SA 21- Introduction to Sociology and Anthropology Lecture Notes 8- Social Groups and Formal Organizations I.

. A SOCIAL GROUP is defined as two or more people who identify and interact with one another. A. Categories, aggregates and crowds. 1. A category is a temporary collection of people who may or may not interact. 2. An aggregate consists of people who are in the same place at the same time but who interact little if at all and have no sense of belonging together. 3. A crowd consists of a large number of people in proximity to one another who interact to a greater or lesser extent. B. Primary and secondary groups. 1. A primary group, according to Charles Horton Cooley, is a small social group in which relationships are both personal and enduring. a. People in primary groups share many activities, spend a great deal of time together, and feel they know one another well. b. Families are primary groups in that they are the first groups we experience in life and because they are of central importance in the socialization process. c. Members think of the group as an end in itself rather than as a means to other ends. d. They engage each other as unique individuals. 2. Secondary groups are large and impersonal social groups devoted to some specific interest or activity. a. They are, in most regards, the opposite of primary groups. b. They are commonly short-term.

c. They are goal oriented. d. They are typically impersonal. Primary groups dominate social life in preindustrial societies; secondary groups are more common in modern industrial society. C. Group leadership. 1. Instrumental leadership emphasizes the completion of tasks; expressive leadership emphasizes collective well-being. 2. There are three styles of decision making in groups: a. Authoritarian leaders focus on instrumental concerns, make decisions on their own and demand strict compliance from subordinates. b. Democratic leaders are more expressive and try to include everyone in the decisionmaking process. c. Laissez-faire leaders downplay their position and power, allowing the group to function more or less on its own.

D. Group conformity. 1. Aschs research into group conformity. 2. Milgrams research into obedience. 3. Janis research into groupthink, the tendency of group members to conform by adopting a narrow view of some issue.

E. A reference group is a social group that serves as a point of reference for people making evaluations or decisions. 1. Stouffers research into reference group dynamics.

F. An ingroup is a social group commanding a members esteem and loyalty; an outgroup is a social group toward which one feels competition or opposition. G. Group size 1. A dyad is Georg Simmels term for a social group with two members. a. Dyads are typically less stable than larger groups. b. Social interaction in a dyad is typically intense. 2. A triad is a social group with three members. a. Any two members can form a majority coalition. b. Triads are more stable than dyads.

2. The Internet: Welcome to Cyberspace!

II. FORMAL ORGANIZATIONS are large, secondary groups that are organized to achieve goals efficiently. A. Etzioni identifies three types of formal organizations: 1. Normative organizations or voluntary associations, in which people pursue goals they consider morally worthwhile. 2. Coercive organizations, distinguished by involuntary membership. 3. Utilitarian organizations, which people join in pursuit of material rewards. B. Bureaucracy is an organizational model rationally designed to perform complex tasks efficiently. It became common during the Industrial Revolution. C. Max Weber identified six key characteristics of bureaucracy: 1. Specialization; an elaborate division of labor. 2. Hierarchy of offices. 3. Rules and regulations. 4. Technical competence as the key criterion for hiring and promotion. 5. Impersonality. 6. Formal, written communication. D. Organizational size E. The informal side of bureaucracy. F. Problems in bureaucracies. 1. Bureaucratic alienation. 2. Robert Mertons concept of bureaucratic ritualism signifies a preoccupation with

H. Social diversity. According to Peter Blau: 1. The larger a group, the more likely members will maintain relationships only with other group members. 2. The more internally heterogeneous a group is, the more likely that its members will interact with outsiders. 3. The greater the overall social parity within a setting, the more likely it is that people from diverse backgrounds will mingle and form ties. 4. Physical space affects the chances of contacts among groups. I. A network is a web of social ties that links people who may have little common identity and interaction. 1. Cyberspace: A Global Network.

organizational rules and regulations to the point of thwarting an organizations goals. 3. Bureaucratic inertia is the tendency of bureaucratic organizations to perpetuate themselves. 4. Robert Michels developed the idea that bureaucracy fosters oligarchy, the rule of the many by the few. 5. Parkinsons Law states that work expands to fill the time available for its completion. 6. The Peter Principle holds that bureaucrats will be promoted to their level of incompetence. G. Gender and race in organizations. H. Humanizing bureaucracy refers to fostering an organizational atmosphere that recognizes and encourages the contributions of everyone. This may involve: 1. Social inclusiveness. 2. Sharing of responsibilities. 3. Expanding opportunities for advancement. 4. Critical evaluation. These changes are controversial but may offer significant returns. I. Self-managed work teams are small groups whose members have the skills necessary to carry out tasks with minimal supervision. J. Bureaucratic functioning also depends on the organizational environment, a range of factors external to an organization that affect its operation. Among these factors are: 1. Technology. 2. Political and economic trends. 3. Population patterns. 4. Other organizations.

K. The McDonaldization of society. 1. Four principles of McDonaldization: a. Efficiency. b. Calculability. c. Uniformity and predictability. d. Control through automation. 2. Rationality, although efficient, may be highly dehumanizing. L. Formal organizations in Japan. 1. Japanese organizations are unique in their: a. Hiring and advancement policies. b. Lifetime security. c. Holistic involvement. d. Broad-based training. e. Collective decision making. 2. The Japanese Model: Will It Work in the Philippines?

III. GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS IN GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE. The extent of global diversity and change demands that we be cautious about asserting any absolute truths about formal organizations and, just as important, that we remain open to new possibilities for reorganizing our future.