SAP Examination Glossary

Chapter 1 Glossary
Anthropology: The scientific study of the development of the human species and of the various cultures that make up humanity. Deterrent: A form of strict punishment of lawbreakers that frightens others from similarly breaking the law. Humanities: Those disciplines that focus on the creative side of the human experience, such as art or literature. Personality: An individuals relatively unchanging personal qualities and character. Psychology: The systematic study of peoples thoughts, feelings, and behaviour. Retribution: One of the functions of punishment. This function is born of societys need and/or desire for inflicting suffering on the offender that is comparable to the suffering caused by the offence. The outcome of this function is protection of the moral order. Social Sciences: Those disciplines that use research and analysis to study human behaviour, such as anthropology, psychology, and sociology. Sociology: The scientific study of the development, structure, and functioning of human society. Statistics: Numbers that are collected and analyzed by social scientists and others.

Chapter 2 Glossary
Altruistic Suicide: The term originated by Emile Durkheim for suicide that occurs when people knowingly enter an impossible situation and sacrificing their lives for another. Analytical Psychology: The branch of psychology founded by Carl Jung that, in opposition to psychoanalysis, regards sexuality as only one of many factors influencing human behaviour. Anomic Suicide: The term originated by Emile Durkheim for suicide caused by an individuals being overwhelmed by sudden change in society. Behavioural Psychology: The school of psychology originating with John Watson and others that has as its goal the prediction and control of human behaviour. Bourgeoisie: The term used by Karl Marx for the rich and powerful groups in society who own factories, land, and machineries. Bureaucracies: Large, highly-structured organizations that tend to function in an impersonal manner, first studied by Max Weber.

By: Christina Weng

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SAP Examination Glossary

Class Conflict: The concept originated by Karl Marx of struggle between powerful and powerless groups in society. Cognitive Psychology: The branch of psychology that studies how people perceive and deal with their environment, as well as how they learn, remember, and forget. Conditioned Response: The term used by Ivan Pavlov for a response that is based on previous learning, such as feeling excited before meeting an old friend. Conditioned Stimulus: The term used by Ivan Pavlov for a stimulus for example, the sound of a can opener that causes a response in a subject for example, salivation in anticipation of food only after the subject has learned to associate the response with the stimulus. Conflict School: The branch of sociology, or the theory, based on the work of Karl Marx, that studies how humans compete for scarce resources. Two of the key resources examined are power and control in society. Conscious Mind: The term used by Sigmund Freud for the part of our minds containing memories that we can recall. Cultural Anthropology: The study of the cultures of living peoples. Cultural Diffusion: The belief of early anthropologists, now largely discounted, that civilization developed in a single place on the earth and then spread to all others, sometimes in a deteriorated form. Cultural Evolutionism: The now largely discounted belief of early anthropologists that all societies and cultures evolve through a series of predictable stages. Culture: Beliefs and behaviours that are transmitted from generation to generation. Defence Mechanisms: The term used by Sigmund Freud for the techniques that the human mind uses to deal with feelings of anxiety, frustration, tension, or worry. Freud believed these techniques maintain our self-esteem by protecting our ego against negative feelings. Ego: The term used by Sigmund Freud for the part of the unconscious mind that encourages us to do good things. It is part of the mind most closely linked to our sense of self. Egoistic Suicide: The term originated by Emile Durkheim for suicide that is caused by an individuals not sharing any of the major values or goals of society. Equilibrium: As used by Auguste Comte, the belief that society has a natural tendency to find a balance between forces of change and forces of stability. Ethnocentric: The term describing the incorrect attitude, belief, or stance that ones own culture is superior and/or worthier than other cultures. By: Christina Weng Page 2

SAP Examination Glossary

Ethnographic Studies: Studies of the culture and traditions of distinct people. Extrovert: The term used by Carl Jung for a person who seeks a large number of close associations with others and who draws strength or energy from these associations. Free Association: The technique originated by Sigmund Freud in which a subject matches pairs of words to enable a therapist to gain entry into the subjects unconscious mind. Functional Theory: The idea originated by Bronislaw Malinowski that all institutions are designed and modified to meet the needs of the majority. Functionalist School: The branch of sociology that studies society as a whole and analyzes how the parts of a society should work to achieve stability and well-being for all members. Gender Socialization: The different ways in which girls and boys are socialized, or learn to belong to society. Id: The term used by Sigmund Freud for the pleasure-seeking, often self-destructive, part of the unconscious mind. Individual Psychology: A system of therapy originated by Alfred Adler that focuses more on peoples conscious minds that on their unconscious minds, Adler assumed that people are normally aware of the goals and values that motivate them. Inferiority Complex: The term used by Alfred Adler for normal human feelings of inferiority that can, in extreme circumstances, lead to the inability to function normally. Introvert: The term used by Carl Jung to describe an emotionally self-sufficient people who does not encourage a large number of close associations with others and who draws strength or energy from her or his inner life. Kinship: Relationships among members of a social group that are based on members descent from common ancestors. Myth: A true or fictional story that recounts supernatural events that are significant to members of a culture. Neo-Marxist: The branch of sociology, based on the work of Karl Marx, that studies how humans compete for power and control in society (another name for conflict school). Participant Observation: The anthropological method of study where a researcher lives with a cultural group for an extended period to obtain an insiders understanding of the group. Physical Anthropology: The study of the evolution of humankind, including the comparison of human genetic characteristics of human genetic characteristics with those of apes, gorillas, and chimpanzees.

By: Christina Weng

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SAP Examination Glossary

Positivism: The term originating in Auguste Comtes work for the belief that society can only be understood by rigidly applying the scientific method of analysis. Primate: A member of the mammal group with the most developed brains, such as a human, an ape, a gorilla, or a chimpanzee. Proletariat: The term used by Karl Marx for the poor and powerless groups in society who survive by selling their labour. Psychiatry: The study and medical treatment of mental disorders. Psychoanalysis: The school of psychology founded by Sigmund Freud in which hypnosis and dream analysis is used to study a persons unconscious mind. Social Anthropology: The study and analysis of the social organization of living peoples. Social Dynamics: The term originated by Auguste Comte for the study of the forces that result in change within a society, such as war, revolution, economic growth, and catastrophe. Social Statics: The term originated by Auguste Comte for the study of the forces that give a society stability, such as customs, institutions, and laws. Superego: The term used by Sigmund Freud for the part of the unconscious mind that acts as a conscience, serving as a referee between the id and the ego. Symbolic Interactionist School: The branch of sociology that focuses on the beliefs and actions of individuals and the meanings that individuals give to their beliefs and actions. Unconditioned Response: The term used by Ivan Pavlov for a response that is natural, such as shivering when you are cold. Unconditioned Stimulus: The term used by Ivan Pavlov for a stimulus for example, hot food on a cold day that causes a natural response in a subject for example, warming up the subject without the subjects having to learn the response. Unconscious Mind: The term used by Sigmund Freud for the part of our minds of which we are unaware, but which Freud believed is responsible for most of our behaviour. Universals: Characteristics that can be observed in every human culture and society, such as ethics, gestures, and superstitions.

Chapter 3
Casual Theories: Theories in which one variable is claimed to be the cause of another variable. Concrete Notes: Detailed notes that provide a full description of an incident, including its participants, location, tone, and conclusion. By: Christina Weng Page 4

SAP Examination Glossary

Consequential Theories: Try to predict what will happen to society if a particular variable is changed. Dependent Variable: A factor that is caused or influenced by another variable. Double-Blind Principle: An experimental practice in which neither the experimenter nor the subject knows to which group (the control or experimental group) the subject belongs. Heritable: A characteristic that is acquired through genes. Hypothesis: A proposition or theory that a researcher is trying to prove. Independent Variable: A factor that has an effect on a second factor. Informants: Members of a group who provide information to social scientists who are studying the group. Informed Consent: The requirements that subjects must understand and agree to their participation in an experiment or observation before the results can be used. Intelligence Quotient: A measurement of a persons general intelligence, obtained through written tests and comparisons of the results of the test with data on average intelligence. Intervening Variable: A factor that causes difficulty in making a link between two other variables. Participant Observation: The anthropological method of study where a researcher lives with a cultural group for an extended period to obtain an insiders understanding of the group. Polygyny: A form of marriage in which a man has more than one wife at a time. Reflexivity: The practice by analyzing their own thought processes and belief structures to understand how these affect how they interpret their observations. Regression to the Mean: The idea maintained by psychologists that intelligence, while not inherited, is distributed consistently throughout a population from generation to generation. Reliable: The term describing an experiment or observation that, if repeated, will produce exactly the same results. Vague Notes: Notes that, because they provide only a sketchy description of an incident, are unusable at a later date for drawing conclusions.

Chapter 4
Agoraphobia: A fear of leaving the home, or a general fear of open spaces. Antisocial Personality Disorder: A relatively rare psychotic disorder whose symptoms involve pathological lying, taking pleasure in causing others pain, and a lack of guilt over ones harmful actions.

By: Christina Weng

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SAP Examination Glossary

Claustrophobia: A fear of enclosed spaces. Consensus Model: A decision-making model that allows everyone to have input. Many sociologists have found that women tend to favour this type of decision-making model. Corpus Callosum: A thick bundle of nerves that runs between the left and right hemispheres of the brain. Culturally Constructed Concept: An idea about the world and/or the people in it that is formed as a result of a persons cultural upbringing. Defence Mechanisms: The term used by Sigmund Freud for the techniques that the human mind uses to deal with feelings of anxiety, frustration, tensions, or worry. Freud believed these techniques maintain our self-esteem by protecting our ego against negative feelings. Delusions: Incorrect beliefs that a person holds even when faced with evidence to the contrary. Displacement: A defence mechanism by which we last out at someone because we have suppressed anger or frustration from an earlier situation. Ego: The term used by Sigmund Freud for the part of the unconscious mind that encourages us to do good things. It is the part of the mind most closely linked to our sense of self. Empathy: The ability to understand or experience the thoughts or feelings of other people. Enculturation: The learning process whereby we begin to learn the ideas, values, and beliefs of our culture. Estrogen: The female sex hormone. Fraternal Twins: Twins who have half their genes in common. Gallows Humour: Humour that tends to focus on gory and sick situations. Gender Differences: The physical differences that exist between males and females. Gender Roles: The roles that society expects people to play based on their gender. Aggressive behaviour is part of the gender role for males in many societies. Genes: Biological building blocks that determine a persons hair colour, eye colour, height, and other physical characteristics. Glass Ceiling: The invisible barrier that keeps women from rising to the highest levels of management within corporations. Hallucinations: Experiences in which a person sees or hears something that is not really there. Identical Twins: Twins who inherit identical genes. By: Christina Weng Page 6

SAP Examination Glossary

Identity Crisis: A period in a persons life during which the persons self-concept and beliefs are challenged. Incongruity: The result of putting ideas together in an unexpected or illogical way. Individuality: A psychological concept for the condition of being oneself and understanding who that self is in relation to others. Irony: A way of expressing oneself in which one says the opposite of what one really means. I-self: One of the two selves that sociologist George Herbert Mead believed we create depending on the social setting we find ourselves in. Mead believed the I-self is our true self and is only revealed to those closest to us. Me-Self: One of the two selves that sociologist George Herbert Mead believed we create depending on the social setting we find ourselves in. Mead believed the Me-self is our public self, guided by the rules and expectations of the rules we play. Nature-Nurture Debate: The debate over whether nature (inherited, biological characteristics) or nurture (learned, environmental forces) has more of an impact on personality development. Neurosis: A type of psychological disorder. People suffering from a neurosis usually experience very high levels of anxiety or tension but are generally able to manage their daily affairs. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: A disorder in which a person has an obsession (recurring, uncontrollable thought or impulsive) to be compulsive (engage in meaningless, repetitive behaviour) Phobia: An irrational and often debilitating fear. Projection: A defence mechanism by which we see negative traits and feelings in other people that we sense in ourselves but to which we cannot openly admit. Psychological Disorder: A disease of the mind that makes it difficult to cope with the ordinary stresses of daily life. Psychosis: A type of psychological disorder. People suffering from a psychotic disorder often lose touch with the real world and require treatment to be able to live a normal life. Rationalization: A defence mechanism by which we invent an excuse to explain a failure, loss, or our bad behaviour. Repression: A defence mechanism by which we push unpleasant urges or thoughts out of our conscious mind and into our subconscious. Self-Concept: Our sense of who we are, based on our ideas about our strengths, weaknesses, values, beliefs, hopes, dreams, achievements, and disappointments.

By: Christina Weng

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SAP Examination Glossary

Self-Determination: A psychological term for the ability to identify and achieve goals based on a foundation of knowing and valuing oneself. Self-Enhancers: People who see themselves more positively than other do and who tend to be emotionally well-adjusted. Sexual Orientation: A category for identifying whether a person is attracted to members of the same sex, members of the opposite sex, or both. Slapstick Humour: Humour that involves physical stunts such as walking into doors. Status Set: A sociological term for the many roles we play simultaneously in our lives. Stereotyping: Assuming that all members of a particular group share certain characteristics without considering the actual characteristics of individual group members. The Human Genome Project: An international project, launched in 1989, aimed at identifying the location and function of all human genes.

Chapter 5
Anticipatory Socialization: The process of learning how to think ahead and to plan appropriate behaviour in new situations. Citations: Mentions of sources of information. Citations take different forms depending on whether they appear within text paragraphs or in bibliographies. Degradation Ceremony: An embarrassing ritual that some total institutions force members to take part in, in order to weaken members identities. Electra Complex: The term used by Sigmund Freud for the rare case of a daughters sexual attraction to her father and hostility toward her mother. Ferals: Human children raised by wild animals such as female wolves. Isolates: Children raised in almost total isolation within human households. Latent Function: The hidden purpose of an institution. For example, one of a schools latent functions is to teach students how to work together in unfamiliar situations. Looking-Glass Self: The idea of self originated by Charles Cooley, which claimed that our view of ourselves is derived from how we think others perceive us. Manifest Function: The visible purpose of an institution. For example, one of a schools manifest functions is to help students develop academic skills. Norms: The behaviours that society expects from its members. By: Christina Weng Page 8

SAP Examination Glossary

Oedipus Complex: The term used by Sigmund Freud for the rare case of a sons sexual attraction to his mother and hostility toward his father. Peer Group: A social group whose members are similar in age and status and share similar interests. Primary Socialization: The process of learning how to function in society at the most basic level. Resocialization: The process in which society replaces negative aspects of a persons behaviour with new learnings. Sapienization: The anthropological term for the process of learning about the components of society for example, marriage and the family that make society distinctly human. Secondary Socialization: The process of learning how to function in group situations. Self: An individuals personhood. The self includes an individuals positive and negative qualities as well as the individuals feelings about his or her identity. Socialization: The life-long process through which humans learn the skills and attitudes they need to function in society. Total Institutions: Institutions such as prisons that are designed to give individuals new, positive socialization experiences to replace the negative results of their prior socialization. Sociologist Erving Goffman originated this term and identified key features of such institutions, such as isolating people from the rest of society.

By: Christina Weng

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