Psychology of Sport and Exercise 6 (2005) 559569

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The development of volition in young elite athletes

Anne-Marie Elbe*, Birgit Szymanski, Jurgen Beckmann
Institute for Sport Science, University of Potsdam, Am Neuen Palais 10, 14469 Potsdam, Germany Received 28 October 2003; received in revised form 18 June 2004; accepted 6 July 2004 Available online 15 December 2004

Abstract Objectives: To examine the development of volition in young athletes attending an elite sport school. Because volition is important for realising long and intense training loads during the course of an athletic career the question is if the context of a school for young elite athletes promotes its development. Design: Two studies are described, one with a cross-sectional (study 1) and another with a longitudinal design (study 2). Methods: In the cross-sectional study the volitional skills of 327 students attending a school for young elite athletes were analysed according to age and living situation (at home/in the boarding school). In the longitudinal study the development of volition of 63 young elite athletes was compared to that of 122 non-athletic students attending a regular school. In both studies volition is measured with the Volitional Components Questionnaire (VCQ II). On the basis of a factor analysis conducted in study 1, two factors could be identied, namely selfoptimisation, which includes skills needed to achieve goals, and self-impediment, which includes skills addressed in stress situations. Results: Study 1 suggests that self-impediment shows a development and that volitional skills develop more favourably in athletes living in the boarding school. These results are conrmed by the longitudinal study. The second study additionally shows that volitional skills concerning self-optimisation develop more favourably in the young elite athletes when compared to regular students. Conclusion: Only advantages concerning the development of volition in students attending a school for young elite athletes were found. q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Volition; Young elite athletes; Longitudinal study

* Corresponding author. Tel.: C49 331 977 1592; fax: C49 331 977 1263. E-mail address: elbe@rz.uni-potsdam.de (A.-M. Elbe).
1469-0292/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2004.07.004

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Why are some people capable of maintaining their actions and achieving their goals, whereas others are unable to transform their motivation into actions or to remain focused on the execution of an action? Kuhl (1987) argues that motivation leads only to the decision to act. Once an individual is engaged in an action, however, volitional processes determine whether the intention is fullled or not. Volition is a construct from motivation psychology that describes the processes and mechanisms of self-regulation and is commonly referred to as the will. It deals with processes that are responsible for initiating an action despite internal and external resistance and for maintaining it until the goal has been reached (Kuhl, 1983). Volition consists of meta-motivational processes, i.e. knowing how to motivate oneself; when higher level action control processes fail, volition may consist of increasing vigour (Beckmann, 1987). Not giving up when things get difcult, not letting oneself be distracted and remaining condent and positive are examples of self-regulatory processes described as volition, which involve cognitive, motivational and emotional control strategies. It is generally understood that self-regulation abilities and skills are important for achievement in school and working life and are necessary for maintaining long-term life goals. Therefore favourable development of volition is essential for an academic (Corno, 1993) and/or future job career. In recent years scientic interest concerning volition and its underlying regulatory processes has increased in the eld of sport psychology. Numerous studies have examined the connections between volitional skills and athletic achievement (e.g. Beckmann, 1999; Beckmann & Kazen, 1994; Beckmann & Strang, 1991; Beckmann, Szymanski, & Elbe, 2004). Volition is especially important for realising long and intense training loads during the course of an athletic career or for keeping up regular exercising. In addition to achievement motivation, concentration and persistence (Schneider, Bos, & Rieder, 1993), volition is seen as an essential component for athletic excellence. A positive development of these aspects of personality is important for all young competitive athletes. In addition, the role of context has become increasingly important to motivation theorists (Urdan, 1999). Recent work has shown that the school environment and school context can greatly inuence motivation (Stipek, 1998). Eccles & Wigeld (2002) say that it is difcult if not impossible to understand students motivation without understanding the contexts they are experiencing (p. 130). The aim of this study is to examine which role the context of a sport school plays in the development of volition and if this competitive environment has a positive inuence on the development of volition in young elite athletes. According to Vygotski (1978) personality development takes place during ones entire life span. This is assumed for motivation in general (Grolnick, Kurowski, & Gurland, 1999) as well as volition (Kuhl & Fuhrmann, 1998). However, strong development of volitional skills is expected during childhood and adolescence. The development of volition in children is assumed to be greatly inuenced by parents and carers and later on by the school environment. Baltes, Reese, and Lipsitt (1980) speak of normative, agegraded events that all children encounter approximately at the same age and which cause personality development. These events can be the entry into school, for example, or the transition from elementary to high school. These transitions represent challenges for children and adolescents because they require new or more complex personality skills. These develop in the interplay between the childrens resources, their home environment and the context of the new experience (Grolnick et al., 1999). Not much is known, however, about how volition develops in youths. What is known is that the two most important self-regulatory tasks are maintaining ones goals while developing an independent, conict-free self. This favourable development is achieved by means of an efcient self-regulation. In order for efcient self-regulation to develop, specic socialisation conditions are necessary. According to Kuhl (1994) the separation from unrealistic goals should be encouraged, and a rigid adhering to rules

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as well as all kinds of chronic frustrations are to be avoided. Further substantial determinants are the freedom to take self-determined action and the opportunity to try oneself out in social interaction with the immanent chance of failure (Kuhl, 1994; Kuhl & Kraska, 1989). The systems conditioning model by Kuhl and Volker (1998) further describes how social interaction should be designed to enhance volitional development. The interaction needs to occur within a certain time window, and has to be responsive to and in concert with the persons needs. Once the individual expresses sadness or discouragement, for example, the interaction partner needs to address positive feelings and to encourage. The feedback has to t the individuals needs at that certain moment. Only then can the young adult make a connection between his or her self-system and the self-regulation system. If these specic socialization conditions are present, a favorable self-regulation is most likely developed.

Question The present study focuses on the development of volitional skills in young elite athletes in Potsdam, Germany attending a high school designed exclusively for them. To be classied as a young elite athlete students have to pass a strict selection procedure, including several tests of sport performance, as well as to have a recommendation from the state sport organisation. Once they are admitted to the school, they train on a daily basis and frequently take part in training camps and competitions. Students who live far away from the school can stay in the on-campus boarding school so they do not have to commute on a daily basis. Such schools were very common in the former GDR. After the reunication of Germany they were strongly criticised because the children lived away from home, had to complete harsh training, and lacked opportunities for individual personal development. Consequently, many of the schools were closed. One of the remaining schools that combines education, training and life on campus under a new political system is the focus of this study. The question is if the context of a competitive sport environment with the institution of a boarding house found at this school furthers the development of self-regulation. To answer these questions two studies are presented, one an exploratory cross-sectional study and the other a longitudinal study.

Study 1: cross-sectional study Hypotheses Two hypotheses for the cross-sectional exploration are formulated on the basis of the theoretical background of this study. 1. A strong development of volitional skills is assumed to take place in childhood and adolescence and presumed to be inuenced by the environment in the form of social interaction as well as normative agegraded events like starting school or switching from elementary to high school (Baltes et al., 1980). Because the young elite athletes are going through adolescence and experience a strong environmental change after entering the sport school, a development in their volitional skills should be observed. 2. Differences are expected between the development of young elite athletes living at home and those living in the on-campus boarding house since their social environments are quite different. It is

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assumed that students living on campus show a more positive development of volition because they have more partners for social interaction. In addition to their parents and siblings, which they spend time with on the weekends and during vacation, they can build up close relationships with their carers at the boarding house as well as with their fellow room mates. The chance of receiving need contingent feedback which is necessary to develop a favourable volitional development in Kuhls sense (1994) is much greater for boarders than for students living at home. Method, design and sample The cross-sectional study took place in 1998 with classes 713 of the Friedrich-Ludwig-JahnSchool for young German elite athletes in Potsdam, Germany. The school has 760 students with 200 students living in the on-campus boarding house. To examine the hypotheses, age differences with pairwise comparisons were completed using a MANOVA. The sample consisted of 327 students (157 male; 170 female) of whom 74 (44 male; 30 female) lived in the on-campus boarding school. The sample is described in Table 1. The age groups are divided according to classes, with 1213 year olds in grades seven to eight, 1415 year olds in grades nine to 10, 1617 year olds in grades 11 and 12 and the 18 year olds in grade 13. The four age groups were formed according to the earlier described normative, age-graded events (Baltes et al., 1980). Grades seven to eight form the transition from elementary school and are the beginning of high school. Grades nine to 10 represent the preparation of the intermediate school qualication achieved at the end of grade 10. Grades 1112 are the preparation of the high school diploma with grade 13 representing the year of nal school-leaving exam, which permits students to go on to university. Instrument To measure self-regulation the Volitional Components Questionnaire (VCQ II; Kuhl & Fuhrmann, 1998) was applied. It contains 19 scales with four to ve items each. Reliability reported by the authors ranges between aZ0.75 and 0.95. Since the original validation and test of reliability took place with an adult sample, an additional test of reliability was performed with the sample of young elite athletes described above (nZ327) and students from a regular school (nZ122). Eleven of the scales showed Cronbachs alpha ranging from 0.60 to 0.75, which can be considered as satisfactory for group comparisons. Four further scales show acceptable alpha values for group comparisons according to Hoener and Roth (2002), with values between aZ0.50 and 0.59. The four scales decision control,
Table 1 Age and gender distribution for the sample of study 1 Age group Sex Female 1213 1415 1617 18 N 56 61 26 14 157 Male 42 77 35 16 170 Sportschool Boarding school 38 22 10 4 74 Home 60 63 21 11 155 No information 0 53 30 16 99 N 98 138 61 30 327

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Table 2 Fifteen Scales of the VCQ II, their reliability as well as their loadings on the factors self-impediment and self-optimisation Scale External control Energy decit Self-determination Negative anticipation Informed introjection Failure control Effort avoidance Procrastination Volitional efcacy Negative emotionality Planning Goal maintenance Initiative Self-motivation Intrusions Reliability 0.66 0.72 0.59 0.58 0.70 0.53 0.70 0.70 0.64 0.72 0.68 0.50 0.67 0.69 0.75 Factor 1, self-impediment 0.850 0.873 0.237 0.481 0.666 K0.446 0.770 0.891 0.139 0.694 0.159 0.308 K0.033 0.089 0.780 Factor 2, self-optimisation K0.054 K0.011 0.720 0.507 0.196 0.616 0.068 K0.036 0.762 0.199 0.727 0.662 0.889 0.826 0.083 h2 0.696 0.756 0.681 0.640 0.562 0.407 0.631 0.775 0.665 0.607 0.626 0.660 0.773 0.736 0.656

impulse control, self-discipline and volitional optimism with a!0.50 are dropped from further evaluations. A factor analysis (principal components analysis with oblimin rotation) was performed to structure the 15 remaining scales (nZ449). This resulted in a two-factor solution with a total variance explained of 65.8% whereby l1Z7.3, that is with 48.8% of the variance explained for the rst factor and l2Z2.5, that is 17% allotted to the second factor. All scales loading on the rst factor include volitional skills addressed in stress situations. Negative emotionality and procrastination, for example, occur when things get difcult. This factor is hence called self-impediment and shows how strongly a person is negatively affected in a stress situation. All other skills load on the second factor, which is called selfoptimisation (Beckmann et al., 2004). Self-optimisation includes skills of positive competence and are applied when reaching goals. Table 2 shows the 15 scales, their reliability as well as their loadings on the factors self-impediment and self-optimisation, and the commonalities. The two factors correlate at the level of 0.44. The following evaluations are based on the two factors extracted from the factor analysis, namely self-optimisation and self-impediment. The factor value is calculated by adding up the individual subscales. The dependent variables are the four age groups as well as the two living situations, at home or on campus. Results First of all differences between the age groups are examined using ANOVA. The scale selfoptimisation shows no age effects; F(3,323)Z1.32; pO0.05; h2Z0.01 whereas the factor selfimpediment does; F(3,323)Z4.45; p%0.01; h2Z0.04. Fig. 1 shows that the self-impediment is highest in the group of 1415 year olds. The age differences become signicant in the rst three groups using pairwise comparisons using ANOVA. In addition

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Fig. 1. Differences in the age groups concerning self-optimisation and self-impediment.

the 1415 year-olds show marginally signicant differences to the 18 year olds (see Table 3). After age 15 a decline in self-impediment is noticeable (see Fig. 1). The second main effect, the living situation of the youths, shows an age effect concerning selfimpediment. The main effect, living situation, is not signicant (self-optimisation F(1,221)Z0.06; pO0.05; h2Z0.00 and self-impediment F(1,221)Z0.03; pO0.05; h2Z0.00). However, the interaction between the two main effects, age group and living situation are signicant concerning the scale selfoptimisation F(3,221)Z3.65; p%0.05; h2Z0.05 (self-impediment F(3,221)Z0.12; pO0.05; h2Z0.00). Fig. 2 shows that self-optimisation increases in the boarding school athletes up to age 1617, whereas the athletes living at home show the opposite development. The difference between the two groups at the age of 12/13 is highly signicant; F(1,96)Z8.58; p%0.01; h2Z0.08. Discussion The results conrm the two hypotheses. Age effects can be found in the volitional skills of young elite athletes (hypothesis 1) suggesting that a development of volition might be taking place. The second hypothesis can also be conrmed because differences between young elite athletes living at home and those living on campus can be found. However, these results are based on a cross-sectional study. With the help of a longitudinal study the developmental perspective can be more adequately analysed. The longitudinal study includes students of a regular school as a comparison group.
Table 3 Individual age group comparisons of self-impediment 1415 1213 1415 1617
a b

1617 0.95 6.43a

18 K0.01 5.47b K0.96

K5.48a

Signicant on the 1% level. Marginally signicant p%0.06.

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Fig. 2. Interaction between the living situation and age in self-optimisation.

Study 2: longitudinal study Hypotheses The following hypotheses for study 2 are based on the results of study 1. 3. Self-optimisation does not develop further in young elite athletes after they have joined the sport school. 4. Self-impediment develops in young elite athletes after they have joined the sport school, peaks at age 15, and then decreases. 5. Self-optimisation increases in students living on campus and decreases in athletes living at home. No developmental differences between the two groups can be found concerning self-impediment. The results of study 1 do not give any information concerning the comparison to students of a regular school. A hypothesis is therefore formulated on the basis of the theoretical background. 6. Due to their tightly structured daily schedule including training and competitions students of a sport school have less time for self-determined actions and less opportunities to socially interact with peers and adults. Critics remark that these students lack independence and their interests are limited to the sport domain (Franke, 1998; Funke, 1983). The freedom to socially interact, however, is necessary for a positive development of volition. It is therefore presumed that young elite athletes show disadvantages concerning development of volition in comparison to regular students. Method, design and sample The longitudinal study was begun in 1998 with students who had entered the sport school in grade seven. The students were tested ve times up to grade 10. Testing was conducted at the beginning of each school year with an additional assessment in the second half of the seventh grade (age 13). The students were aged 12 at the beginning and 1516 at the end of the study. The longitudinal study includes 63 young elite athletes (23 male, 40 female) from the sport school of whom 23 (10 male, 13 female) lived in the boarding house and 122 (58 male, 64 female) non-athletic students of a regular Potsdam high school.

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Fig. 3. Development of self-impediment and self-optimisation in young elite athletes between age 12 and 16.

Results Hypothesis 3 and 4 are tested using a repeated measures ANOVA. The self-optimisation scale shows no development; F(4,132)Z0.60; pO0.05; h2Z0.02. The self-impediment scale, however, shows a marginally signicant development; F(4,132)Z2.43; p%0.06; h2Z0.07. Fig. 3 shows that the means for self-impediment increase up to age 14 and then clearly decrease. These two results correspond with the results of the cross-sectional study, which showed no changes in self-optimisation but an increase in self-impediment up to age 15, with a decrease thereafter. The decrease after age 15 is more distinct in the longitudinal study. The results of the elite athletes living at home and those living on campus are now compared. The longitudinal results show a positive development of self-optimisation in the athletes living on campus, whereas the athletes living at home show a decline in their self-optimisation values (F(4,128)Z3.73; p%0.01; h2Z0.10). This result is shown in Fig. 4 and conrms hypothesis 3. The cross-sectional results concerning the living situation (hypothesis 5) can also be conrmed in the longitudinal study, since no developmental differences between the athletes living at home and those living on campus can be found in the scale self-impediment; F(4,132)ZpO0.05; h2Z0.07.

Fig. 4. Development of self-optimisation with students living on and off.

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Fig. 5. Development of self-optimisation (left) and self-impediment (right) in young elite athletes and regular students.

Hypothesis 6 addresses the comparison with students of a regular school. Marginally signicantly higher values for the young elite athletes concerning self-optimisation can be found; F(1,94)Z3.85; p%0.05; h2Z0.04. However, this difference is already signicant at the beginning of the study (T1): (F(1,111)Z6.34; p%0.05; h2Z0.05). No school differences concerning the factor self-impediment can be found in the beginning of the study; F(1,109)Z1.61; pO0.05; h2Z0.00. After entering the school, however, a scissors-like development becomes visible (see Fig. 5). The self-impediment values of the regular students increase in comparison to those of the athletic student sample, which stay stable; F(4,372)Z2.80; p%0.05; h2Z0.03.

Summary All results found in the cross-sectional study with a relatively large sample can be replicated in the longitudinal study with a smaller sample. Merely hypothesis 6, which is not based on the results of the rst study, cannot be conrmed. Here the school comparison shows developmental advantages for the athletic sample. The results can be summarised as follows: young elite athletes in comparison with students of a regular school show higher values in self-optimisation and stayed at this higher level during the course of the study (hypothesis 1 and 3). Self-impediment increases up to the age of 14/15 and then strongly decreases (see hypothesis 4). The comparison with students of a regular school shows different developments. Self-impediment continually increases in the students of a regular school and does not develop in the athletic sample. A comparison concerning the living situation shows a more positive development in self-optimisation for those athletes living on campus (hypothesis 5).

Discussion The early and more favourable development of the athletic sample concerning self-optimisation can be an indication of a pre-selection criterion that differentiates between athletes and non-athletes. This interpretation is further supported by a lack of development after entering school. Presumably these highly developed self-optimisation strategies aid the later self-impediment development, which develops more favourably in the athletic sample. Further research is needed to determine if this

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favourable development is a result of the competitive sport environment with its wide variety of social interaction or the higher level of self-optimisation skills. Nevertheless, the results show that volition develops during adolescence. The more favourable development of the boarding house students can be interpreted as follows. Apparently the boarding house students especially prot in the beginning of their school career if one takes a look at their volitional development (see Fig. 5). The boarding house inhabitants are confronted with a special situation when entering the new school. They are more dependent on making new friends, not only in school and in practice but also in the boarding house. They must assert themselves in all areas and are forced to question their own position. According to Kuhl and Kraska (1989) these are the conditions for the development of a conict-free self that enables efcient self-regulation. Cookson and Persells (1985) study shows that boarding school inhabitants have a strong desire to belong to a group of friends rather quickly in order to receive a feeling of belonging and security from this group. This intense confrontation with ones social role (Sturzbecher & Lenz, 1997) possibly takes place between the age of 12 and 13 and at the same time positively inuences the volitional development. In order to become integrated into the new environment of the boarding house the athletes have to socially interact. However, this process includes the inherent chance of failure. In addition the boarding house possibly offers more chances for social interaction that is contingent with the athletes needs. It can be concluded that the boarding house not only has advantages from a time economical perspective but also offers the chance of a favourable self-regulatory development (see Kuhl, 1994). All in all, only advantages concerning self-regulation skills of the young elite athletes can be found. Negative effects in comparison to students of a regular school cannot be detected. These athletes show a positive personality development that is benecial for their athletic career as well as for pursuing their further goals in life. This study sheds further light on the role that the context plays on motivational and volitional development. In addition the results of these studies shed some light on the debate on the relationship of sport engagement and personality development. It provides data promoting the position that engagement in sport has a positive effect on personality development.

Acknowledgements Results of the research project Personality and athletic development of young elite athletes in Potsdam. This research is nanced by the German Institute for Sport Science (VF 0407/1/01 2002) and the Brandenburg Ministry for Education, Youth and Sport.

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