CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTION
In this project, the importance of boiler protection schemes and boiler controlling schemes in a thermal power plant are presented.

1.1 PROCESS OF GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY

Coal is fed to the crusher at where it is crushed into a size of 20mm.The crushed coal that is stored at stacker house is taken to the plant bunkers by means of conveyer belts at the same rate. The coal is fed into the conveyer belt with the help of stacker reclaimed. The coal that is to be fed to burner should be in powder, but the coal in the coal bunkers is of granular size. The coal from the bunkers is fed to the mills via feeder in order to avoid the coal to be jammed in the mill. The function of the feeder is to control the flow of coal to the pulverizer, to meet the load demand the coal flows onto the moving belt and the speed of the belt is varied to control the coal flow. The coal is allowed to fall into mill for pulverization. In a mill, the coal from each feeder is grind into fine powder in the pulverizer and carried into the coal burner by primary air fans. The primary air is used to dry the coal by mixing box, which is located between feeder and mill. The pulverized coal air mixture, while moving to the burner is allowed to pass through a classifier which filters out any waste materials and heavy coal pieces. This coal pieces are again sent back to the mill. The pulverized coal primary air mixtures are conveyed to the burners by coal piping. The burner arrangement is arranged inside the boiler furnace. Here, we have tangential fired furnace to which fire is given from four corners of the furnace. The combustion of fuel inside the furnace gives out heat energy and some fuel gases. This heat energy is used to convert the water into steam where the tubes are arranged to the walls of the furnace.

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The heating up of boiler feed water is done by the economizer by absorbing the heat energy from the flue gases and is fed to the boiler by boiler feed pump. Primary air required for transferring the coal powder to the burners and secondary air, which is supplied to wind box are heated by sink the heat energy from the gases. Then the flue gases are directed towards the chimney with the help of induced draught fans. Induced draught fans exhaust the combustion product from the steam generators. The flue gas temperature coming out of the chimney is maintained at140oC. The combustion of fuel inside the furnace results in Water to steam conversion. Combustion waste (ash).

After this, the process is carried out into parallel paths.

Ash disposal (path-1). Power generation (path-2).

Ash is disposed as bottom ash, wet ash and dry ash. The power generation path includes boiler-turbine-generation. We have single reheat pressure turbine where is expands and is exhausted back to the boiler for heating. The reheat steam coming from the boiler flows to the intermediate pressure turbine where it expands an exhaust into a cross over line that supplies the steam to the low pressure turbine. Steam expands through the low pressure turbine and exhausts to a condenser. A condenser contains water tubes and exhausted steam passes over the tubes and gets collected in hot well. The water from the hot well is sent to the cooling towers for cooling and its recirculation to the condenser.Heat energy from the boiler is converted to rotational energy at the turbine. The turbine is coupled to the generator on a common shaft where the rotational energy is converted to electrical energy. The generator works on the principal of electromagnetic induction.

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Fig1.1: Over view of Thermal Power Plant

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1.2 BOILER DRUM LEVEL CONTROL

The boiler drum level can be controlled by using the PID controllers in the distributed control systems in the following two modes.

Single - element control mode and Three element control mode

In single element control, only drum level is the parameter for controller input. In three element mode, the drum level, feed water flow and steam flow are the three parameters for the controller . Here, generally single element control is used under unit start up or at light load conditions. Three element controls is used under higher loads or under normal running conditions. In this report, boiler drum level control loop using PID controller and the actual implementation of control scheme had been presented. This includes the instruments used in the control loop, computation adopted, non-linear functions utilize and finally the step response of control loop.

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CHAPTER 2

OVERVIEW OF THE POWER PLANT

2.1 COAL PLANT OPERATION
Coal from the wagons is unloaded using charger arm and wagon tripper, which is driven by hydraulic systems. Raw coal is taken on the MCB, from which is fed to the crusher. The coal is crushed into a size of 20mm. if any problem occurs in one path, the process is directed to another path from the motor control cabin itself.

2.2

FUEL OIL PUMP HOUSE

Two types of oil is used in thermal power plants are

Heavy furnace oil and Light diesel oil

Heavy furnace oil is used in the boiler (whenever there is disturbance) and in the starting time. Light diesel oil is costly and it is used in case of emergency.

2.3

FEEDERS

Coal feeders are located between each bunker and its respective pulverizer. The principle function of a coal feeder is to control the flow of coal to the pulverizer to meet the steam demand. Two variations of the belt feeders are

Volumetric feeders and Gravy-metric feeder

In RTPP, we use gravy-metric feeder, which is equipped with a belt scale that weights the coal as it passed through the feeder. The associative coal feeder control system measures and records instantaneous coal feed rate and cumulative weight of coal held.

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2.4 MILLS
Mill is one which grinds down pieces of coal into fine powder, which is fed to the boiler furnace.

2.5 FANS
Fans are provided throughout the steam electric generating unit to supply air on to exhaust flue gas to meet the needs of various systems. In additions fans are used for building heat and cold to prevent contamination due to inter leakage and cooling for a wide variety of equipment from lubricating oil coolers to mechanical draught cooling towers. Power plant applications that receive largest fans for steam generation are:

Forced draught Fan(FD) Primary air Fan(PA) and Induced draught Fan(ID)

FD fans supply combustion air to the steam generator. A fan normally handle relative low-flow and very high pressure differentially .ID fans exhaust combustion products from the steam generator.

2.6 BOILER
The principle steam generator components are Furnace Drum Igniters and oil Burners Soot Blowers Coal Firing and Burners

2.6.1 Furnace
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The furnace serves as an enclosure for the combustion process. The furnace walls are formed by water filled tubes that contain the upward flow of water and steam .The size of the furnace is determined by the required steam capacity and characteristics of the fired fuel.

2.6.2 Drum
The drum encloses the steam water interface in a boiler, and provides a convenient point for addition of chemicals and removal of dissolved solids from the feed water ,water enters into the water tubes of furnace through down comers at which water is converted into the steam inside the furnace and this steam is sent to the boiler drum through up risers .This process is a natural circulation Since steam is less dense than water , the water is while entering the tubes pushes the steam in the drum.

2.6.3 Soot Blowers

Soot blowers are used for removal of ash deposits from the fireside of heat transfer surface .Wall blowers are used in different applications for spot removal of slag, which are located at the furnace knuckle loss in the furnace throat, where heavy slag may accumulate.

2.6.4 Coal piping and Burners

Coal piping conveys the pulverized coal and primary air mixtures to the burners .The burner pipe arrangement is determined by the burner arrangement in the furnace and type of pulverize. Two types of burner arrangements are used on large utility boilers. Wall Fired Corners (or) Tangentially Fired

Here, in RTPP we are going Tangential Firing system.

2.6.5 Igniters and Oil Burners

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Igniters and warm-up burners are necessary for flame initiation and low load stabilization. The initial ignition source is a high-energy electric spark that starts the igniter flame gives ignition energy to oil burner.

2.6.6 Economisers
The purpose of economizers is to heat feed water so as to recover a part of heat which would otherwise lose through flue gases.

2.6.7 Air Preheater

Since the entire heat of the flue gases cannot be extracted through the economizers air pre heaters are employed to recover some of the heat in these gases in an average an increase of 20o C in the air temperature results in an increase in the boiler efficiency by 1.1%. The use of air preheater is more economical with pulverized fuel boilers because the temperature of flue gases going out is sufficiently large and high air temperature (150 to 350o C) is always desirable for better combustion.

2.6.8 Super heaters And Reheaters

Their function is to superheat steam to the desired temperature. By removing the last traces of moisture from the saturated steam coming out of the boiler and by increasing its temperature sufficiently above saturation temperature there is an overall increase in cycle efficiency. Besides, too much condensation in the last stages of the turbine is avoided.

2.7 TURBINE
Steam turbines are used to convert the steam energy into mechanical rotational energy. Major steam turbines are Reaction Turbines and Impulse Turbine

Here in RTPP, Reaction turbines are used.

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Major stationary parts of the steam turbines are High Pressure Cylinder Intermediate Pressure Cylinder and Low-pressure Cylinder

2.8 VALVES
The primary function of the stop valve is to provide backup protection for steam turbine. The function of control valve is to regulate the steam flow to the turbine and thus control the out put power of steam turbine generator.

2.9 GENERATOR
Heat energy from the boiler is converted into rotational mechanical energy. The rotational mechanical energy is then converted into electrical energy in an electrical generator. The basic principle of electrical generator is the laws of electromagnetism.
2.10

EXCITATION SYSTEM
The purpose of all excitation system is to provide dc to the rotating

electromagnetic field. The three types of excitation systems are, static excitation separate excitation and brushless excitation Here, we are using brushless excitation system. It consists of permanent magnet generator (PMG), AVR, Main exciter and Diode-wheels.

2.11 TRANSFORMERS

Types of transformers generally used in power plants are

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station transformers power transformers and unit auxiliary transformers

Station transformers are used when supply is to be taken from the grid and it is used for plant. Power transformers or generating transformers are used to step up the generated voltage and give it to transmission line. Unit auxiliary transformers are used for providing power to auxiliary system inside the plant, taking a part of the generated voltage.

2.12 AUXILLARY SYSTEM

Some of the common auxiliary systems are

2.12.1 Circulating Water System

Most of the power plants use a circulation water system as the mechanism, which steam transfers cycle waste heat from steam cycle to the ambient environment.

2.12.2 Cooling Pond

It is the simplest and least expensive alternate method for providing circulating water to the plant.

2.12.3 Condenser
The function of the condenser is to condense exhaust steam from the main power cycle steam turbine.

2.12.4 Circulating Water Pumps

Circulating water pumps supply cooling water (to the required flow rate and head) to the power plant condenser and the plant auxiliary cooling water heat changes.
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2.12.5 Condenser Pumps

These pumps pump the condense water from the condenser hot well to a derating heater.

2.12.6 Boiler Feed Pumps

A boiler feed pump (BFP) is a pump which supplies feed water to steam generator for the production of steam.

2.12.7 Re-Circulating Cooling System

In this system, the circulating water to the cooling tower, which rejects the heat to the atmosphere, carries waste heat removed from the steam turbine exhaust.

CHAPTER - 3

BOILER INTERLOCKS

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Boiler Interlocks is provided for safety and protection of the boiler and its related auxiliary equipment in accordance with the Boiler Protection Diagram .This system can greatly reduce the risk like explosion. However, operator must be well acquainted these detail and should be careful to safety operation. Some of the Boiler interlock systems are briefly discussed as follows:

3.1 EMERGENCY MFT P.B. AT UCB

In case of necessity of the boiler shutdown according to level of existed abnormal, let boiler trip by this emergency MFT push button at UCB. Two buttons must be pushed simultaneously. 3.2 LOSS OF 220 V DC When 220V DC power fails, MFT will be initiated to trip the boiler.

3.3 LOSS OF 24 V DC
When 24 V DC fails, as there is no power supply to the DPU( Distributed Process Unit) modules, MFT will be initiated to trip the boiler.

3.4 FLAME FAILURE TRIP

When there is no flame sensed by the flame sensors located around the boiler, MFT should be initiated to trip the boiler to avoid further admission of the fuel.

3.5 LOSS OF FUEL TRIP

When there is sudden failure of the total fuel into the combustion chamber, MFT should be initiated to trip the boiler.

3.6 BOTH FDF STOP

When both FDF will be stopped, MFT will be initiated due to air supply is interrupted once, at least, appropriate purging is indispensable in order to prevent explosion.

A- FDF Stop

MFT

B- FDF Stop

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Fig3.1: Both FDF stop

3.7 BOTH IDF STOP

When both IDF will be stopped, MFT will be initiated due to draft system is interrupted once.

A- IDF Stop

MFT B-IDF Stop

Fig3.2: Both IDF stop

3.8 AIR FLOW LOW (LL)

When combustion airflow will be less than 190 Tonnes/hr, MFT will be

initiated due to prevent unstable combustion.

Air Flow LL

2/3

3 sec
MFT

Fig3.3: Air flow LL

3.9 FURNACE PRESSURE HIGH (HH)

When furnace pressure will be higher than 150 mmwcl, MFT will be initiated due to prevent furnace explosion.

3 sec
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Furnace Press HH

2/3

MFT

Fig3.4: Furnace pressure HH

3.10 FURNACE PRESSURE LOW (LL)

When furnace pressure will be higher than -175 mmwcl, MFT will be initiated due to prevent furnace explosion. 3 sec
Furnace Press LL 2/3 MFT

Fig3.5: Furnace pressure LL

3.11 DRUM LEVEL VERY HIGH ( HHH)

When steam drum level will reaches more than 225 mm, MFT will be initiated in order to prevent the carry over as result to water induction or rapid cooling for turbine generator.

Drum Level (L-1)

Drum Level (R-1)

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Drum Level (L-2)

3 sec
Drum Level (R-2) 2/3

MFT Drum Level Gauge (L) (Conductivity type)

Drum level Gauge (R) (Conductivity type)

Fig3.6: Drum level HHH 3.12 DRUM LEVEL VERY LOW ( LLL) When steam drum level will reaches less than -225 mm, MFT will be Initiated in order to prevent the drum empty as result to overheat of boiler tube.

3.13 REHEATER PROTECTION LOGIC

Reheater protection shall be provided as part of Boiler House Auxiliaries Interlock and protection system. This protection is provided to protect the Reheater against starvation of steam flow during abnormal conditions. To take care of Reheater protection, the Boiler shall be tripped after 10 seconds, when any of the following conditions occur: When Boiler is working and if Both generator circuit breakers open and HP Bypass or LP Bypass valves remain closed less than 2%

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When Boiler is working and if Turbine trips and HP Bypass or LP Bypass valves remain closed less than 2%

CHAPTER - 4

BOILER CONTROL SCHEMES

These are different boiler protection schemes available to safe operation of the Boiler and its auxiliaries and to safeguard the men working around Boiler. They are briefly discussed as follows:
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4.1 FEED WATER CONTROL (DRUM LEVEL CONTROL)

The objective of this control system is to maintain the drum level to the normal water level of the drum at all loads. At lower loads (less than 30% MCR), the startup feed control valve will be used as final control element and at higher loads, speed control of Boiler Feed water Pumps (BFPs) will be used. Drum level is measured by three transmitters through temperature compensated constant head unit. The pressure compensated drum level signal may be selected by Mid value Auto Selection circuit for control.

4.1.1 Low load

The drum level measured signal is compared with the drum level set point. The error signal will have a proportional, integral and differential action in the single element controller. This controller output will be the position demand signal for the start up feed control valve. Auto/manual switching facility in DCS is provided for auto/manual selection and operation. Position indication shall be provided for the start up feed control valve in DCS.

4.1.2 High load

At higher loads the start up control valve shall be closed. The steam flow shall be measured in order to prevent sudden response due to drum swell and shrink on load change, a time lag unit shall be included in the steam flow signal. The temperature compensated feed water flow signal is computed by adding feed water flow at economizer inlet and superheater spray water flow. The error signal produced between drum level measured signal and drum level set point shall have proportional, integral and differential action in the three-element drum level controller. This will be added with steam flow signal, which is the feed water flow demand signal (set point for feed water flow). This will be compared with the feed water flow in the feed water controller. Deviation if any will have a proportional and integral action in the feed water controller. This controller output will be the position demand signal for the full load control valve. Auto/manual switching facility in DCS is provided for auto/manual selection and operation. Position indicator shall be provided in DCS for the motor driven BFP hydraulic coupling scoop position indication.

4.2 COMBUSTION CONTROL

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The objective of this control is to maintain the turbine throttle pressure constant at the desired value by adjusting the firing rate (both fuel flow and airflow). Turbine throttle pressure may be measured with three transmitters. Mid value Auto Selection of the three transmitter shall be selected for control. The selected signal is compared with the set point and any error will have proportional and integral action. A proportional value of total steam flow and derivative of drum pressure signal are taken as feed forward feature for the control. An auto/manual switching facility in DCS is provided. The output of a/m switching facility is the airflow demand and fuel flow demand signal.

4.3 FUEL FLOW CONTROL

Fuel flow demand from combustion control and air flow signal from air flow control corrected for fuel air ratio are compared and the lower is selected for the set point of the fuel flow controller (lead-lag system).This is to ensure that under any circumstance the fuel flow should be lesser than the airflow. Fuel flow is measured by adding the feed signal of the feeders (or mills) in service and the heavy oil flow corrected for calorific value. The feeder speed/rate measured signal is hooked up to the control after a delay to suit the process lag. The actual fuel flow signal is compared with the developed set point signal above and any deviation will have proportional and integral action. The controller's output signal is the position demand signal for feeder speed regulating device. Bias facility is to be provided in DCS to modify the signal whenever required. An auto/manual switching facility in DCS is provided for each feeder. To ensure air rich furnace at all times, a maximum deviation limit system (MDL) is used. i.e. whenever the fuel flow is more than the airflow this will automatically reduce the fuel flow and increase airflow to a safe value and both the airflow and fuel flow control is transferred to manual.

4.4 AIR FLOW CONTROL

The secondary airflow is measured at left and right side of the secondary air ducts to wind box by means of aero foils. Each flow will have temperature compensation. The flow is linearized by means of square root extractors. The total PA flow measured for each mill in service is added to obtain total airflow to the boiler. This
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signal is compared with the developed set point. The airflow demand from combustion control and actual fuel flow whichever is high (lead lag system) is selected to ensure enriched combustion air. The oxygen in the flue gas at the inlet of AH is measured as primary or redundant. Transfer switch can be selected for either average value or individual value. This signal is compared with excess air set point and any error will have proportional and integral action to have better combustion efficiency. High/low limiters are used to limit the value in case the oxygen analyser is out of service. Under any circumstance the airflow should not be less than 30% MCR flow. This signal is the developed set point and the airflow signals will have proportional and integral action in the air flow controller. This position demand signal will be selected to the corresponding FD fans in service through' auto/manual switching facility provided in DCS. To have equal loading of FD fans the FD fan motors current is measured. The difference is used for taking corrective action. The corrected signal is used to position the FD fan-regulating damper. Necessary interlock from FSSS, Boiler auxiliaries interlock system Maximum Deviation Limit (MDL) etc. is provided. Separate auto/manual-switching facility in DCS and position indicator for each FD fan-regulating devices are provided.

4.5 FURNACE DRAFT CONTROL

The main objective of the control is to maintain the furnace pressure constant at the desired set value at all loads. This is achieved by changing the flow of flue gas by modulating the inlet damper and varying the speed of the ID fan by VFD. Three transmitters measure furnace pressure. One signal is selected by mid value auto selection circuit for control. Excessive furnace pressure is monitored for directional block on Induced Draught (ID) and Forced Draught (FD) fans. Furnace pressure is compared with set point and error, will have proportional and integral action. Fuel demand signal is added as a feed forward feature. Master Fuel Trip (MFT) feed forward feature is provided to minimise negative furnace pressure excursion. Separate auto/manual-switching facility and the position indicator in DCS for each ID fan regulating devices are provided.
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To have equal loading of the ID fans each ID fan motor current (sum of channel 1 and channel 2 current) is measured averaged and compared. The difference is used for taking corrective action. The corrected signal is used to position the ID fan inlet damper. The ID fan inlet damper positions between a maximum and a minimum position limit for optimized control action. If ID fan position goes outside these limits, an error signal goes to a controller, whose output is used to vary fan speed to bring back the inlet damper within the set limits. Separate auto/Manual switching facility and position/speed indicator are provided in DCS for each ID fan-regulating device (damper/VFD).

4.6 PRIMARY AIR HEATER PRESSURE

The main objective of this control is to adjust the primary air heater pressure according to the feeder speed. That is, out of all the feeders, the feeder speed, which is higher than that of others is considered as set value for this control. Primary air heater pressure is measured with three transmitters. One signal is selected by mid value auto selection circuit for control. The measured signal is compared with the selected feeder speed signal through a high signal selector to maintain the minimum header pressure. Deviation if any will have proportional and integral action. Separate auto/manual-switching facility and position indicator is provided for each Primary Air (PA) fan-regulating device in DCS. To have equal loading of two running PA fans, the PA fans motor current is measured, averaged and compared. The difference is used for taking corrective action. The corrective signal is used to position the PA fan-regulating unit.

4.7 MILL OUTLET TEMPERATURE AND MILL AIRFLOW CONTROL

The objective of this control system is to adjust the mill airflow according to the feeder speed and to maintain the mill outlet temperature at the constant set value.Mill airflow is maintained by adjusting the hot air regulating damper while the mill outlet temperature is maintained constant by adjusting the cold air-regulating damper. The temperature compensated mill airflow is linearised by the square root extractor. This airflow signal is compared with variable airflow set point as a function of feeder speed. Any error between these two signals will have proportional plus integral action. Rate of
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change of fuel demand signal is added to provide feed forward feature. An auto/manual switching facility in DCS with position indicator is provided. The mill outlet temperature is compared with constant set point and error will have proportional, integral and derivative action. An auto/manual switching facility in DCS with position indicator is provided.

4.8 SUPERHEATER / REHEATER STEAM TEMPERATURE CONTROL

Steam temperature control is provided by a combination of burner nozzle tilt positioning and Superheater (SH), Re-heater (RH) de-superheating spray. Steam temperature is maintained by allowing nozzle tilt to respond to the lower of either SH or RH outlet temperature, with spray responding to the higher. Auto manual switching facility in DCS is to be provided for modulating the following control valves The Temperature measurement is selected by mid valve Auto selection (MVAS) control circuit.

4.8.1 SH spray water valve control

In the automatic mode, each SH spray water valve is controlled by a cascade control. Under normal conditions SH outlet temperature (Tsho), the primary controlled variable, is in the outer loop of the cascade control for valve; SH De-superheater (DESH) outlet temperature (Tshdso), an index of the immediate effect of spray valve operation, is in the inner loop. The outer loop PID controller receives an error signal equal to the deviation of Tsho set point and measured final SH outlet temperature ( Tshol and Tshor). The Tshol set point is programmed as a function of unit steam flow for constant pressure operation. The outer loop controller establishes a set point for the SH DESH outlet temp. This set point is compared to measured Tshdso and the resulting error is used to position the SH spray valve control.

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These feed forwards are needed to compensate for over firing and under firing which may be required initially. When changing unit load, feed forward signals are utilised as follows (using unit load increase as an example): The rate of change of fuel demand increase (an indication of over firing) is used to open the SH spray valves to counter the initial temperature rise. Drum pressure and steam flow (applied inversely) to spray valve demand and tilt position (applied directly) are used as an index to recognize the tendency for temperature to drop after item-1 above occurs, and is used to close the SH spray valves to counter the subsequent temperature drop. Interlocks are provided to close the SH spray valves at loads less than 20% MCR.

4.8.2 RH spray water valve control

In the automatic mode, each RH DESH spray water valve is controlled by a cascade control. Under normal operating conditions RH outlet temperature (Trho), the primary controlled variable, is in the outer loop of each cascade control; RH DESH outlet temperature (Trhdso), an index of the immediate effect of spray valve operation, is in the inner loop. The outer loop PID controller receives an error signal final RH outlet temperature (Trhol and Trhor). The Trho set point is programmed against the main steam flow curve, for constant pressure operation. The outer loop controller output is modified with tilt position to establish a set point for the RH DESH outlet temperature. This set point is compared to measured Trhdso, and the resulting error is used to position the associated RH DESH spray water valve. Interlocks are provided to keep the spray valves closed at loads less than 20% MCR.

4.8.3 Nozzle tilt control

The average Tsho and Trho error signals are compared and the greater of the two errors (i.e., the lower of the two temperatures) is selected for nozzle tilt control. An interlock is provided to keep the tilts at their base (horizontal) position at loads less than 25% MCR. If any spray water valve opens fully, the tilt control is interlocked to disallow further raising of the tilts, and thus prevent possible over heating of the SH and RH outlet lead.
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4.9 SCAPH SPRAY WATER VALVE CONTROL

The purpose of this control loop is to maintain the cold end temperature above the dew point thus preventing condensation and resultant corrosion of air-heater surfaces. The cold end temperature of AH .i.e. AH air inlet and AH flue gas outlet temperature is measured and averaged. The average temperature is compared with the set point and any deviation will have proportional and integral action. An auto/manual switching facility in DCS with position indicator is provided. The operation of this control may be required while lighting up and low load operation of the boiler.

4.10 LIGHT OIL FLOW CONTROL

Light oil flow is regulated by maintaining the pressure at operating flow header. Two pressure transmitters are used to measure the pressure and the healthy signal is applied to the controller where it is compared with the set point. The error signal will have proportional & integral action in the controller. The controller output is the position demand signal for pressure control valve of light oil.

4.11 HEAVY OIL PRESSURE CONTROL

Heavy oil flow is regulated by maintaining the pressure pump outlet. Two pressure transmitters are used to measure the pressure and the healthy signal is applied to the controller where it is compared with the set point. The error signal will have proportional & integral action in the controller. The controller output is the position demand signal for heavy fuel oil pressure control valve at pumping unit.

4.12 HEAVY OIL FLOW CONTROL

Heavy oil flow is regulated by maintaining the pressure at operating flow header. Two pressure transmitters are used to measure the pressure and the healthy signal is applied to the controller where it is compared with the set point. The error

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signal will have proportional & integral action in the controller. The controller output is the position demand signal for heavy fuel oil pressure control valve.

4.13 ATOMIZING STEAM PRESSURE CONTROL

Atomizing steam pressure is controlled by maintaining the pressure at the header. Two pressure transmitters are used to measure the pressure and the healthy signal is applied to the controller where it is compared with the set point. The error signal will have proportional & integral action in the controller. The controller output is the position demand signal for the atomizing steam pressure control valve.

4.14 START PERMISSIVES & PROTECTION

To-days steam generators are larger in size and sophisticated in nature. Failure of any equipment calls for expensive replacement and results in costlier down time. This emphasis careful planning on the correct procedure for Safe sequence of start-up of equipments in the power plant. Continuous trouble free & efficient operations. Safe sequence of shut down the equipment when needed.

This also leads to provision of adequate & reliable protection to safeguard the various plant equipments under abnormal and dangerous conditions. The operation of the protection shall be accompanied by visual and audible annunciation which provides definite indication of the primary cause or cause of operation of the protection. Restarting of the equipment, which has once been tripped by protection either by remote, automatic or manual control shall be possible only after elimination of the cause of tripping. Protections are classified into three groups namely: Protection causing complete shutdown of the unit. Protection causing load reduction of the unit. Protection causing annunciation only.

4.14.1 Protection Causing Complete Shut Down Of The Unit

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 Failure of all feed pumps (i.e., reserve feed pump if any fails to start on tripping

of running pumps even after preset time delay) Boiler shut down due to failure of both FD fans, all ID fans.
Reheater protection which is to ensure continuous steam flow through reheater

tubes at specific conditions.

4.14.2 Protection Causing Load Reduction ID fans

Normally 2 ID fans are sufficient for boiler MCR if any one of the two running ID fans trips, the boiler load shall be run down to 50%MCR at the rate of 10 % MCR per minute maximum.

FD fans
Any one of the running FD fans trip, the boiler load shall run down to 50%MCR at the rate of 10% MCR per minute maximum.

Mills, PA fans & Coal Feeders

This reduces the boiler load correspondingly due to limitations in fuel firing capabilities.

4.14.3 Protection Causing Annunciation

The causes that lead to visual/audible annunciation are covered under various sub system like FSSS, SADC, S.B. control system, Air and flue gas system, steam & Water system, HP Bypass system, fuel oil system etc. These interlocks & Protection systems are divided into two portions based on the area they cover as briefly described below.

Boiler auxiliaries interlock & protection

This system takes care of sequence of starting protection and interlock of boiler auxiliaries like FD fans, ID fans, Air heaters, Dampers, Valves, etc. covered in this write up.
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Furnace Safeguard Supervisory System (FSSS)

This system takes care of interlocks required for starting, supervising the

operating and safe shutdown of the equipments connected with fuel firing system.

CHAPTER - 5

ENERGY SAVING OPPURTUNITIES IN BOILERS

The various energy efficiency opportunities in boiler system can be related to combustion, heat transfer, avoidable losses, high auxiliary power consumption, water quality and blow down. Examining the following factors can indicate if a boiler is being run to maximize its efficiency:
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5.1 STACK TEMPERATURE

The stack temperature should be as low as possible. However, it should not be so low that water vapor in the exhaust condenses on the stack walls. This is important in fuels containing significant sulphur as low temperature can lead to sulphur dew point corrosion. Stack temperatures greater than 200C indicates potential for recovery of waste heat. It also indicates the scaling of heat transfer/recovery equipment and hence the urgency of taking an early shut down for water /flue side cleaning.

5.2 FEED WATER PREHEATING USING ECONOMISER

Typically, the flue gases leaving a modern 3-pass shell boiler are at temperatures of 200 to 300C.Thus, there is a potential to recover heat from these gases. The flue gas exit temperature from a boiler is usually maintained at a minimum of 200C, so that the sulphur oxides in the flue gas do not condense and cause corrosion in heat transfer surfaces. When a clean fuel such as Natural gas, LPG or gas oil is used, the economy of heat recovery must be worked out, as the flue gas temperature may be well below 200C. The potential for Energy saving depends on the type of boiler installed and the fuel used. For a typically older model shell boiler, with a flue gas exit temperature of 260oC, an economizer could be used to reduce it to 200C, increasing the fed water temperature by 15oC.Increase in overall thermal efficiency would be in the order of 3%.For a modern 3-pass shell boiler, firing natural gas with a flue gas exit temperature of 140C a condensing economizer would reduce the exit temperature to 650oC increasing thermal efficiency by 5%.

5.3 COMBUSTION AIR PREHEAT

Combustion Air preheating is an alternative to feed water heating. In order to improve thermal efficiency by 1%,the combustion air temperature must be raised by 20oC.Most gas and oil burners used in a boiler plant are not designed for a high air preheat temperatures. Modern burners can withstand much higher combustion air preheat ,so it is possible to consider such units as heat exchangers in the exit flue as an alternative to an economizer, when either space or a high feed water return temperature make it viable.
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5.4 INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION

Incomplete combustion can arise from a shortage of air or surplus of fuel or poor distribution of fuel. It is usually obvious from the color of smoke, and must be corrected immediately. In the case of oil and gas fire systems, CO or smoke (for oil fired systems only) with normal or high excess air indicates burner systems problems. A more frequent cause of incomplete combustion is the poor mixing of fuel and air at the burner. Poor oil fires can result from improper viscosity, worn tips, carbonization on tips and deterioration of diffusers or spinner plates. With coal firing, unburned carbon can comprise a big loss. It occurs as grit carry-over or carbon-in-ash and may amount to more than 2% of the heat supplied to the boiler. On uniform fuel size could be one of the reasons for incomplete combustion. In chain grate stokers, large lumps will not burn out completely, while small pieces and fines may block the air passage, thus causing poor air distribution. In sprinkler stokers, stoker gate condition, fuel distribution, wind box air regulation and over-fire systems can affect carbon losses. Increase in the fines in pulverized coal also increases in carbon loss.

5.5 EXCESS AIR CONTROL

From Table1 gives the theoretical amount of air required for combustion of various types of fuel. Excess air is required in all practical cases to ensure complete combustion, to allow for the normal variations in combustion and to ensure satisfactory stack conditions for some fuels. The optimum excess air level for maximum boiler efficiency occurs when the sum of the losses due to incomplete combustion and losses due to heat in flue gases is minimum. This level varies with furnace design, type of burner, fuel and process variables. It can be determined by conducting tests with different air fuel ratios. Controlling excess air to an optimum level always results in reduction in flue gas losses; for every 1% reduction in excess air bearings approximately 0.6% rise in efficiency.
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Various methods are available to control the excess air Portable oxygen analyzers and draft gauges can be used to make periodic readings to guide the operator to manually adjust the flow of air for optimum operation. Excess air reduction up to 20% is feasible. The most common method is the continuous oxygen analyzer with a local readout mounted draft gauge, by which the operator can adjust air flow. A further reduction of 10 to 15% can be achieved over the previous system. The same continuous oxygen analyzer can have a remote controlled pneumatic damper positioned, y which the readouts are available in a control room. This enables an operator to remotely control a number of firing systems simultaneously. The most sophisticated system is the automatic damper control, whose cost is really justified only for large systems.

5.6 RADIATION AND CONVECTION HEAT LOSSES

The external surfaces of a shell boiler are hotter than the surroundings. The surfaces thus loss heat to the surroundings depending on the surface area and the difference in temperature between the surface and the surroundings. The heat loss from the boiler shell is normally a fixed energy loss, irrespective of the boiler output. With modern boiler designs, this may represent only 1.5% on the gross calorific value at full rating, but will increase to around 6%, if the boiler operates at only 25% output. Repairing or augmenting insulation can reduce heat loss through boiler walls and piping.

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TABLE 1: THEORETICAL COMBUSTION DATA - COMMON BOILER FUELS S.No. Fuel Kg. of air required / Kg. of m3 of of fuel Theoretical CO2 % in CO2 % in flue gas in practice

flue gas / flue /kg. fuel

kg. of fuel kg. of

dry flue gas achieved

1.

Solid Fuels Bagasse Coal (Bituminous) Lignite Paddy Husk Wood 8.4 4.6 5.8 9.10 5.63 6.4 6.97 4.58 4.79 19.40 19.8 20.3 9-13 14-15 11-13 3.2 10.8 3.43 11.7 2.61 9.40 20.65 18.70 10-12 10-13

2.

Liquid Fuels Furnace Oil LSHS 13.90 14.04 14.30 14.63 11.50 10.79 15.0 15.5 9-14 9-14

TABLE 2 : EXCESS AIR LEVELS FOR DIFFERENT FUELS S.No. Fuel Types of Furnace or Burners Excess air (% by wt.) 1. Pulverised Coal Completely water cooled furnace for slag-tap or dry-ash removal Partially water-cooled furnace for dryash removal 2. Coal Spreader stoker Water-cooler vaibrating-grate stokers Chain-grate and traveling-grate stokers Underfeed stokers 3. Fuel Oil Oil burners, register type
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15 20

15-40

30-60 30-60 15-50 20-50 15-20

Multi-fuel burners and flat-flame 4. 5. Natural Gas Wood High pressure burner Dutch over(10 23 % through gates ) and Hofft type 6. 7. Bagasse Black Liquor All furnaces Recovery furnace for draft and sodapulping process

20-30 5-7 20-25

25-35 30-40

5.7 AUTOMATIC BLOW DOWN CONTROL

Uncontrolled continuous blow down is very wasteful. Automatic blow down controls can be installed that sense and respond to boiler water conductivity and phi A 10% blow down in a 15 kg/cm2 boiler results in 3% efficiency loss.

5.8 REDUCTION OF SCALING AND SOOT LOSSES

In Oil and coal-fired boilers, soot buildup on tubes acts as an insulator against heat transfer. Any such deposits should be removed on a regular basis. Elevated stack temperatures may indicate excessive soot buildup. Also same result will occur due to scaling on the water side. High exit gas temperatures at normal excess air indicate poor heat transfer performance. This condition can result from a gradual build-up of gas-side or waterside deposits. Waterside deposits require a review of water treatment procedures and tube cleaning to remove deposits. An estimated 1% efficiency loss occurs with every 22oC increase in stack temperature. Stack temperature should be checked and recorded regularly as an indicator of soot deposits. When the flue gas temperature rises about 20C above the temperature for a newly cleaned boiler, it is time to time to remove the soot deposits. It is, therefore recommended to install a dial type thermometer at the base of the stack to monitor the exhaust flue gas temperature. It is estimated that 3mm of soot can cause an increase in fuel consumption by 2.5% due to increased flue gas temperatures. Periodic off-line cleaning of radiant
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furnace surfaces, boiler tube banks, economizers and air heaters may be necessary to remove stubborn deposits.

5.9 REDUCTION OF BOILER STEAM PRESSURE

This is an effective means of reducing fuel consumption, if permissible; by as much as 1 to 2% .Lower steam pressure gives a lower saturated steam temperature and without stack heat recovery, a similar reduction in the temperature of the flue gas temperature results. Steam is generated at pressures normally dictated by the highest pressure/temperature requirements for a particular process. In some cases, the process does not operate all the time, and there are periods when the boiler pressure could be reduced. The energy manager should consider pressure reduction carefully, before recommending it. Adverse effects, such as an increase in water carryover from the boiler owing to pressure reduction, may negate any potential saving. Pressure should be reduced in stages, and no more than a 20 percent reduction should be considered.

5.10 VARIABLE SPEED CONTROL FOR FANS, BLOWERS AND PUMPS

Variable speed control is an important means of achieving energy savings. Generally, combustion air control is affected by throttling dampers fitted at forced and induced draft fans. Though dampers are simple means of control, they lack accuracy, giving poor control characteristics at the top and bottom of the operating range. In general, if the load characteristic of the boiler is variable, the possibility of replacing the dampers by a VSD should be evaluated.

5.11 EFFECT OF BOILER LOADING ON EFFICIENCY

The maximum efficiency of the boiler does not occur at full load, but at about two-thirds of the full load. If the load on the boiler decreases further, efficiency also tends to decrease. At zero output, the efficiency of the boiler is zero, and any fuel is used only to supply the losses. The factors affecting boiler efficiency are:

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As the load falls, so does the value of the mass flow rate of the flue gases through the tubes. This reduction in flow rate for the same heat transfer area, reduced the exit flue gas temperatures by a small extent, reducing the sensible heat loss Below half load, most combustion appliances need more excess air to burn the fuel completely. This increases the sensible heat loss. In general, efficiency of the boiler reduces significantly below 25% of the rated load and as far as possible; operation of boilers below this level should be avoided.

5.12 PROPER BOILER SCHEDULING

Since, the efficiency of boilers occurs at 65-85% of full load, it is usually more efficient, on the whole, to operate a fewer number of boilers at higher loads, than to operate a large number at low loads.

5.13 BOILER REPLACEMENT

The potential savings from replacing a boiler depend on the anticipated change in overall efficiency. A change in a boiler can be financially attractive if the existing boiler is: Old and inefficient Not capable of firing cheaper substitution fuel Over or under-sized for present requirements Not designed for ideal loading conditions The feasibility study should examine all implications of long-term fuel availability and company growth plans. All financial and engineering factors should be considered. Since boiler plants traditionally have a useful of well over 25 years, replacement must be carefully studied.

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CONCLUSION
The Power plant consist of different costly equipment like Boiler, motor, generator, transformer, transmission lines etc. faults may occur in power plant due to several reasons and these faults can damage the equipments and also can cause interruption of power supply than protection schemes must be employed to avoid these damages. The protective scheme contains different interlocks systems. The system is provided for safety and protection of the boiler and its related auxiliary equipment in accordance with the Boiler Protection Diagram .This system can greatly reduce the risk like explosion. However, operator must be well acquainted these detail and should be careful to safety operation. We studied all the protection schemes which are adapted to the Boilers in R.T.P.P. We studied practically the working principle and operations of all the different controllers which are used in those protection schemes.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Standard Boiler Operators

Stephen MElonka Anthony LKohan N.P.T.I.

2. A Course on Boiler and its Auxiliaries 3. Modern Control Engineering 4. Automatic Control Systems 5. A Course on Bureau of Energy Efficiency 6. Manuals Prepared By RTPP

- K.Ogata Benjamin C. Kuo NPC

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