Jessica DArcy

Contents Page
Contents Page ............................................................................................................................................... 1
Index Page .................................................................................................................................................... 6
Symbols ........................................................................................................................................................ 7
Approximations ............................................................................................................................................ 8
Fundamentals ............................................................................................................................................... 9
Common Equations & Values .......................................................................................................................10
Nature of Fluids ...........................................................................................................................................11
Continuum Concept ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 11
Fluid Properties ........................................................................................................................................................................................................11
Density ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 11
Gas Law .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 12
Viscosity.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 12
Surface Tension .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 12
Types of Flow ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 13
Laminar flow.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Turbulent Flow ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Temporal Variation ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Spatial Variation ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 13
Governing Principles .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 13
Continuity .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Momentum ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 13
Energy ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 14
Applications of Governing Principles.................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Example 2 Types of Flow .................................................................................................................................................................................. 14

Hydrostatic Pressure .................................................................................................................................... 16

Pressure ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Absolute Pressure .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Gauge Pressure ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Atmospheric Pressure .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 16
Pressure Transmission .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Pascals Law ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Equation of Fluid Statics ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Pressure and Temperature in the Atmosphere........................................................................................................................................... 17
Manometers ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
U-tube Manometers ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Differential Manometer .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 18
Horizontal Acceleration Effects .........................................................................................................................................................................18
Vertical Acceleration Effects ............................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Combined Acceleration ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Example 3 - Manometer ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 19
Summary ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19

Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces .....................................................................................................................20

Forces on Horizontal and Surfaces ...................................................................................................................................................................20
Line of Action Centre of Pressure & Centre of Gravity.......................................................................................................................... 20
Complex Shapes .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 20
Parallel Axis Theorem.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 21
Example 4 - Hydrostatics ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Summary ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22

Hydrostatics - Buoyancy ...............................................................................................................................23

Forces on Floating or Submerged Bodies ...................................................................................................................................................... 23
Archimedes Principle ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23

Jessica DArcy

Stability of Submerged Bodies ........................................................................................................................................................................... 23

Stability of Floating Bodies .................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Stability .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 24
Determination of Metacentric Height.............................................................................................................................................................. 24
Example 5 Buoyancy ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Summary ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 25

Dynamics Fluid Motion ..............................................................................................................................26

Tools for Describing Fluid Motion ....................................................................................................................................................................26
Control Surface ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Control Volume ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Continuity .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Flow Visualization ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Streamlines ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
1, 2 & 3 Dimensional Flows ................................................................................................................................................................................. 26
Continuity Discharge & Mean Velocity ........................................................................................................................................................ 27
Reference Frames ....................................................................................................................................................................................................27
Eulerian .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 27
Lagrangian ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Flow Acceleration ....................................................................................................................................................................................................27
Equation of Motion..................................................................................................................................................................................................28
Acceleration ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Differential form of the Continuity Equation.................................................................................................................................................... 28
Example 6 Wave Runup..................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Summary ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 30

Dynamics Energy Equation ........................................................................................................................31

Potential Energy (PE) .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 31
Kinetic Energy (KE) ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Pressure Energy.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 31
General Energy Equation ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Energy Equation {E} or Bernoulli Equation {B} ..........................................................................................................................................31
Steady Flow Energy Equation .................................................................................................................................................................................. 31
Piezometric and Energy/Total Head Lines ................................................................................................................................................... 31
E-line V P-Line ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 32
Piezometric Pressure Equation ............................................................................................................................................................................... 32
Pressure & Velocity .................................................................................................................................................................................................32
Flow Meters................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 33
Pitot or Total Head Tubes.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Venturi Meter................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Orifice Meter .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Discharge Equation for Venturi Meter or Orifice Meter .......................................................................................................................... 34
Example 7 Flow Meters Venturi & Orifice .............................................................................................................................................. 34
Kinetic Energy Correction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Fluid Power & Work ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Power between two Points ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 36
Radial Flow & the Energy Equation .................................................................................................................................................................36
Jet Discharge .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 36
Example 8 Energy & Piezometric Lines ...................................................................................................................................................... 37
Summary ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 37

Dynamics Momentum Equation.................................................................................................................38

Momentum Equation {M} ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Convective Acceleration.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 38
Temporal Acceleration ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 38
Applications ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Force on a Pipe Bend .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Example 9 Force on a Contraction ................................................................................................................................................................ 39
Jet Impact .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Jet Reaction or Thrust ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 41
Eulers Equation .......................................................................................................................................................................................................41
Eulers Equation for Steady Fluid Motion .......................................................................................................................................................... 41

Jessica DArcy

Euler & Bernoulli............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 42

Eulers Equation for Unsteady flow ....................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Example 10 Head Loss at Sudden Expansion ........................................................................................................................................... 43
Summary ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
General................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 44

Real & Ideal Fluids........................................................................................................................................45

Viscous Flow .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 46
Laminar Flow............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 46
Stress/Strain Relationship: Newtons Law of Viscosity ........................................................................................................................... 46
Viscous & Inertial Forces ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Turbulent Flow ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Reynolds Number ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Laminar & Turbulent Flow Regimes ................................................................................................................................................................ 48
Example 11 Reynolds Number .......................................................................................................................................................................48
Parallel Flow .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 49
General Governing Equation for Steady Parallel Laminar Flow ............................................................................................................. 50
Example 12 Parallel Flow ................................................................................................................................................................................. 50
Laminar Flow in Pipes Velocity Profile ....................................................................................................................................................... 51
Parabolic Profile ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 52
Laminar Flow in Pipes ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Steady Flow in Pipes ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Momentum Equation ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Head Loss Hagen Poiseuille Equation .............................................................................................................................................................. 53
Summary Viscous fluids & Head Loss .......................................................................................................................................................... 53

Turbulent Flow.............................................................................................................................................55
Darcy-Weisbach Equation for Flow in Pipes ................................................................................................................................................ 55
Example 13 Laminar & Turbulent Flow Head Loss in Pipes .............................................................................................................. 55
Velocity Profile in a Pipe ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
Viscous or Laminar Sub Layer ................................................................................................................................................................................. 57
Eddy Viscosity .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 57
Development of Velocity Profiles in Pipes Laminar Flow ................................................................................................................... 58
Development of Velocity Profiles in Pipes Turbulent Flow ................................................................................................................ 58
Boundary Roughness ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 58
Friction Factors: Ks V L ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Smooth Turbulent Flow .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 59
Transitional Flow .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Rough Turbulent Flow................................................................................................................................................................................................. 59
Example 14 Pipe Friction Factors..................................................................................................................................................................59
Summary ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 60

Pipeline & Pipe Network Design ...................................................................................................................62

Local Losses in Pipe Flow Flow Separation Losses ................................................................................................................................ 62
Local Losses at an Expansion .............................................................................................................................................................................. 62
Head Loss at Sudden Expansion.............................................................................................................................................................................. 62
Local Losses Empirical Relationships .......................................................................................................................................................... 62
Intakes ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 63
Exits/Outfalls ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Expansion/Contraction............................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Bends, Valves.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Pipeline Design .........................................................................................................................................................................................................63
Two Cases .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Example 15 Pipelines.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 64
Example 16 Pipelines.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 65
Pipe Networks ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 66
Pipes in Series .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 66
Pipes in Parallel .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 66
Example 17 Cofferdam ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 67
Hardy-Cross Technique......................................................................................................................................................................................... 68
The Three Relationships to Satisfy ........................................................................................................................................................................ 68
Example 18 Hardy-Cross Method ..................................................................................................................................................................69

Jessica DArcy

Summary ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 70

Dynamic Fluid Loading ................................................................................................................................. 71

Design Requirements ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 71
Example Wave Conditions ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Currents.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 71
Design Requirements - Loading Regimes ...................................................................................................................................................... 71
Ideal Flow Approach .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 72
Real Fluids & Viscous Fluids...................................................................................................................................................................................... 72
Fluid Loading ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 72
Pressure Drag .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 72
Total Drag ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 73
Drag & Lift Force ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 73
Boundary Layer Separation................................................................................................................................................................................. 74
Terminal Velocity.....................................................................................................................................................................................................74
Example 19 Terminal Velocity........................................................................................................................................................................74
Skin Friction ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 75
Boundary Layer Drag Surface Roughness.................................................................................................................................................. 76
Loading Regimes Real & Viscous Flows ...................................................................................................................................................... 76
Spin & Lift Magnus Effect .................................................................................................................................................................................. 76
Unsteady Fluid Loading Total in-line force ............................................................................................................................................... 76
Morison equation ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 77
Hydrodynamic mass (added mass) and an Accelerating Body............................................................................................................. 77
Example 20 Unsteady Loading .......................................................................................................................................................................78
Summary ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 79

Dimensional Analysis & Similarity ................................................................................................................80

Importance of Dimensions ................................................................................................................................................................................... 80
Fundamental Dimensions .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 80
Buckingham Method ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 80
Step-by-step Method .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 81
Common Groups.......................................................................................................................................................................................................81
Example 21 Dimensional Analysis ................................................................................................................................................................ 82
Similarity ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 83
Geometric Similarity .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 83
Dynamic Similarity ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 83
Perfect Similarity ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 84
Froude Scaling........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 84
Froude Similitude Undistorted Models ....................................................................................................................................................... 84
Reynolds Scaling Acceleration & Viscous Forces ....................................................................................................................................85
Reynolds Similitude Undistorted Models................................................................................................................................................... 85
Scale Modelling .........................................................................................................................................................................................................86
Problems ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 86
Other Scale Relationships .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 86
Example 22 Similitude ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 86
Summary ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 87

Unsteady Flow in Pipe Systems ....................................................................................................................90

Unsteady Flows in Closed Conduits .................................................................................................................................................................90
Analysis technique ..................................................................................................................................................................................................90
Slow Variations in Discharge .............................................................................................................................................................................. 90
Time Required for Head Change .......................................................................................................................................................................91
More Rapid Changes in Discharge ....................................................................................................................................................................91
Rigid Column Theory ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 91
Example 23 Rigid Column Theory.................................................................................................................................................................92
Unsteady Energy Equation .................................................................................................................................................................................. 95
Effect of Acceleration ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 95
Applications of Unsteady Energy Equation .................................................................................................................................................. 95
Example 24 Unsteady Flow with Acceleration: Flow between two Reservoirs .........................................................................96
Summary ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 97

Surge Shafts .................................................................................................................................................98

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Jessica DArcy

Analysis ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 98
Frictionless Solution ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 99
Solution Including Friction .................................................................................................................................................................................. 99
Types .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 100
Surge Protection in Pumped Mains ............................................................................................................................................................... 100
Example 25 Surge Shaft .................................................................................................................................................................................. 101
Summary .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 103

Waterhammer Unsteady Compressible Flow ........................................................................................... 104

Shock Waves ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Shock Wave Propagation ................................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Steps ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 105
Shock Wave Velocity............................................................................................................................................................................................ 106
Waterhammer Pressure..................................................................................................................................................................................... 106
Pressure Variation with Time.......................................................................................................................................................................... 107
Friction Effects ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 107
Rate of Valve Closure........................................................................................................................................................................................... 108
Waterhammer Theory Summary ................................................................................................................................................................... 108
Example 26 - Waterhammer ............................................................................................................................................................................ 108
Summary .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 109

Appendix ................................................................................................................................................... 111

Lecture Schedule ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 111
Experiment 1 Flow Meters ............................................................................................................................................................................ 112
Experiment 2 Sluice Gate ............................................................................................................................................................................... 113
Experiment 3 Pipe Flow ................................................................................................................................................................................. 114
Experiment 4 Drag on Cylinder ................................................................................................................................................................... 115
Worked Lecture Examples ...................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Moody Diagram ........................................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Drag Coefficient Charts............................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
AS2200-2006: Resistance Coefficients (k) of Valves and Fittings .......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Jessica DArcy

Index Page
accelerate total mass, 71
Acceleration, 28
added mass coefficient, 71
Adiabatic expansion, 13
Archimedes Principle, 23
atmospheric pressure variation, 17
Bernoulli Equation, 15
Boundary Layer Drag, 70
Boundary Layer Separation, 69
Buckingham Method, 74
bulk modulus of the fluid, 12
Buoyancy, 23
CD, 69
Celerity, 98
centre of buoyancy, 23
centre of gravity, 20, 23
centre of pressure, 20
Chezy equation, 52
Compressibility, 12
Continuity, 14, 26
Continuum Concept, 12
Control Surface, 26
Control Volume, 26
Convective Acceleration, 27
Currents, 66
Darcy-Weisbach, 52
Density, 12
dimensionless groups, 75
Discharge Equation for Venturi
Meter, 33
Drag, 68
Dynamic Similarity, 77
Dynamic viscosity, 13
Eddy Viscosity, 54
E-line, 32
Energy Equation, 15, 31
energy loss, 50
Euler & Bernoulli, 40
Eulers Equation for Steady Fluid
Motion, 40
Eulers Equation for Unsteady flow,
40
Eulers formula, 18
Eulerian, 27
Flow Regimes, 46
Flow separation, 58
force on a vertical surface, 20
friction drag, 70
Friction Factors, 55
Froude Scaling, 78
Froude Similitude, 78
Gas Law, 17
Geometric Similarity, 77
Hagen Poiseuille Equation, 50
Hardy-Cross Technique, 63

Head Loss, 50
Head Loss at Sudden Expansion, 58
hydraulic diameter, 52
Hydraulically rough, 55
Hydraulically smooth, 55
Hydrodynamic mass, 71
I00, 24
inertia coefficient, 71
instantaneous complete closure, 99
Isothermal expansion, 13
jet discharge, 35
Jet Reaction, 39
Kinematic viscosity, 13, 44
Kinetic Energy, 14
Kinetic Energy Correction, 35
Ks V L, 55
ks values, 55
Lagrangian, 27
Laminar Flow in Pipes, 49
Laminar Sub Layer, 54
Lapse rate, 17
Lift, 68
Lift force, 68
Loading Regimes, 66
Local Losses, 58
Logarithmic Velocity profile, 54
Mach number, 75
Magnus Effect, 71
Manometers, 17
Mass flow rate, 14
metacentric height, 23
Momentum, 14
Momentum Equation, 37
Momentum flux, 14
More Rapid Changes in Discharge,
84
Morison equation, 71
Moving control volumes, 42
Orifice Meter, 33
Parabolic Profile, 49
Parallel Axis Theorem, 21
Parallel Flow, 47
Pascals Law, 16
penstock, 91
Perfect Similarity, 78
physical parameters, 74
Piezometric Pressure Equation, 32
Pipes in Parallel, 61
Pipes in Series, 61
Pitot or Total Head Tubes, 32
P-line, 32
Potential Energy, 14
Power, 35
Pressure, 16
Pressure Drag, 67
Pressure Energy, 14

Pressure Transmission, 16
Rate of change of momentum, 14
rate of strain of fluid, 48
Rate of Valve Closure, 99
Reference Frames, 27
Reynolds Number, 45
Reynolds Scaling, 79
Reynolds Similitude, 79
Rigid Column Theory, 84
Scale Modelling, 80
shear stress velocity, 54
shock wave, 96
Shock Wave Velocity, 98
skin coefficient, 70
Skin Friction, 70
Spatial Variation, 14
Specific Gravity, 12
Stability of submerged bodies, 23
Stagnation pressure, 68
Steady Flow Energy Equation, 31
Steady Flow in Pipes, 50
Steady Parallel Laminar Flow, 48
Step-by-step Method, 74
streakline, 26
Streamlines, 26
Streamtubes, 26
Stress/Strain Relationship, 44
Strouhal number, 71
sudden expansion, 58
Surface Tension, 13
Surge Pressure, 85
Surge shafts, 91
Temperature in the Atmosphere, 17
Temporal (local) Acceleration, 27
Temporal Variation, 14
Terminal Velocity, 69
Time Required for Head Change, 84
Total Drag, 68
Unsteady Energy Equation, 88
Unsteady Flows in Closed Conduits,
83
Unsteady Fluid Loading, 71
valve closure, 99
Variations in Discharge, 83
velocity head, 32
Velocity Profile in a Pipe, 53
Venturi Meter, 33
Viscosity, 13, 44
Viscous force, 79
Von Karman constant, 53
vortex shedding frequency, 71
Wake, 68
waterhammer theory, 96
Wave Conditions, 66
Weber number, 75
wetted area, 70
Work, 35

Jessica DArcy

Symbols

~ centre of pressure

a ~ acceleration

A ~ cross sectional area (m2)

K ~ bulk modulus of the fluid (N/m2, Pa)

measures

substance

resistance

to

uniform

compression

B ~ centre of buoyancy

BG ~ height of G (centre of gravity) above B (centre

kM ~ added mass coefficient

of buoyancy)

ks ~ roughness of the boundary

BM ~ height of M (metacentre) above B (centre of

M ~ metacentre

Formatted: Justified, Space After: 0 pt,

Line spacing: 1.5 lines

buoyancy)

p ~ pressure (N/m2, Pa)

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

c ~ celerity

Pw ~ wetted perimeter

Formatted: Space After: 0 pt

Cc ~ coefficient of contraction

Q ~ flow rate

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Cd ~ actual discharge correction factor

Q ~ volumetric flow rate or discharge

CD ~ drag coefficient

R ~ gas constant for a particular gas (J Kg-1 K-1)

Cf ~ average skin coefficient

R ~ upthrust

cf ~ skin coefficient

S ~ specific gravity

Cm ~ inertia coefficient

T ~ temperature (C)

CP ~ centre of pressure

U ~ local velocity, mean flow velocity

Cp ~ elastic celerity

u* ~ shear stress velocity

CV ~ control volume

V ~ velocity

Formatted: Space After: 0 pt, Bulleted

Level: 1 + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at:
0.5"

D ~ diameter

z ~ height

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

DH ~ hydraulic diameter (used when non circular

~ lapse rate

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

k ~ Von Karman constant 0.4

Formatted: Justified, Space After: 0 pt,

Line spacing: 1.5 lines
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Formatted: Justified, Space After: 0 pt,

Line spacing: 1.5 lines

pipes)

~ unit weight of fluid

Ev ~ bulk (or volume) modulus of the fluid

H ~ surge pressure

FD ~ drag force

~ turbulent eddy viscosity

Formatted: Space After: 0 pt

FL ~ lift force

~ dynamic viscosity, absolute coefficient of

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

G ~ centre of gravity

GM ~ metacentric height

~ kinematic viscosity (nu) (m2/s)

H ~ height

~ density (kg/m3)

hf ~ head loss due to friction

Q ~ mass flow rate (kg/s)

hL ~ head loss (for turbulent flow, includes friction

~ surface tension (N/m)

factor from hf)

~ shear stress (N/m2)

~ angular velocity

viscosity

(Ns/m2)

or (kg/ms)

Formatted: Normal

Jessica DArcy

Approximations

Velocity in a river
o

Non-uniform flow cross section

Width constantly changing flow velocity constantly changing

Boundary layer

Indicated by velocity profile close to bed

Not constant; mud, sand, vegetation etc

Difficult to calculate

Turbulent flow

Varying bed roughness

Turbulent Pipe flow

o

Steady flow to start

Turbulent eddies created at bends

Solution
o

Ignore details by time averaging

Ignore details inside Control Volume (CV)

Jessica DArcy

Fundamentals

Main principles
Continuity, {C}

Q UA

discharge or volume flow rate, (m3/s)

Momentum, {M}

F ma QU = gV

Force = mass x acceleration (N)

Energy, {E}

p1 U12

z
g 2g 1
Sum of potential, kinetic and pressure energy = total head (m)

Jessica DArcy

Common Equations & Values

dh
U
dt

Power = gQh = force x speed = work/unit time

Pressure

1 ton = 8896N

Patmos = 101.3kPa

10hPa = 1kPa

Pwater = 50kPa

1g/cm3 = 1000kg/ m3

Pwater vapour = 2.3kPa

Pair = 60Pa

1L =

0.001m3

10-6cm3

v
w 2r
r

Acceleration

Atmospheric pressure = bar, atm

3
X
Centroid of a Parabola 8

cos2 = 1 sin2

dA = 2rdr

Density

Rotation rate = rpm revolutions per minute

Steady flow = no acceleration

Temperature Absolute = T+ 273

Velocity v wr

Viscosity

water=1x10-3kg/ms

seawater=1.13x10-3kg/ms
vwater=1x10-6 m2/s
vair = 1.5x10-5 m2/s

water = 1000kg/m3

seawater = 1025kg/m3

air = 1.2kg/m3

Differentiation of cos -sin

Differentiation of sin cos

Efficiency: Power required = power/%

X XA
Y YA
YB YA
X
B XA
Extrapolating

Gas Law PV = mRT

p p2
Head
= h 1
g

dU
0
dt

D3

4 3
r
3

Volume sphere =

Wave Period =

Wave
velocity = U cos (wt)

Weight = F = gV

Modulus
Youngs

2
t

Ewater = 2x109

Esteel = 2.1x1011

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Jessica DArcy

Nature of Fluids

Fluids = liquids & gases

Fluids can

Flow

Change shape

Take up the shape of the boundaries Strong intermolecular forces at boundary

Deform continuously and permanently under application of a shearing stress,

Fluid at rest
o

no shearing forces acting

Therefore, all forces in the fluid are perpendicular to the surfaces on which they act

Fluids in motion
o

Molecules adhere to the boundaries no slip condition

Velocity varies away from the boundary

Fluid element deforms

Force per unit area exerted on the fluid by the
boundary and vice-versa is the shear stress,

Continuum Concept

If there are enough molecules, the average conditions (pressure, density etc) are considered constant or change
smoothly
o

Valid liquids and most gases

Not valid rarefied gases, small number of molecules

Tightly packed molecules

Large spaces between molecules

Fluid Properties
Density

- Mass per unit volume, kg/m3

Typical values

air = 1.2 kg/m3

water = 1000 kg/m3 (15C)

Specific Gravity
o

S=

fluid
water

Compressibility
o

Density varies with pressure and temperature

Change in volume with a change in pressure depends on the bulk modulus of the fluid, K (N/m2)

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Jessica DArcy

p K

where Kwater = 2.05x109 N/m2

Generally, water can be treated as incompressible

Except for very large changes in pressure (i.e. a waterhammer)

Gas Law

Air is more compressible but can be treated as incompressible at velocities much lower than the speed of sound

Ideal Gas Law

o

p RT

R = gas constant for a particular gas

Rair = 287 J Kg-1 K-1

T = temperature

Isothermal expansion no change in temperature

Adiabatic expansion no heat exchange out of the system

Viscosity

Measure of how easily a fluid flows

o

Dynamic viscosity, , Ns/m2

Also called absolute coefficient of viscosity (kg/ms)

water = 1x10-3 kg/ms (20C)

Kinematic viscosity, (nu) alternative, frequently used

water = 1x10-6 m2/s (20C)

(m2/s)

Newtons Law of Viscosity

F
du

A
dy

Newtonian fluids obey this law most common fluids

Surface
Tension

, N/m
o

arises from elasticity of the surface

reduces surface area to a minimum

Causes capillary rise between surfaces

Manometer tubes

Errors in readings
Weight of column of fluid = surface tension force acting on wetted length

D2
4

H D cos

4 cos
so small, so cos = 1
gD

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Jessica DArcy

Types of Flow
Laminar flow

Smooth, uniform, regular

Turbulent Flow

Chaotic, random, dispersive

Temporal Variation

Flow variation with time

Steady flows

Velocity and depth constant with time

Unsteady flows

Velocity and depth vary with time

Spatial Variation

Flow variation with space

o

Uniform

Non-uniform

Flow properties constant in direction

Flow properties vary in flow direction

Governing Principles
Continuity

Continuity, {C}

Conservation of mass
Mass flow rate = Q (kg/s)

No storage

Incompressible fluid, or no change in density

Q1 = Q2
Q1 = U1A1 = U2A2 = Q2 Continuity equation {C}
o

A = cross sectional area

U = mean flow velocity

Momentum

Momentum, {M}
o

Conservation of momentum Newtons Second Law

Rate of change of momentum = sum of forces

Momentum flux = mass flow rate x velocity

F = ma

Or rate at which momentum passes through a cross section

QU UAU

Rate of change between cross sections = QU

Requires a resultant force F in the direction of motion

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Jessica DArcy

F QU QU

U1 Momentum equation {M}

Energy

Energy, total head, head, H

The sum of three forms of energy

Kinetic Energy, U2

Potential Energy, gz

Pressure Energy, p

Conserved when no energy lost

1
p1 U12 gz1 const
2

when divided through by g gives H in dimensions of length (m)

p1 U12
H

z const Energy Equation {E}

g 2g 1
o

also known as Bernoulli Equation {B}

Applications of Governing Principles

{C}

eliminate unknowns

write velocity in terms of area

determine how velocity and pressure vary in the flow

to find energy losses

find forces

determine how pressure and velocity vary if there are energy losses

{E}

{M}

Example 2 Types of Flow

Steady flow

Steady & uniform flow

Flow from a reservoir with constant head and boundary conditions (does not vary with time)
Flow from a reservoir with constant head and boundary conditions into a long straight pipe (cross section not
changing, no change in flow)

Steady, non-uniform flow

o

Flow from a reservoir with constant head and boundary conditions into a converging pipe or through an orifice
(conditions change along the pipe)

Unsteady, uniform flow

o

Flow in an oil pipeline controlled by a variable speed pump (time varying)

Unsteady, non-uniform flow

o

Wave motion

Arterial flow

Surge towers

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Domestic plumbing

Compressible unsteady flow or shockwave

Rotational or vortex flow

Power trip in hydro-electric plant (worst possible problem)

Flow into a vertical orifice

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Hydrostatic Pressure
Pressure

Fluid at rest
o

Static equilibrium

No shearing forces perpendicular or normal forces only

Shear only occurs when moving

Scalar quantity

Intensity & magnitude equal in all directions

F
(N/m2, Pa)
A
Small forces over small areas give large pressures

Hydraulic presses, stiletto heels

Small forces over large areas give large forces

Wind flow over roof

Absolute Pressure

Pressure in a vacuum = absolute zero

Gauge Pressure

Measured relative to local atmospheric pressure and can be positive or negative

Most common

Example
Pressure reading is 50kPa where atmospheric pressure is 100kPa

Gauge pressure = 50kPa

Absolute pressure = 150kPa

Atmospheric Pressure

105N/m2 1 atm or 1 bar or 10m H2O

Pressure Transmission

Occurs in closed systems and can be used to amplify forces hydraulic

controls

p1 = p2

F2

Varying pressures (dynamic pressures) may be damped by viscous effects, but mean or static pressures are not

A2
F1 ; where A2/A1 is the amplifier
A1

Pascals Law
o

Pressure change at one point in a system is transmitted through the entire system

Equation of Fluid Statics

A fluid at rest is in equilibrium

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Hydrostatic relationship for an incompressible fluid

Vertical equilibrium

p gz const

dp
g
dz

Horizontal equilibrium

dp
0,
dx

dp
0
dy

Implies equality of pressure at the same level in the same static fluid or in combinations of
static fluids

PRESSURE IS ADDITIVE in the vertical for immiscible fluids (fluids that dont mix)

Pressure and Temperature in the Atmosphere

Pressure, density & temperature vary with elevation in the atmosphere

Troposphere

Sea level 13000m

Temperature drops linearly with increasing elevation

Lapse rate, = drop in T with z

avg conditions = 5.87K/km

With the Gas Law, pressure and density can be calculated at any elevation
o

p RT
T T0 (z zo )

Using the hydrostatic equation gives

g

T z z0 R
p p0 0

T0

atmospheric pressure variation in the atmosphere

Manometers

Head & pressure measurement

Fluid most often water, but can be any fluid

water = 1000kg/m3

= g

= unit weight of fluid

Manometer Equation h = (S-1)h or h = (1-S)h

U-tube Manometers

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A type of manometer with immiscible fluids

(will not mix), used for measuring pressures in
gases and higher pressures in liquids

Differential Manometer

Created by connecting both ends of the manometer to the pipe

Similar in principle to the U-tube manometer

p = (2 - 1)gh = (2 - 1)h
Horizontal Acceleration Effects

A particle on the surface of a fluid under constant horizontal acceleration, a

Surface is a plane at angle to the horizontal

Vertical acceleration = 0
o

No additional vertical forces, hence hydrostatic

pressure

Planes of equal pressure lie parallel to the free surface

Vertical Acceleration Effects

Pressure increases with upward acceleration, similar to going up in an elevator

Oscillatory flows (waves, surge towers) have non-hydrostatic pressure below the accelerating free surface not pure
hydrostatic

Combined Acceleration

Total acceleration = pressure gradient

o

Eulers formula

p
g az
z

For rotating flows, the horizontal acceleration varies with radial distance from the centre of rotation free surface

p
ax
x

if az is small, pressure is hydrostatic - the free surface slope gives the total horizontal acceleration

becomes parabolic a forced vortex

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Example 3 - Manometer

In general

p1 p2
z1 z2
g
2
1
h

S1 S2 h

Summary

Fluid at rest = no shearing forces

Hydrostatic pressure increases linearly with depth

Pressure is equal along lines of constant elevation

Pressures additive in the vertical

Manometers measure gage or relative pressures

Acceleration gives rise to additional pressure gradients

Surface slopes indicate pressure gradients

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Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces

Forces on Horizontal and Surfaces

When a fluid is at rest, only normal forces exist

F pA
o

which is the force on any fluid element or unit surface area or plane

For a horizontal surface at depth h, the pressure is uniform

Hence total horizontal force on a vertical surface is

o

1
1
Fx gbh 2 bh 2
2
2

The force acts at the centroid of the pressure diagram or centre of pressure

1
Fx F sin gbh 2
2
o

normal forces resolved into horizontal

independent of slope

Fz F cos

gbh 2
2tan

normal forces resolved into vertical

dependent on slope do not use for horizontal surfaces

Vertical force acting on a sloping/curved surface = weight of fluid above the wet boundary

Vertical force = weight of the volume of fluid which would lie vertically above wet boundary

Line of Action Centre of Pressure & Centre of Gravity

Fx acts through the centre of pressure, CP

Fz acts through the centre of gravity, G

Resultant

F Fx2 Fz2
o

tan

Fz
Fx

Complex Shapes

Pressures, forces and lines of action are determined using moments of

area

CP is usually below G because the pressure increases with depth

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CP is when the moment of F about any point equals the sum of the moments of A about the same point

First moment of area of the surface = depth of centroid

o

zA zA

Normal force on surface, F = pressure at centroid x area

o

F gzA

Parallel Axis Theorem

2

IO IG y A
o

IG = second moment of area about a horizontal axis through the centroid

IO = second moment of area of the surface

Centre of pressure location

yCP y

IG
yA

valid for fluids with constant density, and p = 0 at surface

Taking moments about OG gives the lateral location of CP

Example 4 - Hydrostatics

The buoyant hinged wedge shown is immersed in water

The curved surface is defined by

The buoyancy force acts through the centre of mass/gravity of the displaced fluid

Show that this is at x x (find the centre of mass) and hence find R, the reaction

force, assuming unit width where

x 2
y H
X 0

NB

3 d
X0
8 H

There is no net horizontal force

acts at centre
Buoyancy force

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Summary

Loads and moments found by integrating pressure distributions

Projection of the surface onto a vertical plane gives horizontal force on sloping & curved surfaces

Horizontal force on sloping surface is the same as that on a vertical surface

Normal force on surface = pressure at centroid x area

Force acts at centroid of pressure diagram

Find vertical force on sloping surface by considering weight of fluid above the boundary

Find CP using moments of area for complex shapes

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Hydrostatics - Buoyancy
Forces on Floating or Submerged Bodies

Use method for curved surfaces and note there in no resultant horizontal force

Archimedes Principle

Weight of fluid displaced = upthrust, R

o

R acts through the centre of buoyancy the centroid of the displaced fluid

Stability of Submerged Bodies

Stability of submerged bodies depends on

o

The relative position of the centre of gravity, G

The relative position of the centre of buoyancy, B

1 Stable

B above G

Rotation produces righting moment

2 Neutral

CB = 0.5h
CG take moments about point

B and G at the same point

3 Unstable

B below G

Rotating produces an overturning moment, body rotates by 180 and becomes stable
o

If the 2 forces are not symmetrical, it will not rotate the 180

Stability of Floating Bodies

More complex as position of the centre of buoyancy, B changes as the submerged shape changes
o

B changes with depth of submerged shape

G always the same

As the centre of buoyancy moves, the righting moment gives it more stability

Change in shape moves the centroid of the displaced volume

Stability depends on metacentric height, GM

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If M is above G, righting moment Wx is produced

The body is in stable equilibrium

GM defined positive

If M coincides with G, the shape is in neutral equilibrium

If the body is initially orientated differently it may be unstable

Now M is below G, an overturning moment Wx is produced

The original orientation is unstable and GM is defined as negative

Stability

Length of BM > length of BG

Determination of Metacentric Height

GM can be found from measurements

BM is found by calculations

I00 = the second moment of area of the waterline plane about 0-0

I00 (rectangle) =
I00 (rod) =

L3
12

64

If BM>BG, the body is stable

If BM<BG, the body is unstable

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Example 5 Buoyancy

Investigate the stability of a spar buoy with length L, diameter D and specific gravities

Summary

Upthrust = weight of fluid displaced

Upthrust acts through the centre of buoyancy, which is the centroid of the displaced fluid

Stability of floating and submerged bodies depends on the relative position of the centre of buoyancy and the centre of
mass

Overturning and righting moments due to gravity forces and buoyancy forces

Stability of floating bodies can be determined from the position of the metacentric height

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Dynamics Fluid Motion

Tools for Describing Fluid Motion
Control Surface

An imaginary or real plane in the flow

where Q is the volumetric flow rate or discharge crossing the control surface

Control Volume

Imaginary or real volume bounded by control surfaces

Encloses the whole flow

Continuity

Assume a uniform velocity profile across a control surface or cross-section

Boundary shear is ignored when considering the flow profile

Flow Visualization

Turbulence, mixing and dispersion give complex flow patterns, so the path of a single particle is very complex

For laminar flows, dye injected into the flow can give a picture of the flow from that point on
o

The dye path is a streakline or streamline in steady flow

Streamlines

Ignoring turbulence, we can draw imaginary streamlines which correspond

to the expected pattern of the streakline

Streamlines run parallel to the local flow

o

i.e. the local velocity is tangential to the

streamline

Streamtubes flow between streamlines

Streamline spacing indicates changes in velocity

o

1
spacing

1, 2 & 3 Dimensional Flows

Most real flows are 3D, but for simplicity we simplify the problem to
1D or 2D if the major changes in fluid properties occur in only 1 or 2
directions

No friction = no boundary layer

o

Boundary and/or friction controls flow

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3D flow in a rectangular channel friction controls flow profile

3D flows controlled by geometry

flows around 3D objects

i.e. a sphere

u = f(x,y,z)

flows in converging channels

i.e. u = f(x,y,z)

Continuity Discharge & Mean Velocity

Useful to work in terms of the total discharge (it describes the mass flow rate) rather then using u=f(x,y,z)

Reference Frames

When measuring or observing a flow, there are two possible reference frames

Motion can appear very difficult

Choose the reference frame to simplify the analysis

Eulerian

Observer stationary
i.e. flow metre in river

o
Lagrangian

Observer moving with the flow

i.e. float tracking in the river

Flow Acceleration
Temporal (local) Acceleration

Variation of velocity with time, at a point

U
t

Convective Acceleration

Variation of velocity with distance

i.e. following the flow spatial change in U

U
U
; v
;
x
y

U
z
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Total Acceleration

Gives the force F = ma

Equation of Motion
What drives the flow?

Changes in flow velocity (acceleration) requires forces

Static forces come from pressure

Dynamic forces come from pressure gradients

External and boundary forces also exist

Mass (total) acceleration = sum of forces on fluid

Du
F , where F=ma
Dt

With no friction and no other external forces, the flow is driven by pressure gradients, usually induced by gravity.

Acceleration

ax

Du
Dt

Differential form of the Continuity Equation

Mass flow in = mass flow out

u w

0
x z

Example 6 Wave Runup

The figure below shows a beach surface and the instantaneous water surface during wave runup at a time when the
flow at A is just stationary

The graph below shows a current metre at A recording the following time series during the runup

Find the total horizontal acceleration & local acceleration

o

Pressure gradient = acceleration = change in pressure measured across a given distance

The force on the water comes from gravity

The flow is driven by pressure gradients since there is no friction or other external forces

A net force will arise if there is a pressure gradient,

p
x

relative to hydrostatic conditions

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What is happening at flow reversal?

o

Water is stationary

Convective acceleration (U) = 0

Total acceleration = total acceleration

Du u 1 p
but only at that point in time

Dt t x

Once flow stars moving again, velocity is back in play thru convective acceleration

The current meter

shows a large

Also while the water is deeper at B, the pressure gradient is governed by the slope of the water slope

u
as the runup tip passes, which is incorrect
t
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NOT absolute pressures

Total acceleration must be seaward or the water would keep going inland

Summary

Control surface is imaginary or real plane in the flow

Control volumes are bounded by control surfaces

Streamlines are tangential to local flow velocity

1D flow

No friction

Ideal motion

2D & 3D flows
o

Controlled by friction and geometry

Integrate velocity profile to find total discharge and mean velocity

Reference frames (with their observed accelerations) can differ

Total acceleration is the important factor for forces

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Dynamics Energy Equation

Potential Energy (PE)

mgz

Kinetic Energy (KE)

1
mU 2
2

Pressure Energy

mgh

mp

p Vol

Jet = 0

General Energy Equation

Energy for mass m at position z

mp

1
mU 2 mgz
2

= Constant; for an ideal fluid with no energy losses

Dividing through by weight, mg, gives the total energy or head Bernoulli Equation

Energy Equation {E} or Bernoulli Equation {B}

A more general form for real fluid allows for energy losses due to friction or turbulence, or energy added (i.e. pump)
o

Kinetic energy in eddies cannot be recovered back to pressure energy as it is degraded to heat energy

Steady Flow Energy Equation

Where H accounts for total energy loss or gain

o

p1 p2
g

Piezometric and Energy/Total Head Lines

Piezometric line indicates pressure head

o

Measured by manometer

Total head line indicates total energy in terms of kinetic energy

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Jessica DArcy

V2
2g

Difference between lines represents velocity head

At point 2 on the diagram, it shows the total head tube bringing the fluid to rest there is a stagnation point here
where KE is converted to PE, pushing the water higher

E-line V P-Line

E-line
o

Gives levels in total head probes

Is horizontal if no energy losses

Is above P live by local velocity head,

Drops/rises for losses/inputs of energy

Rapid expansion gives energy loss resulting in a fall

expansion giving energy loss

An exit loss results in sudden

P-line
o

Gives levels in piezometers

Changes with cross-section

Is not affected by slope of pipe

On pipe axis, pressure = atmospheric

Below pipe axis, pressure = sub-atmospheric (negative)

Lies in the centre of jet flowing into surrounding fluid

U2
2g

Pressure equal to that of the surrounding fluid

General
o

For real fluids, e- and p- lines slope downward as a result of wall friction

Piezometric Pressure Equation

p* p z

Pressure & Velocity

Applying {B} between points 1 & 2 and ignoring friction

Flow cross section changes with distance

o

Continuity gives changes in velocity causing pressure changes

1
U

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Flow Meters
Pitot or Total Head Tubes

Pipe or free surface flow

Venturi Meter

Pipes

Cd = 1

Orifice Meter

Pipes

Cd = 0.65

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Discharge Equation for Venturi Meter or Orifice Meter

Example 7 Flow Meters Venturi & Orifice

A venturi meter in a pump hydro-electric storage schemes indicates a differential head of 1.2m of mercury

Pipe diameter is 1.6m

Find the flow rate for a throat diameter of 0.6m

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Kinetic Energy Correction

The variation in U due to the boundary later means that

Laminar flow in pipes, =2

Turbulent flow, =1.058

U2
is not the true velocity head
2g

As most engineering flows are turbulent the correction

is usually ignored

Fluid Power & Work

Power = energy per unit time =

weight energy

time
weight

Weight per unit time = gQ

Power = gQH = pQ = power of a fluid stream

Power between two Points

gQH

H may be head loss across turbine or power supplied by pump

Work done = power x time

Radial Flow & the Energy Equation

Radial flow outwards from the centre of a circular object

The area of the flow increases, so velocity (U) decreases by continuity

Therefore;

Q
Q

A 2rb

and

p U2

z const
g 2g

Q2
p gH
2
2
8b gr

This is called the parabolic distribution

Pressure is lowest at the centre (velocity highest)

o p=0 at edge, so pressure between plates is sub-atmospheric

Jet Discharge

Consider a jet discharge from a tank

We know pressure = 0 (atmospheric) on jet boundaries

Let z1-z2=H

Therefore

U 2 2gH

Q Cd A 2gH

NB some energy loss occurs and jet contracts

o

Contraction of the jet or under a sluice gate is called a vena contractor

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Example 8 Energy & Piezometric Lines

Sketch the e-p diagram for the system below

Find the pump head required if Q=0.5m3/s & the total head losses are 40m

Summary

Three forms of energy potential, kinetic, pressure sum of all is constant if no energy losses

Energy written in terms of head (energy per unit weight)

Piezometric line indicates pressure head lies below energy line difference is velocity head

Apply Bernoulli between two points to find velocity or pressure along a streamline

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Changes in pressure correspond to changes in velocity and vice-versa

Fluid power depends on flow rate and head

Dynamics Momentum Equation

Momentum Equation {M}

F=ma
o

Conservation of momentum (Newtons 2 nd Law)

Rate of change of momentum = sum of forces

Momentum = mU

Must consider changes in the flow across control surfaces

Force is proportional to the change in momentum

F Q(U

The forces that act on the control surfaces or control volume may arise from any of the following

A force is required to change the momentum flow rate, QU

U1) = force on fluid in the direction of motion

Pressure gradients (pipe flows, atmosphere)

Gravity (free surface flow i.e. river)

Density changes (gravity, convection)

Friction or viscosity (boundaries)

Electromagnetic forces (magnetic fluids)

Boundary forces (i.e. reaction forces)

Change in momentum may arise from either temporal or convective acceleration or both
o

Both may occur simultaneously in unsteady flows with a varying free surface (i.e. eaves) or unsteady flows
through changes in cross section

Convective Acceleration

Q = constant
o

i.e. pipe contraction

Temporal Acceleration

Q constant
o

i.e. compressible flow such as a waterhammer

Applications

Apply {M} whenever forces are required, or when {E} cannot be applied because of energy losses

Forces on bends, boundaries, and objects in the flow

Forces on contractions, orifice plates

Energy losses at turbulent expansions (pipe exit)

Jet impact on surfaces, jet reactions, nozzles

Rotational flows torque

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Force form transient boundary conditions (valve closure)

Compressible flow forces waterhammer changing flow quickly

Force on a Pipe Bend

A pipe bend changes the flow direction, requiring forces Fx and Fy on the fluid

Note there is no velocity in y direction at location 1

Example 9 Force on a Contraction

Draw the e-p lines for the contraction shown

Estimate Q

Find the force to hold the nozzle stable

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Jet Impact

A jet striking a moving flat plate is deflected through an angle

The plate is moving at velocity U p

Jet velocity normal to the plate is reduced to zero

Work in reference frame moving at U p

o

Reduces the plate velocity to zero in that reference

frame

Subtract Up from U1, accounting for the directions of

both

Pressure in jet equals that of surrounding fluid

Pressure = zero = atmospheric

Assume no flow normal to the plate (cos 90 = 0)

1 A1U1 UP

Flow rate into CV =

Change in velocity = U1 UP cos

Normal force

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F 1 A1U1 UP U1 UP cos

Normal force on stationary plate

Normal force on stationary perpendicular plate

F 1 A1 U1 U P

F 1 A1 U1 U P cos

If flow is deflected back in the original direction, change in flow velocity is;
o

U11 cos

Jet Reaction or Thrust

Accelerating fluid to give a jet requires a requiring force on the fluid

Apply {M}
o

F Q(U

U1)

Reaction force = mass discharge x increase in jet velocity

Stationary tank

R QU 2 U1 A jU 2

we neglect Ut and U1

When tank is rolling, U1 = -Ut but U2 also decreases by Ut

o

Reaction force is unchanged

Work = force x distance moved = R.Ut

Eulers Equation

Consider the following inclined pipe

From Continuity we expect U2<U1

From Bernoulli we expect p2>p1

This is consistent with a decelerating force

{B} & {M} are related

o

integration of {M} gives {B}

Eulers Equation for Steady Fluid Motion

d p z
dU
U
ds
ds

Derivative of piezometric pressure (p + z) gives convective acceleration

o

Convective Acceleration derived from Newtons Law

sum of pressure forces + body force = mass acceleration

p1A p2 A Asgsin AsU

U
convective acceleration
s

d p z
0
ds
o p z const hydrostatic pressure

If no acceleration

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Euler & Bernoulli

d 2
dU
U 2U ds
ds

Note that

If is constant, Eulers can be integrated to give Bernoulli

gz

U2
const
2

Eulers Equation for Unsteady flow

For an inviscid fluid with no body forces other than gravity

Total acceleration = pressure gradient

o

p
DU

x
Dt

Unsteady 1D flow

Expanding gives

u
u p
u Eulers Equation for Unsteady flow
t
x x

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Example 10 Head Loss at Sudden Expansion

A valve controlling flow to a turbine is in the form of a cone that deflects the incident jet.

The valve closes at 13m/s

Find the force required to shut the valve for a jet speed of 30m/s

Summary

Draw control volume and add forces on control surfaces

Obtain velocities from {C} or {B}

Sum of forces = change in momentum per unit time

Force obtained id the force required to accelerate the fluid

Force on boundaries are equal and opposite

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Work in convenient co-ordinate systems and reference frames

Twice the force is required to reverse the flow direction in comparison to that required to turn it 90

General

Jets
o

Assume pressure is constant across any cross section since tip pressure = atmospheric pressure = 0 then all
pressures = 0

Fluid jet does not exert forces

Assume velocity uniform across jet {B}

Nozzle

Assume velocity is uniform

If nozzle exhausts unto the atmosphere, pressure = 0 and other pressure from {B}

Pressure exerts a force pA where p is the pressure at the centroid of the section

Vanes

Structural component that is used to deflect a fluid jet or turned by a fluid jet e.g. turbine

Apply {B} neglect changes in elevation, pressure constant (atmospheric) U1 = U2 = U3

Assume viscous forces are negligible to pressure forces

When a vane is flat the force needed to hold the vane stationary is normal to the vane

Pipes

Flow in a pipe in turbulent, assume that velocity is nearly constant across each cross section of the pipe

Force acting on pipe cross section pA where p is the pressure of the centroid of the area A

Moving control volumes

o

u
Momentum = m
Stationary

Moving

AU
m

A j U j Ub
m
o

where the Us represent the velocity of the moving reference frame

0 as Ub Uj because m is the rate at which mass is crossing the control surface

m

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Real & Ideal Fluids

Ideal fluid

Real fluid

Significant differences

Surface tension

Only very low flows

Some hydraulic models

Compressibility

Surges

Waterhammer

VISCOSITY main difference

Flows around bluff bodies

Friction drag

Form drag (pressure difference around body)

Transverse forces

Velocity distribution close to boundaries

Shear stress

Energy losses

Surface roughness effects

Turbulence

Energy losses

Mixing

Flow separation

Local losses

Turbulence

Cavitation

Ideal potential flow

o

Viscous, compressible, surface tension, discontinuous

Examples
o

Inviscid, incompressible, no surface tension, continuous

Viscous effects neglected

Real flow
o

Viscosity

Turbulence

Flow separation

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Viscous Flow

Ideal fluid remains stationary

Real force required, fluid deforms continuously

Shearing of fluid layers occurs, no-slip conditions at boundary

A viscous fluid deforms continuously under a shear force

Laminar Flow

Agitation of fluid particles molecular parallel paths

Speed of fluid and/or boundary is low

Linearly sheared flow pattern

Therefore, in adjacent layers

Shear forces transmitted one layer to the next

velocities are u & u du

rate of shear strain is

du
dy

Stress/Strain Relationship: Newtons Law of Viscosity

Shear force is related to shear strain by

o

F
du

A
dy

units: N/m2

a constant for the same fluid at a constant temperature (Newtonian fluids)

absolute coefficient of viscosity or dynamic viscosity

Units: Ns/m2 or kg/ms

For water:

@ 20C, =1x10-3kg/ms

seawater: =1.13x10-3kg/ms

@ 15C, =1.139x10-3kg/ms

Kinematic viscosity is used alternatively

For water @ 20C:

For air

Units: m2/s
v=1x10-6 m2/s
vair = 1.5x10-5 m2/s

Viscous & Inertial Forces

In laminar flow, the viscous shear force is greater than any disturbing forces (e.g. a pressure force) and acts in the
opposite direction.
o

Consequently disturbances are damped out

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Jessica DArcy

If the disturbing force becomes larger, the orderly flow pattern breaks down turbulent flow develops

Turbulent Flow

Random motion at macroscopic level (visible to naked eye)

Rapid mixing and eddy formation

Fluid flows in Civil Engineering are usually turbulent

Reynolds Number

Reynolds 1883 experiment showed 3 flow phases

o

Viscous or laminar

Transitional

Turbulent

Eddies

Mixing action

Irregular fluctuation in velocity and direction

Re the ratio of the momentum flow rate (inertial forces) to shear forces (viscous forces)

Re

Re

momentum flow rate

shear stress area
AU 2

dU
A
dy

AU 2 Ul Ul

v
A
l

l is a typical length scale (pipe diameter, length of plate, size of roughness element)

u/l transverse distance

flows may be compared b their Reynolds Number

Any two
o

Turbulence embedded in laminar flow

The onset of turbulence is indicated by the Reynolds number of the flow

o

no mixing

However other similarity numbers may be more appropriate

Flow instability
o

Laminar flow break up into turbulent flow with transverse mixing

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Mixing
o

Low Reynolds Number

Medium Reynolds Number

High Reynolds Number

Laminar & Turbulent Flow Regimes

Turbulence occurs typically within a predictable or measureable range of R e

For typical commercial pipelines

o

Re < 2000 laminar flow

2000 < Re <4000 transitional

Re > 4000 turbulent

Smooth turbulent 104 (glass wall)

Practical flows involving water are usually turbulent

The flow of oil pipes may be laminar however

o

By increasing viscosity (water to oil), we lower Re

Example 11 Reynolds Number

Find the Reynolds Number and clarify the flow type

o

SAE30 oil injected into a baring from 10mm diameter pipe with flow rate 5L/min @ 15C

SAE10W oil in pipeline 0.6m diameter, carrying 10x10 6L/day

48

Jessica DArcy

Water @ 22C in pipeline 0.6m diameter, carrying 10x106L/day

Light breeze, 10 knots, blowing past lamp post @ 20C

1 knot = 0.51m/s

Consider kinematic viscosity of air and water

vair = 1.5x10-5 m2/s

vwater = 1x10-6 m2/s

Re

UD
v
smaller in air for same velocity and diameter

1
air is more viscous than water in terms of kinematic viscosity
Re

Cyclone past Brisbane office tower, 60m2 at 200km/hr

Model ship in towing tank, 5m in length at speeds of 30 knots

Most engineering flows are turbulent and often have very large Re

Parallel Flow
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Jessica DArcy

Consider parallel flow inclined at an angle

Draw CV for an element of unit width, length ds and thickness dy

Sum of pressure forces + body forces = mass acceleration = 0

p
pdy p dsdy gdydssin ds dyds 0
s
y

Dividing by ds and dy gives

p
dz
g
0
s
ds y

p z

s
y

Momentum equation balance of pressure gradient and shear force

shear stress distribution; rate of strain of fluid

y

or

valid for laminar and turbulent flows

a resistance term

= constant; linear for uniform conditions

General Governing Equation for Steady Parallel Laminar Flow

For laminar flow, Newtons law of viscosity gives

o

p z
2u
2
s
y

where

2u
y 2

is the second derivative of the velocity profile

This equation is exact no assumptions other then the law of viscosity

A number of exact solutions result, with wise applications in fluid mechanics, particularly lubrication
o

down inclined pipes

Flows

Flows between parallel boundaries

Flows between parallel boundaries in relative motion Couette flows

Solutions are found by integrating twice and choosing appropriate boundary conditions

Example 12 Parallel Flow

A water feature consists of a glass panel sloping at 10 down, which a thin layer of water flows into a collection pool.

Find the velocity profile, maximum velocity and discharge if the flow depth is 2mm.

Assume uniform conditions and laminar flow

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Jessica DArcy

Laminar Flow in Pipes Velocity Profile

Consider a small section of circular pipe, radius R

51

r
R

Therefore,
o

and

r
du

R
dr

du
du

dy
dr

rearranged to give

Jessica DArcy

du
r
0
dr
R

Integrated gives

0 r2
c
2R

Boundary Conditions
o

At r=0, u=Umax c=Umax

At r=R, U=0 u=Umax and

0R
0
2

Parabolic Profile

0R
2

at centre
velocity

U max

r 2
u Umax1 gives co-ordinates
R

Laminar Flow in Pipes

The relationship between U and Umax can be found from continuity

Integrate the velocity across the flow area

o

Q UA UR 2

udA
0

substitute for u and dA

u = Umax

dA = 2rdr

The average velocity is equivalent to half the maximum velocity

To determine the influence of the boundary shear stress on the energy loss along the pipe we now need to consider the
forces on the fluid within the pipe

Steady Flow in Pipes

Momentum Equation

Retarding frictional forces leads to a head loss, h f, along the pipe

o

hf = head loss due to friction

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Jessica DArcy

Apply {M} to CV
Sum of forces = Rate of change of Momentum

Momentum balance:
o

Sum of pressure forces shear force = 0

p1 p2 A 0DL 0

p1 p2 = head loss = ghf energy loss in terms of a hydrostatic head

D dp
(shear stress in terms of pressure gradient)
4 ds

NB same equations apply for sloping pipes with p replaced by piezometric pressure, p* = p +
z

gh f

D
4

0DL 0 rearranged gives 0

gD h f
4

gD dh f
4

ds

Therefore energy loss in terms of shear stress and pipe geometry

hf

4 0 L
g D

Head Loss Hagen Poiseuille Equation

For laminar flow U max 2U

hence

8U
D

Therefore
o

32U L
h f g D2 Hagen Poiseuille Equation

0D
4

the linear relationship between head loss and velocity for laminar flow

Writing head loss in terms of velocity and Reynolds

o

U 2 L 64 L U 2
L U2
h f 32
f

D 2g
DU g D Re D 2g

where f is a friction factor

for laminar flow,

64
Re

Summary Viscous fluids & Head Loss

No-slip condition at boundary

A viscous fluid deforms continuously under a shear force

Newtons Law of viscosity

du
dy

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Jessica DArcy

Linearly sheared flow pattern

Reynolds number (Re) inertial forces/viscous forces

For laminar flows there is linear relationship between head loss and velocity

Head loss written as a function of velocity head

Parabolic velocity distribution for laminar flows

Turbulent head loss based on empirical friction factor

Laminar friction ratio: f

Turbulent friction ratio:

1
1

Re D

hL

f
D5

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Jessica DArcy

Turbulent Flow

Non linear

Newtons Law of Viscosity no longer applies full theoretical description is difficult

Friction factor relationships are generally experimentally determined

Momentum balance for the pipe control volume remains the same
o

hf

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines

4 0 L
g D

A non-dimensional experimentally determined friction factor is now introduced

f
8

0 U 2

Darcy-Weisbach Equation for Flow in Pipes

From above equations for hf and gives

hf

4 fU 2 L
U2 L
f
8g D
2g D

This Darcy equation may also be used for laminar flow since

64
(laminar friction factor)
Re

For turbulent flows, f is a function of Reynolds number and surface roughness.

o

Can be determined from equations or Moody Diagram

momentum equation gives analogous results

For non-circular conduits (or partially full pipes) the

p1 p2 A 0PL 0

p1 p2 = head loss = ghf

Hence
o

hL

where P is the wetted perimeter where the shear force is applied

0 PL
U2 L
f
gA
2g 4 A
P

where 4A/P is the hydraulic diameter, Dh

Dh for a non-circular pipe

Dh = D for a circular pipe

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines

UDh

Re

For open channels this equation is a version of the Chezy equation

Pronounced (shay-zee)

Example 13 Laminar & Turbulent Flow Head Loss in Pipes

Laminar
o

The flow of water in a pipe is laminar when Q 0.24 L s and

What is the flow rate when

dp*
5 Pa m ?
ds

dp*
10 Pa m
ds

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Jessica DArcy

Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5",

First line: 0.5", Line spacing: 1.5 lines

Turbulent
o

The same pipe as above but this time the pope is fully rough turbulent (f is constant) when

Q 0.82 L s and
o

dp*
30 Pa m
ds

What is the flow rate when

dp*
60 Pa m ?
ds

Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5",

First line: 0.5", Line spacing: 1.5 lines

For many engineering applications the flow is fully rough turbulent

In this instance, f is constant with Re

o

hf

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines

fQ 2 L Q2

2gA 2 D D5

Pipe diameter controls hf

To find f, use Moody diagram or formula

Velocity Profile in a Pipe

The velocity profile in turbulent flow has been determined via experimental and theoretical work

Shear stress is written in terms of a turbulent eddy viscosity,

o

du
dy

where

l 2

du
dy

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Field Code Changed

l ky

Field Code Changed

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Jessica DArcy

k = Von Karman constant 0.4

y = distance from boundary

dependant on flow characteristics it is not a function of the flow like normal viscosity

Therefore

du 1 0 u*

dy ky ky

u* = shear stress velocity =

o
Integrated

Field Code Changed

(with dimensions of velocity)

it is a measure of the friction and shear stress of a fluid close to the boundary

1
ln yu* c
k
o

@ y=R, u=Umax which allows c to be evaluated

As y=R-r

R
u U max 5.75u* log

R r

Logarithmic Velocity profile

The Log Law is deficient at r=0

Field Code Changed

As opposed to parabolic laminar velocity profile

Gives a point rather then a smooth curve, and very close to
the wall where laminar flow occurs
Formatted: Font: 10 pt

Formatted: Normal, Justified, Indent: Le

1", First line: 0.5", Line spacing: 1.5 lin

Viscous or Laminar Sub Layer

In turbulent flow, a thin layer of laminar flow persists close to the wall

Thickness is given by
o

11.6v

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

1
experimental
Re

As laminar sub layer becomes thinner, Re increases the eddies become more vigorous and intrude
further into the sub layer with increasing Reynolds value

Eddy Viscosity

Shear stresses are related to the size of the eddy i.e. the mixing length in the flow, l
o

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Small eddies decay quickly

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Jessica DArcy

High strain rates bigger velocities eddies are smaller shear stress is higher eddies dampen
quickly

Large eddies decay slowly

Low rates of strain larger distance between changes in velocity less shear stress eddies die
slowly

As closer to the boundary, eddies decay quicker but create higher shear stress

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines, Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at:
0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"

Development of Velocity Profiles in Pipes Laminar Flow

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines
Formatted: Font: 10 pt

Following entry into a pipe, fully developed flow conditions take some length of pipe to establish entry length
o

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

In this region of non-uniform flow there is a central core of fluid unaffected by friction, with the boundary layer
growing in thickness from the pipe wall

Development of Velocity Profiles in Pipes Turbulent Flow

Formatted: List Paragraph, Justified, Li

spacing: 1.5 lines, Bulleted + Level: 2 +
Aligned at: 0.75" + Indent at: 1"

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines
Formatted: Font: 10 pt

The laminar flow at the pope entrance rapidly breaks down into turbulent flow at higher R e

The turbulent boundary layer grows rapidly, leading to fully developed conditions earlier than for laminar flow

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Boundary Roughness

Smooth & rough boundaries

o

Hydraulically smooth

Hydraulically rough

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Irregularities or roughness elements do not pierce the laminar sub-layer

Roughness elements extend beyond the laminar sub
layer

Whether the boundary is rough or smooth depends on Re

A boundary may be smooth at low flow velocities and rough at high

flow velocities
o

Must think about the flow, not just the boundary

Formatted: List Paragraph, Justified, Li

spacing: 1.5 lines, Bulleted + Level: 2 +
Aligned at: 0.75" + Indent at: 1"

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Jessica DArcy

Friction Factors: Ks V L

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines

The following equations are expressed graphically via a Moody diagram

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

k
o f may be read as a function of Re and s
D

Field Code Changed

Typical ks values

Formatted: Font: 10 pt, Not Superscript

Subscript

Concrete: 0.3mm < ks < 3mm

o
o

Glass, plastic: ks 0.0015mm

Formatted: Font: 10 pt, Not Superscript

Subscript

Steel, iron: ks 0.05mm

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines
Formatted: Font: (Default) +Body
(Cambria), 10 pt

Smooth Turbulent Flow

L > ks
o

roughness elements submerged in sub-layer

f independent of ks

0.316
1

Re 4

Formatted: Font: (Default) +Body

(Cambria), 10 pt
Formatted: Font: (Default) +Body
(Cambria), 10 pt
Formatted: Font: (Default) +Body
(Cambria), 10 pt

Blasius equation

Formatted: Font: (Default) +Body

(Cambria), 10 pt

Transitional Flow

Formatted: Font: (Default) +Body

(Cambria), 10 pt

ks
L 6ks
3

Formatted: Font: (Default) +Body

(Cambria), 10 pt

roughness elements partially exposed

f dependent of ks, D & Re

Formatted: Font: (Default) +Body

(Cambria), 10 pt

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines

ks

1
2.51
2log D
Colebrook-White equation
3.7 Re f
f

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Formatted: List Paragraph, Justified, Li

spacing: 1.5 lines, Bulleted + Level: 1 +
Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"

Rough Turbulent Flow

ks
3

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

roughness elements extend beyond sub-layer, shedding eddies into the main flow

friction factor becomes independent of Re

Field Code Changed

hL

Field Code Changed

Formatted: List Paragraph, Justified, Li

spacing: 1.5 lines, Bulleted + Level: 1 +
Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"

U2

D
1
2log 1.14
f
ks

Field Code Changed

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Example 14 Pipe Friction Factors

Field Code Changed

Find the appropriate friction factor and flow condition for the following 4 examples
o

Field Code Changed

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

A rough iron pipe 0.2m in diameter carrying oil with U=0.05m/s

oil=900kg/m3, oil=0.07Ns/m2, ks=1.5mm

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Jessica DArcy

Formatted: Font: 10 pt

Formatted: Normal, Justified, Indent: Le

0.5", First line: 0.5", Line spacing: 1.5
lines

A laboratory flume, 0.3m wide with a smooth glass bed and walls

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines

U=0.4m/s, ks=0.01mm, d=depth=0.2m

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Formatted: Font: 10 pt

Formatted: Normal, Justified, Indent: Le

0.5", First line: 0.5", Line spacing: 1.5
lines

Steel pipe 0.3m in diameter

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines

U=0.4m/s, ks=0.25mm

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Formatted: Font: 10 pt

Formatted: Normal, Justified, Indent: Le

0.5", First line: 0.5", Line spacing: 1.5
lines

Flow in a 2m diameter penstock at U=15m/s

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines

Riveted steel, ks=10mm

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Formatted: Font: 10 pt

Formatted: Normal, Justified, Indent: Le

1", First line: 0.5", Line spacing: 1.5 lin

Summary

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines

Non-linear empirical relationships for the friction factor

Head loss written in terms of velocity head

Darcy-Weisbach equation
o

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Head loss proportional to U2

Logarithmic velocity profile plus laminar sub-layer close to wall

Effective boundary roughness depends on the height of roughness elements compared to the thickness of the laminar
sub layer

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Jessica DArcy

Both friction factor and effective roughness depend on Reynolds number

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines, Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at:
0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"

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Jessica DArcy

Pipeline & Pipe Network Design

Local Losses in Pipe Flow Flow Separation Losses

Flow separation
at pipe fittings, valves, bends and junction leads to pressure loss

from the pipe wall leads to turbulence and eddy formation downstream

Local losses may exceed pipe friction losses

Local losses > pipe friction losses

In long pipe systems

Local losses may become negligible compared to the pipe friction loss

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines, Bulleted + Level: 2 + Aligned at:
0.75" + Indent at: 1"

i.e. energy dissipation or a head loss

In small complex pipe networks (chemical processes, hydraulic systems, ventilation systems)
o

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Local losses << pipe friction losses

Local losses
o

Determined experimentally

Analytical expression may be derived for sudden expansions

Local Losses at an Expansion

Consider the sudden expansion below

Draw CV just inside expansion

Flow separation results in a jet

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Formatted: Font: 10 pt

Head Loss at Sudden Expansion

hL

2
U 22 A2
1
2g A1

Field Code Changed

If A2 infinity, U2 0,

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

hL

U2
2g

This is the head loss for a discharge into a reservoir or atmosphere (i.e. exit loss)

Valid for pipe at an angle

Local Losses Empirical Relationships

hL K
o

U2
2g

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Field Code Changed

where K varies according to the differing pipe fittings

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Jessica DArcy

Intakes

Formatted: Heading 3, Justified, Line

spacing: 1.5 lines, No bullets or
numbering

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines, Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at:
0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"

flow direction

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Exits/Outfalls

Formatted: Heading 3, Justified, Line

spacing: 1.5 lines, No bullets or
numbering

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines, Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at:
0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"

flow direction

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Expansion/Contraction

Formatted: Heading 3, Justified, Line

spacing: 1.5 lines, No bullets or
numbering
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

flow direction

Bends, Valves

For an orifice plate,

o

A 1 = Cca

Fitting

Formatted Table

90 Elbow

0.9

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

45 Elbow

0.4

Cc = coefficient of contraction

Long 90 Elbow

0.6

a = area at contraction

90 Mitre

1.3

T Junction

1.8

Gate valve (open)

0.19

Gate valve (half shut)

2.06

The loss occurs after the expansion

Therefore

2
U A2
hL
1

2g A1
2
2

Field Code Changed

Pipeline Design

Total
head change = pump head supplied sum of pipe friction losses sum of local losses

For a typical hydro-electric scheme as outlined above, and balancing total head available with head losses gives

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Formatted: Font: 10 pt

Two Cases

Given D, Q, find hL (or given D, hL, find Q)

o

H = hL = sum of all losses

Rearrange Darcy equation to get expressions for Q

Make initial guess for f, calculate hL or Q

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

63

Jessica DArcy

Check guess for f and iterate if necessary

Given hL, Q, find D

o

Trial and error

Guess D, find Re and hence f

Calculate H and iterate D until H = hL

NOTE:
o

hL

1
D5

Field Code Changed

Example 15 Pipelines
A pump draws water from a reservoir and pumps to a tank at higher elevation

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

For a pump delivering 12kW of useful power, find the flow rate and the head supplied by the pump

64

Jessica DArcy

Example 16 Pipelines

A pipeline of length 1km discharges from a reservoir to the atmosphere

The head loss is 15m, diameter is 0.5m, ks is 0.05mm, length of pipe is 1000m

Sketch the e-p lines and determine the flow rate

Formatted: Heading 2, Justified, Line

spacing: 1.5 lines, No bullets or
numbering
Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

65

Jessica DArcy

Formatted: Normal, Justified, Indent: Fi

line: 0.5", Line spacing: 1.5 lines

Pipe Networks
Pipes in Series

Discharge is the same in each pipe and the head loss is simply the
sum of the loss in each pipe

Formatted: List Paragraph, Justified, Li

spacing: 1.5 lines, Bulleted + Level: 1 +
Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Pipes in Parallel

The head loss in each pipe must be equal since the differential head

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

is the same for each pipe

Each pipe can be considered separately

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Jessica DArcy

Formatted: Font: 10 pt

Formatted: Normal, Justified, Indent: Le

1.5", First line: 0.5", Line spacing: 1.5
lines

Example 17 Cofferdam

A bypass tunnel for a cofferdam is required to carry a flow at 150m 3/s, with available head limited to 5m

Total length is 750m, driven through rock with ks=100mm

The plan is shown below, hence find the required diameter

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Formatted: Font: (Default) +Body

(Cambria), 10 pt, Not Bold

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Jessica DArcy

Formatted: Normal, Justified, Indent: Le

0.5", Line spacing: 1.5 lines

Hardy-Cross Technique

Formatted: Heading 2, Justified, Line

spacing: 1.5 lines

As the pressure loss between two points is the same, regardless of the flow route, the system will balance so that flow

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

depends inversely on the relative resistance of each path

o

THEREFORE, total pressure loss around a loop in a pipe circuit is zero

In a water supply network the input and offtake locations are usually known, as are the required flow rates
o

Individual pipes however require sizing for effectiveness and economy

Hardy-cross method of successive approximations is used to determine how the flows are distributed with the network

The Three Relationships to Satisfy

Flow into a junction = flow away from a junction

For each pipe, hLi = KiQi2

o

Formatted: Heading 3, No bullets or

numbering

Ki = friction and local losses in the pipe

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines, Bulleted + Level: 1 + Aligned at:
0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"

Losses at junctions are usually ignored since the pipes are long

Sum of head losses around any loop = 0

Formatted: Font: 10 pt

Formatted: Normal, Justified, Indent: Le

1.5", First line: 0.5", Line spacing: 1.5
lines, No bullets or numbering

Analytical approach applied via computer

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Choose a reasonable flow rate for each pipe, Qi0

Calculate hLi = KiQi2 for each pipe

For each loop find hL hL positive clockwise, hL negative anticlockwise, which will not generally be zero

Apply correction Q, which for positive hL reduces the flow clockwise and increases it the anticlockwise

Repeal until hL becomes small

When a system has a number of loops, corrections to one loop affect adjacent loops and common pipes

The correction to Q is calculated as follows

o

For pipe I and intial estimate of the flow Qi, then for correction Q

hLi K i Qi Q K iQi 2K iQiQ K i Q

2

where K i Q 0
2

Field Code Changed

o At the next iteration we require the sum of head losses to be reduced towards zero

K iQi

2 K iQi

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Jessica DArcy

Positive hL requires reduction of clockwise Q and in increase in anti-clockwise Q

Q is added algebraically and the process repeated until hL 0

Example 18 Hardy-Cross Method

A pipe network on an industrial site delivers the flows below

Find Q in each pipe where ks=0.025mm

If head required at C is 25m, what supply head is required coming in at point A?

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

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Jessica DArcy

Formatted: Normal, Justified, Indent: Fi

line: 0.5", Line spacing: 1.5 lines

Summary

Flow separation at pipe fittings leads to additional local head losses again in terms of velocity head

Total head loss = sum of pipe friction losses and all local losses

Pipeline design iterative approach usually needed

Pipes in series sum head loss in each

Pipes in parallel head loss in each arm equal

For networks, total pressure loss around a loop = 0

Head loss equal irrespective of path

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

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Jessica DArcy

Formatted: Font: 16 pt, Font color: Acc

1

Dynamic Fluid Loading

Formatted: Font: Bold

Dynamic fluid loading on immersed bodies is important in many Civil Engineering aspects

Bridges wind and river flow loads

Structures and chimneys wind loading

Offshore engineering wave loading, ship resistance

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Secondary effects of the flow are often as important as the primary drag force
o

Vortex induced vibrations

Suction pressures (Bernoulli)

Formatted: List Paragraph, Justified, Li

spacing: 1.5 lines, Bulleted + Level: 2 +
Aligned at: 0.75" + Indent at: 1"

Design Requirements
Example Wave Conditions

Design for

Extremes

Serviceability

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Design wave heights for the UK North Sea

o

Northern sector: 20-30m (150m depth), 12-15s period

Southern sector: 15m (25m depth)

Currents

Wind driven ocean currents:

o

Agulhas current: 2-2.5m/s

Florida current: 0.9-1.8m/s

Formatted: Font: (Default) +Body

(Cambria), 10 pt

Formatted: List Paragraph, Justified, Li

spacing: 1.5 lines, Bulleted + Level: 1 +
Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5", Tab
stops: 0.49", Left + Not at 0.39"

Tidal ebb currents:

o

Pentland Firth 5.5m/s

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Columbia river 3m/s

Formatted: Font: (Default) +Body

(Cambria), 10 pt

Coastal currents:
o

longshore -up to 2.5m/s

rip currents up to 1.5m/s

Loading directly due to currents

Vibration and resonance

Formatted: Font: (Default) +Body

(Cambria), 10 pt

Formatted: Heading 2, Justified, Line

spacing: 1.5 lines, No bullets or
numbering, Widow/Orphan control, Adju
space between Latin and Asian text,
Adjust space between Asian text and
numbers, Tab stops: Not at 0.49" + 0.7
+ 1.17" + 1.56" + 1.94" + 2.33" + 2.72
+ 3.11" + 3.5" + 3.89" + 4.28" + 4.67"

Design Requirements - Loading Regimes

Consider the simplest case of fluid loading on a single pile:

o

Bow wave and run-up

Wake develops at rear separated flow

Turbulent flow, rough or smooth body

If flow reversal occurs, wake moves back past pile

Fluid structure interaction for dynamic elements

Experimental results provide design basis

The following load regimes may need to be considered

o

Ideal flow potential flow approach

Drag dominated loading (steady & unsteady flow)

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Formatted: Bullets and Numbering
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(Cambria), 10 pt

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Jessica DArcy

Inertia dominated loading (unsteady flow, rigid body motions)

Influence of boundaries and other structures (pipelines)

Flow induced vibrations (wake effects)

Impact loads, shock loading

Ideal Flow Approach

Formatted: Font: 10 pt

Formatted: Justified, Indent: Left: 0.5",

First line: 0.5", Line spacing: 1.5 lines

No wake

Steady flow pressure force symmetric (no drag force)

Pressure gradient due to accelerating fluid

Pressure gradient gives pressure force (inertia force)

Additional pressure gradient due to flow disturbance (added mass)

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Real Fluids & Viscous Fluids

Flow regime dependent on Reynolds number

o

Re

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

DU

Formatted: Font: 10 pt

Fluid Loading

Generally speaking, fluid loading on a body can be obtained in three ways

o

Integrating the pressure on small elements around the body

Applying the momentum equation to a control volume enclosing the body and wake

Direct measurement

However the flow pattern is very complicated and solutions do not exist for most turbulent flows

Engineering approach
o

Simple equation

Drag coefficient

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Pressure Drag

Flow separation leads to a non-uniform pressure around the body, with lower pressure in the wake.

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

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Jessica DArcy

Lower pressure may also exist around the body

The pressure differentials lead to net pressure forces, which may be in the flow direction or perpendicular to the flow

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0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"
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Drag

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

FD

Defined as the component of force acting on the body in the direction of relative motion usually the flow
direction

Lift
o

FL

Defined as the force perpendicular to the drag force

Except at very small Re, flow separation occurs at sharp edges, corners or due to an averse pressure gradient

The separated boundary layer is a shear layer (high velocity gradients) which divides the flow into layers
Formatted: Font: 10 pt

Formatted: Normal, Justified, Indent: Le

1.5", First line: 0.5", Line spacing: 1.5
lines

Wake highly turbulent, pressure is low leading to a drag force

External flow nearly frictionless, can be treated as an ideal fluid

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Total Drag

Viscous effects along the body surface lead to a skin friction force
o

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Total drag = pressure drag + skin friction drag

The relative magnitude depends on the body geometry

o

Streamlined shapes low pressure drag

Bluff shapes high pressure drag

Pressure drag dominates (in most Civil cases)

In either case, the total drag is usually calculated using an experimentally determine drag coefficient that is a function
of Reynolds number

Drag & Lift Force

Both friction forces and the stagnation pressure are function of U2

Drag and lift forces are written as;

o

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Drag force parallel to flow

1
FD CDU 2 A
2
o

CD = drag force/(stagnation pressure x area)

In calculations of CD, always guess CD=0.4 first

o Stagnation pressure

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Jessica DArcy

The extra pressure developed to stop (stagnate) flow. It occurs at the leading edge of an immersed
body and is the pressure developed at the tip of a pitot tube.

1
U 2
2

Lift force perpendicular to flow

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

F C U 2 A
L 2 L
o

Field Code Changed

A = projected frontal area of the body

For a cylinder and sphere, projected frontal area is the diameter

o CD & CL obtained from charts

Boundary Layer Separation

A turbulent boundary layer separates later from the body surface

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

Wake width and drag reduced

Occurs naturally on smooth spheres at Re105, leading to a sharp drop in CD

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Terminal Velocity

An object settling (or rising) in a fluid will reach an equilibrium when gravity (or buoyancy) forces balance drag forces
o

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

This velocity is the terminal fall (or rise) velocity

Applications
o

Particle mechanics (two phase flows, powder flows)

Sedimentation (settling, sorting)

Data collection (atmospheric and oceanic)

Flow meters

As CD varies with Re, determining the terminal velocity usually requires iteration for 0.2< R e<1000

Example 19 Terminal Velocity

A spherical marker buoy is anchored and submerged in sea water

D = 0.3m, m = 7kg, sea =

1025kg/m3,

sea =

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

10-6m2/s

A. Find the force on the mooring rope

B. Find the initial acceleration if the rope snaps
C.

Find the steady rise velocity (i.e. terminal velocity, ultimate velocity)

D. Determine the dynamic behaviour (not assessable)

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Jessica DArcy

Skin Friction

Depends on total wetted area

For flat or long surfaces, the skin friction may be required

The local surface drag is written in terms of a shear stress, , and skin coefficient, cf
o

Shear stress

1
2

c f U 2
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Jessica DArcy

Where p=0.5U2CP

Total shear force or friction drag

Fs

2 c U dA
2

For a surface area B.L, using an average skin friction coefficient, C f

1
Fs C f U 2BL
2

cf and Cf can be calculated theoretically for some flows, but can also be obtained from tables or charts

Boundary Layer
Drag Surface Roughness

Flow in the boundary layer is laminar at small Reynolds numbers

and turbulent at high Reynolds values

The relative surface roughness is important

A very thin laminar sub-layer exists even for a turbulent boundary

layer

Loading Regimes Real & Viscous Flows

Flow separation leads to wake and vortex shedding and drag force

Oscillating drag and lift force due to vortex shedding

Resonance conditions possible

The vortex shedding frequency can be found from the Strouhal number
o

St f

D
U

St is a weak function of Re,

However, St 0.2 for Re < 105

Spin & Lift Magnus Effect

When a 3D body (cylinder or sphere) rotates as it moves through the fluid, the air flow is faster on one side, and hence a
lower pressure results
o

Causes lift and is the physics behind the top-spin on a tennis ball or curve on a
baseball

Asymmetric boundary layer separation also plays a role

Unsteady Fluid Loading Total in-line force

If the flow or body are accelerating, additional forces arises from the pressure gradient in the fluid and the additional
mass of fluid accelerated with the body
o

Wave and earthquake loading are prime Civil applications

For accelerating flows;

o

.
1
F Fdrag Finertia CD AUU CmV u
2

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Jessica DArcy

Morison equation
o

1
dU
F CD AUU 1 km V
2
dt

km is the added mass coefficient

m = 1 + km = inertia coefficient
C

For a real fluid, drag coefficient = same as true steady flow

only local (temporal) acceleration is considered, km factors in the convective acceleration

CD 1 for smooth circular cylinders

Hydrodynamic mass (added mass) and an Accelerating Body

Consider a plate of mass m, moving in a stiff fluid

The hydrodynamic mass is the additional mass of fluid which is accelerated with or around the body

Force required to accelerate total mass

o

F m m'a

m = kmV

Cylinder km = 1

Sphere km = 0.5

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Jessica DArcy

Example 20 Unsteady Loading

An intake tower in a dam is 8m in diameter and stands in water 25m deep

It is designed for earthquake loading with maximum horizontal acceleration of a = 0.2g at a frequency of 5Hz

Part A
o

Estimate the force exerted by the water

Part B
o

Investigate long wave load on the intake tower for wave period T=5min and wave height, H=0.5m

From long wave theory,

umax

H
gh,
2h

amax umax

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Summary

Total in-line force results from pressure drag and skin friction

Pressure drag arises from stagnation pressure at front of body and low pressure wake

Transverse forces arise from pressure gradients across the body lift forces

Flow separation and wake depend on Reynolds number

Force calculated using drag, skin friction and lift coefficients

Vortex shedding in the wake leads to transverse forces and possible resonant forcing

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Jessica DArcy

Flows Around Immersed Bodies

Dimensional Analysis & Similarity

Empirical results (e.g. friction factors, drag coefficients) are widely applied in hydraulic engineering and fluid
mechanics
o

A lot of data, many variables/physical parameters

Grouping of variables into dimensionless numbers enables;

Reduction of data

Development of relationships between groups

Application of these results across a wide range of scales requires similarity of the flow
o

Similarity enables testing by scale modeling

Importance of Dimensions

Dimensionally and numerically both sides of the equation must be the same
o

Keep equations symbolic where possible

For example

1 horse + 3 cars = 4 hours

1m/s + 3m/s = 4m/s

Fundamental Dimensions

Length, L (m)
o

Area units: L2

Time, T (s)

Velocity units: L/T or LT-1

Acceleration units: LT-2

Mass, M (kg)
o

Force units: MLT-2

Buckingham Method
1.

List significant variables, n

2.

List their fundamental dimensions, m (generally 3 for most hydraulic engineering conditions)

3.

Number of dimension groups, NG = n-m

The dimensionless numbers are ratios of two physically similar quantities i.e. forces, length scales

Consider friction in a pipe

o

f ,,D,U,r

1 2, 3

n=6, m=3

NG = 3

There are three dimensionless groups that can be used to correlate experimental results

In this case, a friction coefficient, Reynolds number and relative roughness

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Step-by-step Method

Dimensionless groups can be formed by a process of eliminating dimensions using other variables, in a step-by-step
process

1) List variables and identify dimensions and number groups

2) Set up a table with dimensional variables and their dimensions in the left column
3) Divide each dimensionless variable by one other in turn to form m-1 groups. Put these into the next column, with their
dimensions
4) Repeat Step 3 until only NG dimensionless groups remain

Experimental data then yields the relationship between the NG groups

Common Groups

A number of dimensionless groups recur repeatedly because the dynamic process are often similar (since F=ma)
o

Reynolds number importance of viscosity

UL

Re

Froude number free surface flows

V
gL

Fr

Pressure coefficient fluid forces

p
1
V 2
2

Cp

Mach number compressible flows

V
c

Weber number surface tension

We

V 2 L

Others

FD

Force coefficient/thrust

Tip Velocity

Dimensionless Power/efficiency

Dimensionless flow

D2U 2

D
U

gQh

Q
D 2 D

H
Dimensionless head
D 2
g

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Example 21 Dimensional Analysis

The drag on a sphere is a function of , , U and D. Find the appropriate dimensionless parameters

The design for a new turbine is to be optimized in small scale model tests

The power P, depends on runner diameter D, angular frequency , Q, H, g and properties of water

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Jessica DArcy

Similarity

Dimensional analysis provides the important parameter groups that determine the flow behaviour

Model results are needed however to determine precise relationships

Model testing requires flow similarity between the model and full scale prototype
Many applications

Wind tunnels, ships, river and harbour models, turbines, spillways, pipe systems and components

2 basic types of similarity, Geometric & Dynamic

Geometric Similarity

Dimensions in the same ratio

Geometric scaled replica

Scale 1:N

Lm

Am

Lp
N
Ap
N2

Where m=model, p=prototype

Dynamic Similarity

Forces in the same ratio

Flow pattern will be the same if both geometric and dynamic similarity are satisfied. Fluid may be different in model
and prototype
o

Requires significant dimensionless numbers to be the same

These numbers are ratios of forces

E.g. inertia, viscous, gravity, compressibility, surface tension)

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Perfect Similarity

Froude Scaling

Perfect similarity is not possible, since the forces do not all reduce at the same rate as the geometric scale is reduced

Some forces however are not directly important

o

Seek similarity of important forces F=ma

Froud scaling acceleration and gravity forces

Froude Similitude Undistorted Models

If the Froude number in the model and prototype are to be kept the same, then the following relationships need to be
satisfied for a 1/N scale model (e.g. N=50)

Therefore, for the same fluid and an undistorted model;

Velocity and discharge are smaller in model

Important relationships are

Froude models are relatively easy to construct and are reliable

o

Problems

Friction may not be insignificant (low Re numbers)

Surface tension effects

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Reynolds Scaling Acceleration & Viscous Forces

Viscous force = stress x area

Where;

Therefore

U 2
L UL
L

and

U U U2

t L
L
U

Reynolds Similitude Undistorted Models

If the Reynolds number in the model and prototype are to be kept the same, then the following relationships need to be
satisfied for a 1/N scale model (e.g. N=50)

Therefore, using the same fluid

Velocity is greater in the model

Forces are the same in the model

True Reynolds scaling is difficult

Um >> Up (compressibility and cavitation effects)

Large forces and high flow velocities beyond laboratory capability

Usually have scale effects model is not a true representation

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Jessica DArcy

Scale Modelling

Re scales velocities up

Fr scales velocities down

Problems

The velocity scales differently using Reynolds and Froude scale laws

Careful model design is needed to avoid scale effects

Apply model for scenario where results are independent of Re. Test for range of Re.

Most engineering prototypes are in a turbulent flow regime

Very shallow flows should be avoided surface tension effects

Not possible to satisfy both scale laws simultaneously

Must design model so model Re is representing turbulent flow

Other Scale Relationships

Geometric scaling gives

Time, density, viscosity and material properties (e.g. yield stress) could all have different scales, N t, N, N, Nm, etc

Then kinematics and dynamics scale in the same manner as before

o

For example

Hence, self weight stress is smaller (by NL) for smaller objects made of the same material

Example 22 Similitude

Water flow through a heat exchanger for a power plant is tested in a 1:10 scale model

The prototype has length, L=10m and a pressure drop of p=0.1m for a flow velocity of U=0.2m/s

The model can use air or water

Find U and p required in each model

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Summary

Both sides of equation must have the same dimensions

Dimensionless groups can be used to correlate data

Buckingham method step-by-step method to eliminate dimensions

Reynolds number and Froude number are the tow most important dimensionless groups for most Civil Engineering
applications

Similarity aims to ensure ratios of dominant forces are the same in model and prototype

Viscous effects important use Reynolds similarity

Free surface flows use Froude scaling

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Jessica DArcy

Froude

V
gL

Equation

Fr

Scale

m 1

p N

Lm

Length

Am

Area

Flow

Time

Mass

Pressure

Force
Acceleration

Geometric Scaling:

Lp

Re

UL

N
Ap
N2
Vp

Vm Vp

U m NU p

Um U p

Qm Qp

Q
Qm p
N

Qm Qp

T
Tm p
N

Tm Tp

T
Tm p2

M
M m 3p
N

Mm M p

P
Pm p
N
F
Fm p3
N

am a p

Pm Pp

Pm Pp N 2

Fm Fp

Constant

Fm Fp

Vm

Velocity

Reynolds

Q
Qm 5p
N 2

L
NL m
Lp

2
N area N L

Tm Tp
fm f p

N vol N L

Pm Pp

Constant
3

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Unsteady Flow in Pipe Systems

Unsteady Flows in Closed Conduits

Unsteady flow occurs when a flow is being established or altered

dQ
0
dt

Examples

Reservoir filling or draining

Valve closure both slow and rapid

Mass oscillation

Flow rates to consider

o

Slow variations in discharge

Time scale hours

More rapid variations in discharge

Very rapid changes in discharge

Time scale several seconds

Time scale seconds

Analysis technique

Depends on;
o

Rate of variation

Whether changes are sufficient to lead to compressible flow

For slow variations in discharge, temporal accelerations can be neglected

For more rapid variations in discharge, compressibility can be ignored, but accelerations must be accounted for

For very rapid changes in discharge, both the fluid and pipeline may compress/expand, leading to pressure waves

Analysis based on steady flow equations and continuity

An unsteady dlow energy equation is required

(waterhammer) propagated at the speed of sound.

o

Compressibility of the fluid and pipeline must be considered

Slow Variations in Discharge

Consider fluid transfer between two reservoirs (gravity flow)

The instantaneous head difference balances losses in the pipeline

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Reservoir levels change due to the flow Q

o

Continuity gives

Substituting for

dh2
dh1
Q
(in terms of h1) and then
(in terms of U ) gives
dt
dt
A

This can be analytically integrated if A is a constant, or a simple function of h. If not numerical integration is needed.

Time Required for Head Change

For A constant, integrating gives

Time for levels to change change in the square roots of the initial and final head difference

The equation can be applied for a range of different geometry

o

Example

For a discharge to atmosphere A2

NB: C strictly may vary with time, but it can usually be assumed constant based on the initial discharge rate

More Rapid Changes in Discharge

When more rapid changes in discharge occur, acceleration effects must be considered
o

Consider first incompressible flow

o

Since F=ma, additional forces are generated

Termed surge or rigid column theory

Assumptions
o

Inelastic fluid

Pressure changes propagate instantaneously

Pipe is rigid (elasticity neglected)

Rigid Column Theory

Consider a long pipeline discharging to atmosphere

At some point in the pipe, it may be necessary to close or open a valve rapidly
o

i.e. hydroelectric schemes, pipe bursts

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For long pipes, the fluid momentum will be large

Large forces are required to accelerate of decelerate the flow, generating large pressures, H
o

Mass of fluid in pipe

Momentum of fluid

m = AL

M = ALU

Q = UA

To retard the flow in time t requires a rate of change of momentum

dM
dU
AL
dt
dt

Newton: Force = rate of change of momentum

Force = pA

o Hence

F pA gAH

dM
dU
AL
dt
dt

Surge Pressure is:

o

L dU
g dt
Which may give a total head considerably greater than the static pressure

If du/dt is large, then very large pressure may be generated

To apply rigid column theory it is useful to derive an unsteady form of Bernoullis equation or an unsteady energy

At some point the fluid will start to compress and the pipeline will expand
o

Assumptions no longer apply and compressibility must be considered (waterhammer theory)

equation head losses due to friction can then be accounted for.

Example 23 Rigid Column Theory

A reservoir discharges to the atmosphere though a valve and 2000m long pipe

The valve can be closed fully in 5 seconds

Assume incompressible conditions

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Jessica DArcy

Find the surge pressure at the valve and halfway along the pipe when the valve is closed

Plot total pressure head, H(t), at the valve during valve closure

Method:
1) Solve using the energy equation combined with the surge head equation assuming incompressible flow
2) Establish flow acceleration
a.

Initial velocity steady scenario

b.

Final velocity zero

i. NB: U1=U2

c.

a=

U 0 U 0
U

0
t
tc
tc

3) Surge equation or H

L U
LU

g t c
g tc

4) For closure head, determine hL

a.

We know

i.

U 3 4 U0 1 3 4

ii. Sum of head = static head hL + surge

5) Determine H(t)

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Jessica DArcy

Moments before closure & moments after closure

The change in pressure that occurs when the valve starts shutting occurs instantaneously

At valve closure

Why does surge pressure act from start to finish of valve closing without varying?
o

Surge pressure only cares about the mass deceleration, it is independent of where the valve closure is

Time history graph Total Head V Time

o

Pressure starts at zero

Pressure finishes at static head

As soon as we start shutting the valve we get a surge, H

hL varies with distance, more head loss at the start

Key features of this question

o

We have a pressure head surge from tstart < t < tfinish or tc

hL is recovered as U0 and ttc (closure of valve)

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Jessica DArcy

hL U 2

Unsteady Energy Equation

Consider a control volume as before, but now with an accelerating fluid

Apply {M} to the control volume

o

Mass acceleration = sum of pressure force shear force + body force

Sum of force = rate of change of momentum = ma (Newton)

Where

0DL gh f

D2
4

as for steady flow

Dividing by gA and integrating the convective acceleration term gives the general unsteady energy equation

Effect of Acceleration

For the same instantaneous flow rates in a horizontal section, the unsteady energy equation gives

p2

g
o

p1

hL

L dU
g dt

If the flow is accelerating then the pressure reduces in the flow direction

o If the flow is decelerating then the pressure increases in the flow direction

Applications of Unsteady Energy Equation

Again consider the pipeline above under a constant driving head H

After the valve is opened, the flow initially accelerated but frictional forces reduce the acceleration until a steady flow is
reached

Applying the unsteady equation between the reservoir and point of discharge to atmosphere gives

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For steady flow, U0, this gives

H 1 K

U 02
2g

Rearranging and substituting for H and hL gives

In reality, damping will give equilibrium in a finite time

The time to reach some fraction of Uo can be estimated

If U is a function of H, then a numerical time-stepping procedure is usually required

Example 24 Unsteady Flow with Acceleration: Flow between two Reservoirs

A pipeline connects two large reservoirs which have an initial head difference of 10m

A valve in the pipeline is suddenly opened

Find the time required to reach 50%, 90% and 99% of the final steady flow rate

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Jessica DArcy

It doesnt take that long to reach the final steady flow rate as this flow rate is not so dependent on the length of the pipe
due to the assumption drawn of rigid column theory

We assumed the water is incompressible

We applied a pressure gradient across it

The gradient is transmitted everywhere across the system instantaneously

the flow at the end of the pipe feels the pressure straight away and hence can accelerate straight away

Flow established quickly in engineering cases

For long pipes, the pipe length only has an indirect influence through U0 since K L

Summary

Unsteady flow occurs when flows are altered or being established

For slow variations, instantaneous head difference balances head loss derived using a steady flow assumption

Faster flow variations requires a force and hence pressure increases

Pressure rise dependent on mass of fluid and rate of change of velocity (acceleration)

General unsteady energy equation Bernoulli + head loss + acceleration head

Flow establishment
o

Velocity approaches steady state velocity asymptotically

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Surge Shafts

Rigid column theory can be successfully applied only if the rate of change of the flow boundary conditions (i.e. valves) is
slow compared to pressure oscillations in the system

Surge shafts to limit surge pressures in hydro-electric schemes are a particularly important application
o

Variations in demand lead to changes in turbine speed and turbine governors operate valves in the penstock to
stabilize the turbine speed

These cause flow acceleration/deceleration

For full load rejection the valves completely close, giving a rise in pressure in the penstock

Unless surge protection is provided, the supply tunnel will experience a full surge pressure and structural
damage

Diverting water into a surge shaft reduces the pressure surge further up the supply line

The surge tank also provides a reservoir of water during increased load demand, minimizing negative
pressures as flow rates increase

The surge shaft increases the period of mass oscillation in the system, hence aiding design of the turbine
governors

The penstock is therefore heavily reinforced to take full surge pressure

The surge shaft should ideally be sited as close as possible to the controlling boundary, but this may not always
be economic

Analysis

Head opposing the flow in the supply pipe

o

h Z hL

where hL is positive for flow into the shaft, negative for flow out of the shaft may include local losses
in the pipe and shaft

The force opposing the flow upstream of the shaft is therefore is a sum of;

pressure head in the shaft

friction in the upstream pipe

local losses

This force retards the flow, giving a rate of change of momentum

o

From rigid column theory

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Jessica DArcy

dM
dU
F
AL
dt
dt

L dU
Z hL 0
g dt
Where

Alternatively

dU
gAz hL
dt

Simplifying to

AL

hL K

U2
2g

Apply unsteady energy equation between sections 1 & 2

As z1 - z2 = -Z, then equations for mass oscillation in the pipe and surge shaft are again

L dU
Z hL 0
g dt

UA Us As Q As

dZ
Q
dt

An analytical
solution is not possible since hL varies with time, and a numerical integration technique is required

If friction is ignored however, a solution is possible for full load rejection, Q=0

Frictionless Solution
UA As

dZ
dU As d 2 A
and hence
gives a second order equation in A

dt
A dt 2
dt

By writing

Therefore, undamped simple harmonic motion (Z = Z0 sin t) is

L As d 2 A
Z 0
g A dt 2

A solution with boundary conditions at t=0

Z=0 and

dZ Q0

is;
dt As

Q0
As

LAs gA
sin
t
gA
LAs

so;

Q0
As

Maximum levels = Z m

Oscillation period = T 2

LAs
gA
LAs
gA

Solution Including Friction

Friction can be included via a finitedifference numerical integration

Assuming full load rejection

99

U i U i
g i

U i1 U i
Z

K
L
2g

U positive for flow into the shaft

A U i1 U i
Z i1 Z i
t
2
As

Jessica DArcy

if t is small then Ui can be used in place of the mean velocity

NB: a sufficiently small time step must be used for stability and an accurate prediction of the peak surge

In either case, -Zm should be less than the depth to the penstock entry to avoid air entrainment

Elevation head is initially negative head loss in pipe

Transients decay as a result of friction and local losses

Resonance can be a problem

Types

A simple cylindrical surge shaft may require a large volume and hence large excavation costs

Alternative shapes that increase local losses may be more economical

Surge Protection in Pumped Mains

Pumped mains may generate unsteady flow during stopping, starting or failure

When a pump stops, a negative pressure surge occurs downstream, with a positive surge upstream

Start up transients are not usually excessive

A negative surge could generate vapour cavities at high points along the pipeline, which on implosion could
generate high surge pressures

Pressure relief vessels can be included in the system

A number of approaches are possible to limit these transient effects

o

Mechanical

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Jessica DArcy

Flywheel to reduce deceleration during stopping or failure

Requires increase in starting power however

Bypassing

Additional pipeline around the pump, incorporating a non-return valve

Generally the pressure downstream is higher than that upstream, so the valve stays closed

If the pump stores or fails, and the pressure downstream falls below that upstream, then flow
through the valve reduces the pressure drop

Example 25 Surge Shaft

The supply tunnel in a hydro-electric plant has a diameter of 1.5m and f = 0.015

The initial steady flow, Q0 = 4m/s

For frictionless flow, find the

Simple harmonic motion in the shaft

Peak water level

Period of oscillation following full load rejection (Qpenstock=0)

Notes
o

The magnitude of oscillations is governed by the ratio of pipe area to surge tower area

When applying {B}, do for the steady case first as it gives us the piezometric head at the bottom of the surge

Bigger shaft more oscillations, but more expensive

shaft and sets the level Z0 of the surge tower

W
e
d
o
n

t
w
a
n
t
t
h
i
s
v
a
l
u

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Jessica DArcy

e to be very large, as too much head loss indicates a poorly designed system

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The initial head loss (Z0) is recovered as Q0

The frictionless solution gives us a conservative estimate of max and min levels

Summary

Changes in demand require flow variation pressure rise in penstock

o

Surge shaft limits pressure rise in supply tunnel

Mass oscillation occurs between reservoir and surge shaft

Unsteady energy equation plus continuity give simultaneous equations for flow velocity and surge height

Analytical solution only feasible for frictionless case

Numerical finite difference approach required if friction included

Pumped mains also require protection against pump failure mechanical or bypass around pump

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Waterhammer Unsteady Compressible Flow

Very rapid or sudden closure (or opening) of a valve in closed systems leads to larger and larger inertia forces and at
some point the fluid becomes subject to pressures sufficient to compress it

Must apply elastic or waterhammer theory

o

Compressible fluid

Radical change in the pressure surge within the fluid body compared to the incompressible case

Rapid changes in the control conditions (valves, pumps) result in the following differences
o

No uniform deceleration/acceleration along the pipe

Shock wave generated

Elastic pipes expand and contract

Shock Waves

A shock wave is a region in which the fluid is rapidly compressed, with both the pressure and density increased

Kinetic energy is transformed to elastic energy

The shock wave travels at the celerity (speed) of sound in that fluid
The fluid pressure, velocity and density upstream of the shock wave is unaltered until the shock wave reaches
that point

Shock Wave Propagation

Consider a rigid pipe and a compressible fluid following sudden valve closure

Initial fluid velocity is u0

Fluid flows back into the reservoir and a decompression wave is generated

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Valve is shut
o

Fluid cannot flow towards reservoir

Negative shock wave generated

Steps
1.

Valve closes, shock wave generated

a.

2.

At valve: pressure = p + p

Shock wave travels back along pipe with celerity c

a.

Between valve and shock wave;

i. Fluid compressed
ii. Pressure = p + p
iii. u = 0

3.

Shock wave arrives at reservoir

a.

Whole pipe full of compressed and pressurized fluid

i. Pressure = p + p
ii. u = 0

4.

Fluid discharged into reservoir at velocity u

a.

5.

Pressure head in pipe greater than in reservoir

Decompression wave generated traveling back towards valve

a.

Between reservoir and shock wave

i. Pressure = p + p
ii. u is reversed

6.

Valve shut
a.

Fluid decompressed in whole pipe

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b.

Fluid cannot flow back

c.

Negative shock wave generated

d.

Between valve and shock wave:

i. Pressure = p - p
ii. u = 0

7.

Negative shock wave reaches reservoir

a.

Pressure head in pipe is less than reservoir

b.

Fluid flows from reservoir back into pipe with velocity u (ignoring friction losses)

8.

Cycle repeats

9.

NOTES

L
4 one period of waterhammer shock wave
c

a.

Time elapsed =

b.

Strictly the celerity of the shock wave is measured relative to the fluid
i. However, c>>u so the time taken by the shock wave to travel one length of the pipe is

c.

Velocity of a pressure (sonic) wave

Ev

use when pipe is rigid

Where Ev is the bulk (or volume) modulus of the fluid

For water

L
c

Measure the variations in pressure and velocity at fixed points as multiples of L/c

Shock Wave Velocity

Ev = 2.07x109 N/m2

c = 1440m/s

Pressures generated are usually sufficient to expand elastic pipes, which has the effect of slowing the pressure wave
(kinetic energy transformed into elastic energy)
Celerity hence becomes

CP

1
DE v
1
tE

use when pipe is elastic

D = pipe diameter

t = pipe wall thickness

E = Youngs modulus of pipe material

Ks

Esteel = 210x109 N/m2

Eiron = 100x109 N/m2

Esteel = 21x109 N/m2

For water and typical pipe materials, 600 < C p < 1200m/s

Force balance
o

pD=2Tt

where T is the tensile stress in the pipe walls

Waterhammer Pressure
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Estimated as follows;
o

Following sudden valve closure, a pressure wave travels up the pipe with celerity, c

Length of fluid element brought to rest in time dt is therefore

Momentum equation

pA p pAt pAct du

c dt

Newton: F dt = m du

or;

p cdu

Pressure increase is solely dependent on

o

Fluid density

o Celerity of the pressure wave

o

Change in the velocity

Independent of pipe length

For instantaneous complete closure, du=-u

o

Waterhammer pressure

p ph cu
or

ph uc p

g
g

Pressure Variation with Time

The pressure variation at a point in the pipe varies with time and location

For a pipe of length L

Friction Effects

If friction is included, then the pressure at the valve is initially h L below the inlet pressure

This head loss is recovered during the passage of the first pressure wave, giving a pressure rise greater than p h

Similarly, the head loss during subsequent cycles is recovered during the passage of individual pressure waves

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Rate of Valve Closure

In reality, valve closure takes a finite time, tc

Three different rates of closure need to be considered

o

Rapid valve closure, tc<2L/c

Maximum surge pressure occurs since the returning decompression wave does not reach the valve
before complete closure

Closure is effectively instantaneous at the valve

Closer to the reservoir, the valve closure time may be more than 2x/c

Consequently, full pressure rise wil not extend all the way to the reservoir, but only up to a
point

ct c
from the reservoir
2

Very slow valve closure, tc>20L/c

Little or no shock wave generation

behaves in incompressible mode

Fluid

Slow valve closure, 2L/c < tc < 20L/c

Conditions intermediate between instantaneous and slow closure

Pressure at valve does not reach the same maximum pressure as for rapid/instantaneous closure

For slow closure, tc>2L/c

Excess pressure decreases uniformly from the value at the valve (or limit of maximum pressure) to
zero the reservoir/intake.

Maximum pressure rise at the valve is approximately

ph

2L
ph
ct c

o
o

where ph is the pressure rise for instantaneous closure

Finite closure times

Pressure changes flatten out, so the resulting time history is more sinusoidal = cU

Waterhammer Theory Summary

Pressure changes large enough to compress fluid and expand/contract pipe

Show wave generated propagates at speed of sound in a given system and reflects at open and closed boundaries

Shock wave celerity depends on fluid and pipe characteristics

Pressure rise dependent on fluid density, shock wave celerity and change in velocity

Rate of valve closure governs final pressure rise since decompression wave may return prior to full closure

Frictional damping reduces pressure oscillations over time

Example 26 - Waterhammer

An elastic pipeline 800m long has a diameter of 1.25m and flow discharge of 1m3/s, discharging from a reservoir.
o

L= 800m

C=850m/s (relevant speed of sound)

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Following instantaneous valve closure at the downstream end, find the waterhammer conditions at the valve, and
600m from the valve.

Summary

Unsteady flow

Rapid changes in boundary conditions leads to compressible flow

Shock wave generated

Pressure risk depends on speed of sound in the fluid

Elasticity of fluid and pipe material should be considered

Valve closure rate determines pressure rise

Instantaneous, slow or very slow closure gives different shock patterns

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Friction damps pressure pulses over time

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Appendix
Lecture Schedule
1. Week 1 T. Baldock
I. L1 P1, S2

EX 1

II. L2 P3, S29

EX 2

III. L3 P6, S47

EX 3

2. Week 2 T. Baldock
I. L4 P8, S66

EX 4

II. L5 P10, S80

EX 5

III. L6 P12, S90

EX 6

3. Week 3 T. Baldock
I. L7 P15, S108

EX 7

II. L8 P17, S120

EX 8

III. PALS 1
4. Week 4 T. Baldock
I. L9 Lab Prep
II. L10 P18, S129

EX 9

III. L11 P20, S140

EX 10

5. Week 5 T. Baldock
II. L12 P21, S150

EX 11

III. L13 P24, S167

EX 12

6. Week 6 T. Baldock
EX 13

II. PALS 2

I.III. L17 P31, S212

EX 18

III. PALS 3
9. Week 9 D. Callaghan
I. Public Holiday
II. L19 P33, S220

EX 19

III. L20 P35, S238

EX 20

EX 14
EX 15, 16

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines, Numbered + Level: 2 + Numbering
Style: I, II, III, + Start at: 1 + Alignmen
Right + Aligned at: 0.75" + Indent at:
0.88"

10. Week 10
I. L21 P37, S248

EX 21

II. L22 P38, S256

EX 22

III. L23 P40, S269

EX 23

11. Week 11
I. No Lecture

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines, Numbered + Level: 2 + Numbering
Style: I, II, III, + Start at: 1 + Alignmen
Right + Aligned at: 0.75" + Indent at:
0.88"

EX 24

III. PALS 4

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines, Numbered + Level: 2 + Numbering
Style: I, II, III, + Start at: 1 + Alignmen
Right + Aligned at: 0.75" + Indent at:
0.88"

12. Week 12
I. No Lecture
II. L25 P43, S288

EX 25

III. L26 P45, S302

EX 26

I. No Lecture

7. Week 7 T. Baldock
II. L16 P29, S199

II. L18 P32, S214

13. Week 13

III. Public Holiday

I. L15 P26, S181

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

I. No Lecture

II. L24 P42, S281

I. No Lecture

I. L14 P25, S173

8. Week 8 T. Baldock

Formatted: Justified, Line spacing: 1.5

lines, Numbered + Level: 2 + Numbering
Style: I, II, III, + Start at: 1 + Alignmen
Right + Aligned at: 0.75" + Indent at:
0.88"

II. Revision
II.III. PALS 5

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering

EX 17

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Experiment 1 Notes Flow Meters

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Experiment 2 Notes Sluice Gate

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Experiment 3 Notes Pipe Flow

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Experiment 4 Notes Drag on Cylinder

NB Pitot tube has stagnation point at tip

Formatted: Normal, Left

115