AP Chemistry Bonding Help Sheet

Ch 8 and Ch 9: Bonding in Different Types of Pure Substances Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons between a metal and nonmetal, causes an electrostatic attraction between the positive metal cation and the negative nonmetal anion. Formation of an Ionic Compound Born-Haber Cycle: Step by Step Reaction 1. Metal(s) Metal(g) Li(s) Li(g)

(Sublimation) H = +155.2-kJ (Bond Dissociation)

2. Diatomic Non-Metal(g) Monatomic Non-Metal(g) F2(g) F(g) H = +75.3-kJ 3. Metal(g) Metal-ion + eLi(g) Li+ (g) + eH = +520-kJ

(Ionization Energy)

4. Monatomic Nonmetal + e- Nonmetal-ion F(g) + e- F-(g) H = -333-kJ 5. Electrostatic Metal-ion Non-Metal-ion attraction Li+(g) + F-(g) LiF(s) H = -1012-kJ Overall: Li(s) + F2(g) LiF(s) H = -594.1-kJ

(Electron affinity)

(Lattice Energy)

(H of formation)

Lattice Energy: the change in energy that takes place when separated gaseous ions are packed together to form an ionic solid. Ions with large charges have higher lattice energy because of Coulomb's Law: ; Q is charge, d is bond length

Strength of Ionic Bonds are determined by a) The Charge on the Ion: The larger the charge the stronger the ionic bond. b) The size of the ion: The smaller the ion, the stronger the electrostatic attraction, therefore the stronger the ionic bond Metallic Bonds occur in Pure Metal elements. Metal cations are surrounded by a sea of mobile valence electrons. Metals conducts electricity, malleable, and ductile. Generally, small metal cations have stronger metallic bonds because the valence electrons will be strongly attracted to the nucleus. Network Covalent Bond: Covalent bonds in a network crystal structure that is held together by a network of covalent bonds that makes it extremely strong. ex. SiO2, C (diamond), SiC, Si Covalent Bond occurs when two nonmetals share 2 electrons to form a single bond. Generally each atom contributes one electron each to share. Types of Covalent Bonds 1. Coordinate Covalent Bond: Both bonding e- being shared come from one atom thus it is weaker than a normal covalent bond. 2. Polar Covalent Bond occurs when the electrons being shared is attracted more to one atom than the other because of higher electronegativity in one atom.
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AP Chemistry Bonding Help Sheet

3. Nonpolar Covalent Bond occurs when the electrons are shared equally because of similar electronegativity in both atoms. Electronegativity is a measure of an atoms pull for electrons in a bond. The electronegativity difference between two atoms determines the % ionic character of a bond. 0-0.4 Nonpolar covalent bond 0.4-1.67 Polar Covalent Bond 1.67 and higher Ionic Bond The Strength of the Bonds Determines a Substances Boiling Point and Melting Point. The stronger the bond, the higher the melting and boiling points. Order of Bond Strengths: Network Covalent Bonds, Ionic Bonds, Metallic Covalent Bond(Depends on Intermolecular Forces) Molecular Compounds with Covalent Bonds Saturated Compounds contain only single bonds. Unsaturated Compounds contain double or triple bonds. Lewis Dot Structures: The goal is to complete the octet for All atoms in a molecule using only the valence electrons. Exceptions to the octet rule: Atoms that dont need an Octet: H (1 bond), Be (2 bond), B (3 bond) Central Atoms from period 3 to 7 can have more than an octet because these atoms have an empty d sublevel to use to hold additional electrons. STEPS to draw Lewis Dot Structures 1. Calculate the total number of valence electrons available to use for completing the octet for each atom in the molecule. 2. Draw a skeletal structure by bonding with a dash(-) all the atoms to one central atom. Each bond means two electrons are shared. (The central atom is usually written first in the formula or the one with the lowest electronegativity) 3. Complete the octet by adding lone pair electrons (usually 3 lone pairs) to all the outer atoms. 4. Count the total number of electrons used. Subtract the number used from the total available and place all remaining electrons on the Central Atom. 5. Count the number of electrons on the Central Atom. If the Central Atom has an incomplete octet, convert lone pair e- from the outer atom to form multiple bonds until the octet is complete. (Note: Symmetrical Lewis structures are preferred and for tertiary acids bond H to O) Resonance Structures occur when a molecule may be described by more than one Lewis Dot Structure. Having Resonance Structure makes all the resonance bonds average out to be the same length and strength. (Ex. SO3, SO2) More Exceptions to the Lewis Dot Structure Octet Rule. Odd-Electron Molecules (NO or NO2): Make the central atom have 7eExpanded Octet: Some central atoms can accommodate more that 8e-. This can occur in molecules where the nonmetal central atom is from the third period of the Period Table or higher b/c of the available empty d orbitals for hybridization. Ex. (SF6)
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AP Chemistry Bonding Help Sheet

Formal Charge: To determine the best Lewis dot structure for a molecule, choose the Lewis Dot Structure where most atoms' formal charge are zero or closest to zero. If there must be a formal charge on an atom, the most electronegative atom show have the negative formal charge. FC =[#Val. e-] [# lone e-] [# bonding e-] Molecular Geometry: Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR): Electron pairs around the central atom repel each other. The arrangement of electron pairs around the central atom that minimizes the repulsion is the best molecular geometry. Count the total number of electron groups around the Central atom using the Lewis Dot Structure. Each lone pair, single bond, double bond, and triple bond is counted as ONE electron group each. This is referred to as the Steric No. in the diagram below and match it up with the correct Molecular Geometry. Molecular Polarity: From the Molecular Shape determine if the dipole (polar) bonds cancel each other out or not. Symmetrical shapes will result in polar bonds canceling each other out and the molecule will be Nonpolar. Ex. CO2. Polar molecules is a result of polar bonds not canceling each other out. Ex. H2O.

AP Chemistry Bonding Help Sheet

Hybridization: The Valence Band Theory: Bonding and the molecular geometry is due to orbital hybridization. Count the number of electron pairs on the Central Atom to determine types of hybridization: sp, sp2, sp3, sp3d, sp3d2. (Hybridization of an atom = pairs bonding e- + pairs of non-bonding e-s.) Multiple Bonds: Sigma and Pi bonds descript how e- are shared by overlapping of orbitals. Sigma bonds are all single bonds that are a result of direct orbital overlapping when sharing electrons. Pi bonds are formed when two unhybridized p-orbitals are oriented parallel to each other when overlapping thus allowing two electrons to be shared. Double bonds involve ONE sigma and ONE pi bond overlaps. Triple bonds involve ONE sigma and TWO pi bond overlaps. Intermolecular Forces of attractions for molecular compounds: 1. London Dispersion Forces: attractions between molecules due to their momentary dipoles. Larger molecules with more electrons have stronger dispersion forces because large molecules are more polarizable. . 2. Dipole-dipole bonding: Polar molecules are attracted to other polar molecules because they have opposite partial charges at each end of the molecule. 3. Hydrogen bonding: Polar molecules that contain very polar bonds (H-N, H-O, or H-F) form hydrogen bonding with other molecules because the partial charges are stronger. The Boiling Point and Melting Point of liquids and solids vary depending on the type and strength of Intermolecular Forces and bonds. Molecules that have stronger Intermolecular forces like Hydrogen bonding will have higher B.P. and M.P.

AP Chemistry Bonding Help Sheet

1996 D
Explain each of the following observations in terms of the electronic structure and/or bonding of the compounds involved.

(a) At ordinary conditions, HF (normal boiling point = 20C) is a liquid, whereas HCl (normal boiling point = -114C) is a gas. (b) Molecules of AsF3 are polar, whereas molecules of AsF5 are nonpolar. (c) The N-O bonds in the NO2- ion are equal in length, whereas they are unequal in HNO2. (d) For sulfur, the fluorides SF2, SF4, and SF6 are known to exist, whereas for oxygen only OF2 is known to exist. 1997 D (Required) Consider the molecules PF3 and PF5. (a) Draw the Lewis electron-dot structures for PF3 and PF5 and predict the molecular geometry of each. (b) Is the PF3 molecule polar, or is it nonpolar? Explain. (c) On the basis of bonding principles, predict whether each of the following compounds exists. In each case, explain your prediction. (i) NF5 (ii) AsF5 1999 D 1. Answer the following questions using principles of chemical bonding and molecular structure. (a) Consider the carbon dioxide molecule, CO2, and the carbonate ion, CO32. (i) Draw the complete Lewis electron-dot structure for each species.
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AP Chemistry Bonding Help Sheet

(ii) Account for the fact at the carbon-oxygen bond length in CO32 is greater than the carbonoxygen bond length in CO2. (b) Consider the molecules CF4 and SF4. (i) (ii) Draw the complete Lewis electron-dot structure for each molecule. In terms of molecular geometry, account for the fact that the CF4 molecule is nonpolar, whereas the SF4 molecule is polar.

1982 D (a) Draw the Lewis electron-dot structures for CO32-, CO2, and CO, including resonance structures where appropriate. (b) Which of the three species has the shortest C-O bond length? Explain the reason for your answer. (c) Predict the molecular shapes for the three species. Explain how you arrived at your predictions. 1992 D Explain each of the following in terms of atomic and molecular structures and/or intermolecular forces. (a) Solid K conducts an electric current, whereas solid KNO3 does not. (b) SbCl3 has measurable dipole moment, whereas SbCl5 does not. (c) The normal boiling point of CCl4 is 77C, whereas that of CBr4 is 190C. (d) NaI(s) is very soluble in water, whereas I2(s) has a solubility of only 0.03 gram per 100 grams of water.