensure the optimum transfer of energy from the feeder, or source / load, the feed impedance of the dipole should be the same as that of the source or load. By matching the feed impedance of the dipole to the source or load, the antenna is able to operate to its maximum efficiency.

Dipole feed impedance basics

The feed impedance of a dipole is determined by the ratio of the voltage and the current at the feed point. A simple Ohms Law calculation will enable the impedance to be determined. Although a dipole can be fed at any point, it is typically fed at the current maximum and voltage minimum point. This gives a low impedance which is normally more manageable. Most dipoles tend to be multiples of half wavelengths long. It is therefore possible to feed the dipole at any one of these voltage minimum or current maximum points which occur at a point that is a quarter wavelength from the end, and then at half wavelength intervals.

Three half wavelength wave dipole antenna showing feed point points /4 from either end could also be used The vast majority of dipole antennas are half wavelengths long. Therefore they are centre fed - the point of the voltage minimum and current maximum.

The basic half wave dipole antenna with centre feed point The dipole feed impedance is made up from two constituents:

Loss resistance: The loss resistance results from the resistive or Ohmic losses within the radiating element, i.e. the dipole. In many cases the dipole loss resistance is ignored as it may be low. To ensure that it is low, sufficiently thick cable or piping should be used, and the metal should have a low resistance. Skin effects may also need to be considered.

Radiation resistance: The radiation resistance is the element of the dipole antenna impedance that results from the power being "dissipated" as an electromagnetic wave. The aim of any antenna is to "dissipate" as much power in this way as possible.

As with any RF antenna, the feed impedance of a dipole antenna is dependent upon a variety of factors including the length, the feed position, the environment and the like. A half wave centre fed dipole antenna in free space has an impedance 73.13 ohms making it ideal to feed with 75 ohm feeder.

Factors that alter the dipole feed impedance

The feed impedance of a dipole can be changed by a variety of factors, the proximity of other objects having a marked effect. The ground has a major effect. If the dipole antenna forms the radiating element for a more complicated form of RF antenna, then elements of the RF antenna will have an effect. Often the effect is to lower the impedance, and when used in some antennas the feed impedance of the dipole element may fall to ten ohms or less, and methods need to be used to ensure a good match is maintained with the feeder.

Folded dipole antenna

- notes and summary about the folded dipole antenna, folded dipole impedance, unequal conductor folded dipoles, and multi-wire folded dipoles.
The standard dipole is widely used in its basic form. However under a number of circumstances a modification of the basic dipole, known as a folded dipole provides a number of advantages. The folded dipole is widely used, not only on its own, but also as the driven element in other antenna formats such as the Yagi antenna.

Folded dipole basics

In its basic form the folded dipole consists of a basic dipole with an added conductor connecting the two ends together to make a complete loop of wire or other conductor. As the ends appear to be folded back, the antenna is called a folded dipole. The basic format for the dipole is shown below. As can be seen from this it is a balanced antenna, like the standard dipole, although it can be fed with unbalanced feeder provided that a balan of some form is used to transform from an unbalanced to balanced feed structure.

Simple half-wave folded dipole antenna One of the main reasons for using the folded dipole is the increase in feed impedance that it provides. If the conductors in the main dipole and the second or "fold" conductor are the same diameter, then it is found that there is a fourfold increase in the feed impedance. In free space, this gives an increase in feed impedance from 73 to around 300 ohms. Additionally the RF antenna has a wider bandwidth.

Folded dipole impedance rationale

In a standard dipole the currents flowing along the conductors are in phase and as a result there is no cancellation of the fields and radiation occurs. When the second conductor is added this can be considered as an extension to the standard dipole with the ends folded back to meet each other. As a result the currents in the new section flow in the same direction as those in the original dipole. The currents along both the half-waves are therefore in phase and the antenna will radiate with the same radiation patterns etc as a simple half-wave dipole. The impedance increase can be deduced from the fact that the power supplied to a folded dipole is evenly shared between the two sections which make up the antenna. This means that when compared to a standard dipole the current in each conductor is reduced to a half. As the same power is applied, the impedance has to be raised by a factor of four to retain balance in the equation Watts = I^2 x R.

Folded dipole advantages

There are a number of advantages or reasons for using a folded dipole: Increase in impedance: When higher impedance feeders need to be used, or when the impedance of the dipole is reduced by factors such as parasitic elements, a folded dipole provides a significant increase in impedance level that enables the antenna to be matched more easily to the feeder available. Wide bandwidth: The folded dipole has a flatter frequency response - this enables it to be used over a wider bandwidth.

Unequal conductor folded dipoles

It is possible to implement different impedance ratios to the standard 4:1 that are normally implement using a folded dipole. Simply by varying the effective diameter of the two conductors: top and bottom, different ratios can be obtained.

Folded dipole with unequal conductor diameters In order to determine the impedance step up ratio provided by the folded dipole, the following formula can be used:

Where: d1 is the conductor diameter for the feed arm of the dipole d2 is the conductor diameter for the non-fed arm of the dipole S is the distance between the conductors r is the step up ratio When determining the length of a folded dipole using thick conductors, it should be remembered that there is a shortening effect associated with their use as opposed to normal wire or thin conductors.

Folded dipole applications

Folded dipoles are sometimes used on their own, but they must be fed with a high impedance feeder, typically 300 ohms. However they find more uses when a dipole is incorporated in another RF antenna design with other elements nearby. This has the effect of reducing the dipole impedance. To ensure that it can be fed conveniently, a folded dipole may be used to raise the impedance again to a suitable value.

Discone antenna
- overview, summary, tutorial about the basics of what is a discone antenna for wide band or bandwidth omnidirectional applications.
The discone antenna is widely used where an omnidirectional wide band or bandwidth RF antenna design is needed. It finds many uses, particularly for all type of radio scanning and monitoring applications from the commercial or military monitoring services to the home scanner enthusiast for frequencies above 30 MHz.

Discone overview
The discone antenna receives its name from its distinctive shape. The RF antenna design consists of a top "disc" formulated from a number of elements arranged in a disc at the top, and further elements pointing downwards in the shape of a cone. Although the RF antenna could be made as a full disc and a cone, this would considerably increases its weight and wind loading, which would not be advisable from mechanical considerations. This type of RF antenna design can operate over frequency ranges of up to 10:1 dependent upon the particular design, and it also offers a relatively low angle of radiation (and reception). This makes it ideal for VHF / UHF applications as its greatest sensitivity is parallel or almost parallel to the Earth. However towards the top of its frequency range it is found that the angle of radiation increases slightly. Although it is widely used for receiving applications, the discone antenna is less commonly used for transmitting. There are several reasons for this. Although it offers a wide bandwidth, it is not optimised for a particular band of frequencies and is less efficient than many other types of RF antenna design. Additionally the wideband with of the RF antenna means that spurious signals can be radiated more easily and the level of reflected power will vary over the operating range and may rise above acceptable limits in some areas.

Physical aspects of the discone

The basic RF antenna design consists of three main components: the insulator, the cone elements and the disc elements. Of the RF antenna components the insulator size governs a number of factors of the performance of the antenna. It is made from insulating material and acts to hold the disc and cone elements in place, keeping them a fixed distance apart. In fact this distance is one of the factors that determines the overall frequency range of the particular RF antenna design. Secondly, the cone elements should be a quarter wavelength at the minimum operating frequency. This can be calculated from the formula A = 75000 / frequency (MHz) millimetres where A is the length of the cone elements. Thirdly the disc elements should be made to have an overall length of 0.7 of a quarter wavelength. This can be calculated from the formula B = 52550 / frequency (MHz) millimetres. The diameter of the top of the cone is mainly dependent upon the diameter of the coaxial cable being used. This determines the upper frequency limit of the antenna. The smaller the diameter the higher the frequency. For many designs operating in the VHF / UHF region of the radio spectrum it is around 15 millimetres. The spacing between the cone and the disc should be about a quarter of the inner diameter of the cone, i.e. around three of four millimetres.

Operation
The way in which the discone operates is relatively complicated, but it can be envisaged in a simplified manner. The disc and cone elements sufficiently simulate an electrically complete disc and cone from which the energy is radiated. As a result the greater the number of elements, the

better the simulation, although in reality there is a balance between performance, cost and wind resistance. Often around six elements are used, but the number is not critical. In operation energy from the feeder meets the RF antenna and spreads over the surface of the cone from the apex towards the base until the vertical distance between the point on the cone and the disc is a quarter wavelength. In this way it is possible for the energy to be radiated or received efficiently. The RF antenna radiates and receives energy that is vertically polarised, and the radiation pattern is omnidirectional in the horizontal plane. The antenna radiates most of the energy at a low angle which it maintains over the most of the operating range. Typically there is little change over a range of 5:1 and above this a slight increase in the angle. With the feed point at the top of the RF antenna the current maximum point is also at the top. It is also found that below the minimum frequency the antenna presents a very bad mismatch to the feeder. However once the frequency rises above this point then a reasonable match to 50 ohm coax is maintained over virtually the whole of the band.

Ferrite rod antenna

- an overview, summary, tutorial about the ferrite rod antenna or aerial, a form of RF antenna that is widely used in RFID and transistor radio applications.
Ferrite rod antenna information includes:
Ferrite rod antenna basics Ferrite rod antenna parameters

The ferrite rod antenna is a form of RF antenna design that is almost universally used in portable transistor broadcast receivers as well as many hi-fi tuners where reception on the long, medium and possibly the short wave bands is required. Ferrite rod antennas are also being used increasingly in wireless applications in areas such as RFID. Here the volumes of antennas required can be huge. The antennas also need to be compact and effective, making ferrite rod antennas an ideal solution.

Ferrite rod antenna basics

As the name suggests the antenna consists of a rod made of ferrite, an iron based magnetic material. A coil is would around the ferrite rod and this is brought to resonance using a variable tuning capacitor contained within the radio circuitry itself and in this way the antenna can be tuned to resonance. As the antenna is tuned it usually forms the RF tuning circuit for the receiver, enabling both functions to be combined within the same components, thereby reducing the number of components and hence the cost of the set.

Typical ferrite rod antenna assembly used in a portable radio

The ferrite rod antenna operates using the high permeability of the ferrite material and in its basic form this may be thought of as "concentrating" the magnetic component of the radio waves. This is brought about by the high permeability of the ferrite. The fact that this RF antenna uses the magnetic component of the radio signals in this way means that the antenna is directive. It operates best only when the magnetic lines of force fall in line with the antenna. This occurs when it is at right angles to the direction of the transmitter. This means that the antenna has a null position where the signal level is at a minimum when the antenna is in line with the direction of the transmitter.

Operation of a ferrite rod antenna

Ferrite rod antenna performance

This form of RF antenna design is very convenient for portable applications, but its efficiency is much less than that of a larger RF antenna. The performance of the ferrite also limits the frequency response. Normally this type of RF antenna design is only effective on the long and medium wave bands, but it is sometimes used for lower frequencies in the short wave bands although the performance is significantly degraded, mainly arising from the losses in the ferrite. This limits their operation normally to frequencies up to 2 or 3 MHz. Ferrite rod antennas are normally only used for receiving. They are rarely used for transmitting anything above low levels of power in view of their poor efficiency. It any reasonable levels of power were fed into them they would soon become very hot and there would be a high likelihood that they would be destroyed. Nevertheless they can be used as a very compact form of transmitting antenna for applications where efficiency is not an issue and where power levels are

very low. As they are very much more compact than other forms of low or medium frequency RF antenna, this can be an advantage, and as a result they are being used in applications such as RFID.

Ferrite Rod Antenna Parameters

- notes and overview about some of the key parameters associated with ferrite rod antennas and their performance.
There are a number of ferrite rod parameters that are of key interest when considering their use in any application. The two main parameters are the Q of the tuned circuit, and the radiation resistance. These two ferrite rod parameters govern the areas in which they can be used. The size of the ferrite rod antenna means that there are some compromises that need to be made in other areas of their performance. Accordingly it is necessary to make the right balance between the important requirements.

Ferrite rod antenna Q

One of the requirements for an efficient ferrite rod antenna is that it should have a high Q at the frequencies over which it operates. At frequencies of a few hundred kilohertz, a medium permeability material would be used and this would enable a Q of about 1000 to be obtained. With a Q of this value it will mean that the antenna will need tuning if it is to operate over more than a single channel or frequency. When used in a portable receiver, the tuning can be linked to the overall receiver tuning and indeed the ferrite rod antenna normally provides the input tuning for the set.

Typical ferrite rod antenna assembly used in a portable radio

The Qs of the overall antenna may appear very high, and in fact the ferrite in a rod form has a much higher Q than the basic material as a result of the fact that the rod forms an open magnetic circuit.

Radiation resistance of a ferrite rod antenna

One of the advantages of using a ferrite in the antenna is that it brings the radiation resistance of the overall antenna to a more reasonable level. The ferrite rod antenna can be considered as a small

loop antenna. In view of its size, the loop is much less than a wavelength in length and without the ferrite it would have a very low radiation resistance. Accordingly the losses due to the resistance of the wire would be exceedingly high. Placing the ferrite core in the coil has the effect of raising the radiation resistance by a factor of ^2, and thereby bring the value into more acceptable limits. While the introduction of the ferrite rod raises the radiation resistance of the antenna, and hence reduce the losses due to the resistance of the wire, it does introduce other losses. The ferrite itself absorbs power. This arises from the energy required to change the magnetic alignment of the magnetic domains inside the granular structure of the ferrite. The higher the frequency, the greater the number of changes and hence the higher the loss.

Summary
The ferrite rod antenna is a particularly useful form of RF antenna design despite its limitations and drawbacks in terms of efficiency, top frequency and the need for tuning. Nevertheless ferrite rod antennas are widely used, being used almost universally as the RF antenna in portable radios for long and medium waveband reception as well as being used in a number of RFID applications.

Five eighths wavelength vertical antenna

- overview, or summary about the basics of a five eigths wavelength vertical antenna, a form of RF antenna widely used for mobile radio communications applications.
Vertical antennas find widespread use in applications where an "all round" radiation pattern is required. In these applications it is necessary to keep the maximum amount of radiation parallel to the earth. It is in applications such as these that the five eighths wavelength vertical antenna has become widely used. One particular applications where they are widely used is for mobile radio communications. They are partcularly suited to mobile radio communications because there is not need for the antenna to be reorientated as the mobile station moves, and in addition to this the antenna provides gain over a quarter wave vertical.

Development
The most straightforward vertical antenna is the quarter wavelength version. However it is found that by extending the length of the vertical element, the amount of power radiated at a low angle is increased. If a half wave dipole is extended in length the radiation at right angles to the antenna starts to increase before finally splitting into several lobes. The maximum level of radiation at right angles to the antenna is achieved when the dipole is about 1.2 times the wavelength.

RF antenna gain
When used as a vertical radiator against a ground plane this translates to a length of 5/8 wavelength. It is found that a five eighths vertical has a gain of close to 4 dBd. To achieve this gain the antenna must be constructed of the right materials so that losses are reduced to the absolute

minimum and the overall performance is maintained, otherwise much of the advantage of using the additional length will be lost.

Matching to the RF antenna

For most applications, it is necessary to ensure that the antenna provides a good match to 50 ohm coaxial cable. It is found that a 3/4 wavelength vertical element provides a good match, and therefore the solution to the 5/8 wavelength antenna is to make it appear as a 5/8 radiator but have the electrical length of a 3/4 element. This is achieved by placing a small loading coil at the base of the antenna to increase its electrical length.,/p>

Mechanical considerations
Five eighths wavelength vertical antennas are often used on automobiles. Accordingly one of the main constraints is to ensure that the coil at the base of the antenna is be kept rigid and does not bend as the antenna flexes with the movement of the car. If there is too much flexing then the match to the feeder will change and the operation will be impaired.

Horn antenna
- an overview of the basics of the horn antenna used in RF microwave applications.
The horn antenna is used in the transmission and reception of RF microwave signals, and the antenna is normally used in conjunction with waveguide feeds. The horn antenna gains its name from its appearance. The waveguide can be considered to open out or to be flared, launching the signal towards the receiving antenna. Horn antennas are often used as gain standards, and as feeds for parabolic or 'dish' antennas, as well as being used as RF antennas in their own right. One particular use of horn antennas themselves is for short range radar systems, such as those used for automotive speed enforcement. When used as part of a parabolic reflector, the horn is orientated towards the reflector surface, and is able to give a reasonably even illumination of the surface without allowing radiation to miss the reflector. In this way it is able to maximise the efficiency of the overall antenna. The use of the horn antenna also minimizes the spurious responses of the parabolic reflector antenna to signals that are not in the main lobe.

Horn antenna used for RF microwave applications

Basic horn antenna concept

The horn antenna may be considered as an RF transformer or impedance match between the waveguide feeder and free space which has an impedance of 377 ohms. By having a tapered or having a flared end to the waveguide the horn antenna is formed and this enables the impedance to be matched. Although the waveguide will radiate without a horn antenna, this provides a far more efficient match. In addition to the improved match provided by the horn antenna, it also helps suppress signals travelling via unwanted modes in the waveguide from being radiated. However the main advantage of the horn antenna is that it provides a significant level of directivity and gain. For greater levels of gain the horn antenna should have a large aperture. Also to achieve the maximum gain for a given aperture size, the taper should be long so that the phase of the wavefront is as nearly constant as possible across the aperture. However there comes a point where to provide even small increases in gain, the increase in length becomes too large to make it sensible. Thus gain levels are a balance between aperture size and length. However gain levels for a horn antenna may be up to 20 dB in some instances.

Horn antenna types

There are two basic types of horn antenna: pyramid and conical. The pyramid ones, as the name suggests are rectangular whereas the corrugated ones are usually circular. The corrugated horn provides a pattern that is nearly symmetrical, with the E and H plane beamwidths being nearly the same. Additionally it is possible to control the side lobes better with a conical or corrugated horn antenna.

Summary
The horn antenna is a particularly useful form of antenna for use with RF microwave applications and waveguide feeder. Although it is not used below RF microwave frequencies because waveguides are not used at low frequencies as a result of the sizes needed, the horn antenna is nevertheless a very useful form of RF antenna design for use at high frequencies.

J Pole Antenna
- the J pole antenna is a vertical RF antenna that does not require radials
The J antenna or J pole antenna has found favour in many applications. The J antenna has a number of advantages over the standard vertical RF antennas such as the quarter wavelength vertical antenna and the five eights wavelength antenna. Unlike the other vertical RF antennas just mentioned, the J pole antenna does not require radials for its operation. In applications where radials may appear unsightly or where they may not be suitable for other reasons, the J pole antenna provides a useful alternative. Additionally its length means that the J pole antenna also provides some gain over a normal quarter wavelength vertical. These two attributes make the j pole antenna the ideal type for many applications. As a result the J Pole antenna is finding many applications, many of which are at

VHF and above. Here it forms a compact self contained RF antenna that can fit in many locations and can give a high level of performance without a large visual impact. Although the fact that the J antenna does not have any radials may make it appear that it will not work, it is a well established RF antenna design. It is a form of RF antenna design known as a Zepp or Zeppelin antenna that found favour in the 1930s as an HF antenna. This antenna gained its name from the fact that it was used on the Zeppelin airships. The Rf antenna design consists of a half wave radiating element which is end fed using a quarter wave stub of open wire or 300 Ohm balanced feeder used to match the impedance to the normal 50 Ohm coaxial feeder.

The development of the J or J Pole antenna

The diagram shows the development of the J pole antenna and its operation. This shows the RF antenna radiating element which is a half wavelength. Being end fed this presents a high impedance to the feeder and this is matched using a half wave matching stub. In the first form of the antenna, the radiating element is fed from the source, with the other leg of the stub providing a passive balance. It can also be seen that it is possible to feed the antenna using the other arm of the stub.

The development of the J antenna or J Pole antenna

The final implementation of the J pole antenna uses the stub to provide a good match to 50 Ohm cable. The feed point is moved up or down the stub to provide the best match, and adjustment can be made once the antenna is in position if required. In this way any spurious changes resulting from the position, etc can be removed.

Construction
The J pole antenna is quite easy to construct and gives good results. The main disadvantage is that it can be a little more difficult to adjust than some other forms. The reason for this is that impedance matching has to be accomplished by altering the trimming length of the stub. The length of the half wave radiating stub for the j pole antenna can be determined using the same formula as used in calculating the length of a half wave dipole. The physical length of the balanced feeder will depend on the velocity factor of the feeder in use. For open wire feeder the velocity factor is nearly unity and the length will be very close to that of the free space quarter wavelength. If 300 twin feeder is used then the length required will be shorter because its velocity factor is about 0.85.

Summary
The J pole antenna is a very useful form of RF antenna design. It can be used in many applications and can be particualrly useful where an RF antenna desihgn is needed without radials. Also providing some gain, it provides an efficient radiator for the available space. Against this it can be detuned by nearby objects.

Log periodic antenna

- overview, summary, tutorial about the log periodic antenna or aerial used for wideband RF antenna applications.
Log periodic antenna tutorial includes: Log periodic array basics Log periodic theory Feeder arrangements One of the major drawbacks with many RF antennas is that they have a relatively small bandwidth. This is particularly true of the Yagi beam antenna. One design named the log periodic antenna is able to provide directivity and gain while being able to operate over a wide bandwidth. In particular the log periodic dipole array is the most widely used version of this antenna family. The log periodic antenna is used in a number of applications where a wide bandwidth is required along with directivity and a modest level of gain. It is sometimes used on the HF portion of the spectrum where operation is required on a number of frequencies to enable communication to be maintained. It is also used at VHF and UHF for a variety of applications, including some uses as a television antenna.

Log periodic array capabilities

The log periodic antenna was originally designed at the University of Illinois in the USA in 1955. This type of RF antenna design is directional and is normally capable of operating over a frequency range of about 2:1. It has many similarities to the more familiar Yagi because it exhibits forward gain and has a significant front to back ratio. In addition to this the radiation pattern of this RF antenna design stays broadly the same over the whole of the operating band as do parameters like the radiation resistance and the standing wave ratio. However it offers less gain for its size than does the more conventional Yagi.

Types of log period antenna

There are several formats in which the log periodic antenna can be realised. The exact type that is most applicable for any given application will depend upon the requirements. The main types of log periodic array include:

Zig zag log periodic array Trapezoidal log periodic Slot log periodic V log periodic Log periodic dipole array, LPDA

The type that is most widely used is the log periodic dipole array, LPDA, and that will be described here.

Log periodic dipole array basics

The most common is the log periodic dipole array basically consists of a number of dipole elements. These diminish in size from the back towards the front. The main beam of this RF antenna coming from the smaller front. The element at the back of the array where the elements are the largest is a half wavelength at the lowest frequency of operation. The element spacing also decrease towards the front of the array where the smallest elements are located. In operation, as the frequency changes there is a smooth transition along the array of the elements that form the active region. To ensure that the phasing of the different elements is correct, the feed phase is reversed from one element to the next.

Basic log periodic dipole array

Log periodic performance

The log periodic antenna is a particularly useful design when modest levels of gain are required, combined with wideband operation. A typical example of this type of RF antenna design will provide between 4 and 6 dB gain over a bandwidth of 2:1 while retaining an SWR level of better than 1.3:1. With this level of performance it is ideal for many applications, although a log periodic antenna will be much larger than a Yagi that will produce equivalent gain. However the Yagi is unable to operate over such a wide bandwidth.

Log Periodic Antenna Theory

- notes and overview about the theory of operation of a log periodic dipole array antenna..
The theory of operation of the log periodic dipole array can become complicated. However to give a comprehensible introduction to the log periodic theory some basic explanations are given below. It is possible to explain the operation of a log periodic array in straightforward terms. The feeder polarity is reversed between successive elements. Take the condition when this RF antenna is approximately in the middle of its operating range. When the signal meets the first few elements it will be found that they are spaced quite close together in terms of the operating wavelength. This means that the fields from these elements will cancel one another out as the feeder sense is reversed between the elements.

Basic log periodic dipole array Then as the signal progresses down the antenna a point is reached where the feeder reversal and the distance between the elements gives a total phase shift of about 360 degrees. At this point the effect which is seen is that of two phased dipoles. The region in which this occurs is called the active region of the RF antenna. Although the example of only two dipoles is given, in reality the active region can consist of more elements. The actual number depends upon the angle and a design constant. The elements outside the active region receive little direct power. Despite this it is found that the larger elements are resonant below the operational frequency and appear inductive. Those in front resonate above the operational frequency and are capacitive. These are exactly the same criteria that are found in the Yagi. Accordingly the element immediately behind the active region acts as a reflector and those in front act as directors. This means that the direction of maximum radiation is towards the feed point.

Log Periodic Antenna Feed Arrangements

- notes and details on the feed or feeder arrangements and system used feeding a log periodic dipole array.

Feed arrangements
The log periodic dipole antenna presents a number of difficulties if it is to be fed properly. The feed impedance is dependent upon a number of factors. However it is possible to control this by altering the spacing, and hence the impedance for the feeder that connects each of the dipole elements together. Despite this the impedance varies with frequency, but this can be overcome to a large extent by making the longer elements out of a larger diameter rod. Even so the final feed impedance does not normally match to 50 ohms on its own. It is normal for a further form of impedance matching to be required. This may be in the form of a stub or even a transformer. The actual method employed will depend to a large degree on the application of the antenna and its frequency range.

Loop antenna

- an overview, summary, tutorial about the basics of the loop antenna, a form of RF antenna design that can be used in a varety of applications.
Loop antennas, or more correctly, closed loop antennas are widely used in many applications, often providing advantages over other types of RF antenna design. Loop antennas can be placed into two categories:

Small loop antennas Large loop antennas

The terms refer to the size of the Rf antenna when compared to a wavelength of the frequency in use.

Small loop antennas

Small loop antennas can be likened to coils, as they have the same current distribution as ordinary 'circuit' coils, having the same phase and amplitude through the whole coil. To achieve this the total length of the conductor used in the loop antenna design must be no more than about 0.1 wavelengths long. Any longer than this and the current phase and amplitude will start to vary over the length of the conductor and some of the properties start to change. Small loop antennas may also be split into those that us a single turn, and those that have a multiturn loop, as in the case of a coil. One common form of multi-turn small loop antenna is the popular ferrite rod antenna that is used in many domestic portable radios and is also starting to be used in applications such as RFID devices. Another form of this antenna was the frame antenna or aerial found in many domestic radio sets of the 1940s and 1950s. Here a multi-turn coil about 30 centimetres or more square was built into the set to act as the antenna. Multi-turn loop antennas are nor normally used for transmitting because the losses are high and the level of heat dissipated can give rise to rapid temperature increases. Instead single turn loop antennas may be used if a loop antenna is needed. These antennas have a number of advantages and disadvantages. The main advantages of loop antennas are their size and directivity. Often a single turn small loop antenna is much smaller than a wavelength by its definition. They are also quite directive, and this can be used to direct the radiated power in the required direction. Both these advantages can be very useful in many applications. They find uses for transmitting and receiving, particularly on the MF and HF or short wave bands. Here they provide very compact antennas for applications such as amateur radio and shipping, etc. as well as receiving antennas for MF or medium wave receivers. There are naturally disadvantages to this type of RF antenna design. The first is that the Rf antenna can have a very low radiation resistance, and this results in very high levels of current flowing in the RF antenna. In turn this means that even small levels of 'DC' resistance can result in significant levels of power being lost as heat. It is for this reason that single turn small loop antennas are made of very thick wire, or more often made of a tubular conductor. Additionally this means that they must have an effective form of antenna matching if the energy is to be efficiently transferred to and from the RF ntenna. A further disadvantage of this type of RF antenna design is that it can have a very high Q. Not only does the RF antenna require tuning to bring it to resonance at the frequency of operation, but it

may have such a narrow bandwidth, on frequencies such as the medium waveband or even a little higher, that it may be insufficient to accommodate the carrier and its sidebands.

Large loop antennas

Large loops tend not to be quite as widely used in many applications, although in some areas they may be popular. Their size can mean that they are only used in limited applications. One popular form of loop for HF applications is a full wave loop. This consists of a full wavelength loop of wire which is fed at a break in the loop. This type of loop has a much higher radiation resistance and as a result the losses are very much lower, making it a far more efficient antenna, although one that is much larger.

Parabolic reflector antenna

- an overview or tutorial about the essentials of the parabolic reflector or dish antenna and its theory and design for high performance applications such as satellite transmission and reception as well as microwave links.
Parabolic antenna tutorial includes: Parabolic reflector basics Parabolic reflector antenna gain Parabolic reflector feed systems The parabolic reflector or dish antenna has been used far more widely in recent years with advent of satellite television (TV). However the dish antenna finds uses in many radio and wireless applications at frequencies usually above about 1GHz where very high levels of RF antenna gain are required along with narrow beamwidths. In many professional applications these parabolic reflectors or dish antennas are used for satellite as well as for radio astronomy and it is used in many microwave links, often being seen on radio relay towers and mobile phone antenna masts. In all these applications very high levels of gain are required to receive the incoming signals that are often at a very low level. For transmitting this type of RF antenna design is able to concentrate the available radiated power into a narrow beamwidth, ensuring all the available power is radiated in the required direction.

The Goldstone parabolic reflector antenna Image courtesy NASA

Parabolic reflector basics

The RF antenna consists of a radiating system that is used to illuminate a reflector that is curved in the form of a paraboloid. This shape enables a very accurate beam to be obtained. In this way, the feed system forms the actual radiating section of the antenna, and the reflecting parabolic surface is purely passive. When looking at parabolic reflector antenna systems there are a number of parameters and terms that are of importance: Focus The focus or focal point of the parabolic reflector is the point at which any incoming signals are concentrated. When radiating from this point the signals will be reflected by the reflecting surface and travel in a parallel beam and to provide the required gain and beamwidth. Vertex This is the innermost point at the centre of the parabolic reflector. Focal length The focal length of a parabolic antenna is the distance from its focus to its vertex. Aperture The aperture of a parabolic reflector is what may be termed its "opening" or the area which it covers. For a circular reflector, this is described by its diameter. It can be likened to the aperture of an optical lens.

Antenna gain
The gain of the parabolic antennas is of paramount importance. Parabolic antennas or parabolic reflector antennas are often used solely for their gain and directivity. Accordingly the gains of the antennas need to be determined as part of the design. A full overview of the gain equations and calculations of the parabolic reflector antenna can be found via the "Related Articles" link on the left hand side of this page below the main menu.

Parabolic antenna focal length

One important element of a parabolic antenna is its focal length. To ensure that the antenna operates correctly, it is necessary to ensure that the radiating element is placed at the focal point. To determine this it is necessary to know the focal length. D2 Focal length f = 16 c

Where f is the focal length D is the diameter of the reflector c is the depth of the reflector In addition to this the f/D ratio is important. As the f/D ratio is often specified along with the diameter, the focal length can be obtained very easily by multiplying its f/D ratio by the specified diameter D.

Feed systems
A parabolic antenna is designed around its feed system The design of the feed system is central to the design of the overall parabolic reflector antenna system. There are two basic forms of feed system that can be used for a parabolic reflector antenna:
1.

Focal point feed system: Using a focal point feed system the source of the radiation is placed at the focal point of the parabola and this is used to illuminate the reflector.

2.

Cassegrain reflector system: Here the radiation is fed through the centre of the reflector towards a hyperboloidal reflector which reflects the radiation back onto the paraboloidal reflector. In this way it is possible to control the radiation more accurately.

A full overview of the methods of feeding parabolic reflector antennas can be found via the "Related Articles" link on the left hand side of this page below the main menu. For most domestic systems a small reflector combined with a focal point feed are used, providing the simplest and most economical form of construction. This is the form that is most widely used for satellite television applications. These antennas may not always look exactly like the traditional full dish antenna. For mechanical and production reasons the feed is often offset from the centre

and a portion of the paraboloid used, again offset from the centre. This provides mechanical advantage. Nevertheless the principles are exactly the same.

Parabolic Antenna Gain

- an overview or tutorial about parabolic reflector gain, the parabolic antenna gain equation or formula, and the practical factors affecting the gain of the parabolic dish gain antenna.
Parabolic reflector antennas, often called parabolic dishes are normally used in applications where gain and directivity are of paramount importance. Satellite TV reception, microwave links and other satellite links are prime examples of where parabolic reflector gain is used. The parabolic reflector antenna is ideal for high gain applications. At microwave frequencies where these antennas are normally used, they are able to produce very high levels of gain, and they offer a very convenient and robust structure that is able to withstand the rigours of external use, while still being able to perform well. Many other types of antenna design are not practicable at these frequencies. High gain parabolic reflector antennas come in a variety of sizes. The most commonly seen are those used for satellite television reception. However parabolic antennas are used in many other applications. Parabolic reflector antennas are also often seen on microwave towers for communications. Larger ones still can often be seen on TV broadcast stations where signals need to be transmitted up to a broadcast satellite and where performance is paramount. Even larger antennas may also be used for other communications or even space research applications. Some these parabolic antennas are many tens of metres across. The one common feature of all these examples is the parabolic antenna gain, or parabolic dish gain. While the larger antennas have greater levels of parabolic antenna gain, the performance of all these antennas is of prime importance.

Factors affecting parabolic antenna gain

There are a number of factors that affect the parabolic antenna gain. These factors include the following:
1. 2. 3. 4.

Diameter for the parabolic reflector antenna reflecting surface Surface accuracy Quality of illumination of the reflecting surface Frequency or wavelength of the signal being received or transmitted

Parabolic antenna gain

The parabolic antenna gain can easily be calculated from a knowledge of the diameter of the reflecting surface, the wavelength of the signal, and a knowledge or estimate of the efficiency of the antenna. The parabolic reflector antenna gain is calculated as the gain over an isotropic source, i.e. relative to a source that radiates equally in all directions. This is a theoretical source that is used as the benchmark against which most antennas are compared. The gain is quoted in this manner is denoted as dBi. The standard formula for the parabolic reflector antenna gain is: 10 log 10 k ( D) Gain G =
2

2 where G is the gain over an isotropic source in dB k is the efficiency factor which is generally around 50% to 60%, i.e. 0.5 to 0.6 D is the diameter of the parabolic reflector in metres &lambda lambda is the wavelength of the signal in metres From this it can be seen that very large gains can be achieved if sufficiently large reflectors are used. However when the antenna has a very large gain, the beamwidth is also very small and the antenna requires very careful control over its position. In professional systems electrical servo systems are used to provide very precise positioning.

Optimising parabolic antenna gain

To provide the optimum illumination of the reflecting surface, the level of illumination should be greater in the centre than at the sides. It can be shown that the optimum situation occurs when the centre is around 10 to 11 dB greater than the illumination at the edge. Lower levels of edge illumination result in lower levels of side lobes. The reflecting surface antenna forms a major part of the whole system. In many respects it is not as critical as may be thought at first. Often a wire mesh may be used. Provided that the pitch of the mesh is small compared to a wavelength it will be seen as a continuous surface by the radio signals. If a mesh is used then the wind resistance will be reduced, and this provides significant advantages.

Parabolic Reflector Antenna Feed Systems

- an overview or tutorial about parabolic reflector antenna feed systems with calculations, equations and details of the different types of feed system used.
The feed systems for parabolic reflector antennas or dish antennas are of great importance. The actual antenna in a parabolic antenna, that is, the device that interfaces the transmission line or waveguide containing the radio-frequency energy to free space, is the feed element. The reflector surface is entirely passive. This feed element should usually be at the center of the reflector at the focal point of that dish. The focal point is the point where all reflected waves will be concentrated.

The focal length f (distance of focal point from the center of the reflector) is calculated with the following equation:
D Focal length f = c
2

16

where: f is the focal length of the reflector D is reflector diameter in same units as wavelength c is depth of the reflector The radiation from the feed element induces a current flow in the conductive reflector surface which, in turn, re-radiates in the desired direction, perpendicular to the directrix plane of the paraboloid. The feed element can be any one of a multitude of antenna types. Whichever type is used, it must exhibit a directivity that efficiently illuminates the reflector and must have the correct polarization for the application -- the polarization of the feed determining the polarization of the entire antenna system. The simplest feed is a half-wave dipole which is commonly used at lower frequencies, sometimes in conjunction with a closely coupled parasitic reflector or "splash plate". At higher frequencies a horn-type becomes more feasible and efficient. To adapt the horn to a coaxial antenna cable, a length of waveguide is used to effect the transition. There are two dimensions for the parabolic antenna that are of particular importance. These are the focal length, f and the diameter, D. Typically one of the parameters used to specific parabolic antennas is the f / D ratio. As the f/D ratio is often specified along with the diameter, the focal length can be obtained very easily by multiplying its f/D ratio by the specified diameter D.

Focal feed system

The parabolic reflector or dish antenna consists of a radiating element which may be a simple dipole or a waveguide horn antenna. This is placed at the focal point of the parabolic reflecting surface. The energy from the radiating element is arranged so that it illuminates the reflecting surface. Once the energy is reflected it leaves the antenna system in a narrow beam. As a result considerable levels of gain can be achieved. Achieving this is not always easy because it is dependent upon the radiator that is used. For lower frequencies a dipole element is often employed whereas at higher frequencies a circular waveguide may be used. In fact the circular waveguide provides one of the optimum sources of illumination.

Diagram of a focal feed parabolic reflector antenna

Cassegrain feed system

The Cassegrain feed system, although requiring a second reflecting surface has the advantage that the overall length of the dish antenna between the two reflectors is shorter than the length between the radiating element and the parabolic reflector. This is because there is a reflection in the focusing of the signal which shortens the physical length. This can be an advantage in some systems.

Diagram of a focal feed parabolic reflector or dish antenna with a Cassegrain feed

Quarter wave vertical antenna

- overview or summary about the basics of the quarter wave vertical and ground plane antennas that ares widely used for medium wave broadcasting, mobile radio communications applications and many more.

Vertical antennas are widely used at all frequencies from MF up to VHF and beyond. They exist in a variety of forms including the quarter wave vertical and ground plane antennas. They possess many advantages and are widely used for medium wave broadcasting as well as for mobile applications in areas including private mobile radio. The reason for this widespread use is the omni-directional radiation pattern that they give in the horizontal plane. This means that the antennas do not have to be re-orientated to keep the signals constant as the car moves it position. Single element vertical antennas posses an omni-directional radiation pattern (in the horizontal plane). This means that the antennas do not have to be re-orientated when used in mobile applications as the vehicle moves. This is obviously an essential requirement. A further advantage is that much of the radiation is at right angles to the antenna element, and as a result it travels close to the earth's surface where the receiving stations are located. Radiation directed upwards is wasted in many instances as VHF transmissions are normally not reflected by the ionosphere.,/p> For medium wave broadcast stations a particular advantage is that the radiation is vertically polarised. It is found that the vertically polarised transmissions propagate further via the ground wave that these transmissions use.

Basic element
Like the name suggests the antenna consists of a quarter wavelength vertical element. The antenna is what is termed "un-balanced" having one connection to the vertical element and using an earth connection or simulated earth connection to provide an image for the other connection. The voltage and current waveforms show that at the end the voltage rises to a maximum whereas the current falls to a minimum. Then at the base of the antenna at the feed point, the voltage is at a minimum and the current is at its maximum. This gives the antenna a low feed impedance. Typically this is around 20 ohms.

A quarter wave vertical RF antenna design

The ground is obviously an important part of the RF antenna. Many MF and HF installations use a ground connection for this. These ground systems need to be very effective fort he antenna to perform satisfactorily. They must obviously have a very low resistance, and often utilise large "mats" of radials extending out from the base of the antenna to ensure excellent RF performance. For VHF and UHF installations, height is obviously important and antennas need to be raised to ensure they are above the nearby obstructions. Also for mobile installations it is clearly not possible to use a true earth connection. In these cases a simulated earth is used. For mobile applications this consists of the body of the vehicle. The antenna mounting will normally enable a suitable connection to be made to the vehicle body, sometimes using a capacitive connection. However it is necessary to ensure that the vehicle body is metal, and not plastic in the vicinity of the antenna mounting. For fixed stations a set of radials simulating a ground plane is used. In theory the ground plane should extend out to infinity, but in practice a number of radials a quarter wavelength long is used. Typically for many VHF applications four radials is sufficient.

A radial system used with a quarter wave vertical

If the radials are bent downwards from the horizontal then the feed impedance will be raised. A 50 ohm match is achieved when the angle between the ground plane rods and the horizontal is 42 degrees. Another solution is to include an impedance matching element in the antenna. Normally this is in the form of a tapped coil that can be conveniently housed in the base of the antenna.

Folded element
In view of the low impedance presented to the feeder by the RF antenna, methods must be found of presenting a good match and some have already been outlined. Another is to use a folded element. In the same way that a folded dipole increases the feed impedance of the antenna, so a folded vertical element can be used. If the diameter of both sections is the same, then an increase by a ratio of 4:1 is achieved. This would bring the impedance to 80 ohms and will provide an acceptable match to 75 ohm feeder. By using a smaller diameter grounded element the feed impedance can be reduced so that a good match to 50 ohm coax can be achieved.

Summary
The quarter wave vertical antenna is widely used in view of its simplicity and convenience. To improve on its performance other types of vertical are available. It is also possilbe to use further verticals and feed them with different phases to provide gain to the overall antenna system.

The Yagi antenna

- overview, summary, tutorial about the Yagi antenna sometimes called the Yagi-Uda RF antenna that is widely used where gain and directivity are required from an RF antenna design.
Yagi antenna tutorial includes: Yagi antenna Yagi antenna gain Yagi impedance & matching The Yagi or Yagi-Uda RF antenna or aerial is one of the most successful RF antenna designs for directive applications. It is used in a wide variety of applications where an RF antenna design with gain and directivity is required. It has become particularly popular for television reception, but it is used in very many other applications where an RF antenna design is needed that has gain. The full name for the antenna is the Yagi-Uda antenna. It was derives it name from its two Japanese inventors Yagi and his student Uda. The RF antenna design concept was first outlined in a paper that Yagi himself presented in 1928. Since then its use has grown rapidly to the stage where today a television antenna is synonymous with an RF antenna having a central boom with lots of elements attached.

The Yagi antenna

The Yagi RF antenna design has a dipole as the main radiating or driven element. Further "parasitic" elements are added which are not directly connected to the driven element. Instead they pick up power from the dipole and re-radiate it such a manner that it affects the properties of the RF antenna as a whole.

Basic concept of a Yagi antenna

The parasitic elements of the Yagi antenna operate by re-radiating their signals in a slightly different phase to that of the driven element. In this way the signal is reinforced in some directions and cancelled out in others. It is found that the amplitude and phase of the current that is induced in the parasitic elements is dependent upon their length and the spacing between them and the dipole or driven element. Using a parasitic element it is not possible to have complete control over both the amplitude and phase of the currents in all the elements. This means that it is not possible to obtain complete cancellation in one direction. Nevertheless it is still possible to obtain a high degree of reinforcement in one direction and have a high level of gain, and also have a high degree of cancellation in another to provide a good front to back ratio. To obtain the required phase shift an element can be made either inductive or capacitive. If the parasitic element is made inductive it is found that the induced currents are in such a phase that they reflect the power away from the parasitic element. This causes the RF antenna to radiate more power away from it. An element that does this is called a reflector. It can be made inductive by tuning it below resonance. This can be done by physically adding some inductance to the element in the form of a coil, or more commonly by making it longer than the resonant length. Generally it is made about 5% longer than the driven element. If the parasitic element is made capacitive it will be found that the induced currents are in such a phase that they direct the power radiated by the whole antenna in the direction of the parasitic element. An element which does this is called a director. It can be made capacitive tuning it above resonance. This can be done by physically adding some capacitance to the element in the form of a capacitor, or more commonly by making it about 5% shorter than the driven element. It is found that the addition of further directors increases the directivity of the antenna, increasing the gain and reducing the beamwidth. The addition of further reflectors makes no noticeable difference. The antenna exhibits a directional pattern consisting of a main forward lobe and a number of spurious side lobes. The main one of these is the reverse lobe caused by radiation in the direction of the reflector. The antenna can be optimised to either reduce this or produce the maximum level

of forward gain. Unfortunately the two do not coincide exactly and a compromise on the performance has to be made depending upon the application.

Polar diagram of the Yagi antenna

The Yagi antenna is a particularly useful form of RF antenna design. It is widely used in applications where an RF antenna design is required to provide gain and directivity. In this way the optimum transmission and reception conditions can be obtained.

Yagi Antenna Gain

- notes, details and tables of Yagi antenna gain.
One of the chief reasons for using a Yagi antenna is the gain it provides. This gain is of great importance, because it enables all the transmitted power to be directed into the area where it is required, or when used for reception, it enables the maximum signal to be received from the same area. Gain for reception and transmission are equal when a passive antenna is used - i.e. one without any active elements.

Yagi gain / beamwidth considerations

It is found that as the Yagi gain increases, so the beam-width decreases. Antennas with a very high level of gain are very directive. Therefore high gain and narrow beam-width sometimes have to be balanced to provide the optimum performance for a given application

Yagi gain vs beam-width

Yagi gain considerations

A number of features of the Yagi design affect the overall gain:

Number of elements in the Yagi: One of the main factors affecting the Yagi gain, is the number of elements in the design. Typically a reflector is the first element added in any yagi design as this gives the most additional gain. Directors are then added. Element spacing: The spacing can have an impact on the Yagi gain, although not as much as the number of elements. Typically a wide-spaced beam, i.e. one with a wide spacing between the elements gives more gain than one that is more compact. The most critical element positions are the reflector and first director, as their spacing governs that of any other elements that may be added. Antenna length: When computing he optimal positions for the various elements it has been shown that in a multi-element Yagi array, the gain is generally proportional to the length of the array. There is certain amount of latitude in the element positions.

The gain of a Yagi antenna is governed mainly by the number of elements in the particular RF antenna. However the spacing between the elements also has an effect. As the overall performance of the RF antenna has so many inter-related variables, many early designs were not able to realise their full performance. Today computer programmes are used to optimise RF antenna designs before they are even manufactured and as a result the performance of antennas has been improved.

Yagi gain vs number of elements

Although there is variation between different designs and the way antennas are constructed, it is possible to place some very approximate figures for anticipated gain against the number of elements in the design. Approx anticipated gain dB over dipole 5 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5

Number of elements 2 3 4 5 6 7

It should be noted that these figures are only very approximate. As an additional rule of thumb, once there are around four or five directors, each additional director adds around an extra 1dB of gain for directors up to about 15 or so directors. The figure falls with the increasing number of directors.

Yagi Front to Back ratio

One of the figures associated with the Yagi gain is what is termed the front to back ratio, F/B. This is simply a ratio of the signal level in the forward direction to the reverse direction. This is normally expressed in dB.

Front to back ratio = Signal in forward direction / signal in reverse direction

Yagi front to back ratio Front to back ratio = F / B The front to back ratio is important in circumstances where interference or coverage in the reverse direction needs to be minimised. Unfortunately the conditions within the antenna mean that optimisation has to be undertaken for either front to back ratio, or maximum forward gain. Conditions for both features do not coincide, but the front to back ratio can normally be maximised for a small degradation of the forward gain.

Yagi Feed Impedance

- notes and details of the essentials of Yagi impedance matching, what governs it and the ways of Yagi matching.
As with any other type of antenna, ensuring that a good match between the feeder and the antenna itself are crucial to ensure the performance of the antenna can be optimised. The impedance of the driven element is greatly affected by the parasitic elements and therefore, arrangements needed to be incorporated into the basic design to ensure that a good match is obtained.

Feed impedance of Yagi driven element

It is possible to vary the feed impedance of a Yagi antenna over a wide range. Although the impedance of the dipole itself would be 73 ohms in free space, this is altered considerably by the proximity of the parasitic elements. The spacing, their length and a variety of other factors all affect the feed impedance presented by the dipole to the feeder. In fact altering the element spacing has a greater effect on the impedance than it does the gain, and accordingly setting the required spacing can be used as one design technique to fine tune the required feed impedance. Nevertheless the proximity of the parasitic elements usually reduces the impedance below the 50 ohm level normally required. It is found that for element spacing distances less than 0.2 wavelengths the impedance falls rapidly away.

Yagi matching techniques

To overcome this, a variety of techniques can be used. Each one has its own advantages and disadvantages, both in terms of performance and mechanical suitability. No one solution is suitable for all applications.

The solutions below are some of the main solutions used and applicable to many types of antenna. There also not the only ones: Balun: A balun is an impedance matching transformer and can be used to match a great variety of impedance ratios, provided the impedance is known when the balun is designed. Folded dipole: One method which can effectively be implemented to increase the feed impedance is to use a folder dipole. In its basic form it raises the impedance four fold, although by changing various parameters it is possible t raise the impedance by different factors. Delta match: This method of Yagi impedance matching involves "fanning out" the feed connection to the driven element. Gamma match: The gamma match solution to Yagi matching involves connecting the out of the coax braid to the centre of the driven element, and the centre via a capacitor to a point away from the centre, dependent upon the impedance increase required.

Balun for Yagi matching The balun is a very straightforward method of providing impedance matching. 4:1 baluns are widely available for applications including matching folded dipoles to 75 coax. Baluns like these are just RF transformers. They should have as wide a frequency range as possible, but like any wound components they have a limited bandwidth. However if designed for use with a specific Yagi antenna, this should not be a problem. One of the problems with a balun is the cost - they tend to be more costly than some other forms of Yagi impedance matching. They may also be power limited for a given size. Folded dipole The folded dipole is a standard approach to increasing the Yagi impedance. It is widely used on Yagi antennas including the television and broadcast FM antennas. The simple folded dipole provides an increase in impedance by a factor of four. Under free space conditions, the dipole

impedance on its own is raised from 75 for a standard dipole to 300 for the folded dipole.

Simple folded dipole antenna

Note on folded dipole:

The folded dipole is a from of dipole that has a higher impedance than the standard half wave dipole - in the standard version it has four times the impedance. However different ratios can be obtained by changing the mechanical attributes. Click for a Folded dipole tutorial Another advantage of using a folded dipole for Yagi impedance matching is that the folded dipole has a flatter impedance versus frequency characteristic than the simple dipole. This enables it and hence the Yagi to operate over a wider frequency range. While a standard folded dipole using the same thickness conductor for the top and bottom conductors within the folded dipole will give a fourfold increase in impedance, by varying the thickness of both, it is possible to change the impedance multiplication factor to considerably different values.

Delta match The delta match for of Yagi matching is one of the more straightforward solutions. It involves fanning out the ends of the balanced feeder to join the continuous radiating antenna driven element at a point to provide the required match.

Delta match for dipole - often used for Yagi impedance matching Both the side length and point of connection need to be adjusted to optimise the match. One of the drawbacks for using the Delta match for providing Yagi impedance matching is that it is unable to provide any removal of reactive impedance elements. As a result a stub may be used. Gamma match The gamma match is often used for providing Yagi impedance matching. It is relatively simple to implement.

Gamma match for dipole - often used for Yagi impedance matching As seen in the diagram, the outer of the coax feeder is connected to the centre of the driven element of the Yagi antenna where the voltage is zero. As a result of the fact that the voltage is zero, the driven element may also be connected directly to a metal boom at this point without any loss of performance. The inner conductor of the coax is then taken to a point further out on the driven element - it is taken to a tap point to provide the correct match. Any inductance is tuned out using the series capacitor. When adjusting the RF antenna design, both the variable capacitor and the point at which the arm contacts the driven element are adjusted. Once a value has been ascertained for the variable capacitor, its value can be measured and a fixed component inserted if required.