STUDY & IMPLEMENTATION OF VARIOUS ASPECTS OF SMART GRID

A Major Project Report Submitted in the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical Engineering

SUBMITTED BY MD. KHALID AKHTAR 06-EES-23 SHAMS TABREZ 06-EES-56 SAJID ASLAM 06-EES-54

Under the guidance of Dr. A. S. SIDDIQUI

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA, NEW DELHI INDIA 2010

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA, NEW DELHI

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Major Project Report entitled, STUDY & IMPLEMENTATION OF VARIOUS ASPECTS OF SMART GRID submitted by Md. Khalid Akhtar (06-EES-23), Shams Tabrez (06-EES-56) & Sajid Aslam (06-EES-54) at Faculty of Engineering & Technology JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA, NEW DELHI is an authentic work carried out by them under my supervision and guidance. To the best of my knowledge, the matter embodied in this Project Report is sufficient & enough to study STUDY & IMPLEMENTATION OF VARIOUS ASPECTS OF SMART GRID & this project has not been submitted earlier in any university or institute for the award of any degree.

Dr. A. S. SIDDIQUI
Associate Professor Department of Electrical Engineering Faculty of Engineering and Technology Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project is by far the most significant accomplishment in our life and it would be impossible without people who supported us and believed in us. We would like to extend our gratitude and our sincere thanks to our honourable esteemed supervisor Dr. A. S. SIDDIQUI, Department of Electrical Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi. We sincerely thank for his exemplary guidance and encouragement. His trust and support inspired us in the most important moments of making right decisions and we are glad to work with him. Special thanks to our HOD, Prof. A . Q . ANSARI for providing us all the necessary requirements for this project. We would like to thank all my friends for all the thoughtful and mind simulating discussion we had, which make us to think beyond the obvious. Last but not least we would like to thank our parents, who taught us the value of hard work by their own example.

Md. Khalid Akhtar Shams Tabrez Sajid Aslam

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CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE ..................................................................................................................................................... i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................................................... ii CONTENTS......................................................................................................................................................... iii LIST OF FIGURE .............................................................................................................................................. vi ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................................................... vi Chapter-1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 BACKGROUND ......................................................................................................................................1 LITRATURE REVIEW ..........................................................................................................................2 MOTIVATION OF PRESENT WORK .................................................................................................4 PROBLEM STATEMENT .....................................................................................................................5 PROJECT ORGANISATION ................................................................................................................5

Chapter-2 SMART GRID: AN OVERVIEW ....................................................................................................7 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.4.5 2.4.6 2.4.7 2.5 2.6 2.6.1 2.6.2 2.6.3 2.6.4 2.6.5 2.6.6 2.6.7 2.7 2.8 DEFINATION ..........................................................................................................................................8 GOALS OF SMART GRID ....................................................................................................................9 FEATURES OF SMART GRID .............................................................................................................9 Load Adjustment ...................................................................................................................................9 Demand response support .................................................................................................................... 10 Greater resilience to loading ................................................................................................................ 10 Decentralization of power generation .................................................................................................. 11 Price signaling to consumers ............................................................................................................... 11 TECHNOLOGIES USED IN SMART GRID ..................................................................................... 11 Integrated communications .................................................................................................................. 12 Sensing and measurement ................................................................................................................... 12 Smart meters ........................................................................................................................................ 13 Phasor measurement units ................................................................................................................... 13 Advanced Components ........................................................................................................................ 14 Advanced control................................................................................................................................. 14 Improved interfaces and decision support ........................................................................................... 14 COMPONENTS OF SMART GRID .................................................................................................... 15 SMART GRID CHARECTERISTICS ................................................................................................ 16 Self-healing.......................................................................................................................................... 16 Consumer participation........................................................................................................................ 17 Resist attack ......................................................................................................................................... 18 High quality power .............................................................................................................................. 18 Accommodate generation options ....................................................................................................... 18 Enable electricity market ..................................................................................................................... 18 Optimize assets .................................................................................................................................... 19 RESPOND TO MANY CONDITIONS IN SUPPLY AND DEMAND ............................................. 19 MODERNIZES BOTH TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION ....................................................... 19

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2.9 2.10 2.11

PEAK CURTAILMENT/LEVELLING AND TIME OF USE PRICING ........................................ 20 ESSENTIALITY OF RENEWABLE ENERGY ................................................................................. 21 STANDARDS AND GROUPS OF SMART GRID ............................................................................. 22 Evolution of Smart Grid ...................................................................................................................... 23 Interconnectivity With Distributed Generation ................................................................................... 24 Interconnection Standards ................................................................................................................... 24 Smart Grid Standards........................................................................................................................... 26

2.11.1 2.11.2 2.11.3 2.11.4

Chapter-3 VARIOUS ASPECTS OF SMART GRID ..................................................................................... 27 3.1 3.1.1 IMPACT OF SMART GRID ON DISTRIBUTION SYSYTEM DESIGN ...................................... 27 Current Research Activities .................................................................................................................. 28

3.2 FRAME WORK FOR OPERATION & CONTROL OF SMART GRID WITH DISTRIBUTED GENERATION ................................................................................................................................................... 34 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 DISTRIBUTED GENERATION .......................................................................................................... 34 FACTS TECHNOLOGIES ................................................................................................................... 37 A FRAMEWORK FOR OPERATION AND CONTROL ................................................................. 41 BEYOND THE GRIDLOCK ................................................................................................................ 44

Chapter-4 BASIC CONTROLLER DESIGN FOR A PRIMITIVE SMART GRID ................................... 46 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.7.1 4.8 4.8.1 4.8.2 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 FEATURES OF OUR DESIGN............................................................................................................ 46 ADVANTAGES OF AUTOMATION .................................................................................................. 46 SYSTEM REQUIRMENT .................................................................................................................... 47 Hardware Requirements ...................................................................................................................... 47 Software Requirements........................................................................................................................ 47 TRANSFORMER .................................................................................................................................. 48 APPLICATIONS ................................................................................................................................... 48 TRANSISTOR ....................................................................................................................................... 49 CAPACITOR ......................................................................................................................................... 50 Working of A Capacitor ...................................................................................................................... 50 PARALLEL PORT ................................................................................................................................ 52 Connection of Circuits To Parallel Port ............................................................................................... 53 How to Calculate Your Own Values to be Send to Program ............................................................... 54 RELAY ................................................................................................................................................... 55 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION.................................................................................................................... 56 FEASIBILTY STUDY ........................................................................................................................... 57 DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS .................................................................................................................. 59 FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS .............................................................................................................. 61

Chapter-5 SMART GRID: FUTURE & THREATS ...................................................................................... 63 5.1 5.2 5.3 SMART GRID OF FUTURE ................................................................................................................ 63 BUSINESS AND REGULATORY DRIVES OF THE SMART GRID............................................. 64 IMPACT OF PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES ON THE DISTRIBUTION GRID ... 65

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5.4 5.5

CRITICAL ROLE OF INFORMATION & AUTOMATION TECHNOLOGY ............................. 66 SMART GRID MILLIONAIRE ........................................................................................................... 69

5.6 COMPUTER NETWORK SECURITY MANAGEMENT & AUTHENTICATION OF SMART GRID ................................................................................................................................................................. 70 5.6.1 5.6.3 5.7 5.8 5.8.1 5.9 Smart Grids to an Energy Internet ....................................................................................................... 70 Hardware Implementation ................................................................................................................... 74 EMERGING TECHNOLOGY ............................................................................................................. 75 NEXT GENERATION COMMUNICATION REQUIREMENT ..................................................... 76 GridStat ............................................................................................................................................... 79 EDUCATING SMART GRID .............................................................................................................. 83

Chapter-6 CONCLUSION & FUTURE OF SMART GRID ......................................................................... 87 6.1 6.2 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................................................... 87 FUTURE OF SMART GRID ................................................................................................................ 87

References ............................................................................................................................................................ 88

LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1.1 Before smart grid & after smart grid...................................................................................................... 4 Figure 2.1 Smart grid value proposition.................................................................................................................. 9 Figure 2.2 Smart grid technology categories ........................................................................................................ 12 Figure 2.3 efficient generation, transport & utilization of electricity.................................................................... 20 Figure 2.4 Evolution of technology ...................................................................................................................... 23 Figure 2.5 Interconnectivity- Distribution Generation .......................................................................................... 24 Figure 2.6 Interconnection standards .................................................................................................................... 25 Figure 2.7 Smart grid standards ............................................................................................................................ 26 Figure 3.1 Distribution System Design ................................................................................................................. 27 Figure 3.2 Sensor & Distribution Design .............................................................................................................. 31 Figure 3.3: Configuration of the WT systems ....................................................................................................... 35 Figure 4.1(a) Miniature Transformer .................................................................................................................... 49 Figure 4.1(b) Conventional Power Transformer ................................................................................................... 49 Figure 4.2 TRANSISTORS .................................................................................................................................. 50 Figure 4.3 Capacitors ............................................................................................................................................ 51 Figure 4.4 Parallel Port ......................................................................................................................................... 53 Figure 4.5 Relay System ....................................................................................................................................... 55 Figure 4.6 Relay Circuit ........................................................................................................................................ 57 Figure 5.1 Grid of the Future ................................................................................................................................ 63 Figure 5.2 A typical radial distribution feederpotential circuit congestion conditions ..................................... 64 Figure 5.3 Residential Customer Network ............................................................................................................ 65 Figure 5.4 Plug-in vehicle charging time .............................................................................................................. 66 Figure 5.5 A view of the utility information systems impacted by smart-grid strategies ...................................... 67 Figure 5.6 Systems required to support the high penetration of distributed resources .......................................... 68 Figure 5.7 A broad-based timeline for smart-grid IT implementation ................................................................... 68 Figure 5.8 Smart grid interconnection with WAN ................................................................................................ 71 Figure 5.9 Internet and power grid with virtual buffers ........................................................................................ 72 Figure 5.10 Implementation of an Energy Internet ............................................................................................... 72 Figure 5.11 Interactions among agents ................................................................................................................. 73 Figure 5.12 Smart Grid Electricity Infrastructure ................................................................................................. 76 Figure 5.13 Power-grid communications today. ................................................................................................... 77 Figure 5.14 The GridStat architecture ................................................................................................................... 80 Figure 5.15 The next-generation power-grid infrastructure with GridStat............................................................ 82 Figure 5.16 learning smart grid ............................................................................................................................. 84 Figure 5.17 Network Management ....................................................................................................................... 85

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ABSTRACT
Smart grid is a nebulous term spanning various functionalities geared towards modernizing the electricity grid. At its core, a smart grid utilizes digital communications and control to monitor and control power flows, with the aim of making the power grid more resilient, efficient, and cost-effective. Some of the desired functionalities include: Knowing the status of the power system in great detail and granularity (ideally in real-time). Reacting to any changes in supply (disruptions) or demand Enabling small-scale (distributed) storage and power generation (especially renewable) Controlling loads as per either operational conditions or financial incentives (through, e.g., time of use or real-time pricing) Enabling new solutions for improved customer service, reliability, and future offerings Smart grids are still under evolution, and different utilities will need different solutions as per their underlying infrastructure, legacy requirements, and business case. Most ingredients of a smart grid exist today, but have not been fully packaged into integrated solutions. The price points also need improvement, especially for residential deployments and developing country roll-outs (where the per user loads are lower). Despite all the challenges, there are large benefits to smart grid technologies, especially as the solutions mature and volumes grow, which will be spurred by the adoption of standards. Smart grids will be an important enabler to make the power system more environmentally sustainable, and represent an opportunity for developing countries to leapfrog in the growth of their power sector to more manageable, reliable, and scalable designs.

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Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1

BACKGROUND

The term "Smart Grid" was coined by Andres E. Carvallo on April 24, 2007 at an IDC energy conference in Chicago, were he presented that the Smart Grid was the combination of energy, communications, software and hardware. His definition of a Smart Grid is that it is the integration of an electric grid, a communications network, software, and hardware to monitor, control and manage the creation, distribution, storage and consumption of energy. The 21st century Smart Grid reaches every electric element, it is self-healing, it is interactive, and it is distributed. Smart grid technologies have emerged from earlier attempts at using electronic control, metering, and monitoring. In the 1980s, Automatic meter reading was used for monitoring loads from large customers, and evolved into the Advanced Metering Infrastructure of the 1990s, whose meters could store how electricity was used at different times of the day.Smart meters add continuous communications so that monitoring can be done in real time, and can be used as a gateway to demand response-aware devices and "smart sockets" in the home. Early forms of such Demand side management technologies were dynamic demand aware devices that passively sensed the load on the grid by monitoring changes in the power supply frequency. Devices such as industrial and domestic air conditioners, refrigerators and heaters adjusted their duty cycle to avoid activation during times the grid was suffering a peak condition. Beginning in 2000, Italy's Telegestore Project was the first to network large numbers (27
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million) of homes using such smart meters connected via low bandwidth power line communication. Recent projects use Broadband over Power Line (BPL) communications, or wireless technologies such as mesh networking that is advocated as providing more reliable connections to disparate devices in the home as well as supporting metering of other utilities such as gas and water. Monitoring and synchronization of wide area networks were revolutionized the early 1990s when the Bonneville Power Administration expanded its smart grid research with prototype sensors that are capable of very rapid analysis of anomalies in electricity quality over very large geographic areas. The culmination of this work was the first operational Wide Area Measurement System (WAMS) in 2000[19]. Other countries are rapidly integrating this technology China will have a comprehensive national WAMS system when its current 5-year economic plan is complete in 2012. 1.2

LITRATURE REVIEW

Building the smart grid means adding computer and communications technology to the existing electricity grid. With an overlay of digital technology, the grid promises to operate more efficiently and reliably. It can also accommodate more solar and wind power, which are intermittent sources of energy that can become more reliable with better controls. Currently, if there's a breakdown at your local substation, the utility usually finds out when customers call to complain. Placing a networked sensor inside a transformer or along wires could locate and report a problem, or prevent it from happening in the first place. Despite living in the age of information, most of us only get a glimpse of our energy consumption when the utility bills come once a month. In people's homes, the smart grid should mean more detailed information through home energy-monitoring tools. These can be small displays or Web-based programs

that give a real-time view of how much energy you're using, which appliances consume the most, and how your home compares to others. Just surfacing that information will give people ideas on how to shave energy bills by 5 to 15 percent, utility executives say. What's needed to start is a smart meter with two-way communications or some other kind of gateway. Once that conduit is put in place, consumers can get more detailed energy data and start taking advantage of efficiency incentives, such as charging your plug-in electric vehicle in the middle of the night to get off-peak rates. In theory, networked appliances are smarter and more efficient. For example we will test big appliancesrefrigerators, washing machines, and the likethat can get information on fluctuating electricity prices to do its job more efficiently. It could be as simple as making ice or running the dishwasher in the middle of the night. Or, as part of a home-area network, consumers could program lighting and major appliances on a schedule. The next step toward efficiency is what's called demand response. The goal here is to dial back energy consumption at peak times. This is very important to utilities because it's costly and polluting to bring on auxiliary power plants to meet, say, a spike in demand from the air conditioning load on a hot summer day. Consumers and businesses have financial incentives to participate, such as a discounted rate. "Shedding load" could mean turning the gas heat off of the clothes drier for a few minutes or dimming the lights in a supermarket in the middle of the day. A smarter grid also makes distributed energy, such as home solar systems, more viable and user-friendly. With a smart meter and monitoring software, a homeowner can see how much solar panels are producing and their carbon footprint is being reduced. A utility, too, is keenly interested in how much distributed energy is available so it can calibrate its own daily power generation.
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Figure1.1 Before smart grid & after smart grid

1.3

MOTIVATION OF PRESENT WORK

Increasing reliability, efficiency and safety of the power grid. Enabling decentralized power generation so homes can be both an energy client and supplier (provide consumers with interactive tool to manage energy usage). Flexibility of power consumption at the client side to allow supplier selection (enables distributed generation, solar, wind, bio mass).
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 Increase GDP by creating more new, green-collar energy jobs related to renewable energy industry manufacturing, plug-in electric vehicles, solar panel and wind turbine generation, energy conservation construction.

1.4

PROBLEM STATEMENT
Security threats, from either energy suppliers or cyber attack. National goals to employ alternative power generation sources whose intermittent supply makes maintaining stable power significantly more complex. Conservation goals that seek to lessen peak demand surges during the day so that less energy is wasted in order to ensure adequate reserves. High demand for an electricity supply that is un-interruptible. Digitally controlled devices that can alter the nature of the electrical load and result in electricity demand that is incompatible with a power system that was built to serve an analog economy. For a simple example, timed Christmas lights can present significant surges in demand because they come on at near the same time (sundown or a set time). Without the kind of coordination that a smart grid can provide, the increased use of such devices lead to electric service reliability problems, power quality disturbances, blackouts, and brownouts.

1.5

PROJECT ORGANISATION

Chapter 2 describes an overview of SMART GRID and its various components and technology used, application as well as various standards of interconnection in the power system. Chapter 3 describes the smart grid distributed system design, frame work operation and control of smart grid with distributed generation, utility experience with developing the smart grid road map. Chapter 4 Home automation is a field specializing in specific automation requirements of private homes and in application of automation techniques for comfort and security of residents. This software is used to control various
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electronic appliances. It allows lights to be programmed on and off at scheduled times. It saves energy by turning off appliances when they are needed. It adds value to security networks by allowing security camera images to be viewed on television monitors. Finally the chapter 5 deals with the conclusion and its future scope of smart grid in the power systems. After that references have been given a place in the thesis without the help of which this thesis could not be completed.

Chapter-2
SMART GRID: AN OVERVIEW

2.1

DEFINATION

The term Smart Grid refers to a modernization of the electricity delivery system so it monitors, protects and automatically optimizes the operation of its interconnected elements from the central and distributed generator through the high-voltage network and distribution system, to industrial users and building automation systems, to energy storage installations and to end-use consumers and their thermostats, electric vehicles, appliances and other household devices. The Smart Grid is characterized by a two-way flow of electricity and information to create an automated, widely distributed energy delivery network. It incorporates into the grid the benefits of distributed computing and communications to deliver real-time information and enable the nearinstantaneous balance of supply and demand at the device level. A power system that can incorporate millions of sensors all connected through an advanced communication and data acquisition system. This system will provide real-time analysis by a distributed computing system that will enable predictive rather than reactive responses to blink-of the-eye disruptions. An advanced, telecommunication / electric grid with sensors and smart devices linking all aspects of the grid, from generator to consumer, and delivering enhanced operational capabilities. A smart grid delivers electricity from suppliers to consumers using digital technology to save energy, reduce cost and increase reliability and transparency. Such a modernized electricity network is being promoted by many governments as a way of addressing energy independence, global warming and emergency resilience issues. Many similar proposals have many similar names, including at least smart electric grid, smart power grid, intelligent grid (or intelligrid), FutureGrid, and the more modern intergrid and intragrid.

2.2

GOALS OF SMART GRID

To "broadcast" power from a few central power generators to a large number of users, to instead be capable of routing power in more optimal ways to respond to a very wide range of conditions.

2.3

FEATURES OF SMART GRID

Existing and planned implementations of smart grids provide a wide range of features to perform the required functions.

Figure 2.1 Smart grid value proposition

2.3.1 Load Adjustment The total load connected to the power grid can vary significantly over time. Although the total load is the sum of many individual choices of the clients, the overall load is not a stable, slow varying, average power consumption. Imagine the increment of the load if a popular television program starts and millions of televisions will draw current instantly. Traditionally, to respond to a rapid increase in power consumption, faster than the start-up time of a large generator, some spare generators are put on a dissipative standby mode. A smart grid may warn all individual television sets, or another larger customer, to reduce the load temporarily (to allow time to start up a larger generator) or continuously (in the case of limited resources). Using mathematical prediction algorithms it is
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possible to predict how many standby generators need to be used, to reach a certain failure rate. In the traditional grid, the failure rate can only be reduced at the cost of more standby generators. In a smart grid, the load reduction by even a small portion of the clients may eliminate the problem. 2.3.2 Demand response support Demand response support allows generators and loads to interact in an automated fashion in real time, coordinating demand to flatten spikes. Eliminating the fraction of demand that occurs in these spikes eliminates the cost of adding reserve generators, cuts wear and tear and extends the life of equipment, and allows users to cut their energy bills by telling low priority devices to use energy only when it is cheapest. Currently, power grid systems have varying degrees of communication within control systems for their high value assets, such as in generating plants, transmission lines, substations and major energy users. In general information flows one way, from the users and the loads they control back to the utilities. The utilities attempt to meet the demand and succeed or fail to varying degrees (brownout, rolling blackout, uncontrolled blackout). The total amount of power demand by the users can have a very wide probability distribution which requires spare generating plants in standby mode to respond to the rapidly changing power usage. This one-way flow of information is expensive; the last 10% of generating capacity may be required as little as 1% of the time, and brownouts and outages can be costly to consumers. 2.3.3 Greater resilience to loading Although multiple routes are touted as a feature of the smart grid, the old grid also featured multiple routes. Initial power lines in the grid were built using a radial model, later connectivity was guaranteed via multiple routes, referred to as a network structure. However, this created a new problem: if the current flow or related effects across the network exceed the limits of any particular network
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element, it could fail, and the current would be shunted to other network elements, which eventually may fail also, causing a domino effect.A technique to prevent this is load shedding by rolling blackout or voltage reduction (brownout). 2.3.4 Decentralization of power generation Another element of fault tolerance of smart grids is decentralized power generation. Distributed generation allows individual consumers to generate power onsite, using whatever generation method they find appropriate. This allows individual loads to tailor their generation directly to their load, making them independent from grid power failures. Classic grids were designed for oneway flow of electricity, but if a local sub-network generates more power than it is consuming, the reverse flow can raise safety and reliability issues. A smart grid can manage these situations. 2.3.5 Price signaling to consumers In many countries the electric utilities have installed double tariff electricity meters in many homes to encourage people to use their electric power during night time or weekends, when the overall demand from industry is very low. During off-peak time the price is reduced significantly, primarily for heating storage radiators or heat pumps with a high thermal mass, but also for domestic appliances. This idea will be further explored in a smart grid, where the price could be changing in seconds and electric equipment is given methods to react on that. Also, personal preferences of customers, for example to use only green energy, can be incorporated in such a power grid.

2.4

TECHNOLOGIES USED IN SMART GRID

The bulk of smart grid technologies are already used in other applications such as manufacturing and telecommunications and are being adapted for use in grid operations. In general, smart grid technology can be grouped into five key areas.
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Figure 2.2 Smart grid technology categories

2.4.1 Integrated communications Some communications are up to date, but are not uniform because they have been developed in an incremental fashion and not fully integrated. In most cases, data is being collected via modem rather than direct network connection. Areas for improvement include: substation automation, demand response, distribution automation, supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA), energy management systems, wireless mesh networks and other technologies, powerline carrier communications, and fiber-optics. Integrated communications will allow for real-time control, information and data exchange to optimize system reliability, asset utilization, and security. 2.4.2 Sensing and measurement Core duties are evaluating congestion and grid stability, monitoring equipment health, energy theft prevention, and control strategies support. Technologies include: advanced microprocessor meters (smart meter) and meter reading equipment, wide-area monitoring systems, dynamic line rating (typically based on online readings by Distributed temperature sensing combined with Real time thermal rating (RTTR) systems), electromagnetic signature

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measurement/analysis, time-of-use and real-time pricing tools, advanced switches and cables, backscatter radio technology, and Digital protective relays. 2.4.3 Smart meters A smart grid replaces analog mechanical meters with digital meters that record usage in real time. Smart meters are similar to Advanced Metering Infrastructure meters and provide a communication path extending from generation plants to electrical outlets (smart socket) and other smart grid-enabled devices. By customer option, such devices can shut down during times of peak demand. 2.4.4 Phasor measurement units High speed sensors called PMUs distributed throughout their network can be used to monitor power quality and in some cases respond automatically to them. Phasor are representations of the waveforms of alternating current, which ideally in real-time, are identical everywhere on the network and conform to the most desirable shape. In the 1980s, it was realized that the clock pulses from global positioning system (GPS) satellites could be used for very precise time measurements in the grid. With large numbers of PMUs and the ability to compare shapes from alternating current readings everywhere on the grid, research suggests that automated systems will be able to revolutionize the management of power systems by responding to system conditions in a rapid, dynamic fashion. A Wide-Area Measurement Systems (WAMS) is a network of PMUS that can provide real-time monitoring on a regional and national scale. Many in the power systems engineering community believe that the Northeast blackout of 2003 would have been contained to a much smaller area if a wide area phasor measurement network was in place.

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2.4.5 Advanced Components Innovations in superconductivity, fault tolerance, storage, power electronics, and diagnostics components are changing fundamental abilities and characteristics of grids. Technologies within these broad R&D categories include: flexible alternating current transmission system devices, high voltage direct current, first and second generation superconducting wire, high temperature superconducting cable, distributed energy generation and storage devices, composite conductors, and intelligent appliances. 2.4.6 Advanced control Power system automation enables rapid diagnosis of and precise solutions to specific grid disruptions or outages. These technologies rely on and contribute to each of the other four key areas. Three technology categories for advanced control methods are: distributed intelligent agents (control systems), analytical tools (software algorithms and high-speed computers), and operational applications (SCADA, substation automation, demand response, etc). Using artificial intelligence programming techniques, Fujian power grid in China created a wide area protection system that is rapidly able to accurately calculate a control strategy and execute it. The Voltage Stability Monitoring & Control (VSMC) software uses a sensitivity-based successive linear programming method to reliably determine the optimal control solution. 2.4.7 Improved interfaces and decision support Information system that reduce complexity so that operators and managers have tools to effectively and efficiently operate a grid with an increasing number of variables. Technologies include visualization techniques that reduce large quantities of data into easily understood visual formats, software systems that provide multiple options when systems operator actions are required, and simulators for operational training and what-if analysis.

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2.5

COMPONENTS OF SMART GRID

A smart grid is composed of several general concepts. The overall intent of smart grid development is to align the interests of electric utilities, consumers, and environmentalists through an intelligent network, the Internet. This network would control distributed resources including demand-side management, energy storage, and renewable resources. The smart-grid platform would enable an operator to efficiently balance supply and demand with economic efficiency of stored energy during peak periods. A smart-grid platform would reduce nonessential loads, optimizing existing base-load generation asset performance and relieving congestion on transmission systems. One such solution by Grid Point is a smartgrid platform that advertises itself as able to provide a modular, scalable, and upgradeable architecture that enables utilities to achieve the short and long-term goals of the smart grid. Utilities can immediately deploy proven technologies (e.g., load control devices, batteries, or renewable energy systems) while creating a practical path for integrating new technologies (e.g., plug-in hybrid vehicles and fuel cells). It is analogous to the development of the USB port on computers to which many devices can be attached and used as the system dynamically selects the proper software to integrate the device attached with minimal user intervention. It is advertised that for consumers, Grid Points platform provides protection from power outages, increases energy efficiency, and integrates renewable energy systems, paving the way for the commercial. The smart grid is a very wide in terms of its components. The components of smart grid are as follows: a) Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU) b) SCADA c) Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) d) Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) Technology e) GFA controller f) Thermostat

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2.6

SMART GRID CHARECTERISTICS

A modern smart grid must: Be able to heal itself. Motivate consumers to actively participate in operations of the grid Resist attack. Provide higher quality power that will save money wasted from outages. Accommodate all generation and storage options. Enable electricity markets to flourish.

2.6.1 Self-healing Using real-time information from embedded sensors and automated controls to anticipate, detect, and respond to system problems, a smart grid can automatically avoid or mitigate power outages, power quality problems, and service disruptions. As applied to distribution networks, there is no such thing as a "self healing" network. If there is a failure of an overhead power line, given that these tend to operate on a radial basis (for the most part) there is an inevitable loss of power. In the case of urban/city networks that for the most part are fed using underground cables, networks can be designed (through the use of interconnected topologies) such that failure of one part of the network will result in no loss of supply to end users. It is envisioned that the smart grid will likely have a control system that analyzes its performance using distributed, autonomous reinforcement learning

controllers that have learned successful strategies to govern the behavior of the grid in the face of an ever changing environment such as equipment failures. Such a system might be used to control electronic switches that are tied to multiple substations with varying costs of generation and reliability.

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2.6.2 Consumer participation A smart grid, is, in essence, an attempt to require consumers to change their behaviour around variable electric rates or to pay vastly increased rates for the privilege of reliable electrical service during high-demand conditions. Historically, the intelligence of the grid in North America has been demonstrated by the utilities operating it in the spirit of public service and shared responsibility, ensuring constant availability of electricity at a constant price, day in and day out, in the face of any and all hazards and changing conditions. A smart grid incorporates consumer equipment and behaviour in grid design, operation, and communication. This enables consumers to better control (or be controlled by) smart appliances and intelligent equipment in homes and businesses, interconnecting energy management systems in smart buildings and enabling consumers to better manage energy use and reduce energy costs. Advanced communications capabilities equip customers with tools to exploit real-time electricity pricing, incentive-based load reduction signals, or emergency load reduction signals. The real-time, two-way communications available in a smart grid will enable consumers to be compensated for their efforts to save energy and to sell energy back to the grid through net-metering. By enabling distributed generation resources like residential solar panels, small wind and plug-in electric vehicles, smart grid will spark a revolution in the energy industry by allowing small players like individual homes and small businesses to sell power to their neighbours or back to the grid. The same will hold true for larger commercial businesses that have renewable or back-up power systems that can provide power for a price during peak demand events, typically in the summer when air condition units place a strain on the grid. This participation by smaller entities has been called the "democratization of energy.

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2.6.3 Resist attack Smart grid technologies better identify and respond to man-made or natural disruptions. Real-time information enables grid operators to isolate affected areas and redirect power flows around damaged facilities. 2.6.4 High quality power Outages and power quality issues cost in billions on an average each year. It is asserted that assuring cleaner, more stable power, provided by smart grid technologies will reduce downtime and prevent such high losses. 2.6.5 Accommodate generation options As smart grids continue to support traditional power loads they also seamlessly interconnect fuel cells, renewables, microturbines, and other distributed generation technologies at local and regional levels. Integration of small-scale, localized, or on-site power generation allows residential, commercial, and industrial customers to self-generate and sell excess power to the grid with minimal technical or regulatory barriers. This also improves reliability and power quality, reduces electricity costs, and offers more customer choice. 2.6.6 Enable electricity market Significant increases in bulk transmission capacity will require improvements in transmission grid management. Such improvements are aimed at creating an open marketplace where alternative energy sources from geographically distant locations can easily be sold to customers wherever they are located. Intelligence in distribution grids will enable small producers to generate and sell electricity at the local level using alternative sources such as rooftop-mounted photo voltaic panels, small-scale wind turbines, and micro hydro generators. Without the additional intelligence provided by sensors and software designed to react instantaneously to imbalances caused by intermittent sources, such distributed generation can degrade system quality.
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2.6.7 Optimize assets A smart grid can optimize capital assets while minimizing operations and maintenance costs. Optimized power flows reduce waste and maximize use of lowest-cost generation resources. Harmonizing local distribution with

interregional energy flows and transmission traffic improves use of existing grid assets and reduces grid congestion and bottlenecks, which can ultimately produce consumer savings.

2.7

RESPOND TO MANY CONDITIONS IN SUPPLY AND DEMAND

The conditions to which a smart grid, broadly stated, could respond, occur anywhere in the power generation, distribution and demand chain. Events may occur generally in the environment (clouds blocking the sun and reducing the amount of solar power, a very hot day), commercially in the power supply market (prices to meet a high peak demand exceeding one dollar per kilowatthour), locally on the distribution grid (MV transformer failure requiring a temporary shutdown of one distribution line) or in the home (someone leaving for work, putting various devices into hibernation, data ceasing to flow to an IPTV), which motivate a change to power flow. Latency of the data flow is a major concern, with some early smart meter architectures allowing actually as long as 24 hours delay in receiving the data, preventing any possible reaction by either supplying or demanding devices.

2.8

MODERNIZES BOTH TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION

A smart grid is an umbrella term that covers modernization of both the transmission and distribution grids. The modernization is directed at a disparate set of goals including facilitating greater competition between providers, enabling greater use of variable energy sources, establishing the automation and

19

monitoring capabilities needed for bulk transmission at cross continent distances, and enabling the use of market forces to drive energy conservation.
Many smart grid features readily apparent to consumers such as smart meters serve the energy efficiency goal. The approach is to make it possible for energy

Figure 2.3 efficient generation, transport & utilization of electricity

Suppliers to charge variable electric rates so that charges would reflect the large differences in cost of generating electricity during peak or off peak periods. Such capabilities allow load control switches to control large energy consuming devices such as hot water heaters so that they consume electricity when it is cheaper to produce.

2.9

PEAK CURTAILMENT/LEVELLING AND TIME OF USE PRICING

To reduce demand during the high cost peak usage periods, communications and metering technologies inform smart devices in the home and business when energy demand is high and track how much electricity is used and when it is used. To motivate them to cut back use and perform what is called peak curtailment or peak levelling, prices of electricity are increased during high demand periods, and decreased during low demand periods. It is thought that
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consumers and businesses will tend to consume less during high demand periods if it is possible for consumers and consumer devices to be aware of the high price premium for using electricity at peak periods. When businesses and consumers see a direct economic benefit to become more energy efficient, the theory is that they will include energy cost of operation into their consumer device and building construction decisions. See time of use pricing and peak curtailment for more information on how this affects the consumer, and peak levelling for how the utilities view the overall supply problem. According to proponents of smart grid plans, this will reduce the amount of spinning reserve that electric utilities have to keep on stand-by, as the load curve will level itself through a combination of "invisible hand" free-market capitalism and central control of a large number of devices by power management services that pay consumers a portion of the peak power saved by turning their devices off. To economists, this is a form of rent seeking: Consumers have the right to consume expensive power even during peak periods, and give this up if they are offered a share of the savings of not having to provide it. The opportunity only exists because the consumer doesn't pay the real price of meeting peak demand, and is a function of power price regulation.

2.10 ESSENTIALITY OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

Smart grids are favourable as because most renewable energy sources are intermittent in nature, depending on natural phenomena (the sun and the wind) to generate power. Thus, any type of power infrastructure using a significant portion of intermittent renewable energy resources must have means of effectively reducing electrical demand by "load shedding" in the event that the natural phenomena necessary to generate power do not occur. By increasing electricity prices exactly when the desired natural phenomena are not present, consumers will, in theory, decrease consumption. However this means prices are

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unpredictable and literally vary with the weather, at least to the distribution utility.

2.11 STANDARDS AND GROUPS OF SMART GRID

IEC TC57 has created a family of international standards that can be used as part of the smart grid. These standards include IEC61850 which is an architecture for substation automation, and IEC 61970/61968 the Common Information Model (CIM). The CIM provides for common semantics to be used for turning data into information. Multi Speak has created a specification that supports distribution functionality of the smart grid. Multi Speak has a robust set of integration definitions that supports nearly all of the software interfaces necessary for a distribution utility or for the distribution portion of a vertically integrated utility. Multi Speak integration is defined using extensible mark-up language (XML) and web services. The IEEE has created a standard to support synchrophasors C37.118. A User Group that discusses and supports real world experience of the standards used in smart grids is the UCA International User Group. There is a Utility Task Group within LonMark International, which deals with smart grid related issues. There is a growing trend towards the use of TCP/IP technology as a common communication platform for Smart Meter applications, so that utilities can deploy multiple communication systems, while using IP technology as a common management platform.

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2.11.1 Evolution of Smart Grid

Figure 2.4 Evolution of technology

In the past, generation was limited to large power stations. See Figure above with distributed generation, resources can be located throughout the distribution network. In the past, the electricity flowed primarily in one direction only from the power plants through the transmission network through the distribution network to the industrial, commercial, and residential customers. In some cases large industrial or commercial customers were able to work out with the utilities, customized approaches to connect their own small scale generation facilities to the grid. This involved costly and time consuming engineering to meet requirements that differed from utility to utility as well as different regulatory environments. There was a lack of common building, electrical, and safety codes. The components for the grid differed based on vendor specifications, both the generation and transmission equipment as well as the control and

communications equipment necessitating special interfaces. Gradually, standards were developed to provide common platforms for portions of the grid.

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2.11.2 Interconnectivity With Distributed Generation

Figure 2.5 Interconnectivity- Distribution Generation

There are at least two complementary ways to look at the future grid. One way is look at how one way communications and operational capabilities can be expanded to two way real-time communications and operations throughout the network elements of the grid. Another way is look at the expansion of network elements that will be components of the grid. 2.11.3 Interconnection Standards We can use the IEEE 1547 series of standards and standards projects as an example of just one set of supporting standards among others for these two views. See Figure above IEEE 1547.3 Guide for Monitoring, Information Exchange, and Control supports communications among distributed resources.

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Figure 2.6 Interconnection standards

Distributed resources are sources of electric power not directly connected to bulk power transmission. DR are often located next to and connected to the load being served, and DR includes both distributed generators (DG) and energy storage systems. Distributed energy resources (DER) could include load management or energy management systems, and combined heat and power (CHP) systems that supply thermal as well as electric power. The other standards in the IEEE 1547 series provide standards for test requirements for interconnection of the distributed resources, application details, engineering aspects of islanding i.e. disconnection from the grid. The current electricity infrastructure includes monitoring capabilities through to the consumer and business end customer meters for purposes of billing. In some cases customers may provide a source of energy back to the utilities and receive credits. A number of metering standards are developed in the ANSI C12 committees. IEEE

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SCC 31 Automatic Meter Reading & Related Services supports and sponsors a number of these activities. 2.11.4 Smart Grid Standards

Figure 2.7 Smart grid standards

It is important to note that smart grid standards will extend across the entire grid (i.e., need interoperability standards (top down) and building block standards (bottom up). As an example smart grid equipment standards will be needed to handle information data management, communications and control. As another example, flexible smart grid system interoperability design and operational standards will allow near term and long term smart grid evolution.

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Chapter-3
VARIOUS ASPECTS OF SMART GRID
3.1 IMPACT OF SMART GRID ON DISTRIBUTION SYSYTEM DESIGN

There has been much recent discussion on what distribution systems can and should look like in the future. Terms related to this discussion include Smart Grid, Distribution System of the Future, and others. Functionally, a Smart Grid should be able to provide new abilities such as self-healing, high reliability, energy management, and real-time pricing. From a design perspective, a Smart Grid will likely incorporate new technologies such as advanced metering, automation, communication, distributed generation, and distributed storage. This paper discussed the potential impact that issues related to Smart Grid will have on distribution system design.

Figure 3.1 Distribution System Design

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3.1.1 Current Research Activities There is presently a large amount of research activity related to Smart Grids. This section discusses the major projects in the distribution area (summarized from an NRECA report on industry research efforts).

EPRI IntelliGrid: Founded by EPRI in 2001, the IntelliGrid initiative has the
goal of creating a new electric power delivery infrastructure that integrates advances in communications, computing, and electronics to meet the energy needs of the future. Its mission is to enable the development, integration, and application of technologies to facilitate the transformation of the electric infrastructure to cost-effectively provide secure, high-quality, reliable electricity products and services. At present, the IntelliGrid portfolio is composed of five main projects: IntelliGrid architecture; fast simulation and modelling (FSM); communications for distributed energy resources (DER); consumer portal; and advanced monitoring systems.

EPRI Advanced Distribution Automation (ADA): The overall objective of

ADA is to create the distribution system of the future. The ADA Program envisions distribution systems as highly automated systems with a flexible electrical system architecture operated via open architecture communication and control systems. As the systems improve, they will provide increased capabilities for capacity utilization, reliability, and customer service options. ADA has identified the following strategic drivers for the program: improved reliability and power quality; reduced operating costs; improved outage restoration time; increased customer service options; integration of distributed generation and storage; and integration of customer systems.

Modern Grid Initiative: Established by the U.S. Department of Energy

(DOE) in 2005 through the Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability (OE) and the

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National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL), this program focuses on the modern grid as a new model of electricity delivery that will bring a new era of energy prosperity. It sees the modern grid not as a patchwork of efforts to bring power to the consumer, but as a total system that utilizes the most innovative technologies in the most useful manner. The intent of The Modern Grid Initiative is to accelerate the nations move to a modern electric grid by creating an industryDOE partnership that invests significant funds in demonstration projects. These demonstrations will establish the value of developing an integrated suite of technologies and processes that move the grid toward modernization. They will address key barriers and establish scalability, broad applicability, and a clear path to full deployment for solutions that offer compelling benefits. Each project will involve national and regional stakeholders and multiple funding parties.

GridWise: The GridWise program represents the vision that the U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE) has for the power delivery system of the future. The mission of the DOE Distribution Integration program is to modernize distribution grid infrastructure and operations, from distribution substations (69 kV and down) to consumers (members), with two-way flow of electricity and information. The GridWise R&D program is composed of the GridWise Program at DOE, GridWise demonstration projects (with both public and private funding), and the GridWise Architecture Council.

Advanced Grid Applications Consortium (GridApps): Formed by

Concurrent Technologies Corporation in 2005, and sponsored by DOE, the GridApps consortium applies utility technologies and practices to modernize electric transmission and distribution operations. GridApps works on the application of technologies that are either not implemented by others or to finish their commercialization into broadly deployed products. Technologies applied by GridApps can be classified in three domains: T&D monitoring and
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management technologies; new devices; and system integration/system engineering for enhanced performance.

GridWorks: GridWorks is a new program activity in the U.S. Department of

Energy's Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability (OE). Its aim is to improve the reliability of the electric system through the modernization of key grid components: cables and conductors, substations and protective systems, and power electronics. The plan includes near-term activities to incrementally improve existing power systems and accelerate their introduction into the marketplace. It also includes long-term activities to develop new technologies, tools, and techniques to support the modernization of the electric grid for the requirements of the 21st century. The plan calls for coordinating Grid- Works' activities with those of complementary efforts underway in the Office, including: high temperature superconducting systems, transmission reliability technologies, electric distribution technologies, energy storage devices, and GridWise systems.

Distribution Vision 2010 (DV2010): The goal of DV2010 is to make feeders

virtually outage proof through a combination of high speed communications, switching devices, intelligent controllers, and reconfigured feeders. This will enable customers to avoid interruptions for most feeder faults. DV2010 concepts would not be applied to all feeders. Rather, the concepts would be used to create Premium Operating Districts (PODs) serving customers that require and would be willing to pay extra for such high quality service.

California Energy Commission Public Interest Energy Research (PIER) Program: The CEC-PIER program was established in 1997 as part of
electricity restructuring. The PIER program is designed to enable sustainable energy choices for utilities, state and local governments, and large and small consumers in California. The PIER program provides advanced energy innovations in hardware, software systems, exploratory concepts, supporting knowledge, and balanced portfolio of near-, mid-, and long-term energy options
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for a sustainable energy future in California. The program is divided in six program areas plus an innovation small grant program. The most relevant program for Smart Grid is the Energy Systems Integration (ESI) program. Ongoing work in the ESI program is currently focused on distributed energy resource integration, valuation of distribution automation, and pilots of distributed energy resources and demand response.

Figure 3.2 Sensor & Distribution Design

3.1.2 Impact of Technologies on Design With all of the Smart Grid research activity, it is desirable to investigate whether Smart Grid technologies will have any design implications for distribution systems. Will the basic topology and layout of a Smart Grid be similar to what is seen today? Alternatively, will the basic topology and layout of a Smart Grid look different? To answer these questions, the design implications associated
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with the major technological drivers will be examined. After this, the next section will examine the design implications of all of these technologies considered together.

A. Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI)

A Smart Grid will utilize advanced digital meters at all customer service locations. These meters will have two way communication, be able to remotely connect and disconnect services, record waveforms, monitor voltage and current, and support time-of-use and real-time rate structures. The meters will be in the same location as present meters, and therefore will not have any direct design implications. However, these meters will make a large amount of data available to operations and planning, which can potentially be used to achieve better reliability and better asset management Perhaps the biggest change that advanced meters will enable is in the area of real-time rates. True real time rates will tend to equalize distribution system loading patterns. In additions, these meters will enable automatic demand response by interfacing with smart appliances. From a design perspective, peak demand is a key driver. If peak demand per customer is reduced, feeders can be longer, voltages can be lower, and wire sizes can be smaller. Most likely, advanced metering infrastructure will result in longer feeders.

B. Distribution Automation
Distribution automation (DA) refers to monitoring, control, and communication functions located out on the feeder. From a design perspective, the most important aspects of distribution automation are in the areas of protection and switching (often integrated into the same device). There are DA devices today that can cost-effectively

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serve as an intelligent node in the distribution system. These devices can interrupt fault current, monitor currents and voltages, communicate with oneanother, and automatically reconfigure the system to restore customers and achieve other objectives. The ability to quickly and flexibly reconfigure an interconnected network of feeders is a key component of Smart Grid. This ability, enabled by DA, also (1) requires distribution components to have enough capacity to accept the transfer, and (2) requires the protection system to be able to properly isolate a fault in the reconfigured topology. Both of these issues have an impact on system design. Presently, most distribution systems are designed based on a main trunk three phase feeder with single-phase laterals. The main trunk carries most power away from the substation through the centre of the feeder service territory. Single phase laterals are used to connect the main trunk to customer locations. Actual distribution systems have branching, normallyopen loops, and other complexities, but the overarching philosophy remains the same. A Smart Grid does not just try to connect substations to customers for the lowest cost. Instead, a Smart Grid is an enabling system that can be quickly and flexibly be reconfigured. Therefore, future distribution systems will be designed more as an integrated Grid of distribution lines, with the Grid being connected to multiple substations. Design, therefore, shifts from a focus on feeders to a focus on a system of interconnected feeders. Traditional distribution systems use time-current coordination for protection devices. These devices assume that faster devices are topologically further from the substation. In a Smart Grid, topology is flexible and this assumption is problematic. From a design perspective, system topology and system protection will have to be planned together to ensure proper protection coordination for a variety of configurations.

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C. Distributed Energy Resources

Distributed energy resources (DER) are small sources of generation and/or storage that are connected to the distribution system. For low levels of penetration (about 15% of peak demand or less), DER do not have a large effect on system design as long as they have proper protection at the point of interconnection. A Smart Grid has the potential to have large and flexible sources of DER. In this case, the distribution system begins to resemble a small transmission system and needs to consider similar design issues such as nonradial power flow and increased fault current duty. Other design issues related to the ability of a distribution system to operate as an electrical island, the ability of a distribution system do relieve optimal power flow constraints, and the ability of DER to work in conjunction as a virtual power plant.

3.2

FRAME WORK FOR OPERATION & CONTROL OF SMART GRID WITH DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

The current status of distributed generation technologies and Flexible AC Transmissions (FACTS) Technologies is reviewed. Then this paper discusses a framework for operation and control of smart grids with distributed generation and FACTS in which two controls such as voltage control and stability control are included. In light of the different time scale requirements of voltage control and stability control, a global coordinated strategy is proposed for voltage control while a decentralized control strategy is utilized for stability control. Within these two controls, the ways of the participation of distributed generation and FACTS, for instance, in voltage control and stability control are discussed in order to make the power grids smart in terms of operation flexibility and enhanced control capability.

3.3

DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

Distributed generation technologies includes reciprocating engines, microturbines, combustion gas turbines (including mini turbines), fuel cells, photo
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voltaics, and wind turbines. Generally, individual wind turbines are grouped into wind farms containing several turbines. Many wind farms are MW scale, ranging from a few MW to tens of MW. Normally distributed generation including wind farms or smaller wind projects may be connected directly to LV and MV electricity distribution systems while large distributed generation (larger wind farms) can often be connected to EHV distribution networks or even transmission networks. In the past, several types of WTs have been developed, among which three types of WTs such as WT with Induction Generator (IG), WT with doubly fed induction generator (DFIG), and WT with the Direct-Drive Permanent Magnet Generator (DDPMG) are very popular in practical applications. The basic configurations of the wind generation systems are shown in Fig. Below

Figure 3.3: Configuration of the WT systems

a. Configuration of WT with IG b. Configuration of WT with DFIG c. Configuration of WT with DDPMG

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At the early stage of the development of WT techniques, the WT with IG was the dominated type of WT installed in wind farms. WT with IG is a fix-speed type of WT. The maximum power of such WT cannot be tracked, and its efficiency is low. Since the squirrel cage induction machine is employed, the WT with IG always absorbs the reactive power from the power grid. These operating characteristics have an adverse effect on the stability of power systems, especially on the voltage stability of power systems. In recent years, the WT with DFIG has been developed very quickly, and most of the WTs installed in the past five years have been equipped with this type of WT. Basically, the WT with DFIG is a variable-speed type of WT, its efficiency has been improved compared with the WT with IG. The stator of the DFIG is connected to the power grid directly while its rotor winding is fed back from the stator winding by controlled back to back voltage source converters. The control of the WT with DFIG is flexible where the active power and the reactive power of the WT with DFIG can be controlled independently. With the development of the permanent magnet generator, the WT with DDPMG has attracted more and more engineering interest. The WT with DDPMG is a full-variable-speed WT, and it has the highest efficiency among the WTs developed, especially when the WTs operate at a low speed. Since the permanent magnet generator is driven directly by the WT, the gearbox is eliminated. Hence the maintenance cost for the WT with DDPMG is lower than that for the other types of WTs. Due to the fact that the rotor of the permanent magnet generator is made of permanent magnet material, the excitation system is not required, which leads to a simple controller for the permanent magnet generator. As the WT with DDPMG normally interfaces with the power grid via a full-scale frequency converter, the interaction between the generator and the grid is not as large as the WTs interfacing with the grid directly. Distributed wind generation including DFIG
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and DDPMG with power electronic converters can provide them the capability of voltage and stability control. With suitable control frameworks, DG such as DFIG and DDPMG can be used to control network voltage and stability actively. This will be discussed in later sections.

3.4

FACTS TECHNOLOGIES

A. FACTS and HVDC Controllers

There are two categories of FACTS devices available. Thyristor switched and/or controlled capacitors/reactors such as SVC (Static Var Compensator) and TCSC (Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator) were introduced in the late 1970s while Voltage-Sourced Converter-based FACTS devices such as STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator), SSSC (Static Synchronous Series

Compensator) and UPFC (Unified Power Flow Controller) were introduced in the mid 1980s. In the past, there has been a large number of SVCs installed in electric utilities. There are tens of conventional line commutated BTB (Back-toBack) HVDC, a number of STATCOM and TCSC, three UPFCs, one IPFC and a number of VSC HVDC with BTB configuration installed within electric power systems around the World. It is anticipated that more STATCOM and VSC HVDC will be installed in the future. All FACTS devices and HVDC links are helpful in stability control of power systems. The shunt type FACTS device is more useful to control system voltage and reactive power while the series type FACTS device is more suitable for power flow control. The series-shunt type controller UPFC can be used to control the active and reactive power flow of a transmission line and bus voltage independently. The series-series type FACTS controller IPFC (Interline Power Flow Controller) can be used to control power flows of two transmission lines while the active power between the two transmission lines can be exchanged. The newly developed VSC HVDC, which has similar control capability as that of the UPFC, can control both the

independent active and reactive power flows of a transmission line and the
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voltage of a local bus. However, the HVDC based conventional line commutated converter technique cannot provide voltage control and independent reactive power flow control. Another very important feature of VSC HVDC technique is that it can be very easily configured into a multi-terminal VSC HVDC. Research indicates VSC HVDC is a viable alternative to the UPFC for the purpose of network power flow and voltage control. FACTS devices based on VSC techniques can be interconnected to implement various configurations and structures for different control purposes. While thyristor switched and and/or controlled capacitors/reactors devices have have limited superior

performance

functionality,

converter-based

performance, versatile functionality and various configuration possibilities. One shortcoming with converter based devices is, they are more expensive. With the continuous effort in R&D, it is likely that the costs of converter-based devices will be reduced further, and hence they will be more widely used in the next 5 years. There are two categories of FACTS devices available. Thyristor switched and/or controlled capacitors/reactors such as SVC (Static Var Compensator) and TCSC (Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator) were introduced in the late 1970s while Voltage-Sourced Converter-based FACTS devices such as STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator), SSSC (Static Synchronous Series Compensator) and UPFC (Unified Power Flow Controller) were introduced in the mid 1980s. In the past, there has been a large number of SVCs installed in electric utilities. There are tens of conventional line commutated BTB (Back-to- Back) HVDC, a number of STATCOM and TCSC, three UPFCs, one IPFC and a number of VSC HVDC with BTB configuration installed within electric power systems around the World. It is anticipated that more STATCOM and VSC HVDC will be installed in the future. All FACTS devices and HVDC links are helpful in stability control of power systems. The shunt type FACTS device is more useful to control system voltage and reactive
38

power while the series type FACTS device is more suitable for power flow control. The series-shunt type controller UPFC can be used to control the active and reactive power flow of a transmission line and bus voltage independently. The series-series type FACTS controller IPFC (Interline Power Flow Controller) can be used to control power flows of two transmission lines while the active power between the two transmission lines can be exchanged. The newly developed VSC HVDC, which has similar control capability as that of the UPFC, can control both the independent active and reactive power flows of a transmission line and the voltage of a local bus. However, the HVDC based conventional line commutated converter technique cannot provide voltage control and independent reactive power flow control. Another very important feature of VSC HVDC technique is that it can be very easily configured into a multi-terminal VSC HVDC. Research indicates VSC HVDC is a viable alternative to the UPFC for the purpose of network power flow and voltage control. FACTS devices based on VSC techniques can be interconnected to implement various configurations and structures for different control purposes. While thyristor switched and/or controlled capacitors/reactors have limited performance and functionality, converter-based devices have superior performance, versatile functionality and various configuration possibilities. One shortcoming with converter based devices is, they are more expensive. With the continuous effort in R&D, it is likely that the costs of converter-based devices will be reduced further, and hence they will be more widely used in the next 5 years.

B. Advanced FACTS and HVDC based Control for Smart Grids

It has been recognized that some transmission systems are not yet designed for the deregulated energy market. Power system infrastructure needs modernization as future power systems will have to be smart, fault tolerant, dynamically and statically controllable, and energy efficient. FACTS and HVDC will be helpful to
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provide fast dynamic voltage, power flow and stability control of the power grid while enhancing

efficient utilization of transmission assets. At the same time network congestion will be efficiently managed and system blackouts will be mitigated or avoided. In order to deal with the uncertainty of demand and generation, relocatable FACTS controllers have been developed.

C. Integration of Wind Area Stability Control and Protection with FACTS and HVDC Control against System Blackouts
The wide area stability control and protection system is considered the eyes that overlook the entire system area, and can capture any system incidents very quickly; while FACTS and HVDC are the hands of the system, which have very fast dynamic response capability and should be able to take very quick actions as soon as commands are received from the system operator. As the current situation stands, the fast dynamic control capability of FACTS and HVDC has not been fully explored and realized. The integration of the Wide Area Stability Control and Protection with FACTS and HVDC control will fully employ control capabilities of both technologies to achieve fast stability control of system, and to prevent the system against blackouts. Hence, a high network security and a reliable performance can be achieved. In order to tackle large-scale stability disturbance, a coordinated control of the integrated power network is required using the advanced stability control methodologies and/or wide area monitoring and control by using FACTS and HVDC control technologies.

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3.5

A FRAMEWORK FOR OPERATION AND CONTROL

A. Voltage Control
For efficient, secure and reliable operation of electric power systems, it has been recognized that the following operating objectives should be satisfied:(a) Bus voltage, magnitudes should be within acceptable limits; (b) System transient stability and voltage stability can usually be enhanced by proper voltage control and reactive power management; (c) The reactive power flows should be minimized such that the active and reactive power losses can be reduced. In addition, the by-product of the minimized reactive power flows can actually reduce the voltage drop across transmission lines and transformers. In electrical power systems, voltage control and VAR management requires various voltage control devices installed at different locations of the systems. In addition to the voltage control devices, suitable control algorithms and software tools are needed to determine control settings of and coordinate the control actions of the voltage control devices sited at different locations of the systems. Basically the voltage control devices include shunt reactors and shunt capacitors, tap-changing transformers, synchronous condensers, synchronous generators, SVS, Converter-based FACTS controllers such as STATCOM, SSSC, UPFC, IPFC, GUPFC and HVDC light. Basically, the Converter-based FACTS have excellent dynamic reactive power and voltage control capability. Optimal Power Flow (OPF) is security and economic control-based optimization, which selects actions to minimize an objective function subject to specific operating constraints. Most OPF programs can perform more than one specific function. One of the OPF applications in Energy Management Systems is to minimize active power transmission losses while control of reactive power from generator and compensating

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devices and control of tap-changing transformers are scheduled and coordinated. The voltage control and VAR management by OPF tends to reduce circulating VAR flows, thereby promoting flatter voltage profiles.

B. Stability Control
To maximize the benefits of FACTS technologies, much effort has been put to investigate the control capability of such devices to improve system stability. It has been proved that FACTS devices can provide positive add-on damping for small signal disturbance if proper damping controllers have been designed. The ideas of design approaches of conventional Power System Stabilizer (PSS) have been applied to the design of FACTS damping controllers. However, as FACTS devices are usually installed in transmission lines, this makes the damping controller design more challenging. For example, there may be difficulties in selecting feedback signals, in finding damping torque paths and so on. In recent years, Linear Matrix Inequality (LMI) technique has attracted much attention in the design of FACTS based damping controllers. The LMI technique has also been proposed for the design of robust damping control of FACTS.

C. A Framework for Operation and Control of Smart Grids with Distributed Generation
Basically voltage control can be done at a relative slow time scale while stability control should be considered at a fast time scale. In current practice, voltage control by conventional power plants can be coordinated via SCADA/EMS systems. With the introduction of DG into electricity networks, the following voltage control framework may be considered: 1) Control Scheme 1: Coordinated voltage control by conventional power plants and reactive control resources such as transformers, mechanically switched capacitors/reactors, FACTS while DG maintains the power factor at the Grid Entry point. For this control scheme, DG is very much like a load, and responds to the grid passively. This reflects the current practice.
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2) Control Scheme 2: Coordinated voltage control by conventional power plants and reactive control resources such as transformers, mechanically switched capacitors/reactors, FACTS while DG maintains the voltage at the Grid Entry point. For this control scheme, DG is more actively participating in voltage control which such a control is still not coordinated. The may be done in the future as long as Grid Code is allowed. 3) Control Scheme 3: Coordinated voltage control by conventional power plants and reactive control resources such as transformers, mechanically switched capacitors/reactors, FACTS and DG. For this control scheme, DG is fully participating in voltage control in a coordinated ways while DG or a group of DG can be operated very much like a conventional power plants with active control or management. This feature will be very important to work towards smart grids. Stability control and voltage control can be done at different scales. For DG, these controls can be actually decoupled with the decoupled converter controllers. With the introduction of DG into electricity networks, the following stability control framework may be considered:
1) Control Scheme 1: Decentralized stability control by conventional power plants, FACTS and DG. This reflects the current practice working towards smart grids. 2) Control Scheme 2: Decentralized stability control by conventional power plants, FACTS and DG while some global control feedback signals. This reflects the future trend working towards smart grids. 3) Control Scheme 3: Decentralized stability control by conventional power plants, FACTS and DG while coordinated control can be done through wide area measurement based technologies. This reflects the future technologies for smart grids. Numerical examples will be presented to show the control frame for voltage and stability control. The framework for operation and control of smart grids with distributed generation, in which two controls such as steady state voltage control and stability control are
43

included. In light of the different time scale requirements of steady state voltage control and stability control, a global coordinated strategy is proposed for voltage control while a decentralized control strategy is utilized for stability control. Within these two controls, the ways of the participation of distributed generation in system control, for instance, wind generation and FACTS in voltage control and stability control have been discussed in order to make the power grids smart in terms of operation flexibility and enhanced control capability.

3.6

BEYOND THE GRIDLOCK

Visions, Milestones, & Trends

Whether we are talking about the smart grid or the intelligent grid or, as we have chosen to call our issue, the-next generation grid, the electric grid of the future is a subject thats certainly on the front burner. The term smart grid represents a vision for a digital upgrade of distribution and transmission grids both to optimize current operations and to open up new markets for alternative energy production. As with other industries, the use of robust two-way communications, advanced sensors, and distributed computing technology will improve the efficiency, reliability, and safety of power delivery and use. In addition to these industrial modernization benefits, smart-grid features could expand energy efficiency beyond the grid into the home by coordinating lowpriority home devices, such as water heaters, so that their use of power takes advantage of the most desirable energy sources. Smart grids can also coordinate the production of power from large numbers of small power producers, such as owners of rooftop solar panels an arrangement that would otherwise prove problematic for power systems operators at local utilities. Todays ac grid evolved after 1896 based in part on Nikola Teslas design. Many implementation decisions that still survive today were first made using the limited emerging technology available 120 years ago. Some of the now-obsolete power grid assumptions and features, such as centralized unidirectional transmission and
44

distribution, represent a vision of what was thought possible in the 19th century. Tesla and Thomas Edison might feel baffled by the workings of todays cell phones and laptops, but the design, components, and technologies used in todays grids would be a very familiar world. In part, the situation is a result of an institutional risk aversion: Utilities naturally feel reluctant to use untested technologies on a critical infrastructure they have been charged with defending against any failure.

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Chapter-4
BASIC CONTROLLER DESIGN FOR A PRIMITIVE SMART GRID
Design of a command controller for a primitive smart grid is a field specializing in specific automation requirements of private homes and in application of automation techniques for comfort and security of residents. This software is used to control various electronic appliances. It allows lights to be programmed on and off at scheduled times. It saves energy by turning off appliances when they are needed. It adds value to security networks by allowing security camera images to be viewed on television monitors.

4.1

FEATURES OF DESIGN

Utilize power of existing home computer to minimize cost without expensive controller. Use inexpensive and readily available components. Simplify installation and minimize wiring. Provide abilities to grow gradually so you can start with a simple system and expand it. Use simple and easy to learn platform. Meets the needs of small home and big business applications. Provides maximum number of solutions with a single architecture.

4.2

ADVANTAGES OF AUTOMATION
It is making our life more comfortable:- This system eliminates the need of going to the switch board every time whenever we have to
46

switch on or off any appliance. It also checks the electric meter and calculates the bill accordingly. We can sleep without worries:-Using this software we can set time for switching off fan, A.C, music system etc and do our own work without worry. Saving of money:-This is the major advantage of this project. Using this we can know for how much time the electrical appliance was ON. So we can easily control the consumption of electricity and hence money. Easy to install and operate:-It is easy to install this system since it has a simple hardware circuit and setup of C language which is easily available. Fast reliable support

4.3

SYSTEM REQUIRMENT

4.3.1 Hardware Requirements

Automation system operates on terminals running intel compatible Pentium,

Pentium pro, Pentium-3 or an equivalent processor. It supports forward compatibility. The processor must be running at a minimum of 166 Mhz. Hardware specification-Minimum RAM: 64MB(128 mb recommended). Minimum hard drive requirement:1GB. 4.3.2 Software Requirements Home automation system requires the following software to work properly. PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE: C DATABASE TECHNOLOGY:-File handling OPERATING professional
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SYSTEM:-Windows

95,Windows

98,

Windows

2000

4.4

TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled electrical conductors. A changing current in the first circuit (the primary) creates a changing magnetic field; in turn, this magnetic field induces a changing voltage in the second circuit (the secondary). By adding a load to the secondary circuit, one can make current flow in the transformer, thus transferring energy from one circuit to the other. Transformers are some of the most efficient electrical 'machines' with some large units able to transfer 99.75% of their input power to their output. Transformers come in a range of sizes from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions of national power grids. All operate with the same basic principles, though a variety of designs exist to perform specialized roles throughout home and industry.

4.5

APPLICATIONS

A key application of transformers is to reduce the current before transmitting electrical energy over long distances through wires. Most wires have resistance and so dissipate electrical energy at a rate proportional to the square of the current through the wire. By transforming electrical power to a high-voltage (and therefore low-current) form for transmission and back again afterwards, transformers enable economic transmission of power over long distances. Transformers are used extensively in consumer electronic products to step down the supply voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain. In these kinds of applications the transformer may also act as a key safety component that electrically isolates the end user from direct contact with the potentially lethal supply voltage.

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Figure 4.1(a) Miniature Transformer

Figure 4.1(b) Conventional Power Transformer

4.6

TRANSISTOR

The name transistor is derived from transfer resistors indicating a solid state Semiconductor device. In addition to conductor and insulators, there is a third class of material that exhibits proportion of both. Under some conditions, it acts as an insulator, and under other conditions its a conductor. This phenomenon is called Semi-conducting and allows a variable control over electron flow. So, the transistor is semi conductor device used in electronics for amplitude. Transistor has three terminals namely: BASE, COLLECTOR & EMITTER. Base that is made thin and it is lightly doped, the number density of majority carriers in the base is always lesser as compared to that in emitter or collector .Emitter supplies the majority carriers for current flow and the collector collects them. The base provides the junctions for proper interaction between the two Electrons are emitted via one terminal and collected on another terminal, while the third terminal acts as a control element. The three sections are combined so that the two at extreme ends have the same type of majority carriers while the section that will separate them has the majority carriers of opposite nature. Thus a transistor can be NPN or PNP. Each transistor has a number marked on its body.
49

Every number has its own specifications. Transistor is a combination of semiconductor elements allowing a controlled current flow. Germanium and Silicon is the two semi-conductor elements used for making it. There are two types of transistors such as POINT CONTACT and JUNCTION TRANSISTORS. Point contact construction is defective so is now out of use. Junction triode transistors are in many respects analogous to triode electron tube. A junction transistor can function as an amplifier or oscillator as can a triode tube, but has the additional advantage of long life, small size, ruggedness and absence of cathode heating power.

Figure 4.2

TRANSISTORS

4.7

CAPACITOR

A capacitor is an electrical/electronic device that can store energy in the electric field between a pair of conductors (called "plates"). The process of storing energy in the capacitor is known as "charging", and involves electric charges of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity, building up on each plate. Capacitors are often used in electric and electronic circuits as energy-storage devices. They can also be used to differentiate between high-frequency and low-frequency signals. This property makes them useful in electronic filters. Capacitors are occasionally referred to as condensers. 4.7.1 Working of A Capacitor To understand the concept of capacitance, consider a pair of metal plates which all are placed near to each other without touching. If a battery is connected to
50

these plates the positive pole to one and the negative pole to the other, electrons from the battery will be attracted from the plate connected to the positive terminal of the battery. If the battery is then disconnected, one plate will be left with an excess of electrons, the other with a shortage, and a potential or voltage difference will exists between them. These plates will be acting as capacitors. Capacitors are of two types: Fixed Type like ceramic, polyester, electrolytic capacitors-these names refer to the material they are made of aluminium foil. In fixed type capacitors, it has two leads and its value is written over its body and variable type has three leads. Variable Type like gang condenser in radio or trimmer. Unit of measurement of a capacitor is farad denoted by the symbol F. It is a very big unit of capacitance. Small unit of capacitor is pico-farad denoted by pf (1pf=1/1000,000,000,000 f) Above all, in case of electrolytic capacitors, it's two terminal are marked as (-) and (+) so check it while using capacitors in the circuit in right direction. Mistake can destroy the capacitor or entire circuit in operation

Figure 4.3 Capacitors

The capacitor's capacitance (C) is a measure of the amount of charge (Q) stored on each plate for a given potential difference or voltage (V) which appears between the plates

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4.8

PARALLEL PORT

PC parallel port can be very useful I/O channel for connecting your own circuits to PC. The PC's parallel port can be used to perform some very amusing hardware interfacing experiments. The port is very easy to use when you first understand some basic tricks. This document tries to show those tricks in easy to understand way. WARNING: PC parallel port can be damaged quite easily if you make mistakes in the circuits you connect to it. If the parallel port is integrated to the motherboard (like in many new computers) repairing damaged parallel port may be expensive (in many cases it is cheaper to replace the whole motherboard than repair that port). Safest bet is to buy an inexpensive I/O card which has an extra parallel port and use it for your experiment. If you manage to damage the parallel port on that card, replacing it is easy and inexpensive. NOTE :- The I/O port level controlling details here has proven to work well with parallel ports on the PC motherboard and expansion cards connected to ISA bus. The programming examples might not work with PCI bus based I/O cards (they can use different hardware and/or I/O addresses, their driver make they just look like parallel ports to "normal" applications). The programming examples do not work with USB to parallel port adapters (they use entirely different hardware, their drivers make them to look like normal parallel port to operating system "normal" applications). DISCLAIMER: Every reasonable care has been taken in producing this information. However, the author can accept no responsibility for any effect that this information has on your equipment or any results of the use of this information. It is the responsibly of the end user to determine fitness for use for any particular purpose. The circuits and software shown here are for non commercial use without consent from the author.

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Figure 4.4 Parallel Port

4.8.1 Connection of Circuits To Parallel Port PC parallel port is 25 pin D-shaped female connector in the back of the computer. It is normally used for connecting computer to printer, but many other types of hardware for that port is available today. Not all 25 are needed always. Usually you can easily do with only 8 output pins (data lines) and signal ground. I have presented those pins in the table below. Those output pins are adequate for many purposes. Pin function 2 D0 3 D1 4 D2 5 D3 6 D4 7 D5 8 D6 9 D7 Pins 18,19,20,21,22,23,24 and 25 are all ground pins. Those data pins are TTL level output pins. This means that they put out ideally 0V when they are in low logic level (0) and +5V when they are in high logic level (1). In real world the voltages can be something different from ideal when the circuit is loaded. The output current capacity of the parallel port is limited to only few mili amperes.

53

4.8.2 How to Calculate Your Own Values to be Send to Program You have to think the value you give to the program as a binary number. Every bit of the binary number control one output bit. The following table describes the relation of the bits, parallel port output pins and the value of those bits. Pin Bit 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 2 4 8 16 32 64 128

Value 1

For example if you want to set pins 2 and 3 to logic 1 (led on) then you have to output value 1+2=3. If you want to set on pins 3,5 and 6 then you need to output value 2+8+16=26. In this way you can calculate the value for any bit combination you want to output. C LANGUAGE outp(0x378,n); or outportb(0x378,n); Where N is the data you want to output. The actual I/O port controlling command varies from compiler to compiler because it is not part of standardized C libraries. Here is an example source code for Borland C++ 3.1 compiler: #include <stdio.h> #include <dos.h> #include <conio.h> /********************************************/ /*This program set the parallel port outputs*/ /********************************************/ void main (void) {
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clrscr();

/* clear screen */

outportb(0x378,0xff); /* output the data to parallel port */ getch(); } /* wait for keypress before exiting */

4.9

RELAY

Relay is a common, simple application of electromagnetism. It uses an electromagnet made from an iron rod wound with hundreds of fine copper wire. When electricity is applied to the wire, the rod becomes magnetic. A movable contact arm above the rod is then pulled toward the rod until it closes a switch contact. When the electricity is removed, a small spring pulls the contract arm away from the rod until it closes a second switch contact. By means of relay, a current circuit can be broken or closed in one circuit as a result of a current in another circuit. Relays can have several poles and contacts. The types of contacts could be normally open and normally closed. One closure of the relay can turn on the same normally open contacts; can turn off the other normally closed contacts. Relay requires a current through their coils, for which a voltage is applied. This voltage for a relay can be D.C. low voltages up to 24V or could be 240V A.C.

Figure 4.5 Relay System

A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under control of another electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or close one or many sets of contacts. It was invented by Joseph Henry
55

in 1835. Because a relay is able to control an output circuit of higher power than the input circuit, it can be considered, in a broad sense, to be a form of electrical amplifier. These contacts can be either Normally Open (NO), Normally Closed (NC), or change-over contacts. Normally-open contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called Form A contact or "make" contact. Form A contact is ideal for applications that require to switch a high-current power source from a remote device. Normally-closed contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called Form B contact or "break" contact. Form B contact is ideal for applications that require the circuit to remain closed until the relay is activated.

4.10 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

The circuit is simple NPN transistor common emitter switching circuit. The transistor T-1 is supplied through negative at emitter. The base is conducted through the port output from computer and collector gives output to energies the relay commonly connected to +ve supply. The diode prevents back emf produced by relay while working.

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Figure 4.6 Relay Circuit

4.11 FEASIBILTY STUDY

Feasibility study is the test of system, according to its workability, impact on the organization, ability to meet the user needs, and effective use of resources. A feasibility study is conducted to select the best system that meets performance
57

and requirements. Thus this study tells whether the resources which are used would be able to fulfill the requirements of the project, whether the approach used to make the system is suitable enough, whether the prescribed budget is sufficient to meet the needs and whether the system would be able to meet the users requirements. To perform feasibility study basically following questions arises: 1) Is there any new and better way to do the job that will benefit the user? 2) What are the cost and savings of the alternative? 3) Is the prescribed method is flexible or not? There are various considerations which must be taken in account while performing feasibility study. These are:1) Financial feasibility:- The financial feasibility determines whether the adoption of a system can be cost justified and this justification should be done with respect to quality and standard of project. This is the most frequently used method for evaluating the effectiveness of a project. This is commonly known as cost and benefit analysis. If the benefit outweigh cost, then decision is made to design and implement the system otherwise further modifications has to be taken, if it has a chance of being approved. 2) Technical feasibility:- Technical feasibility evaluates the existing hardware and software. In this feasibility we determine what are the extra hardware and software required and whether the required hardware and software would be easily available. In this we also have to determine whether running another application could overload the system.

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4.12 DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS

59

60

4.13 FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS

Alarm systems can be added to this system, which can automatically turn on/off to the device depending on time set. It can Control heating and cooling system based on not only the current room temperature but also outside temperature and weather forecast.

61

 It can be enhanced to access lights and appropriate status via web page, email, mobile etc. It can be used to set a time by voice command by recognizing voice recognition system. Sensors may be added to detect intruders and sound an alarm. It can let the computer talk to you telling you the status of doors windows and motion sensors.

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Chapter-5
SMART GRID: FUTURE & THREATS
5.1 SMART GRID OF FUTURE
Many believe the electric power system is undergoing a profound change driven by a number of needs. Theres the need for environmental compliance and energy conservation. We need better grid reliability while dealing with an aging infrastructure. And we need improved operational efficiencies and customer service. The changes that are happening are particularly significant for the electricity distribution grid, where blind and manual operations, along with the electromechanical components, will need to be transformed into a smart grid. This transformation will be necessary to meet environmental targets, to accommodate a greater emphasis on demand response (DR), and to support plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) as well as distributed generation and storage capabilities.

Figure 5.1 Grid of the Future

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It is safe to say that these needs and changes present the power industry with the biggest challenge it has ever faced. On one hand, the transition to a smart grid has to be evolutionary to keep the lights on; on the other hand, the issues surrounding the smart grid are significant enough to demand major changes in power systems operating philosophy.

5.2

BUSINESS AND REGULATORY DRIVES OF THE SMART GRID

With emerging requirements for renewable portfolio standards (RPS), limits on greenhouse gases (GHG), and DR and energy conservation measures, environmental issues have moved to the forefront of the utility business.

Figure 5.2 A typical radial distribution feederpotential circuit congestion conditions

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The RPS mechanism generally places an obligation on electricity supply companies to provide a minimum percentage of their electricity from approved renewable energy sources. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, as of August 2008, 32 states plus the District of Columbia had established RPS targets. Together, these states account for almost half of the electricity sales in the United States. The RPS targets currently range from a low of 2% to a high of 25% of electricity generation, with California leading the pact that requires 20% of the energy supply come from renewable resources by 2010 and 33% by 2020. According to a Congressional Research Service report, RPS noncompliance penalties imposed by states range from $10 to $55 per megawatthour.

5.3

IMPACT OF PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES ON THE DISTRIBUTION GRID

PHEVs show great promise; they have the potential to curb emissions and reduce the cost of transportation. Although wide-scale adoption of plug-in vehicles is still a few years away, politicians, electric utilities, and auto companies are eagerly awaiting the opportunities that may arise from reduced emissions and gasoline consumption, new services and increased revenues, and new markets that would create new jobs.

Figure 5.3 Residential Customer Network

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This is particularly true for electric utility companies, which could see substantial revenue growth through the electrification of the transportation market segment. For consumers, plug-in vehicles will significantly lower operational costs when compared with traditional gasoline cars or todays gasoline-electric hybrids. The savings are potentially huge, as electricity costs per mile work out to about one-quarter to one-third the cost of gasoline, depending on the region and price of gasoline. A Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) study states that the existing generation, transmission, and distribution system in the United States, if optimally utilized at all hours of the day, could provide enough power for plug-in vehicles to replace up to 73% of the nations cars, vans, SUVs, or so-called light-duty fleet. Whats more, switching from gas-only vehicles to mostly plug-in vehicles could reduce the importation of oil by up to 52%, according to the PNNL. Plug-in vehicle charging time

Figure 5.4 Plug-in vehicle charging time

5.4

CRITICAL ROLE OF INFORMATION & AUTOMATION TECHNOLOGY

A broad-based implementation of the smart grid will impact many of the existing utility operational and information systems, as shown in Figure 8. In addition to advanced metering and utility wide communications infrastructure enabling DR and distributed resource management, the smart grid impacts many of the
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operational and enterprise information systems, including supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA), feeder and substation automation, customer service systems, planning, engineering and field operations, grid operations, scheduling, and power marketing. The smart grid also impacts corporate enterprise systems for asset management, billing and accounting, and business management.

Figure 5.5 A view of the utility information systems impacted by smart-grid strategies

Many expect that by between 2012 and 2014, there will be a significant number of plug-in vehicles and utility-grade solar generation on the distribution grid. As discussed earlier, this could result in system overloads, voltage/var deviations, and excessive phase imbalances. To mitigate these issues and to maintain system reliability, coordinated voltage and var control, automated switching and relay coordination, and extensive monitoring will be required. In addition, a
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combination of distributed intelligence and centralized analysis and control, congestion management strategies, and market based dynamic pricing will be needed.

Figure 5.6 Systems required to support the high penetration of distributed resources

As illustrated in Figure, many information technology (IT) systems will be impacted, including those for distribution management and automation, operations planning, scheduling and dispatch, market operations, and billing and settlements.

Figure 5.7 A broad-based timeline for smart-grid IT implementation

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5.5

SMART GRID MILLIONAIRE

The onslaught of advertisements, announcements, and pronouncements has risen to a fever pace as the end of oil, natural gas, green house gases, and renewable resources are brought forward to solve the energy crisis. Many announce that the solution has been found. According to the many advertisements and reports, it is the stockholder protection of traditional utilities that prevents the rapid deployment of such technologies. If money is placed with one of these resources, the energy problem can be solved simply and quickly with the stroke of a pen. Unfortunately, these are exaggerations whenever one digs into the presented material. Most of the analysis is flawed as long-term fuel prices, environmental impacts, transportation network capabilities, and appliances are not included, and the details are lost in the exceptions and assumptions in the fine print.

Generation
The present environmental crisis is a unique constraint on the development of future energy resources. It is not clear which resources will most benefit the environment. Wind generation is being installed at a feverish pace throughout the Midwest; biomass using cow and human excrement is on display in Los Angeles, Oregon, and Wisconsin; photovoltaic is cost effective in New Mexico, and pumped hydro is cost effective in California; even nuclear, often noted in soft tones, is again a viable option if it is recycled until it is economically depleted. Environmental concerns have downgraded coal as the solution until CO2 sequestration is understood. However, the promise of coal gasification may solve such issues as mercury and sulfur contamination. The impact of renewable resources in Europe is very remarkable. It is noted that soon 65% of the energy in the Netherlands will be produced by wind generation that is integrated with energy storage in Sweden and Norway.

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There is 1,500 MW photovoltaic already in the German power system with much more planned. Technology is now changing quickly enough in the energy industry that the field experience with network integration of photovoltaic (PV), with integration of wind power, with the increased energy storage as available with energy storage, and the resulting impact on reregulation and market interaction is hard to disseminate internationally. The integration of renewable resources and energy storage are widely documented as a viable solution.

5.6

COMPUTER NETWORK SECURITY MANAGEMENT & AUTHENTICATION OF SMART GRID

5.6.1 Smart Grids to an Energy Internet Secure and reliable delivery of energy is essential to modern society. Achieving this goal is becoming more challenging with increasing demand and declining
70

resources. The ongoing restructuring of the rather old delivery infrastructure is an attempt to improve its performance so that energy can be utilized with higher efficiency. Smart grids are an advanced concept with a number of unique features compared to their precedents, including early detection and self healing capabilities. An implementation of smart grids is an energy internet where energy flows from suppliers to customers like data packets do in the Internet. Apparent benefits from an energy internet are its openness, robustness and reliability. This paper uses electricity as an example to present some key assumptions and requirements for building the energy internet.

Figure 5.8 Smart grid interconnection with WAN

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Figure 5.9 Internet and power grid with virtual buffers

Figure 5.10 Implementation of an Energy Internet

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Figure 5.11 Interactions among agents

Building an internet type of energy network for the future may be the answer to some of the pressing energy challenges. Advancements in information technology and ongoing research on power infrastructure and complex system has made this goal reachable. The paper summarized some of the fundamental assumptions and requirements and presented an example architecture as well. The discussion was focused on technical and marketing issues. It is noteworthy that the subject requires inclusion of work from several other areas including, economics, regulation, resource management, and market structures for and capital allocation and risk management. 5.6.2 NETWORK SECURITY MANAGEMENT & AUTHENTICATION Operations of electricity power systems have recently become more intricate due to development of microgrids, execution of open access competition, and use of network controlled devices, etc. Computer networks therefore turn into an integral component of modern power-grid operations. This paper proposes a new utility computer network security management and authentication for actions commands requests in smart-grid operations. This management covers multiple security domains in a new security architecture designed for smart power grids.
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This paper presents the strategy and procedure of security checks and authentications of commands requests for operations in the host area electric power system (AEPS) and interconnected multiple neighboring AEPS. Case studies of the new security management and authentication for smart grids operations are presented. 5.6.3 Hardware Implementation Fig below shows the block diagram to illustrate the hardware implementation of the cell unit for monitoring and protecting one feeder node using state-of-the-art digital signal processing technology and modern computer networking technology.

The key hardware components are: digital signal processors (DSPs), analog-todigital converter (A/D), data storage (SDRAM/Flash), and field-programmable gate array (FPGA). The DSP1 is the main processor for all electrical signals obtained through A/D from measurements. The DSP2 is responsible for all computer networking. For implementation of the SRAC model proposed in this paper, the DSP2 is responsible for carrying out all security access checks. The FPGA is responsible for all the logic control of the unit. This computer network security management and authentication for actions or commands requests in smart-grid operations. This management covers multiple security domains in a new security architecture designed for smart power grids.
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This paper has presented the strategy and procedure of security checks and authentications of commands requests for operations in the host AEPS and interconnected multiple neighboring AEPS. Case studies of the new security management and authentication for smart grids operations for improvement of stability conditions due to contingencies are presented.

5.7

EMERGING TECHNOLOGY

Environmental concerns and power quality delivery needs have led regulators to sponsor new programs in energy efficiency, renewable energy capacity generation, and reliability improvements. Utilities are responding to those needs. This panel addresses emerging technology to enable smart grid deployment for improving energy efficiency. Energy generation assets (e.g. wind, solar, storage) have become more attractive for big buy-out groups and investors and government and private investors started providing financial support to support technologies, such as Smart Grid. In general, smart grid could be described as the use of advanced technologies to improve the performance of electric utility systems with performance including:
Efficiency and Utilization Power Quality and Reliability Utility Bottom Line

The foundation of smart grid is new distributed data communication, computing, and control technologies, comprising efficient transfer of data and control from/to/among many field units.

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Figure 5.12 Smart Grid Electricity Infrastructure Fig

5.8 NEXT GENERATION COMMUNICATION REQUIREMENT IREMENT

The communication infrastructure for power grids today (Figure below evolved below) to meet the needs of the regulated electric power industry several decades ago. This infrastructure largely revolves around communication between control centre s and individual substations. Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems built using this star topology convey status information (and commands) back and forth within a period of several seconds. The control model based on this communication struct structure is almost exclusively one of slow automatic control by the control cent to balance load and generation tic centres generationand of manual (slower) control by system operatorsto open and close circuit breakers. operators to The only available fast controls, which serve mainly as protection against short tection circuits but also include some voltage controls and special controls, make
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decisions based on local measurements. This control structure has a limited ability to cope with grid-wide phenomena, which becomes more important as the grid becomes more vulnerable to fast cascading phenomena.

Figure 5.13 Power-grid communications today.

Special protection schemes (SPS), sometimes called remedial action schemes (RAS), have been developed to meet some of the wide-area control needs that cannot be addressed within this established communication architecture. An SPS involves instituting hardwired, point-to-point communication between two or more substations, sometimes separated by hundreds of miles.

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With an SPS, the occurrence of particular events or measurements at one point of the grid triggers actions (such as breaker tripping) at another. To date, these schemes have been one-of-a-kind systems and have not spawned a generalized communication architecture that can support fast controls. They are not a solution to the long term control needs of the grid. In addition to constraining the deployment of different controls, the limitations of communications in todays grid also lead to inadequate situational awareness for utility operators who are blind to disturbances in neighbouring control areas. Consequently, opportunities to limit the spread of trouble are missed as the operators communicate in a hitor-miss fashion using telephones. The grid has limped along with these limitations, but in recent years several forces have converged to stress the grid and highlight the inadequacy of this communication infrastructure, including:
low investment in transmission in the face of increased demand, including demand for higher-quality power

deregulation, leading to regional transmission operator (RTO)-based

operational structures, independent marketers and power producers, new requirements for ancillary services, increased separation of power producers and consumers (further increasing load on the transmission infrastructure), and many more participants involved in the system

increased distributed generation, leading to more difficult control problems

increased concern about malicious attacks on the grid.

Over the same time period, technology for monitoring and measurement has evolved with the increasing deployment of intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) in substations. These devices monitor grid operational parameters and are capable of independent protective action at the substation level. The data they gather are often recorded at the substation in case they are needed for post incident analysis. Synchronous phasor measurement units (PMUs), which gather data several times in each power cycle, are being deployed to help develop a
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much more detailed picture of the grids dynamics for systems planning, control, and post incident analysis. However, throughout nearly all of todays power grid, these data cannot be used beyond the substation in which they were generated due to the grids limited communications infrastructure. One use of this rich data source is the PMU-based wide area measurement system (WAMS), which was deployed on the Western Grid some years ago. PMUs are currently being deployed in large numbers in the Eastern Interconnect Phasor Project (EIPP). The dedicated communication infrastructure being deployed for this purpose will meet the needs of current applications but will limit future operational use of this data. The GridStat communication architecture, described in this article, is complementary to the goals of WAMS and EIPP. It provides more flexible communications to support these services, yet it eventually can be integrated with the power grids other communication needs.

5.8.1 GridStat
GridStat is a middleware framework that provides a simple API based on abstractions for publishing and subscribing to status variables and status alerts. Status variables are periodic sequences of time-stamped values corresponding to measurement, status, or control settings in the power grid. Each element of the sequence is a status update. An application program gets a local copy of a particular status variable by subscribing to it. Thereafter, the local copy is periodically updated by the middleware, which manages network resources to ensure that the updates are timely. The application can use this local copy just like a purely local variable, making it is easy to program with values from remote locations. Status alerts are sporadic messages, not a part of a sequence of updates. GridStat delivers status alerts with high priority. Alerts are used to quickly inform applications of situations, such as alarm conditions, requiring immediate attention. In subscribing to a status variable, a subscriber states at what rate it wishes to receive updates for that variable, how much delay it will
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tolerate between when an update is published and when it is received, and how many redundant paths should be employed to increase the likelihood that every update is successfully received. A status source, called a publisher, informs the middleware infrastructure of a status variables identity, type, and availability frequency. A directory service assists subscribers in identifying and locating particular status variables of interest.

Figure 5.14 The GridStat architecture

This programming model for applications is supported by an infrastructure for delivering the status updates (the data plane) and a management infrastructure that allocates resources to subscriptions, computes routes, etc. Figure above illustrates the structure of a Grid- Stat network. GridStats data plane consists of status routers, devices which perform routing at the middleware layer. Status routers differ from ordinary IP-layer internet routers in being specialized to support QoS multicast of periodic status updates. GridStats management plane consists of QoS brokers, devices which perform resource allocation in the data plane to establish paths meeting the QoS requirements of each subscription request. QoS brokers also negotiate with subscribers to reduce their QoS requirements if their initial requirements cannot be met.

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As seen in Figure , the QoS brokers are hierarchically organized. This reflects the geographic and management structure of grid operational and business entities. In doing so, it allows for a divide and conquer approach enabling (carefully regulated) local decisions to be made by lower levels in the hierarchy, not just at the hierarchys centralized headquarters. At the lowest level, leaf QoS brokers each manage a single cloud of status routers corresponding to a geographic area within a single business entity. Although the QoS brokers are hierarchically organized, the data path clouds are not. The goal in the data plane is to provide a rich set of possibilities for routing which the management plane will allocate according to trust policies and QoS needs. In a full deployment of GridStat, the hierarchical organization of the QoS brokers would match the organizational hierarchy of the grid. QoS brokers would also aggregate lower level status into more global indicators of the health of the grid, for example, for use by an RTO or a national monitoring center.

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Figure 5.15 The next-generation power-grid infrastructure with GridStat

The power grids existing communication architecture limits the control and protection schemes that can be implemented. It does not meet the requirements imposed by deregulation to allow participation of more parties in marketing, generation, transmission, and ancillary services. Achieving the required communication flexibility will require a new communication architecture GridStat is a new communication architecture for the power grid based on Internet technologies. Off-the-shelf Internet technology alone cannot meet the

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QoS requirements for the grids status communication. But, the GridStat middleware framework, which sits above a low-level IP or ATM network layer, provides essential QoS management, along with services specialized to the status-dissemination needs of a power grid. GridStat could also provide status dissemination for other critical infrastructures, such as gas and transportation, which require widely distributed situation awareness for efficient and secure operation. Use of GridStat technology in other industries would foster cross infrastructural awareness both for normal operations and to detect and mitigate malicious threats.

5.9

EDUCATING SMART GRID

The smart grid is entering the era of practical pilot projects and readiness to scale. This has been the result of a movement in technology, regulation, and a learning process for all involved. This paper discusses several areas of experience with the Intelligent Utility Network, IBMs nomenclature for its Smart Grid concept. Topics addressed are the Grid Wise demonstration with the Department of Energys Pacific Northwest Lab and other research work related to the IUN, projects in progress with customers to create the foundations of a smart grid, technology and architecture, and aspects for the enablement of alternative and distributed energy and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. From a business perspective, the IBM IUN Utility Coalition and the IUN Maturity Model will be discussed.

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Figure 5.16 learning smart grid

As part of helping utilities consider, plan, and implement many of the above projects, IBM has formed the IUN Coalition, a group of utilities selected from around the globe to jointly develop the smart grid and share experiences. By choosing power companies from various jurisdictions, business models, and technology motivations, varied aspects of the smart grid can be done at individual utilities and recast at others in the Coalition, helping to get beyond the show me state and complete the education process for all stakeholders. One of the elements of the Coalition work is the IUN Maturity Model 4, which loosely resembles the famous software engineering Capability Maturity Model. It sets forth levels in many areas to establish guidance for technology and business roadmaps to the smart grid, as well as assists in setting a common level for definitions and progress. It has become useful tool in planning the strategy and change work often desired by utilities to be able to operate as a smart grid

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company after the technology for the smart grid is in place. Often this work is done in parallel with initial operational technology blueprinting.

Figure 5.17 Network Management

This latter process combines the electrical power systems expertise in the utility with the computer and information science expertise of the system integrator to realize a more optimal solution. Technologies such as complex event processing, analytics imported from other industries, mixed mode optimization, partner and ISV networks, and real-time system design are brought to bear to produce the innovative solutions to advance the state of the art. In conclusion, the smart grid brings both benefits and design challenges to the utility, its customers, and the associated technologists. The electric power system is arguably the worlds largest machine, if one defines a machine as a series of interconnected parts that form a common system. Transient stability, I2R losses, communications, security, system architecture and modelling are all parts of the complex picture. There are several points to progress toward the smart grid. Operational Technology and Information Technology departments should become closer. Security has to be considered from the beginning of the project.
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Data communications is often the largest missing piece. The project needs to be done in well defined phases. Phase 0 is learning of all existing and in-flight projects within the utility. Systems integration is essential to realizing benefits. The primary mission is still to keep the lights on. The data deluge must be managed. Knowledge capture is part of smart grid planning and results. The work is not all technical; there are strategy and change components for the employees.

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Chapter-6
CONCLUSION & FUTURE OF SMART GRID
6.1 CONCLUSION
Although implementation of smart grid technology needs highly skilled professionals and latest technology with high cost as one of the important factor but in a long run it is more economical due to power saving capability. It is environmental and consumer friendly because it is also concentrate on the renewable source of energy. In short smart grid is super saving pack of energy & environment. So smart grid implementation must be encouraged.

6.2

FUTURE OF SMART GRID

Now a days that smart grid is being implemented or going to be implement in almost all developed country, likewise there is a lot scope for its implementation in developing country like INDIA. Smart grid technologies are in its developing phase. So there is a lot of technical development in this field. In future there is the extensive scope of large scale implementation of this very technology. Commercial adaptation of this technology will reduce the cost of smart grid implementation.

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[11] D. Divan and H. Johal, A Smarter Grid for Improving System Reliability and Asset Utilization, Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference, August, 2006. [12] T. Willie, Broadband Over Power Lines, IEEE International Symposium on Power Line Communications and Its Applications, March 2006. [13] R. Fanning and R. Huber, Distribution Vision 2010: planning for automation, IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, June 2005. [14] H.T. Vollkommer, D.R. Fitchett, and J. Kelly, Distributed energy resource demonstration R&D project report, IEEE PES General Meeting, June 2006. [15] M.S. Jimenez and N. Hatziargyriou, Research activities in Europe on integration of distributed energy resources in the electricity networks of the future, IEEE PES General Meeting, June 2006. E Standards 1547, IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems, July, 2003.

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