Facilities

Emerald Article: Fire safety systems - interaction and integration Eric W. Marchant

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To cite this document: Eric W. Marchant, (2000),"Fire safety systems - interaction and integration", Facilities, Vol. 18 Iss: 10 pp. 444 - 455 Permanent link to this document: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02632770010349682 Downloaded on: 18-04-2012 To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com This document has been downloaded 1921 times.

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Fire safety systems interaction and integration

Eric W. Marchant

Introduction
Over the last 30 years the development in fire safety design and in fire safety engineering has generated a level of technological systems that relate directly to fire safety but are treated as an isolated set of technical systems that have no impact on and are not influenced by the systems, and the design of those systems, that are needed for the day-to-day control of the environment in a building. The scope of fire safety deign has therefore been limited to the scope of the application of the accepted fire safety systems. The practice of fire safety design and fire safety engineering has changed markedly over the last ten years as during this period the profession of fire engineering has become established within the Engineering Council (UK) framework for the engineering professions. This fact of establishment suggests that the scope of fire safety design, as it runs parallel with the overall design of a building, will be clarified and the mode of operation of the fire safety engineer will become better defined also. The content of this paper is intended to achieve two objectives: (1) to show that there are positive and important links between the day-to-day operational systems in a building and the fire safety systems links of which the facilities manager should be aware; and (2) to contribute to the development of a definition of the scope of fire safety design for the fire safety designer. Another aspect of the relationships between fire safety design and the normal state of a building is the current requirement[1] in the UK and throughout Europe, for every building within which there is a workplace to have a fire risk assessment carried out for the benefit of the workforce. Contributions to fire safety from systems that are not regarded directly as fire safety systems could have a significant influence on the degree and level of improvements that may be needed to the fire safety systems. In this context it is the owner/ manager/facilities manager of the building that has a legal responsibility to carry out the assessment and to implement the installation of any improvements that are needed to the fire safety systems.

The author Eric W. Marchant is a Consultant in Fire Safety Design with Edinburgh Fire Consultants Limited, Edinburgh, UK. Keywords Fire safety, Systems management, Integration Abstract Fire safety is a performance characteristic of buildings. The technological functions of fire safety systems interact with the systems that are necessary for other environmental control systems and to fulfil other performance characteristics expected from the building. For some aspects of fire safety the systems needed to generate the ambient environment and the control expected over the ambient environment are conceptually the same systems that are needed for the control of the environment that changes because of the intrusion of products of combustion. Outlines the interactions between fire safety needs and the systems that help to generate and monitor the ambient environment. Electronic access The research register for this journal is available at http://www.mcbup.com/research_registers/jpif.asp The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emerald-library.com

Facilities Volume 18 . Number 10/11/12 . 2000 . pp. 444455 # MCB University Press . ISSN 0263-2772

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Objectives of fire safety design

There are four major objectives for fire safety. These are: (1) life safety; (2) the protection of the contents of a building; (3) the protection of the building fabric; and (4) the minimisation of threat to the environment. The agencies that control the adequacy of the fire safety design for these objectives include the local fire authority (life), insurance companies (contents and the building); and local and/or national authorities. The fire safety systems that are selected to minimise the fire threat in a building may be the same for each of the objectives but the level of performance of the systems is not likely to be the same for the system to make a contribution to each objective. For example, for an effective life safety system the individual systems need to operate positively in the early part of the sequence of fire development. This would enable the greatest amount of time to be available from the safe evacuation of the population in the building at the time of the occurrence of the fire. For environmental protection the two most important aspects of fire safety are the impact of the products of combustion on the surroundings (people and buildings in urban areas and the flora and fauna in rural areas) and the degree of contamination that may be caused by the modification of the chemical and physical properties of the fire fighting water due to the effects of the combustion process on the water. In this latter situation the life safety systems within a building might minimise the amount of burning by giving early warning of the fact of the fire but only the fire control systems (extinguishing systems and containment systems) will make a direct contribution to environmental protection.

second level is the national Acts of Parliament and the related Regulations. In Scotland the fire safety requirements for new buildings are set out in the Technical Standards[3]. For buildings in use the Fire Precautions Act[4] (UK) imposes a technological and management regime that is designed for the safety of the people using the building. The third level of requirements for fire safety standards are those set by the application of the ``workplace regulations''[1]. Whereas the effects of the Fire Precautions Act are limited to five types of building, the workplace regulations apply to all workplaces for the safety of the workforce and, by definition, all of the other users of the building. A very important feature of the regulations[1] is that they have primacy over all other fire safety legislation and that the people who are responsible for the proper application of the regulations are the managers and owners of the building. The features of the performance of materials, components and whole buildings that are expected through the application of the Construction Products Regulations[2] are: (1) mechanical resistance and stability; (2) safety in case of fire; (3) hygiene, health and the environment; (4) safety in use; (5) protection against noise; and (6) energy, economy and heat retention. The interaction between some aspects of these principal requirements with respect to fire safety will be developed later in this paper; however, a brief examination of the content of ``safety in case of fire'' may be useful. Safety in case of fire There are five major aspects of the generic performance of a building under attack from fire for which fire safety design is needed. First, the load-bearing capacity of the construction (and the structural elements) can be assumed for a specific period of time. This requirement is an additional item for the performance of the structural and constructional systems. There is no doubt that the proper fire safety design of structural elements compared to the normal tested standard catalogue use of fire protection can achieve a reduced cost and an integrated use of the materials of construction. For example, it is possible in some circumstances to design

Fire safety requirements

There are three levels of requirements that are placed on the design of fire safety systems. The first is the Construction Products Regulations 199[2] that stem from the Construction Products Directive that imposes the requirements throughout Europe. The

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a steel structure that requires no fire protection system(s) to give the appropriate fire resistance performance. Second, it is expected that the generation and spread of fire and smoke within the works are limited. Here, the selection of the materials for the contents of the building becomes important as does the geometry of the spaces within the building and the spatial layout of those spaces. Other environmental aspects of the building are affected by the geometry of the spaces also. Third, it is expected that the spread of fire to neighbouring construction works is limited. This is a clear reference to the space separation distance between buildings. The distance is influenced by the installation of fire suppression systems, the choice of materials, the size and shape of the windows in the building and the materials used on the facade of both buildings. Fourth, the occupants of the building should leave the works or be rescued by other means. This aspect relates to the combustible content of the building, the detection and warning devices in the building and the acoustic properties of the building. The visual environment in the building will be a major component in developing the appropriate standard of fire safety. The suggestion about the need for rescue facilities leads to the fifth expectation that the safety of rescue teams should be taken into consideration.

performance requirements, such as are summarised in Table I, presents a complex set of variables within which the appropriate values for comfort and safety need to be achieved and maintained throughout the life of the building. The following paragraphs discuss each of the 14 aspects of whole building performance with an emphasis on the fire safety impact of each aspect and the potential influence of ideal fire safety or deficient fire safety provision on the characteristics of each of the aspects. Stability As noted above, one of the loadings that a structure should be capable of withstanding is ``accidental actions''. The impact of fire can be regarded as one of the accidental loadings. To achieve the appropriate performance for walls, floors, beams and columns, fuel loadings that are representative of a specific building usage are characterised by a duration of exposure in the standard fire test for elements of structure. Traditionally, this type of test has been shown to be adequate over several decades. Little was known about the three-dimensional behaviour of connected structural elements. In the last two years special multi-storey structures have been subjected to typical fires and some aspects of three-dimensional response are now better understood for steel, reinforced concrete and timber structural systems. A problem exists if the use of the building changes duration of the life of the building. If the changed use of the building suggests that additional fuel will become the norm for the building, then to be sure that the stability of the structure will be maintained either the structural system will need to be enhanced or the amount of the exposure to fire will need to be reduced to a level that can be sustained by the original structure. For example, the fire resistance of a timber structure can be enhanced by additional layer(s) of wood and a steel structural system can be ``improved'' by the application of protective (intumescent) coating systems. To reduce the impact of fire on the structure, a fire suppression system (for example, water sprinklers) can be retrofitted into the building. Overall, the stability of the structure in fire can be reduced by a change of use of the building but there are several remedial

Aspects of whole building performance and fire safety design

The six essential requirements of buildings[2] can be extrapolated into the 14 aspects of building performance. Each of these aspects has an influence on or is influenced by the fire safety design of the building. The 14 aspects are given in Table I[5]. Although the table from which Table I is condensed was published in 1983, the division of whole building performance into the 14 divisions had been circulated in 1972 in a draft document from CIB. The very existence of a building means that the normal external environment at a particular location is not an acceptable environment for ordinary activities. The building is expected to modify the natural environment so that the working environment possesses a range of acceptable performance characteristics. The resulting extensive set of

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Table I Aspects of building performance No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Element Stability Fire-safety Safety in use Tightness Hygrothermal Air purity Acoustical Visual Tactile Anthropodynamic Hygiene Space use Durability Economic Comment on action of system Resistance to static and dynamic loads individually and combined, intentional and unintentional abuse, accidental actions, cyclic fatigue Control of outbreak and spread, physiological effects, alarm time, evacuation time, survival time Aggressive agents, moving about the building safely, security against human and animal intrusion Minimising the ingress of water, air, gas, snow and dust Control of air temperature, thermal radiation, air velocity and relative humidity variation in time and space, condensation Ventilation, control of odours Control of noise, intelligibility of sound, reverberation time Natural and artificial lighting, sunlight, illuminance, darkness, spaces Roughness, dryness, warmth, static electricity Acceleration, vibrations, windy areas, human strength, dexterity, manoeuvrability Human body care, water supply, cleaning and evacuation of waste water, materials and smoke Number, size, geometry, subdivision and interrelationships of spaces, services and equipment, furnishability, flexibility Retention of performance over required service life Capital, running and maintenance costs

Source: [5]

measures that can be adopted to maintain the stability of the structural system. Fire safety At least 24 elements of fire safety can be utilised to reduce the impact of a single ``natural'' fire on the building and its content and its population. Each of these elements can be brought to bear on the natural fire threat and each element has a range of performance characteristics. Please refer to the Appendix for the list of elements. Safety in use This aspect of building performance is very close to the conditions in the building that should be achieved at the time of a necessary evacuation of the building. For example, in an office building there needs to be a safe pathway through the arrays of desks, chairs and other fittings and that pathway needs to be illuminated throughout the duration of the evacuation and, preferably, at least in the initial stages of the fire fighting procedures. The interface between security and fire safety needs to be considered seriously. One of the arrangements in ``security conscious'' buildings is for any electro-magnetic locks to be unlocked automatically on a signal from the smoke/heat detection system. The concept of unobstructed pathways for

evacuation is important as any objects along the pathway, fixed or movable, will automatically reduce the capacity of the pathway for the people evacuating the building. The provision of systems to detect intruders has a clear companion use for the detection of potential arsonists. This is a very important aspect as it is considered that more than half of all fires in buildings are caused by arsonists. Tightness This aspect of performance is mostly to do with the properties of the external envelope of the building. The degree of air-tightness will influence the movement of smoke from a fire in the early stages of growth. The pressures developed on internal barriers in the building may affect the efficiency of smoke control systems, both natural exhaust systems and mechanical pressurisation systems. In some cases it is possible for the wind to generate pressures on storey exit doors so that it would be impossible for the door to be opened for escape. (The maximum acceptable force on an exit door is specified as 100N.) Another area of influence of the infiltration characteristics of the external facade is the permeability of the construction. If mineral fibre thermal and fire insulation is wetted, its fire resistance will be impaired significantly.

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In addition as the fibre insulation may not absorb water and this could accumulate at the bottom of the insulation cavity and may cause distortion and a thermal bridge. Hygrothermal performance In Table I this performance aspect contains controls over the temperature of the thermal environment and the air movement in the spaces. It is expected that a growing fire will emit heat in increasing quantities with respect to time after ignition. However, during the initial phase of fire growth the temperature of the ambient air in the space with the fire could be higher than the temperature of the products of combustion. The result of such a temperature profile will be the stratification of the smoke layer at some distance below the ceiling of the space. This phenomenon may reduce the effectiveness of any smoke control system. The normal air movement in a space may help to distribute smoke gases around the building or may be an aid to the control of smoke in a space! The quality of an airhandling system may be important in some spaces as the required smoke purging rate (ten air changes per minute) for spaces wholly below ground level will influence whether or not the ambient system can be used for smoke removal. The interactions between air handling systems and smoke movement have been recognised for many years. Air purity In some guidance the use of the olfactory systems (the nose) as a detector is regarded as sufficient and adequate but this system relies on the person being in the right place at the right time. Recently, refuges for disabled persons have become required in all buildings. Special systems may be required to ensure that the air in a refuge contains negligible amounts of gas and products of combustion. The technology for cleaning gas has been available for several decades. In establishments such as the Fire Research Station there are smoke washing facilities for the burn hall (75cu.m./sec) so that the environment is harmed to a lesser extent compared with previous years when full scale burns were conducted with no protection to the environment. Acoustical environment All buildings have a unique acoustic environment and the operation of the

emergency warning systems is to overcome that part of the ambient acoustic environment that cannot be reduced automatically through any building management system. For example, machine noise in factories and traffic noise in urban areas. The design of warning systems has a performance hierarchy that begins with the simple single sound emitted from a sounder and received by the ear. Learning the meaning of the sound should be carried out prior to the fire emergency. At the ``top'' of the hierarchy is the verbal directed warning system through which specific information about the changing progress of the products of combustion can be relayed to people throughout the building. The aural response characteristics of the population in the building need to be understood and special warning systems for the hearing impaired may be required. In normal circumstances the simplest but appropriate system will be selected but the activation of the system should cause the shut-down of all other acoustic systems. Visual performance The visual performance of a building is a vital aspect of the performance of a building for those members of the population that are sighted. The perception of distance, shapes, surfaces, space and location, all important factors in way-finding, need some form of illumination. The quantity of illumination will dictate the degree of perception and the decrement in lighting levels that occur when there is a change from normal lighting to emergency lighting and such a decrement can cause a delay in accurate perception the dark adaptation time. The provision of emergency lighting, escape lighting and pathway lighting needs proper consideration at the design stage of the building. The proper selection and location of ``exit'' signs is an important feature of the design of the internal environment. Such signs should be visible and legible at any time during an emergency in the building. Pathway lighting now includes the use of light emitting diodes and photoluminescent materials. Tactile environment The tactile properties of surfaces need to be designed with the visually disabled in mind. The identification of location is an important feature of maps of buildings that have been

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developed for the blind visitor to a building. The temperature of surfaces may also be an indicator of danger. The slipperiness of floors is a property of a floor that is of direct relevance to the design of escape routes. Anthropodynamic performance In some aspects this aspect of fire safety design is part of the ergonomic design of the building. The successful operation of fire extinguishers is one fire safety component in this category. However, this aspect of fire safety training is not part of the building. Those items in the building that require activation or operation by the people in the building must be easy to operate in an emergency. The strength to open doors is clearly a major feature of escape and is particularly important in homes for the elderly. The use of pressurisation systems to protect escape routes is a well-known technology but there are environmental conditions that could stop the doors being opened because of adverse pressure differences. Hygiene If the domestic water supply to a building is adequate for the proposed building then it might be possible to integrate a fire hose reel system with the domestic mains. For example, a simple hose reel system or indeed a sprinkler system depending on the capacity of the water system. Great care needs to be taken in the design of fire stopping where plastics pipes are distributed through holes in floors and walls. An important feature of overall basic design is the acceptability of toilets that open directly into a staircase enclosure that is otherwise protected from fires in adjacent spaces. Although toilets may have been ``safe'' spaces 100 years ago, this should be reviewed because of the amount of plastics materials that is incorporated into such facilities. Space use The size and shape of a space will influence the degree of threat that can be generated in the space. A very large space cathedral will be less threatening than a classroom would be when they both contain a fire of the same size and heat output. The arrangement of furniture in a space where the general public have access can be controlled but it should be fairly clear that in

office buildings and shopping malls the escape pathways should be kept clear of obstacles so that effective escape can be effected timeously. Flexibility in space use is helpful to the fire hit company as the spare space can be used by the fire hit section whilst repairs and replacements are arranged and executed. The suitability of a space for a particular use is highlighted when dealing with the fire safety problems in existing buildings that are used by disabled people. Some electro-mechanical devices help to maintain a flexible space use especially for the disabled customer. One device is the manually activated power operated section of wall. Here the wall opens up allowing time for the passage of a wheelchair before closing automatically. Durability There can be no doubt that the durability of fire safety systems is important and the projected length of the useful time between servicing and testing needs to be checked carefully. A five-year life for some components and 25 years for others are not an uncommon situation. All systems may need to be replaced as technological developments take place and/or when the defined risks change. Economy The cost and cost-effectiveness of fire safety systems are a facet of fire safety engineering that is difficult to quantify as a proportion of the cost of a whole building. The costs that can be attributed directly to the components of fire safety are usually within the range of 3 to 6 per cent of the total building cost. The higher parts of the range are associated usually with building types that contain large numbers of people, for example, theatres and cinemas, where there is a high risk of multiple fatalities due to fire. The costs associated with high value property and goods are usually the interests of insurance companies where there is knowledge of a particular range of fire safety systems that can be installed in a building that will reduce the expected maximum loss to an acceptable level of loss. The effectiveness of some systems in loss control is so high (sprinkler systems) that discounts (reduction of premiums) can be expected on the basic premium. Therefore, the selection of the appropriate systems to

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achieve adequate fire safety should include the cost of providing and maintaining a set of fire safety systems.

References
1 The Fire Safety (Workplace) Regulations, 1997, 1999. 2 The Construction Products Regulations, 1991. 3 The Scottish Executive (1999), The Technical Standards for Compliance with the Building Standards (Scotland) Regulations 1990, as amended, The Stationery Office, Edinburgh. 4 The Fire Precautions Act, 1971, 1977. 5 Harrison, H.W. and Keeble, E.J. (1983), Performance Specifications for Whole Buildings: Report on BRE Studies 1974-1982, Building Research Establishment, Garston, Watford. 6 The Home Office, The Scottish Executive, DoE, NI, Health and Safety Executive (1999), Fire Safety: An Employer's Guide, The Stationery Office, London. 7 British Standards Institution (1997), DD240: Part 1: 1997, Fire Safety Engineering in Buildings, Part 1. Guide to the Application of Fire Safety Engineering Principles, BSI, London.

Integration of systems
The integration of fire safety systems with systems that control the ambient environment is an essential step towards the reality of the really intelligent building. The fire safety systems can share communication facilities with other systems as the processor becomes more reliable and more versatile. As noted above, the smoke and heat detection systems can be linked with surveillance systems as the sensing of changes in the ambient environment is a common feature. Emergency lighting systems can be integrated with ambient lighting systems and with security lighting systems. The current skill is to arrange the fire protected electrical circuit to feed the selected luminaires when the main power is not available. Constructional systems need to be integrated with the detailed space uses of the building and compensatory features defined when the functions of any of the constructional features need to be replaced by other systems. Warning systems can be integrated with public and/or staff address systems. Smoke management systems and air handling systems can be combined when both are to be incorporated in the building. There is no doubt that the simple aspects of integration outlined here can be achieved easily. As the consideration of the development of integrated systems continues, more opportunities will be presented.

Appendix. List of elements to be assessed

In the main paper it is noted that fire risk assessments need to be carried out for all places where people are employed. The employer's guide[6] gives good advice on the approach to the required assessments but much supplementation and explanation is needed as the knowledge base of the assessor should be very broad. The following list of elements of fire safety is not exhaustive but it follows the elements that are discussed in the ``Employer's Guide''[6] and it maybe helpful to the facilities manager who will have the responsibility of carrying out the risk assessment. The time needed for an initial risk assessment on any building cannot be predicted. However, it is important that the assessment of each building follows a similar procedure, as the outcomes of the assessment should be capable of being assimilated into assessments of groups of buildings and, maybe, the whole estate. For a repeat assessment it could be anticipated that the time needed would be about half-a-day if nothing had changed from the time that the previous assessment was carried out. 1. Documentation In the guidance[6] reference is made to many government publications and to many British

Concluding remarks
This brief outline of the interactions of fire safety systems with the day-to-day environmental control systems for buildings is a small contribution to the development of fire safety design. Fire safety systems need not be considered in isolation but in pairs with other systems or as part of a total systems strategy. The integration of systems is another inevitable step in the development of building services. Such integration will enable the economic operation and monitoring of all systems.

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Standard Codes of Practice. There is an assumption that the assessor will know and will understand the content of the relevant document. All of the relevant documentation should be located in a library centrally and some relevant documents will need to be studied before the initial appraisal of any building. 2. Information Building specific information that is to be assessed may be available before an on-site inspection. The information that will be useful includes: drawings of the building; any information about the construction of the building; photographs of the building; a schedule of the use(s) within the building; the nature and number of people in the building throughout 24 hours each day; and the nature of the principal materials used and/or stored within the building. The available information may be regarded as a ``quarry'' from which the framework of the assessment can be generated. A drawn survey and an album of photographs for each building will be essential aids to an assessment. A study of the fire incidence records of the building and/or for the whole group may reveal relationships of sources of ignition and ignitable materials that are prone to the creation of fire incidence. The understanding of fire creation will be important in the assessment of risk. 3. Purpose of the building, or parts of the total building If the information that is referred to in Section 1 does not define the purposes, tasks and functions of the building, or parts of a building, such definitions will be important before the building is visited. The proper information will enable the assessor to build a ``picture'', albeit incomplete, of the environment to be assessed. 4. Outside the building Some of the items in this section are ``finite'' elements of fire safety and others are ``contributors'' to fire safety elements. Finite elements: proximate buildings; blast walls; water supply (ground hydrants); roads and paths; parking areas for fire appliances; condition of exits from the building; external (emergency) lighting; hazard markings on the

buildings (radiation hazard; explosion hazard; chemical hazard; and any others). Contributory elements: size and shape of the building; condition of the building; exposed materials of construction; and fenestration. 5. Sources of ignition The generic sources of ignition are based on chemical reactions; physico-chemical reactions; electrical energy; and mechanical systems. Any energy using system is a potential source of overheating that may lead to ignition. An observational survey will identify the ordinary heat producing actions and items. For example, naked flames, electrical motors, static electricity formation, other electrical appliances, especially the use of portable systems; boilers, chillers, refrigeration plant, conveyor systems. It is important to record the nature and location of the potential ignition sources. 6. Ignitable material Clearly any material with a carbon content will be ignitable as well as some metals. Any special combustible materials will be identified during the collection of information stage. The materials observed in a space within a building may be classified as: easily ignitable; ignitable; and difficult to ignite. In addition materials that, with the application of heat, may explode or only smoulder may be identified. The classification of the materials is important because of the effect on the local environment, should ignition occur, and the ignitability properties will be a direct influence on the appropriate fire safety systems that should be installed in the building. A separate consideration to the materials that are expected to be within a space is the track through the building of ``goods''. For example, packaged goods (packaged with combustible material) will enter at one location, unpacking will take place in some location, the packaging will then ``disappear'' in one direction and the ``goods'' needed will be taken to the location for use and/or installation. The safe collection, holding and despatch of packaging and all other waste have a high importance. The degradation of materials at elevated temperatures is another important feature of some materials. This is due to both the heat

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that is produced and the products of degradation. If this is likely to be important (maybe as a precursor of ignition) then the close monitoring of the ambient environment will be necessary. 7. Burning This is simply the coming together of Sections 5 and 6. The likelihood of burning may be influenced by the fire incident records for the estate. The rate of burning is a direct function of the available materials. In the BSI DD240 [7] four rates of burning are listed: slow, medium; fast; and ultra-fast. Simple characteristics associated with these descriptors are picture gallery; office; shop; and industrial storage. The nature of the combustible materials, such as their specific surface and density, will influence the rate of burning. The rate of burning will be enhanced dramatically if the environment becomes oxygen enriched. The presence of oxygen cylinders or piped supply should be regarded as a significant hazard. The possible products of combustion will be important as a small proportion of some of the products will be lethal. The most common lethal product of combustion will be carbon monoxide. The smoke yield of the materials in a space will be important as the optical density of the smoke will be a function of the material ignited and the temperature at which burning takes place. The smoke yield for each material and the yield for each object in a space may be important. However, this information may not be available easily, if at all. An acceptable degree of spatial vitiation may need to be defined. 8. The internal environment Air. The normal air movement in the space needs to be traced and assessed as the efficacy of the smoke detection system can be reduced by the air movement pattern. Openings. The presence of intercompartment and inter-spatial openings, vertical and horizontal, will be major fire safety dangers. Smoke movement. The geometry of the space will have a direct influence on the movement and accumulation of smoke during the early stages of burning and fire growth. The prediction of the movement pattern can be achieved by knowledge-based opinion; by

calculation; and/or by the use of computer zone models or field (CFD) models. The greater the perceived hazard the more sophisticated the means of analysis. 9. People The occupants of the workplace need to be assessed for their characteristic response to fire emergencies. Their general physical, psychological and physiological characteristics will be relevant especially for those characteristics where the day-to-day performance of a person can be judged to be below ``normal''. This is likely to be a difficult but essential part of the assessment. A general range of capability could be from an athlete to a collapsed person. The number of people that will be affected by a fire in any one location, the size of the people and their level of intelligence will all require to be assessed. Special note may need to be made of staff members who are known to be on medication and those who need appliances (spectacles) to remain ``normal''. The content of the training given for emergency procedures should be reviewed. The training should include ``shut-down'' procedures for any or all of the activities that are pursued in the building. The content of the training should include persuading of the visitors to leave the building. 10. Detection The detection of the products of combustion from any of the combustible materials in a space (or a building) is likely to be a very important function in the context of the growing fire and, therefore, a developing threat to the occupants. Several of the emanations from burning fuel can be sensed. A decision needs to be made on the period of time that can be tolerated between ignition and detection. Detection can be achieved at intervals between 2 minutes and 20+ minutes. The techniques of detection can be summarised briefly (beginning with the fastest type of sensor) as follows: ultra-violet (flame); infra-red (flame); pressure sensors (explosion); ionisation (small smoke particles); aspirating (smoke particles); optical (smoke particles); beam (smoke particles); CCTV/video local, remote (smoke field); heat point, linear (fixed temperature) include sprinklers; heat point, linear (rate of

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rise in temperature); radiation; and strain measurement (structural movement). A detection system needs to generate a signal that can be captured, used and transmitted to other devices. Detection is the first fire safety system in these notes to be described briefly. A general order of consideration for systems is presence (P), operability (O) and performance (P). Generally, the presence of a system will be observed readily and can be recorded. The operability of a system does it work should be ascertained. If the system works does it work properly and to its design level of performance? The POP of a system should be recorded as three separate elements as these levels will be relevant to remedial or new works on the fire safety systems in any building as it will show which level of analysis has been carried out and what further checks need to be made before technical proposals can be made for executive decisions. Maintenance schedules and records for all systems will be needed as part of the assessment especially as the outcome of the assessment should be written down and kept for inspection and updated at the time of any and all changes in the building and/or personnel. 11. Communication (between systems) The information bus in DD240[7] presents a design aid but the information from the detection systems needs to be collected, marshalled and transmitted. This is carried out within the ``fire panel''. The relationships of input and output information will be complex but the fire panel should be made to react to information input and activate safety systems as part of an assessment. 12. Warning Warning systems may be simple or complex; discrete or broadcast widely. In a building a discrete system (information for staff only) may be broadcast, followed, after a predetermined time interval, by a widely broadcast system. Depending on many features of the building and the people in the building a simple sounder may be appropriate or a voice evacuation system will be essential. The actual installed system should be described in the assessment but the ``ideal'' system should be described also. This approach may simplify remedial measures for deficient systems.

The ideal system could be identified alongside the description of the installed system so that the deficiency can be identified readily and a possible improvement defined. 13. Smoke management A smoke management system may be installed in the building. If so, its purpose and performance need to be ascertained. Where no system exists in the building it may be that an evaluation of the likely rate of smoke generation and the geometry (size and shape) of the building suggest that a smoke management system should be considered for installation. The purposes to which a smoke management system contributes include: life safety; the protection of the contents of the building; the protection of the building; facilitating fire fighting; and the protection of the environment outside the building. Each of these purposes may suggest a different type of system. General types of system include: ``do nothing''; natural through-flow ventilation; powered extract; and pressurisation. 14. Emergency lighting The presence and the effectiveness of emergency lighting systems are paramount. Open plan spaces need a good general level of illumination a visual check with the main power switched off is recommended. Pathways, signage, fire points, exits and staircases should have a higher illumination than the general level. Emergency lighting to the area outside all final exit doors should be present (lighting of rendezvous points may be installed). A conceptual decision may be needed on the acceptability of the performance of a system as it is illumination that is measured not the luminance from the floor. 15. Signs and notices All types of fire related signage need to be observed. First, the visibility of pictographical ``exit'' signs from each workplace. Second, signs along the escape route to the final exit. Third, ``fire point'' signs and informative notices. Fourth, all of the mandatory signs such as ``fire door keep closed''. Notices will need to carry the minimum information about ``what to do in case of fire''. It is considered that most of the people in a store will be trained to be ``fire conscious''. Therefore, the content of the notices may be

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of minor relevance to the emergency actions that need to be carried out compared with training. Part of the assessment will be about the training and the capability of the people in any specific location (see 23). For all signs a check will be needed on the size with respect to the viewing distance(s); the background colours, which should not compete with the colour(s) of the signs and the visual field that includes the fire emergency signs, should be as simple as practicable. Conflict between the main lighting and emergency signage in the visual field should be avoided. 16. Escape pathways and escape routes The size, shape and length of the pathway(s) to a final exit should be well-known to all of the occupants of any building. This will be important to the efficiency of the staff assisting the customers out of the building. The first element of escape routes is usually travel distance. The accepted dimensions range from seven to 100 metres depending upon the type of building. These dimensions are the limits to the distances that should be travelled before a place of safety is reached. The second element will be a fire protected space corridor, room, lobby, staircase. Theoretically there is no limit to the distance that may be travelled within fire protected spaces. However, the quality of the constructional boundaries becomes paramount. The properties of these boundaries should be ascertained. The materials of construction, the presence, or absence, of cracks, fissures and holes should be noted. This will enable a judgement to be made on the fire resistant properties of the construction that encloses the safe space. The protected space will be left by either the final exit or into a staircase and thence to a final exit. The type and nature of the materials of construction will be important. Throughout the length of the total escape pathway the surface spread of flame characteristics should be noted for subsequent comparison with the norm (see 17). At the final exit the presence of steps, paths and vegetation will be relevant to safe escape. Other characteristics of the escape route that are to be noted are: the width dimensions with respect to the number of people in the building; the direction(s) of opening of doors; the presence of obstacles (temporary or

permanent) in the pathway; and the slipperiness of floors. 17. Surface spread of flame As noted above, the surface materials of all spaces and, where practicable, the substrate material(s) should be identified and recorded for subsequent comparison with the norm. General guidance can be found in the Home Office guides to the Fire Precautions Act. For example, concrete block walls with a painted surface Class 0; thick (>2mm) wood materials with a painted surface Class 3 (with a surface coating of intumescent paint maybe Class 1); untreated fibreboard Class 4, maybe Class 3 depending upon surface finish (decorative). 18. Constructional barriers The enclosing construction of some spaces has been noted above. Here, it is emphasised that the materials of construction of all six sides of all spaces need to be identified and assessed for their fire related properties. Special functions of the constructional barriers may be more important than the fire properties. If this is so then this fact should be explained in writing. 19. First aid fire fighting This section is to do with fire extinguishers and hose reels and any other device that is intended to aid the extinction of small fires. The installation in the building of extinguishers that have the appropriate extinguishing medium is important. The number and location of appropriate collections of extinguishers should be recorded for assessment against the accepted norm. Training in the use of fire extinguishers for the staff is necessary and the frequency and nature of the training will be recorded and may be in the information collected before the assessment process. Water supply for and training in the use of hose reels, where they are installed, will be important. A note of the length and weight of the hose reels installed should be assessed and whether or not water flows from the nozzle. The maintenance records for all portable and ``hand'' appliances should be made available during the assessment. 20. Automatic fire suppression systems Again the installed system should be described and assessed against the ``ideal''

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system. The ideal system would be the system that is appropriate for life safety, for property protection and/or for the protection of the fabric of the building. Automatic fire/explosion suppression systems can use many different types of extinguishing media, each one being appropriate for a particular range of hazards. The range of media includes: gases (carbon dioxide; inergen; argonite; ?halon?); liquids (water: mist; spray; sheet; deluge); solids (powders; ``special grains'') The type of system that has been installed should be recorded also so that records can be inspected by the assessor. 21. Structural elements In buildings that have two or more storeys the fire resistance of the structure will need to be assessed. If the assessed fire resistance is less than would be expected by the ``building regulations'' at the time of the assessment then the assessed fire resistance should be matched against the likely duration of a fire in the space(s) adjacent to the structural elements so that the residual deficiency can be quantified and a remedy proposed. The material(s) of the structure should be identified. For example, steel, concrete (reinforced, pre-stressed, post-tensioned, beams, panels, slabs), wood (columns, floors, walls); plastics elements or aluminium structural systems; the dimensions of the structural elements; and the type of

framework constructed with the elements, all need to be assessed against the norm. 22. Emergency procedures This section is a simple list of ``things to be done in an emergency''. Discovery of fire warn others about the presence of fire shut-down of equipment initiated use of first aid fire fighting equipment maybe the use of personal protective equipment escape rendezvous liaison with fire fighters after-care of escapers accountability for the people (employees). A second sequence emergency procedure is relevant also: Discovery/detection auto call to fire brigade (in house and local authority) signal to security reinforce signal to in-house brigade and to local authority brigade. Each member of staff should be aware of these sequences. 23. Training This is likely to be a general training for all, plus building specific training. The content and practice of this training will be part of the assessment. 24. Maintenance of systems This should be a fairly routine scanning (by the assessor) of the records of maintenance of fire safety systems. In addition the maintenance records of all systems that have an impact on the internal environment in the building need to be assessed also.

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