1 CURRENT ELECTRICITY/CLASS XII PHYSICS/CVT/2012-2013 Prepared by: Sandhya.

K


UNIT II(CHAPTER III)-CURRENT ELECTRICITY ( 7 marks)
ELECTRIC CURRENT
It is defined as the rate of flow of charge through any cross-section of a conductor. It is denoted by I.
Thus,

timetaken
e flowin total ch
I
g arg
=

If charge q flows in time t through any section of a wire,

t
q
I =
----------------------- (1)
If charge dq flows through any section of a wire in a small time dt, then-

dt
dq
I =
--------------------- (2)
The direction in which the positive charge will flow gives the direction of conventional current.
Although, direction is associated with electric current, yet it is a scalar quantity because the laws of ordinary algebra
are used to add electric current.

The S.I unit of electric current is ampere. It is denoted by A.
1
1
sec 1
1
1

= = Cs
ond (s)
C) coulomb (
) ampere (A
The current through a wire is called one ampere, if one coulomb of charge flows through the wire in one second.

DRIFT VELOCITY
In a conductor, the valence electrons of an atom are free to move through the lattice of positive ions of the conductor.
Such valence electrons in a conductor are called free electrons or conduction electrons. The free electrons in a
conductor are always in random motion.
As the number of free electrons in a conductor is very large, during their random motion, the free electrons keep on
suffering collisions with the positive ions in the conductor and hence their average thermal velocity is zero.
If
1
u

,
2
u

,
3
u

,.
n
u

are the random thermal velocities of n electrons in a conductor, then their average thermal velocity
is-
0
....
3 2 1
=
+ + + +
n
u u u u
n

-------------- (3)
When a potential difference V is applied across the two ends of a
Conductor, an electric field is set up. The magnitude of the
electric field set up is given by-
l
V
E =

The direction of electric field set up in the conductor is from positive end to its negative end. The force
experienced
by the free electron in the conductor is-

E e F

= -------------- (4) (in a direction opposite to the direction of electric field.)
If m is the mass of the electron, then acceleration produced is given by-

m
E e
m
F
a

= =

------------- (5)
Hence, under the effect of electric field, the free electrons accelerate.
Therefore, if an electron having random thermal velocity
1
u

accelerates for a time

1
t (before it suffers a collision),
then it will attain a velocity,

1 1 1
t a u v

+ =

Similarly, velocities acquired by the other electrons in the conductor will be-

2 2 2
t a u v

+ =
,

3 3 3
t a u v

+ =

..

n n n
a u v t

+ =



2 CURRENT ELECTRICITY/CLASS XII PHYSICS/CVT/2012-2013 Prepared by: Sandhya.K


The drift velocity is defined as the average velocity with which free electrons in a conductor get drifted under the
influence of an external electric field applied across the conductor.
Thus,

( ) ( ) ( )
n
a u a u a u
n
v v v v
v
n n n
d
t t t

+ + + + + +
=
+ + + +
=
....... ....
2 2 1 1 3 2 1

n
a
n
u u u
v
n n
d
t t t + + +
+
+ + +
=
....... .....
2 1 2 1

Now,
n
n
t t t + + + .......
2 1
is called the average relaxation time and is denoted by
t
. By equation (3),
n
u u u u
n

+ + + + ....
3 2 1
is equal to zero.
Hence, above equation becomes-

t t a a v
d

= + = 0

Using equation (5), we have-

t
m
E e
v
d

=

------------- (6)

Above equation gives the expression for the drift velocity of free electrons in a conductor in terms of electric field and
average relaxation time.
RELATION BETWEEN DRIFT VELOCITY AND ELECTRIC CURRENT
Consider a conductor of length l and uniform area of cross-section A. Then, the volume of the conductor is,
Al V =


Suppose that the conductor contains n free electrons per unit volume.
Then, number of free electrons in the conductor = V n. = nAl
If e is the charge on an electron, then the total charge in the
conductor,
nAle q = -------------- (7)
When a battery is connected to the two ends of the conductor, an
electric field E

is set up across the two ends of the conductor.

If
d
v is the drift velocity of the electrons, then the time taken by the
electrons to cross the length of the conductor,

d
v
l
t =
-------- (8) [using,
speed
ce dis
time
time
ce dis
speed
tan
tan
=
=
]
We know, current,
t
q
I =
Substituting for q andt from equations (7) and (8) respectively, we get-

e nAv
v
l
nAle
I
d
d
= =
---------------- (9)
Above equation gives the relation between drift velocity of the free electrons and the current through the conductor.
Substituting for
d
v as t
m
eE
v
d
= in equation (9), we get-

m
E nAe
m
eE
nAe I
t
t
2
= = ------------------ (10)
OHM'S LAW
A German scientist George Simon Ohm experimented with circuits and found out the relationships between current
and voltage.
Ohms law is a quantitative relation between the potential difference across the ends of a conductor and electric
current flowing through it.


3 CURRENT ELECTRICITY/CLASS XII PHYSICS/CVT/2012-2013 Prepared by: Sandhya.K


According to Ohms law,
"The electric current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across the ends
of conductor, if physical conditions (temperature, mechanical strain etc.) of conductor remain constant."
MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION
According to Ohms law,
V I
Or, V = RI --------- (11), where R is the constant of proportionality
and is called resistance of the conductor.
Resistance of the conductor depends upon the nature of the conductor, its dimensions
and the physical conditions.
The graph between potential difference (V) applied across the conductor and the current flowing (I) is a straight line
(theoretically).

RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR
Resistance is a feature of a material that determines the flow of electric charge.
Resistance of a conductor is defined as the ratio of the potential difference applied across the conductor to the current
flowing through it. Mathematically,

I
V
R =

Unit of resistance: The S.I unit of resistance is Ohm. It is denoted byO.

) ( 1
) ( 1
1
A Ampere
V Volt
Ohm =

The resistance of a conductor is said to be one ohm, if one ampere current flows through it, when a potential
difference of one volt is applied across it.

FAILURE OF OHMS LAW
1. Potential difference may vary non-linearly with current: When current is passed through a conductor for a long
time or current is increased continuously increased through the conductor, the conductor gets heated up. Due
to the rise in temperature, the resistance increases.
2. The variation of current with potential difference may depend on the sign of the potential difference applied:
For a semiconductor diode, the variation of current is different, when the sign of the potential difference
applied across it is changed.
3. The current may decrease on increasing the potential difference: In a thyristor, the current increases with
decrease in potential difference. In addition, the current varies non-linearly with potential difference.

RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY
The resistance of a conductor depends upon the following factors:
i) It is directly proportional to the length of the conductor i.e. l R -------- (1)
ii) It is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section of the conductor i.e.
A
R
1
----------(2)
Combining equations (1) and (2), we have-

A
l
R

Or,
A
l
R = -------------- (3), where the constant of proportionality is called the resistivity or the specific
resistance of the conductor. Resistivity depends on the nature of the material of the conductor and its temperature.
If l=1 and A=1, then
1
1
= R or R =


4 CURRENT ELECTRICITY/CLASS XII PHYSICS/CVT/2012-2013 Prepared by: Sandhya.K


Hence, resistivity of the material of the conductor is the resistance offered by a wire of this material of unit length
and unit area of cross-section.
UNIT OF RESISTIVITY: from eqn. (3), we have-

l
A
R =

In S.I, unit of resistivity= ( ) m ohmmetre
metre
metre
ohm O =
2

CONDUCTANCE: The reciprocal of the resistance of a conductor is called its conductance. It is denoted by C. The
conductance of a conductor having resistance R is given by-

R
C
1
=

S.I unit of conductance is
1
ohm which is also calledmho . Another unit is siemen and is represented by S.
CONDUCTIVITY: The reciprocal of resistivity of the material of a conductor is called its conductivity. It is denoted by .

o
1
=

S.I unit of conductivity is ( )
1 1 1 1
O m metre ohm or
1
hom

etre m or siemen metre
-1
(Sm
-1
).
FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTIVITY
Consider a conductor of length l and uniform area of cross-section A. Let n be the number of electrons per unit volume
in the conductor.
If E is the electric field applied across the ends of the conductor, then drift velocity of electrons is given by-

t
m
eE
v
d
=

The current flowing through the conductor due to the drift of electrons is given by-
e nAv I
d
=
Substituting for
d
v in the above equation, we have-

m
E nAe
m
eE
nAe I
t
t
2
= =
-------------------- (4)
If V is the potential difference applied across the ends of the conductor, then
l
V
E =

Substituting for E in equation (4), we get-
ml
V nAe
m
l
V
nAe
I
t
t
2
2
= =

Or,
t
2
nAe
ml
I
V
=

But, R
I
V
= , by Ohms law.
Therefore,
A
l
ne
m
R =
t
2
------------------ (5)
Comparing this equation with
A
l
R = , the resistivity of the material of the conductor,
t

2
ne
m
=
-------- (6)
Thus, the resistivity of the material of a conductor depends on,
(i) It is inversely proportional to the number of free electrons per unit volume in the conductor (n).
(ii) It is inversely proportional to the average relaxation time (t) of the free electrons in the conductor.


Mobility
Conductivity arises from mobile charge carriers. In metals, these mobile charge carriers are electrons; in an ionised
gas, they are electrons and positive charged ions; in an electrolyte, these can be both positive and negative ions.
An important quantity is the mobility defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field:

5 CURRENT ELECTRICITY/CLASS XII PHYSICS/CVT/2012-2013 Prepared by: Sandhya.K


E
v
d
=
-------- (7)
Using, E v
d
=
,
We have-
Ee nA I =
The SI unit of mobility is m
2
/Vs and is 10
4
of the mobility in practical units (cm
2
/Vs). Mobility is positive.
ELECTRIC CURRENT AND CURRENT DENSITY
Consider a current I flowing through a conductor of area of cross-section A. If the current flowing through the
conductor is uniform over its cross-section, then current may be defined as-
A j I

- = -------- (8), where A

is the area vector representing the area of cross-section of

the conductor.
In case, the current flowing through the conductor is not uniform over its cross-section, then current through a small
area A d

of the conductor is given by-

A d j dI

- =

Hence, the current through the whole cross-section of the conductor is given by-

A d j dI

- =


A d j dI I

} }
- = =

-------- (9)
In case, the current density is parallel to A

, then-
jA I =

Or,
A
I
j =

-------- (10)
Substituting for I, we have-

d
d
nev
A
nAev
j = =

-------- (11)
Also, substituting for
d
v as
t
m
eE
,

E
m
ne
m
eE
ne j
t
t
2
= =

-------- (12)
TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTIVITY OF A METALLIC CONDUCTOR
For pure conductors such as copper, the resistivity increases linearly with temperature. If
0
and are the resistivity
of the material of the conductor at 0C and tC respectively, then it is found that-
( ) t o + = 1
0
, where o is called the temperature coefficient of resistivity. Multiplying this equation
throughout by
A
l
, we get-
( ) t
A
l
A
l
o + = 1
0

Since, R
A
l
= , we have- ( ) t R R o + = 1
0
---------- (7)

) 8 (
0
0
0 0
0 0

=
=
+ =
t R
R R
t R R R
t R R R
o
o
o

As such, o may also be called the temperature coefficient of resistance.

SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
The phenomenon, due to which a substance loses all signs of its resistance, when cooled to its critical
temperature, is called superconductivity.
The substances that offer superconductivity are called superconductors.

6 CURRENT ELECTRICITY/CLASS XII PHYSICS/CVT/2012-2013 Prepared by: Sandhya.K


The temperature at which the resistivity suddenly drops to zero is called CRITICAL TEMPERATURE. In case of
mercury, the critical temperature is 4.2K.
Applications of superconductivity
(i) They will help to produce super fast computers.
(ii) It will be possible to transmit electrical power without any loss of electrical energy through the
superconducting cables.
(iii) Superconductors will be able to produce very high magnetic field without the expenditure of electrical
energy.

Colour Code for Carbon Resistors

The value of resistances are usually marked on them according to a colour code. A carbon resistance has usually four
rings or bands A, B, C and D of different colours.
The colours of the first two bands A and B indicate the first two
significant figures of the value of resistance in ohm, while the colour of
the third band C indicates the decimal multiplier. The colour of the fourth
band D (which is either silver or gold) tells the tolerance of the
resistance.
To read the value of the carbon resistance, the following sentence serves
as an aid to memory:

B B ROY Great Britain Very Good Wife

Letter as an aid
to memory
Colour Figure Multiplier Colour Tolerance
B Black 0 10
0
Gold
Silver
No colour
5%
10%
20%
B Brown 1 10
1

R Red 2 10
2

O Orange 3 10
3

Y Yellow 4 10
4

G Green 5 10
5

B Blue 6 10
6

V Violet 7 10
7

G Grey 8 10
8

W White 9 10
9

COMBINATION OF RESISTORS

RESISTORS IN SERIES

Two or more resistors are said to be in series, if the same current passes through each of them, when some potential
is applied across the combination.
Figure shows the series combination of three resistors with resistances R
1
,R
2
,R
3
. If a potential difference is applied
across the series combination, the same current passes through each of them.

If V
1
,V
2
and V
3
are the potential difference across R
1
,R
2
,R
3
respectively, then
by Ohms law-
1 1
IR V =
;
2 2
IR V =
;
3 3
IR V =

Also,
3 2 1
V V V V + + =

( )
3 2 1 3 2 1
R R R I IR IR IR V + + = + + = ------------(1)
If
s
R is the equivalent resistance to the series combination of R
1
,R
2
and R
3
,
then the resistance
s
R will allow the same current I to flow through it when a
source of e.m.f V is connected across it.
S
IR V = ---------------------(2)
Comparing equations (1) and (2),
( )
3 2 1
R R R I IR
S
+ + =

Or,
3 2 1
R R R R
S
+ + = -------------------(3)
Thus, when resistances are connected in series, the equivalent resistance of the series combination is equal to the sum
of individual resistances.




7 CURRENT ELECTRICITY/CLASS XII PHYSICS/CVT/2012-2013 Prepared by: Sandhya.K



RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

Two or more resistors are said to be in parallel, if the potential difference across
each of them is equal to the applied potential difference.
Figure shows the parallel combination of three resistors with resistances
R
1
,R
2
,R
3
. If a potential difference V is applied across the parallel combination,
the potential difference across all the resistors is equal to V.

If I
1
,I
2
and I
3
are the currents passing through R
1
,R
2
,R
3
respectively, then
the current in the main circuit is given by-

3 2 1
I I I I + + = ----------------- (4)
The potential difference across each resistor is V, therefore, by Ohms law-

1 1
R I V =
;
2 2
R I =
;
3 3
R I V =

Or,
1
1
R
V
I =
;
2
2
R
V
I =
;
3
3
R
V
I =


Hence, equation (4) becomes,
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + = + + =
3 2 1 3 2 1
1 1 1
R R R
V
R
V
R
V
R
V
I ------------------ (5)
If
p
R is the equivalent resistance to the parallel combination of R
1
,R
2
and R
3
, then the resistance
p
R will allow the
same current I to flow through it when a source of e.m.f V is connected across it.

p
p
R
V
I IR V = =
--------------------------- (6)
Comparing equations (5) and (6), we get-

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
3 2 1
1 1 1
R R R
V
R
V
p

Or,
3 2 1
1 1 1 1
R R R R
p
+ + = ---------------------------- (7)
Thus, when resistances are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of equivalent resistance of the parallel combination is
equal to the sum of the reciprocals of s individual resistances.


INTERNAL RESISTANCE AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE OF THE CELL

INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL: The resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell, when the electric current flows
through it, is known as internal resistance of the cell. It is denoted by r.

For a freshly prepared cell, the internal resistance is low, but as the cell is put into more and more use, its internal
resistance increases.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F) OF THE CELL: The potential difference between the two poles of the cell in an open
circuit (when no current is drawn from the cell) is called the electromotive force of the cell.
It is also defined as the energy supplied by the cell to drive a unit charge round the complete circuit. It is denoted by E.
In S.I, the unit of e.mf is Volt or Joule Coulomb
-1
(JC
-1
).

TERMINAL POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE OF A CELL

The potential difference between the two poles of the cell in a closedcircuit (when no current is drawn from the cell) is
called the terminal potential difference of the cell. It is denoted by V. It has the same unit as that of the e.m.f.

Expression for the internal resistance
Consider a source of e.m.f connected to a resistance R through
which a steady current I flows as shown below:
Let the e.m.f of the source is E, the internal resistance of the source
be r.
The current in the circuit is I.
According to Ohms Law,
r R
E
I
+
= (
ce totalresis
ge Totalvolta
Current
tan
= )
The potential drop across the internal resistance is Ir.
Potential difference across resistance R is V.
IR V =



8 CURRENT ELECTRICITY/CLASS XII PHYSICS/CVT/2012-2013 Prepared by: Sandhya.K


( )
VR ER Vr
ER r R V
R
r R
E
V
=
= +
+
=

( )
R
V
V E
r

=
R
V
E
r
|
.
|

\
|
= 1
The above is the expression for the internal resistance of cell in terms of e.m.f and terminal potential difference.
KIRCHOFFS LAWS

KIRCHOFFS FIRST LAW: It states that the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point in an electrical circuit is
always zero.
In other words, at a junction, current coming in is equal to the current going out.
Kirchoffs First Law is also called Junction rule or Current Law.
It is based on the law of conservation of charges.

Explanation: Consider a point O in an electric circuit at which currents I
1
, I
2
, I
3
, I
4
and I
5
are flowing through five conductors in the direction as shown in the figure.

Sign Convention: The current flowing towards the junction is taken as positive
and the current flowing away from the junction is taken as negative.

So, I
1
, I
3
,

and I
5
are positive

and I
2
and I
4
are negative. Therefore,
According to Kirchoffs First law,
I
1
+(-I
2
)+ I
3
+(- I
4
)+ I
5
=0
Or, I
1
+ I
3
+ I
5
= I
2
+ I
4



KIRCHOFFS SECOND LAW: It states that in any closed part of an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of the e.m.fs is
equal to the algebraic sum of the products of the resistances and the current flowing through them.
It is also known as loop rule or Voltage law.
This law is based on the law of conservation of energy.

Explanation: Consider a closed electrical circuit ABCD containing two cells of e.m.fs E
1
and E
2
and five resistances R
1
,
R
2
, R
3
, R
4
and R
5
as shown in figure.
The following sign conventions are adopted:
The e.m.f of a cell is taken negative if one moves in the direction of increasing potential (-ve to +ve) through
the cell and is taken as positive if one moves in the direction of decreasing potential. It means while traversing
a loop if negative pole of the cell is encountered first, then its e.m.f is negative, otherwise positive.
The product of resistances and the current in an arm of the circuit id taken positive if the direction of current
in that arm is in the same sense as one moves in a closed path and is taken as negative if the direction of
current in that arm is opposite to the sense as one moves in a closed path.

Consider the closed part ABCA of the electrical circuit. Traversing the loop
in anti-clockwise direction, E
1
is negative and E
2
is positive.
Therefore, the total e.m.f for the closed part ABCA = -E
1
+ E
2
= E
2-
E
1


Also, in the closed part ABCA, currents I
1
and I
2
flow in anticlockwise
direction while the current I
3
flows in the clockwise direction.

The algebraic sum of the product of resistances and current flowing
through them, for the closed part ABCA
=
3 3 2 2 1 1 3 3 2 2 1 1
) ( R I R I R I R I R I R I + = + +
Therefore, according to Kirchoffs Second Law,
3 3 2 2 1 1 1 2
R I R I R I E E + =

Similarly, for the closed circuit ADCA,
5 5 4 4 3 3 2
R I R I R I E + + =



Wheatstone Bridge

It is one of the accurate arrangements for measuring an unknown resistance. Four resistances P, Q, R and X are
connected to form a quadrilateral. A sensitive galvanometer "G and key K
1
are connected between the points
B and D, while a battery of e.m.f E and key K
2
are connected between the points A and C.



9 CURRENT ELECTRICITY/CLASS XII PHYSICS/CVT/2012-2013 Prepared by: Sandhya.K



P and Q, called ratio arms, are known resistances. R is a variable resistance (resistance box) and X is the unknown
resistance. The value of R is so adjusted that on closing the key K
1
(with K
2
closed), the galvanometer, G, does not give
any deflection. The bridge is said to be balanced. For a balanced Wheatstone bridge,
X
R
Q
P
=


To obtain the condition of balanced bridge using Kirchoffs law:

Let I be the current in the main circuit. At A, a current I
1
flows through
the resistance P and the rest
1
I I ,flows through the resistance R.
On pressing the key K
1
, let a current I
g
flow through the galvanometer.
Hence, current
g
I I
1

will flow through Q and
g
I I I +
1
through X.
At C, the currents
g
I I
1
and
g
I I I +
1
added up to give the total
current I.
Applying Kirchoffs second law to the closed part ABDA of the circuit,
0 ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1
= + + R I I G I P I
g
--------------- (1)
Applying Kirchoffs second law to the closed part BCDB of the circuit,
0 ) ( ) (
1 1
= + + + X I I I G I Q I I
g g g
--------------- (2)

When the bridge is balanced I
g
=0.Hence, equation (1) and (2) become,
P I R I I
1 1
) ( = ---------------- (3)
Q I X I I
1 1
) ( = ------------- (4)
Dividing equation (3) by equation (4), we get-

X I I
R I I
Q I
P I
) (
) (
1
1
1
1

=


X
R
Q
P
=

Knowing the values of P,Q and R, value of X can be determined.
Merits of Wheatstone bridge:
(i) It is a null method. Therefore, the measurement of resistance made by this method is not affected by
the internal resistance of the battery used.
(ii) The value of unknown resistance can be measured to a very high degree of accuracy by increasing the
ratio of the resistances in arms P and Q.
(iii) As no measurements of currents and voltages is involved, the measurements are not affected because
of the fact that the ammeters and voltmeters are not ideal ones.


METRE BRIDGE or SLIDE WIRE BRIDGE

Principle: It is constructed on the principle of Wheatstone
bridge, i.e. when the bridge is balanced,

X
R
Q
P
=
, where P and Q are known resistances,
R is a variable resistance and X is the unknown resistance.

Construction: A constantan resistive wire of uniform
diameter is mounted on a wooden plank along with a
meter rule. Copper strips are connected at the ends A and B
of the wire as shown in the figure. The terminals
on this strip are connected to a battery. Another
copper strip is fixed between these two strips forming two gaps. In one gap, a resistance box R is connected and in the
other gap, an unknown resistor X is connected. One end of a galvanometer is connected to the mid-point D of this strip
and the other end to a jockey which can slide on the wire AB. For a given value R, the jockey is slided on the wire in
such a way that galvanometer shows zero deflection.


Applications of meter bridge:
1. To measure the unknown resistance: To find the value of unknown resistance, the circuit is arranged as shown in
figure. The bridge can be balanced by moving the jockey over the wire. For a given value R, the jockey is slided on
the wire in such a way that galvanometer shows zero deflection. If null point is obtained at C such that AC = l then,



10 CURRENT ELECTRICITY/CLASS XII PHYSICS/CVT/2012-2013 Prepared by: Sandhya.K


CB = 100-l. The resistance between A and C is taken as P and that between C and B is taken as Q. Since the bridge
wire has uniform area of cross-section, l P and l Q 100 .
Then,
l
l
Q
P

=
100

From the principle of Wheatstone bridge,
X
R
l
l
X
R
Q
P
=

=
100

Or,
l
l
R X

=
100
----------------------- (1)
Knowing the values of R and l, X can be found.


2. To compare two unknown resistances: For comparing two unknown resistances R
1
and R
2
, X in the circuit is
replaced by R
1
. The jockey is moved over the bridge wire gently and by adjusting R, the balancing length l
1
is
obtained when the galvanometer gives zero deflection.
In such a case, if AC= l
1
, then, CB=100- l
1
.
Since the bridge wire has uniform area of cross-section,

1
l P and
1
100 l Q .
Therefore,
1
1
100 l
l
Q
P

=
From the principle of Wheatstone bridge,
) 2 (
100
100
1
1
1
1 1
1
1

=
=

=
l
l
R R
R
R
l
l
R
R
Q
P

Now, the experiment is repeated with the other unknown resistance R
2
in the right gap. If l
2
is the balancing length, then we get-
2
l P and
2
100 l Q
Therefore,
2
2
100 l
l
Q
P

=

From the principle of Wheatstone bridge,
) 3 (
100
100
2
2
2
2 2
2
2

=
=

=
l
l
R R
R
R
l
l
R
R
Q
P

Dividing equation (2) by equation (3), we get-

) 4 (
100
100
100
100
100
100
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
1

=
l
l
l
l
R
R
l
l
l
l
l
l
R
l
l
R
R
R

Knowing the values of l
1
and l
2 ,
the ratio
2
1
R
R
can be found.

Potentiometer

A potentiometer is used to compare e.m.fs of two cells or to measure the internal resistance of a cell.

Principle: The principle of potentiometer states that when a constant current is passed through a wire of uniform area
of cross-section, the potential drop across any portion of the wire is directly proportional to the length of that portion.

Construction: A potentiometer consists of a number of segments of wire of uniform area of cross-section stretched
over a wooden board between two copper strips.
Each segment is 100cm long. A battery connected between
the two terminals sends current through wire, which is kept
constant by using a rheostat.

Theory: Let V be the potential difference across certain portion of the wire, whose resistance is R. If I is the current
through the wire, then V=IR.
We know,
A
l
R = , where l, A and are length, area of cross-section and resistivity of the material of the wire
respectively.


11 CURRENT ELECTRICITY/CLASS XII PHYSICS/CVT/2012-2013 Prepared by: Sandhya.K


Therefore,
A
l
I V =
If constant current is passed through the wire of uniform
area of cross-section, then I and A are constants.
Since for a given wire, is also constant, we have-

l constant a V =

Or, l V
Hence, if a constant current flows through a wire of
uniform area of cross-section, the potential drop across
any portion of the wire is directly proportional to the length
of that portion.


Applications of potentiometer
1. To compare e.m.fs of two cells: Let E
1
and E
2
be the e.m.fs of the two cells. The positive poles of both the cells are
connected to terminal A of the potentiometer. The negative poles of the two cells are connected to the terminals
1 and 2 of a two way key while its common terminal is connected to a jockey J through the galvanometer G. In the
primary circuit, an ammeter, a battery of e.m.f E, a rheostat and a one way key is included.

To compare the e.m.fs of two cells, a constant current
is passed through the potentiometer wire between
A and B. When the plug is put between 1 and 3 of
the two way key, the cell of e.m.f E
1
is included in
the circuit. Let the balancing length be l
1
. If x
is the resistance per unit length of the
potentiometer wire, and I, the
constant current passing through it, then-
I xl ) ( E
1 1
--------------------- (1)
When key is put between 2 and 3 of the two-way
key after removing it from the gap 1 and 3,
the cell with e.m.f E
2
is included in the circuit.
Let the balancing length be l
2
.
Then, I xl ) ( E
2 2
--------------- (2)
Dividing equation (1) by (2),
I xl
I xl
) (
) (
E
E
2
1
2
1

2
1
2
1
E
E
l
l
=
---------------- (3)
Measuring l
1
and l
2
, the ratio of the e.m.fs can be found.


2. To measure the internal resistance of a cell:
The circuit is arranged as shown. Plug in the key K
and maintain a constant current I through the
circuit. Find the balancing length l
1
.
Then, I xl ) ( E
1 1
---------- (4)
Now, plug the key K
2
to include S in the
circuit. Let the balancing length be l
2
. Then,
I xl V ) (
2
--------- (5)
Dividing equation (4) by (5), we get-

I xl
I xl
V ) (
) ( E
2
1 1

2
1 1
E
l
l
V
=
-------------- (6)
The internal resistance of a cell is given by:

S
V
E
r |
.
|

\
|
= 1

Using equation (6), we have-

S
l
l
r
|
|
.
|

\
|
= 1
2
1

Knowing the values of l
1
, l
2
and S, internal resistance can be calculated.








12 CURRENT ELECTRICITY/CLASS XII PHYSICS/CVT/2012-2013 Prepared by: Sandhya.K


Short Answer Questions

1. What type of cell should be used in the main circuit of the potentiometer and why?
A. A Leclanche cell should be in the main circuit of the potentiometer because Leclanche cell is useful when
current is drawn for a short time.
2. The e.m.f of the cell used in the main circuit of the potentiometer should be more than the potential
difference to be measured. Why?
A. If it is not so, the balance point will not be obtained on the potentiometer wire.
3. Why is the use of potentiometer preferred over that of a voltmeter for measurement of e.m.f of a cell?
A. When a voltmeter is connected across the two terminals of a cell, it draws some current from the cell and
hence measures terminal potential difference between the two poles of the cell, which is always than the
e.m.f of the cell.
On the other hand, when a potentiometer is used for the measurement of e.m.f of a cell, it does not draw any
current from the cell. Hence it measures the e.m.f of the cell. For these reasons, a potentiometer is preferred
over that of a voltmeter for measurement of e.m.f of a cell.
4. Why are the copper strips in a slide wire bridge made thick?
A. If the copper strips are not thick, then their resistances have to be included in the respective ratio arms. So,
the copper strips are made thick so that their resistances can be safely ignored.



THERMAL EFFECTS OF CURRENT

On passing current, heat is produced in a conductor due to transfer of energy from electrons to the ions and atoms in
the conductor.
This is called the thermal effect of electric current or heating effect of electric current or Joule effect.
The heat energy released in a conductor on passing an electric current is called the Joule heat.

Electric power
The rate at which work is done by the source of e.m.f in maintaining the electric current in a circuit is called electric
power of the circuit.

If an amount of work W is done in maintaining electric current for a time t in the circuit, then electric power of the
circuit,

t
W
P = ----------- (1)
Consider a resistor of resistance R, across which a potential difference V is applied. According to Ohms Law the
current I flowing through the resistor is given by, V = IR ----------------- (2)
Suppose the steady current I flows through the resistor for a time t, then the total charge that crosses the resistor is
given by-
It Q = ----------------- (3)
If Q coulomb charge passes through the conductor in t seconds resulting in current I, the heat energy produced is-

VIt VQ W = =
[Using eqn. (3)]

Rt I VIt W
2
= =
[Using eqn. (2)]
Also,
R
t V
VIt W
2
= =
[Using
R
V
I = ]
Therefore, electrical power VI
t
VIt
t
W
P = = = ------------- (4) [In terms of V and I]
Or, R I
t
Rt I
t
W
P
2
2
= = = ------------- (5) [In terms of I and R]
Also,
R
V
t
R
t V
t
W
P
2
2
= = = ---------------- (6) [In terms of V and R]

The S.I unit of power is watt (W).

ampere volt watt 1 1 1 =

The electric power of a circuit or a device is said to be one watt if one ampere of current flows through it, when a
constant potential difference of one volt is applied across it.
Bigger units of electric power are kilowatt (kW) and megawatt (MW).
watt kilowatt
3
10 1 = and watt megawatt
6
10 1 =





13 CURRENT ELECTRICITY/CLASS XII PHYSICS/CVT/2012-2013 Prepared by: Sandhya.K


Electric energy

The total work done (or energy supplied) by the source of e.m.f in maintaining the electric current in the circuit for a
given time is called electric energy consumed in the circuit.
We know, Pt W
t
W
P = =
Therefore, electric energy = electric power x time

The SI unit of energy is joule but another unit is watt hour.
1 watt hour = 1 watt x 1 hour
The energy dissipated in the circuit is called one watt hour, if a device of electric power of one watt is used for one
hour.

The bigger unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour (kWh). It is also known as Board of Trade Unit (B.O.T).

J
s Js
Js
6
10 3.6 hour kilowatt 1
60 60 10
hour 1 10
hour watt 10 hour kilowatt 1
1 3
1 3
3
=
=
=
=

Joules Law
Joule found that the heat produced in a conductor due to the flow of current is
(i) Directly proportional to the square of the current i.e.
2
I Q ----------------- (1)
(ii) Directly proportional to the resistance of the conductor i.e.
R Q ------------------ (2)
(iii) Directly proportional to the time for which the current is passed i.e.
t Q -------------------- (3)
Combining equations (1), (2) and (3), we get-

Rt I Q
2

Or,
J
Rt I
Q
2
= --------------- (4), where J is called the Joules mechanical equivalent of heat and its value is
4.18J cal
-1
.
In S.I, the heat produced (in joule) due to the flow of current through a resistance is given by-
Rt I Q
2
= ---------------- (5)


Applications of the heating effect of current

Joule heat is used in domestic appliances such as electric iron, toaster, oven, kettle, room heater, etc.
It is also used in electric bulbs to produce light.
Another common application of Joule heat is fuse wires used in circuits. It consists of a piece of metal wire
having low melting point (such as aluminium, alloy of tin / lead, copper etc.) and is connected in series with an
appliance. If a current larger than a specified value flows, the fuse wire melts and breaks the circuit thus
protecting the appliance.