Fiber History

From the ages for which there are no records, man has been using clothes. This itself is a proof that fiber is present, now for several thousands of years. Natural Fibers were the first to be used as an obvious choice. Man-made fiber or synthetic fiber industry began only in 1910 with the first commercial production of rayon. This was the result of developments in the field of technology which has not stopped yet. Nylon, Acrylic, Polyester, Spandex, Polyolefin, Microfibers, Lyocell- the inventions are many and they are still going on.

History of Natural Fibers An explanation about the development of some of the chief natural fibers that are used for apparel garments, home furnishings and for other textile products is essential to understand fibers as a whole. Flax: Dates back to 5000+ BC. Obtained from flax plant, it is believed to be the oldest natural fiber. Fine quality of linen was used as burial enwraps for the pharaohs of Egypt. History and Description The flax plant, or common flax or linseed, carrying the binomial name Linum usitatissimum, belongs to the genus Linum in the family Linaceae. Flax is grown in the region extending from eastern Mediterranean to India and it is likely that it was first domesticated and cultivated in this region. Flax was extensively cultivated in ancient Egypt.

A note about the Flax Plant - History and Information

Herbs are God and nature's gifts to us. While the use of herbs and herb remedies has brought excellent results for many people, do note that their health benefits may be limited when they are used in isolation. However, when combined with some basic dietary and lifestyle good health habits, such as a full body detox and a proper understanding and application of nutrition, the impact on one's health will be greatly magnified. In natural health and healing, we believe that the body has the ability to heal itself of any disease, even supposedly incurable diseases. We also believe in holistic health and healing, as we realize that different parts of the human body are highly interlinked, often beyond Mans understanding. It is thus a good idea to apply these fundamental health steps no matter how remote or unrelated a health condition may seem. Description of flax Flax is an annual plant which grows up to 1.2 m tall, with slender stems. The leaves are green and slender, 20-40 mm long and 3 mm broad. The plant bears pale blue flowers, 15-25 mm diameter, with five petals. The fruit is round and about 5-9 mm diameter, containing several glossy brown seeds about 4-7 mm long. Besides the name "flax" being attributed to the plant itself, the term "flax" can be used to refer to the unspun fibres of the flax plant. Flax is widely cultivated for its seeds and fibers. Flax fibers One of the oldest fiber crops in the world are flax fibers and this has been used in the production of linen for over 5000 years. The temple walls at Thebes and pictures on the Egyptian tombs show flowering flax plants. In Northern Europe, the use of flax fiber for manufacturing fabrics for garments dates back to Neolithic times. The Puritans introduced flax to North America when they came to the new continent.

Flax fiber is extracted from the bast or skin of the stem of flax plant. Flax fiber is soft, lustrous and flexible. It is stronger than cotton fiber but less elastic. The best grades are used for linen fabrics such as damasks, lace and sheeting. Coarser grades are used for the manufacturing of twine and rope. Flax fiber is also a raw material for the high-quality paper industry for the use of printed banknotes and rolling paper for cigarettes. Cultivation of flax Flax is grown in areas of temperate and sub-tropical regions of both hemispheres. In the current economic scenario, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Spain, Russia, Egypt and China are the foremost producers of flax for commercial textile purposes. Estimated crop production for 2006 by the three main producers of Belgium, France and Netherlands was 105,000 tonnes of long flax and 57,000 tonnes of short flax for a combined hectarage of 96,200 of area over which crop was cultivated and harvested. One of the uses of flax dates back to Egyptian history where flax was used for weaving into linen, over four thousand years ago. Around the time in the latter part of the Middle Ages, flax became the most commonly used textile in Europe. Cotton became popular and challenged the primary position of flax only in the early part of the nineteenth century. Other interesting facts about flax
Flax is the emblem of the Northern Ireland Assembly. The flax plant appeared in the coronet on the reverse of the British one pound coin to represent Northern Ireland on coins minted in 1986 and 1991. The national flower of Belarus is common flax.

What is flax seed? How about flax seeds? More information on the health benefits of flax seeds, including flax seed nutrition, as well as the health benefits of flax seed oil, are discussed in the other related articles.

Cotton: Dates back to 3000+ BC. Obtained from cotton plant, they are believed to be worn by Egyptians even earlier than 2,500 BC. Revolution in cotton processing was brought by the invention of cotton gin in 1793. Various types of cotton with improved features started to be produced with the growth of power loom in 1884.

History of Cotton
No one knows exactly how old cotton is. Scientists searching caves in Mexico found bits of cotton bolls and pieces of cotton cloth that proved to be at least 7,000 years old. They also found that the cotton itself was much like that grown in America today. In the Indus River Valley in Pakistan, cotton was being grown, spun and woven into cloth 3,000 years BC. At about the same time, natives of Egypts Nile valley were making and wearing cotton clothing. Arab merchants brought cotton cloth to Europe about 800 A.D. When Columbus discovered America in 1492, he found cotton growing in the Bahama Islands. By 1500, cotton was known generally throughout the world. Cotton seed are believed to have been planted in Florida in 1556 and in Virginia in 1607. By 1616, colonists were growing cotton along the James River in Virginia.

Cotton was first spun by machinery in England in 1730. The industrial revolution in England and the invention of the cotton gin in the U.S. paved the way for the important place cotton holds in the world today. Eli Whitney, a native of Massachusetts, secured a patent on the cotton gin in 1793, though patent office records indicate that the first cotton gin may have been built by a machinist named Noah Homes two years before Whitneys patent was filed. The gin, short for engine, could do the work 10 times faster than by hand. The gin made it possible to supply large quantities of cotton fiber to the fastgrowing textile industry. Within 10 years, the value of the U.S. cotton crop rose from $150,000 to more than $8 million.

What is Cotton?
Cotton, belonging to a family that includes hibiscus and okra, produces a natural vegetable fiber used in the manufacture of cloth. Cotton produces a sweet nectar that attracts a variety of destructive insect pests, including the boll weevil, bollworm, armyworm, and the red spider. In addition to insect pests, there is also a very destructive fungus, called the wilt, that attacks the root system of the cotton plant.

Species.
A few species are grown commercially; these range from a small tree of Asia, to the common American Upland cotton, a low, multibranched shrub that is grown as an annual. Another species includes the long-fiber Egyptian and Sea Island cottons botanically derived from the Egyptian species brought to the United States about 1900. Sea Island cotton thrives in the unique climate of the Sea Islands, located off the southeastern coast of the United States, and on the islands of the West Indies such as Barbados. As with Egyptian cotton, the fiber is white and lustrous but its fiber length is longer than that of any other type of cotton, which permits the spinning of extremely fine yarns. Pima, originally called American-Egyptian cotton, is a hybrid type. It is the only variety of long-fiber cotton now grown in commercially significant quantities in the United States, where it is cultivated under irrigation in the Southwest.

Foot Steps.
It is almost impossible to determine the original habitats of the various species of cotton. Scientists have determined fiber and boll fragments from the Tehuacn Valley of Mexico to be about 7000 years old. The plant has certainly been grown and used in India for at least 5000 years and probably for much longer. Cotton was used also by the ancient Chinese, Egyptians, and North and South Americans. It was one of the earliest crops grown by European settlers, having been planted at the Jamestown colony in 1607. Cotton was the most important crop in South before the American Civil War (1861-1865). Slaves usually worked all day picking cotton for their masters while overseers watched from their horses. England was one of the South's largest cotton customers, many therefore Southerners believed England would enter the war on their behalf to preserve England's supply of cotton. The South was confident this would assure a swift Confederate victory. Cotton was king and Louisiana was queen! New Orleans was the major l9th-century port for cotton export, and Louisiana's fertile valleys were the South's major cotton producers. The Confederate government realized cotton was as good as if not better than gold. Cotton's value gave Louisiana a major financial role during the war. Not only did the Confederacy use the foreign exchange paid to the South for the exported 1860 cotton crop, the Confederate government purchased cotton to use both as security for European loans and for export. This plan worked until 1862 when the Union army occupied New Orleans and Baton Rouge. Federal forces raided from Morgan City up to Alexandria. Vicksburg and Port Hudson fell, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River. As Confederate troops retreated, they destroyed as much of the cotton crop as possible, to prevent this "gold" from falling into enemy hands. The cotton gin, invented in 1793 by Eli Whitney, was designed to separate raw cotton fibers from seeds and other foreign materials prior to baling and marketing. The design was so efficient that it remains virtually unchanged to the present day. American Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin, a device that rapidly and effectively removes seeds from cotton fiber. This task had previously been done by hand, making fiber processing slow and expensive. The invention will help

spur expansion of the cotton industry in the southern United States. The Souths booming cotton economy in turn will increase the reliance on slaves, owing to the labor-intensive character of cotton harvesting.

Although the invention of the cotton gin changed history, its inventor, Eli Whitney, did not reap much of a profit. The gin made cotton cleaning so efficient that the crop became a primary enterprise for the South. However, patent disputes and supply problems kept Whitney from successfully producing the cotton gin. His later venture into arms manufacturing was more fruitful, and Whitney became a strong promoter of mass production and interchangeable parts. The role of the cotton gin has changed dramatically in the last 50 years to keep up with technological and production changes in the cotton industry. At one time, the gin's only function was to remove cottonseed from the fiber. Today, gins must not only separate the seed from the fiber, they must also dry and clean the fiber and package it into bales before it reaches the textile mill. All gins differ in some aspects of the ginning process. In the Southwest, for instance, gins are equipped with both saw and roller gins: saw gins for ginning Upland cottons, and roller gins for ginning Pima cotton, a cotton grown almost exclusively in this region of the Cotton Belt. Elsewhere in the Cotton Belt, gins use only saw gins in their operation.

Wool: Dates back to 3000 BC and was first used by those living in the Late Stone Age. Since then, more than 40 breeds of sheep and other animals including llama and alpaca have been discovered for producing a wide range of wool variety.

Wool
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Long and short hair wool at the South Central Family Farm Research Center in Booneville, Arkansas

Wool section, Walcha show. The creamy fleeces on the left are crossbred wool.

Wool is the textile fibre obtained from sheep and certain other animals,[1] including cashmere from goats, mohair from goats, qiviut from muskoxen, vicua, alpaca, camel from animals in the camel family, and angora from rabbits.[citation needed] Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur: it is crimped, it is elastic[citation needed], and it grows in staples (clusters).[2] In the U.S. the term wool is usually restricted to describing the fibrous protein derived from the specialized skin cells called follicles in sheep, although in the U.K. it may be used of any long curling fibre such as wood wool, wire wool etc.[3]

Contents

1 Characteristics 2 Processing o 2.1 Shearing o 2.2 Scouring 3 Quality 4 History 5 Production 6 Marketing o 6.1 Australia o 6.2 Other countries 7 Yarn 8 Uses 9 Events 10 See also o 10.1 Production o 10.2 Processing o 10.3 Refined products o 10.4 Organizations o 10.5 Miscellaneous wool 11 References 12 External links

Characteristics

Champion hogget fleece, Walcha Show

Fleece of fine New Zealand Merino wool and combed wool top on a wool table

Wool's scaling and crimp make it easier to spin the fleece by helping the individual fibres attach to each other, so they stay together. Because of the crimp, wool fabrics have a greater bulk than other textiles, and retain air, which causes the product to retain heat. Insulation also works both ways; Bedouins and Tuaregs use wool clothes to keep heat out.

The amount of crimp corresponds to the fineness of the wool fibres. A fine wool like Merino may have up to 100 crimps per inch, while the coarser wools like karakul may have as few as 1 to 2. Hair, by contrast, has little if any scale and no crimp, and little ability to bind into yarn. On sheep, the hair part of the fleece is called kemp. The relative amounts of kemp to wool vary from breed to breed, and make some fleeces more desirable for spinning, felting, or carding into batts for quilts or other insulating products, including the famous tweed cloth of Scotland. Wool fibres are hydrophilic, meaning they readily absorb moisture, but are not hollow.[4] Wool can absorb moisture almost one-third of its own weight.[5] Wool absorbs sound like many other fabrics. It is generally a creamy white colour, although some breeds of sheep produce natural colours, such as black, brown, silver, and random mixes. Wool ignites at a higher temperature than cotton and some synthetic fibres. It has lower rate of flame spread, low heat release, low heat of combustion, and does not melt or drip;[6] it forms a char which is insulating and self-extinguishing, and contributes less to toxic gases and smoke than other flooring products, when used in carpets.[7] Wool carpets are specified for high safety environments, such as trains and aircraft. Wool is usually specified for garments for firefighters, soldiers, and others in occupations where they are exposed to the likelihood of fire.[7] Wool is resistant to static electricity, as the moisture retained within the fabric conducts electricity, so wool garments are much less likely to spark or cling to the body. The use of woollen car seatcovers or carpets reduces the risk of a shock when a person touches a grounded object. Wool is considered by the medical profession to be hypoallergenic.[citation needed]

Processing
Shearing

Fine Merino shearing Lismore, Victoria Main article: Sheep shearing

Sheep shearing is the process by which the woollen fleece of a sheep is cut off. After shearing, the wool is separated into four main categories: fleece (which makes up the vast bulk), broken, bellies, and locks.[8] The quality of fleeces is determined by a technique known as wool classing, whereby a qualified person called a wool classer groups wools of similar gradings together to maximize the return for the farmer or sheep owner. In Australia and New Zealand, before being auctioned, all Merino fleece wool is objectively measured for micron, yield (including the amount of vegetable matter), staple length, staple strength, and sometimes colour and comfort factor.
Scouring

Wool straight off a sheep, known as "greasy wool"[9] or "wool in the grease", contains a high level of valuable lanolin, as well as dirt, dead skin, sweat residue, pesticide, and vegetable matter. Before the wool

can be used for commercial purposes, it must be scoured, a process of cleaning the greasy wool. Scouring may be as simple as a bath in warm water, or as complicated as an industrial process using detergent and alkali, and specialized equipment.[10] In commercial wool, vegetable matter is often removed by chemical carbonization.[11] In less-processed wools, vegetable matter may be removed by hand, and some of the lanolin left intact through use of gentler detergents. This semigrease wool can be worked into yarn and knitted into particularly water-resistant mittens or sweaters, such as those of the Aran Island fishermen. Lanolin removed from wool is widely used in cosmetic products such as hand creams.

Quality

Various types and natural colours of wool, and a picture made from wool

The quality of wool is determined by its fibre diameter, crimp, yield, colour, and staple strength. Fibre diameter is the single most important wool characteristic determining quality and price. Merino wool is typically 3-5 inches in length and is very fine (between 12 and 24 microns).[12] The finest and most valuable wool comes from Merino hoggets. Wool taken from sheep produced for meat is typically more coarse, and has fibres 1.5 to 6 inches (38 to 150 mm) in length. Damage or breaks in the wool can occur if the sheep is stressed while it is growing its fleece, resulting in a thin spot where the fleece is likely to break.[13] Wool is also separated into grades based on the measurement of the wool's diameter in microns and also its style. These grades may vary depending on the breed or purpose of the wool. For example:

<15.5 - Ultrafine Merino[9] 15.6-18.5 - Superfine Merino 18.6-20 - Fine Merino[9] 20.1-23 - Medium Merino 23< - Strong Merino[9] Comeback: 21-26 microns, white, 90180 mm long Fine crossbred: 27-31 microns, Corriedales, etc. Medium crossbred: 3235 microns Downs: 23-34 microns, typically lacks lustre and brightness. Examples, Aussiedown, Dorset Horn, Suffolk, etc.[14] Coarse crossbred: 36> microns Carpet wools: 35-45 microns[9]

Any wool finer than 25 microns can be used for garments, while coarser grades are used for outerwear or rugs. The finer the wool, the softer it is, while coarser grades are more durable and less prone to pilling. The finest Australian and New Zealand Merino wools are known as 1PP, which is the industry benchmark of excellence for Merino wool 16.9 microns and finer. This style represents the top level of fineness, character, colour, and style as determined on the basis of a series of parameters in accordance with the original dictates of British Wool as applied today by the Australian Wool Exchange (AWEX) Council. Only a few dozen of the millions of bales auctioned every year can be classified and marked 1PP.[15]

History
Wild sheep were more hairy than woolly. Although sheep were domesticated nine to eleven thousand years ago, archaeological evidence from statuary found at sites in Iran suggests that selection for woolly sheep may have begun around 6000 BC,[16][17] with the earliest woven wool garments having only been dated to two to three thousand years later.[18] Woolly-sheep were introduced into Europe from the Near East in the early part of the 4th millennium BC. The oldest known European wool textile, ca. 1500 BC, was preserved in a Danish bog.[19] Prior to invention of shears - probably in the Iron Age - the wool was plucked out by hand or by bronze combs. In Roman times, wool, linen, and leather clothed the European population; the cotton of India was a curiosity that only naturalists had heard of; and silk, imported along the Silk Road from China, was an extravagant luxury. Pliny the Elder records in his Natural History that the reputation for producing the finest wool was enjoyed by Tarentum, where selective breeding had produced sheep with a superior fleece, but which required special care. In medieval times, as trade connections expanded, the Champagne fairs revolved around the production of wool cloth in small centres such as Provins; the network that the sequence of annual fairs developed meant that the woollens of Provins might find their way to Naples, Sicily, Cyprus, Majorca, Spain, and even Constantinople.[20] The wool trade developed into serious business, the generator of capital. In the 13th century, the wool trade was the economic engine of the Low Countries and central Italy; by the end of the following century, Italy predominated, though in the 16th century Italian production turned to silk.[20] Both pre-industries were based on English raw wool exports - rivalled only by the sheepwalks of Castile, developed from the 15th century - which were a significant source of income to the English crown, which from 1275 imposed an export tax on wool called the "Great Custom". The importance of wool to the English economy can be shown by the fact that since the 14th century, the presiding officer of the House of Lords has sat on the "Woolsack", a chair stuffed with wool. Economies of scale were instituted in the Cistercian houses, which had accumulated great tracts of land during the 12th and early 13th centuries, when land prices were low and labour still scarce. Raw wool was baled and shipped from North Sea ports to the textile cities of Flanders, notably Ypres and Ghent, where it was dyed and worked up as cloth. At the time of the Black Death, English textile industries accounted for about 10% of English wool production;[21] the English textile trade grew during the 15th century, to the point where export of wool was discouraged. Over the centuries, various British laws controlled the wool trade or required the use of wool even in burials. The smuggling of wool out of the country, known as owling, was at one time punishable by the cutting off of a hand. After the Restoration, fine English woollens began to compete with silks in the international market, partly aided by the Navigation Acts; in 1699, the English crown forbade its American colonies to trade wool with anyone but England herself. A great deal of the value of woolen textiles was in the dyeing and finishing of the woven product. In each of the centres of the textile trade, the manufacturing process came to be subdivided into a collection of trades, overseen by an entrepreneur in a system called by the English the "putting-out" system, or "cottage industry", and the Verlagssystem by the Germans. In this system of producing wool cloth, until recently perpetuated in the production of Harris tweeds, the entrepreneur provides the raw materials and an advance, the remainder being paid upon delivery of the product. Written contracts bound the artisans to specified terms. Fernand Braudel traces the appearance of the system in the 13th-century economic boom, quoting a document of 1275.[20] The system effectively bypassed the guilds' restrictions. Before the flowering of the Renaissance, the Medici and other great banking houses of Florence had built their wealth and banking system on their textile industry based on wool, overseen by the Arte della Lana, the wool guild: wool textile interests guided Florentine policies. Francesco Datini, the "merchant of Prato", established in 1383 an Arte della Lana for that small Tuscan city. The sheepwalks of Castile shaped the landscape and the fortunes of the meseta that lies in the heart of the Iberian peninsula; in the 16th century, a unified Spain allowed export of Merino lambs only with royal permission. The German wool market - based on sheep of Spanish origin - did not overtake British wool until comparatively late. The Industrial

Revolution introduced mass production technology into wool and wool cloth manufacturing. Australia's colonial economy was based on sheep raising, and the Australian wool trade eventually overtook that of the Germans by 1845, furnishing wool for Bradford, which developed as the heart of industrialized woollens production.

A World War I-era poster sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture encouraging children to raise sheep to provide needed war supplies.

Due to decreasing demand with increased use of synthetic fibres, wool production is much less than what it was in the past. The collapse in the price of wool began in late 1966 with a 40% drop; with occasional interruptions, the price has tended down. The result has been sharply reduced production and movement of resources into production of other commodities, in the case of sheep growers, to production of meat.[22][23][24] Superwash wool (or washable wool) technology first appeared in the early 1970s to produce wool that has been specially treated so it is machine washable and may be tumble-dried. This wool is produced using an acid bath that removes the "scales" from the fibre, or by coating the fibre with a polymer that prevents the scales from attaching to each other and causing shrinkage. This process results in a fibre that holds longevity and durability over synthetic materials, while retaining its shape.[25] In December 2004, a bale of the world's finest wool, averaging 11.8 micron, sold for $3,000 per kilogram at auction in Melbourne, Victoria. This fleece wool tested with an average yield of 74.5%, 68 mm long, and had 40 newtons per kilotex strength. The result was $AUD279,000 for the bale.[26] The finest bale of wool ever auctioned was sold for a seasonal record of 269,000 cents per kilo during June 2008. This bale was produced by the Hillcreston Pinehill Partnership and measured 11.6 microns, 72.1% yield and had a 43 Newtons per kilotex strength measurement. The bale realized $247,480 and was exported to India.[27] During 2007, a new wool suit was developed and sold in Japan that can be washed in the shower, and dries off ready to wear within hours with no ironing required. The suit was developed using Australian Merino wool, and it enables woven products made from wool, such as suits, trousers and skirts, to be cleaned using a domestic shower at home.[28] In December 2006, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2009 to be the International Year of Natural Fibres, so to raise the profile of wool and other natural fibers.

Production
Global wool production is approximately 1.3 million tonnes per year, of which 60% goes into apparel. Australia is the leading producer of wool which is mostly from Merino sheep. New Zealand is the secondlargest producer of wool, and the largest producer of crossbred wool. China is the third-largest producer of wool. Breeds such as Lincoln, Romney, Tukidale, Drysdale and Elliotdale produce coarser fibers, and wool from these sheep is usually used for making carpets. In the United States, Texas, New Mexico and Colorado have large commercial sheep flocks and their mainstay is the Rambouillet (or French Merino). There is also a thriving home-flock contingent of smallscale farmers who raise small hobby flocks of specialty sheep for the hand spinning market. These smallscale farmers offer a wide selection of fleece.

1905 illustration of a Tibetan man spinning wool.

Global woolclip (total amount of wool shorn) 2004/2005[29]

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Australia: 25% of global woolclip (475 million kg greasy, 2004/2005) China: 18% United States: 17% New Zealand: 11% Argentina: 3% Turkey: 2% Iran: 2% United Kingdom: 2% India: 2% Sudan: 2% South Africa: 1%

Organic wool is becoming more and more popular. This wool is very limited in supply and much of it comes from New Zealand and Australia.[30] It is becoming easier to find in clothing and other products, but these products often carry a higher price. Wool is environmentally preferable (as compared to petroleum-based nylon or polypropylene) as a material for carpets, as well, in particular when combined with a natural binding and the use of formaldehyde-free glues. Animal rights groups have noted issues with the production of wool, such as mulesing.

Marketing
Australia

Merino wool samples for sale by auction, Newcastle, New South Wales.

Wool buyers' room at a wool auction, Newcastle, New South Wales.

About 85% of wool sold in Australia is sold by open cry auction.[citation needed] 'Sale by sample' is a method in which a mechanical claw takes a sample from each bale in a line or lot of wool. These grab samples are bulked, objectively measured, and a sample of not less than 4 kg is displayed in a box for the buyer to examine. The Australian Wool Exchange conducts sales primarily in Sydney, Melbourne, Newcastle, and Fremantle. There are about 80 brokers and agents throughout Australia.[citation needed] About 7% of Australian wool is sold by private treaty on farms or to local wool-handling facilities. This option gives wool growers benefit from reduced transport, warehousing, and selling costs. This method is preferred for small lots or mixed butts in order to make savings on reclassing and testing. About 5% of Australian wool is sold over the internet on an electronic offer board.[citation needed] This option gives wool growers the ability to set firm price targets, reoffer passed-in wool and offer lots to the market quickly and efficiently. This method works well for tested lots, as buyers use these results to make a purchase. About 97% of wool is sold without sample inspection; however, as of December 2009, 59% of wool listed had been passed in from auction.[citation needed] Growers through certain brokers can allocate their wool to a sale and at what price their wool will be reserved. Sale by tender can achieve considerable cost savings on wool clips large enough to make it worthwhile for potential buyers to submit tenders. Some marketing firms sell wool on a consignment basis, obtaining a fixed percentage as commission. Forward selling: Some buyers offer a secure price for forward delivery of wool based on estimated measurements or the results of previous clips. Prices are quoted at current market rates and are locked in for the season. Premiums and discounts are added to cover variations in micron, yield, tensile strength, etc., which are confirmed by actual test results when available.[citation needed] Another method of selling wool includes sales direct to wool mills.

Other countries

The British Wool Marketing Board operates a central marketing system for UK fleece wool with the aim of achieving the best possible net returns for farmers. Less than half of New Zealand's wool is sold at auction, while around 45% of farmers sell wool directly to private buyers and end-users.[31] United States sheep producers market wool with private or cooperative wool warehouses, but wool pools are common in many states. In some cases, wool is pooled in a local market area, but sold through a wool warehouse. Wool offered with objective measurement test results is preferred. Imported apparel wool and carpet wool goes directly to central markets, where it is handled by the large merchants and manufacturers.[32]

Yarn

Worsted wool yarn, the first step in the manufacture of most wool clothing.

Virgin wool is wool spun for the first time.[33] Shoddy or recycled wool is made by cutting or tearing apart existing wool fabric and respinning the resulting fibres.[33] As this process makes the wool fibres shorter, the remanufactured fabric is inferior to the original. The recycled wool may be mixed with raw wool, wool noil, or another fibre such as cotton to increase the average fibre length. Such yarns are typically used as weft yarns with a cotton warp. This process was invented in the Heavy Woollen District of West Yorkshire and created a micro-economy in this area for many years. Ragg is a sturdy wool fibre made into yarn and used in many rugged applications such as gloves. Worsted is a strong, long-staple, combed wool yarn with a hard surface.[33] Woollen is a soft, short-staple, carded wool yarn typically used for knitting.[33] In traditional weaving, woollen weft yarn (for softness and warmth) is frequently combined with a worsted warp yarn for strength on the loom.[34]

Uses

Woollen garments in the wool samples area of a wool store, Newcastle, New South Wales.

In addition to clothing, wool has been used for blankets, horse rugs, saddle cloths, carpeting, felt, wool insulation (also see links) and upholstery. Wool felt covers piano hammers, and it is used to absorb odours and noise in heavy machinery and stereo speakers. Ancient Greeks lined their helmets with felt, and Roman legionnaires used breastplates made of wool felt. Wool has also been traditionally used to cover cloth diapers. Wool fibre exteriors are hydrophobic (repel water) and the interior of the wool fibre is hygroscopic (attracts water); this makes a wool garment able to cover a wet diaper while inhibiting wicking, so outer garments remain dry. Wool felted and treated with lanolin is water resistant, air permeable, and slightly antibacterial, so it resists the buildup of odour. Some modern cloth diapers use felted wool fabric for covers, and there are several modern commercial knitting patterns for wool diaper covers. Initial studies of woollen underwear have found it prevented heat and sweat rashes because it more readily absorbs the moisture than other fibres.[35] Merino wool has been used in baby sleep products such as swaddle baby wrap blankets and infant sleeping bags. Wool is an animal protein, and as such it can be used as a soil fertiliser, being a slow-release source of nitrogen and ready-made amino acids. Researchers at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology school of fashion and textiles have discovered a blend of wool and kevlar, the synthetic fibre widely used in body armour, was lighter, cheaper and worked better in damp conditions than kevlar alone. Kevlar, when used alone, loses about 20% of its effectiveness when wet and therefore required an expensive waterproofing process. Wool increased friction in a vest with 28-30 layers of fabric, to provide the same level of bullet resistance as 36 layers of Kevlar alone.[36]

Events

Andean woman sorting wool as part of the theme park Los Aleros in Mrida, Venezuela.

A buyer of Merino wool, Ermenegildo Zegna, has offered awards for Australian wool producers. In 1963, the first Ermenegildo Zegna Perpetual Trophy was presented in Tasmania for growers of "Superfine skirted Merino fleece". In 1980, a national award, the Ermenegildo Zegna Trophy for Extrafine Wool Production, was launched. In 2004, this award became known as the Ermenegildo Zegna Unprotected Wool Trophy. In 1998, an Ermenegildo Zegna Protected Wool Trophy was launched for fleece from sheep coated for around nine months of the year. In 2002, the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum Trophy was launched for wool that is 13.9 micron and finer. Wool from Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, and South Africa may enter, and a winner is named from each country.[37] In April 2008, New Zealand won the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum Trophy for the first time with a fleece that measured 10.8 microns. This contest awards the winning fleece weight with the same weight in gold as a prize, hence the name. In 2010 an ultra-fine, 10 micron fleece, from Windradeen, near Pyramul, New South Wales set a new world record in the fineness of wool fleeces when it won the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum International Trophy.[38] Since 2000, Loro Piana has awarded a cup for the world's finest bale of wool that produces just enough fabric for 50 tailor-made suits. The prize is awarded to an Australian or New Zealand wool grower who produces the year's finest bale.[39] The New England Merino Field days which display local studs, wool, and sheep are held during January, every two years (in even numbered years) around the Walcha, New South Wales district. The Annual Wool Fashion Awards, which showcase the use of Merino wool by fashion designers, are hosted by the city of Armidale, New South Wales in March each year. This event encourages young and established fashion designers to display their talents. During each May, Armidale hosts the annual New England Wool Expo to display wool fashions, handicrafts, demonstrations, shearing competitions, yard dog trials, and more. In July, the annual Australian Sheep and Wool Show is held in Bendigo, Victoria. This is the largest sheep and wool show in the world, with goats and alpacas as well as woolcraft competitions and displays, fleece competitions, sheepdog trials, shearing, and wool handling. The largest competition in the world for objectively-measured fleeces is the Australian Fleece Competition, which is held annually at Bendigo. In 2008, there were 475 entries from all states of Australia with first and second prizes going to the Northern Tablelands, New South Wales fleeces.[40]
Silk: Dates back to 2600 BC. It is believed to be discovered by a Chinese princess. Obtained from the cocoons of silkworms, sericulture began in about 1725 BC, sponsored by the Chinese emperor's wife. The process of silk manufacturing was a secret for about 3,000 years and the story about two monks who had stolen the seeds of the mulberry tree and silkworm eggs, tells about spreading of the process all over world.

History of silk
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Women preparing silk, painting by Emperor Huizong of Song, early 12th century.

According to Chinese tradition, the history of silk begins in the 27th century BCE. Its use was confined to China until the Silk Road opened at some point during the latter half of the first millennium BCE. China maintained its virtual monopoly over silk for another thousand years. Not confined to clothing, silk was also used for a number of other applications, including writing, and the colour of silk worn was an important indicator of social class during the Tang Dynasty. Silk cultivation spread to Japan in around 300 CE, and by 522 the Byzantines managed to obtain silkworm eggs and were able to begin silkworm cultivation. The Arabs also began to manufacture silk during this same time. As a result of the spread of sericulture, Chinese silk exports became less important, although they still maintained dominance over the luxury silk market. The Crusades brought silk production to Western Europe, in particular to many Italian states, which saw an economic boom exporting silk to the rest of Europe. Changes in manufacturing techniques also began to take place during the Middle Ages, with devices such as the spinning wheel first appearing. During the 16th century France joined Italy in developing a successful silk trade, though the efforts of most other nations to develop a silk industry of their own were unsuccessful. The Industrial Revolution changed much of Europes silk industry. Due to innovations in spinning cotton, it became much cheaper to manufacture and therefore caused more expensive silk production to become less mainstream. New weaving technologies, however, increased the efficiency of production. Among these was the Jacquard loom, developed for silk embroidery. An epidemic of several silkworm diseases caused production to fall, especially in France, where the industry never recovered. In the 20th century Japan and China regained their earlier role in silk production, and China is now once again the worlds largest producer of silk. The rise of new fabrics such as nylon reduced the prevalence of silk throughout the world, and silk is now once again a rare luxury good, much less important than in its heyday.

Contents

1 Early history o 1.1 The appearance of silk o 1.2 Myths and legends 2 Silk usage in Ancient and Medieval China 3 Chinese silk and its commerce 4 Spread of production o 4.1 Reciprocal influences 5 Silk in the medieval world o 5.1 A more abundant luxury o 5.2 Improved technology o 5.3 The silk industry in France o 5.4 Spread to other countries 6 Silk since the Industrial Revolution o 6.1 The start of the Industrial Revolution o 6.2 Decline in the European silk industry 7 Silk in modern times 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links

Early history
The appearance of silk

The silkworm cocoon

The earliest evidence of silk was found at the sites of Yangshao culture in Xia County, Shanxi, where a silk cocoon was found cut in half by a sharp knife, dating back to between 4000 and 3000 BCE. The species was identified as bombyx mori, the domesticated silkworm. Fragments of primitive loom can also be seen from the sites of Hemudu culture in Yuyao, Zhejiang, dated to about 4000 BCE. Scraps of silk were found in a Liangzhu culture site at Qianshanyang in Huzhou, Zhejiang, dating back to 2700 BCE.[1][2] Other fragments have been recovered from royal tombs in the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 - c. 1046 BCE).[3] During the later epoch, the Chinese lost their secret to the Koreans, the Japanese, and later the Indians, as they discovered how to make silk. Allusions to the fabric in the Old Testament show that it was known in western Asia in biblical times.[4] Scholars believe that starting in the 2nd century BCE the Chinese established a commercial network aimed at exporting silk to the West.[4] Silk was used, for example, by the Persian court and its king, Darius III, when Alexander the Great conquered the empire.[4] Even though silk

spread rapidly across Eurasia, with the possible exception of Japan its production remained exclusively Chinese for three millennia.
Myths and legends

Detail of an embroidered silk gauze ritual garment from a 4th century BCE, Zhou era tomb at Mashan, Hubei province, China.

The writings of Confucius and Chinese tradition recount that in the 27th century BCE a silk worm's cocoon fell into the tea cup of the empress Leizu.[5] Wishing to extract it from her drink, the young girl of fourteen began to unroll the thread of the cocoon. She then had the idea to weave it. Having observed the life of the silk worm on the recommendation of her husband, the Yellow Emperor, she began to instruct her entourage the art of raising silk worms, sericulture. From this point on, the girl became the goddess of silk in Chinese mythology. Silk would eventually leave China in the hair of a princess promised to a prince of Khotan. This probably occurred in the early 1st century CE.[6] The princess, refusing to go without the fabric she loved, would finally break the imperial ban on silk worm exportation. Though silk was exported to foreign countries in great amounts, sericulture remained a secret that the Chinese guarded carefully. Consequently, other peoples invented wildly varying accounts of the source of the incredible fabric. In classical antiquity, most Romans, great admirers of the cloth, were convinced that the Chinese took the fabric from tree leaves.[7] This belief was affirmed by Seneca the Younger in his Phaedra and by Virgil in his Georgics. Notably, Pliny the Elder knew better. Speaking of the bombyx or silk moth, he wrote in his Natural History "They weave webs, like spiders, that become a luxurious clothing material for women, called silk."[8]

Silk usage in Ancient and Medieval China

Woven silk textile from Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan province, China, 2nd century BCE, Western Han Dynasty

In China, silk worm farming was originally restricted to women, and many women were employed in the silk-making industry. Even though some saw the development of a luxury product as useless, silk provoked such a craze among high society that the rules in the Li Ji were used to regulate and limit its use to the members of the imperial family.[3] For approximately a millennium, the right to wear silk was reserved for the emperor and the highest dignitaries. Later, it gradually extended to other classes of Chinese society. Silk began to be used for decorative means and also in less luxurious ways: musical instruments, fishing, and bow-making. Peasants did not have the right to wear silk until the Qing dynasty (16441911).[3] Paper was one of the greatest discoveries of ancient China. Beginning in the 3rd century BCE paper was made in all sizes with various materials.[9] Silk was no exception, and silk workers had been making paper since the 2nd century BCE. Silk, bamboo, linen, wheat and rice straw were all used differently, and paper made with silk became the first type of luxury paper. Researchers have found an early example of writing done on silk paper in the tomb of a Marchioness who died around 168, in Mawangdui, Hunan. The material was certainly more expensive, but also more practical than bamboo. Treatises on many subjects, including meteorology, medicine, astrology, divinity, and even maps written on silk[10] have been discovered.

Chinese painting on silk, with playing children wearing silk clothes, by Su Hanchen (active 1130s1160s), Song Dynasty.

During the Han Dynasty, silk became progressively more valuable in its own right, and became more than simply a material. It was used to pay government officials and compensate citizens who were particularly worthy. By the same token that one would sometimes estimate the price of products according to a certain weight of gold, the length of the silk cloth became a monetary standard in China (in addition to bronze coins). The wealth that silk brought to China stirred up envy in neighbouring peoples. Beginning in the 2nd century BCE the Xiongnu, regularly pillaged the provinces of the Han Chinese for around 250 years. Silk was a common offering by the emperor to these tribes in exchange for peace.
". . . the military payrolls tell us that soldiers were paid in bundles of plain silk textiles, which circulated as currency in Han times. Soldiers may well have traded their silk with the nomads who came to the gates of the Great Wall to sell horses and furs."[11]

For more than a millennium, silk remained the principal diplomatic gift of the emperor of China to his neighbours or to his vassals.[3] The use of silk became so important that "silk" () soon constituted one of the principal radicals of Chinese script. Broadly speaking, the use of silk was regulated by a very precise code in China. For example, the Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty imposed upon bureaucrats the use of a particular colour according to their different functions in society. Under the Ming, silk began to be used in a series of accessories: handkerchiefs, wallets, belts, or even an embroidered piece of fabric displaying dozens of animals, real or mythical. These fashion accessories remained associated with a particular position: there was a specific bonnet for warriors, for judges, for nobles, and others for religious use. The women of high Chinese society heeded codified practices and used silk in their garments to which they added countless motifs.[3] A 13th century work, the Jinpingmei, gives a description of one such motif:

Golden lotus having a quilted backgammon pattern, double-folded, adorned with savage geese pecking at a landscape of flowers and roses; the dress' right figure had a floral border with buttons in the form of bees or chrysanthemums.[3]

Chinese silk and its commerce

A number of archaeological discoveries showed that silk had become a luxury material appreciated in foreign countries well before the opening of the Silk Road by the Chinese. For example, silk has been found in the Valley of the Kings in a tomb of a mummy dating from 1070 BCE.[12] First the Greeks, then the Romans began to speak of the Seres (people of silk), a term to designate the inhabitants of the far-off kingdom, China. According to certain historians, the first Roman contact with silk was that of the legions of the governor of Syria, Crassus. At the Battle of Carrhae, near to the Euphrates, the legions were said to be so surprised by the brilliance of the banners of Parthia that they fled.[12]

The main silk roads between 500 B.C. and 500 A.D.

The silk road toward the west was opened by the Chinese in the 2nd century CE. The main road left from Xi'an, going either to the north or south of the Taklamakan desert, one of the most arid in the world, before crossing the Pamir Mountains. The caravans that employed this method to exchange silk with other merchants were generally quite large, including from 100 to 500 people as well as camels and yaks carrying around 140 kg (300 lb) of merchandise. They linked to Antioch and the coasts of the Mediterranean, about one year's travel from Xi'an. In the South, a second route went by Yemen, Burma, and India before rejoining the northern route.[13][14]

Not long after the conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE regular commerce began between the Romans and Asia, marked by the Roman appetite for silk cloth coming from the Far East, which was then resold to the Romans by the Parthians. The Roman Senate tried in vain to prohibit the wearing of silk, for economic reasons as well as moral ones. The import of Chinese silk resulted in vast amounts of gold leaving Rome, to such an extent that silk clothing was perceived as a sign of decadence and immorality.

I can see clothes of silk, if materials that do not hide the body, nor even one's decency, can be called clothes. ... Wretched flocks of maids labour so that the adulteress may be visible through her thin dress, so that her husband has no more acquaintance than any outsider or foreigner with his wife's body.
Seneca the Younger, Declamations Vol. I.[15]

Spread of production

Sassanid inspired two-sided silk cloth, with winged lions and tree of life, from the early Islamic period in Iran, National Museum of Iran.

Although silk was well known in Europe and most of Asia, China was able to keep a near monopoly on silk production. The monopoly was defended by an imperial decree, condemning to death anyone attempting to export silkworms or their eggs. Only around the year 300 CE did a Japanese expedition succeed in taking some silkworm eggs and four young Chinese girls, who were forced to teach their captors the art of sericulture.[16] Techniques of sericulture were subsequently introduced to Japan on a larger scale by frequent diplomatic exchanges between the 8th century and 9th centuries. Starting in the 4th century BCE silk began to reach the West by merchants who would exchange it for gold, ivory, horses or precious stones. Up to the frontiers of the Roman Empire, silk became a monetary standard for estimating the value of different products. Hellenistic Greece appreciated the high quality of the Chinese goods and made efforts to plant mulberry trees and breed silkworms in the Mediterranean basin. Sassanid Persia controlled the trade of silk destined for Europe and Byzantium.

The monks sent by Justinian give the silkworms to the emperor.

According to story by Procopius,[17] it was not until 552 CE that the Byzantine emperor Justinian obtained the first silkworm eggs. He had sent two Nestorian monks to Central Asia, and they were able to smuggle silkworm eggs to him hidden in rods of bamboo. While under the monks' care, the eggs hatched, though they did not cocoon before arrival. The Byzantine church was thus able to make fabrics for the emperor, with the intention of developing a large silk industry in the Eastern Roman Empire, using techniques learned from the Sassanids. These gynecia had a legal monopoly on the fabric, but the empire continued to import silk from other major urban centres on the Mediterranean.[18] The magnificence of the Byzantine techniques was not a result of the manufacturing process, but instead of the meticulous attention paid to the execution and decorations. The weaving techniques they used were taken from Egypt. The first diagrams of semple looms appeared in the 5th century.[19] The Arabs, with their widening conquests, spread sericulture across the shores of the Mediterranean. Included in these were Africa, Spain and Sicily, all of which developed an important silk industry.[20] The mutual interactions among Byzantine and Muslim silk-weaving centers of all levels of quality, with imitations made in Andalusia and Lucca, among other cities, have made the identification and date of rare surviving examples difficult to pinpoint.[21] While the Chinese lost their monopoly on silk production, they were able re-established themselves as major silk supplier (during the Tang dynasty) and industrialize their production in a large scale (during the Song dynasty).[22] China continued to export high-quality fabric to Europe and the Near East along the silk road. Much later, following the Crusades, techniques of silk production began to spread across Western Europe. In 1147 while Byzantine emperor Manuel I Komnenos was focusing all his efforts on the Second Crusade, the Norman king Roger II of Sicily attacked Corinth and Thebes, two important centres of Byzantine silk production. They took the crops and silk production infrastructure, and deported all the workers to Palermo, thereby causing the Norman silk industry to flourish.[23] The sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204 brought decline to the city and its silk industry, and many artisans left the city in the early 13th century.[20] Italy developed a large domestic silk industry after 2000 skilled weavers came from Constantinople. Many also chose to settle in Avignon to furnish the popes of Avignon. The sudden boom of the silk industry in the Italian state of Lucca, starting in the 11th and 12th centuries was due to much Sicilian, Jewish, and Greek settlement, alongside many other immigrants from neighbouring cities in southern Italy.[24] With the loss of many Italian trading posts in the Orient, the import of Chinese styles drastically declined. Gaining momentum, in order to satisfy the rich and powerful bourgeoisie's demands for luxury fabrics, the cities of Lucca, Genoa, Venice and Florence were soon exporting silk to all of Europe. In 1472 there were 84 workshops and at least 7000 craftsmen in Florence alone.
Reciprocal influences

Silk was made using various breeds of lepidopterans, both wild and domestic. While wild silks were produced in many countries, there is no doubt that the Chinese were the first to begin production on such a large scale, having the most effective species for silk production, the Bombyx mandarina and its domesticated descendent B. mori. Chinese sources claim the existence of a machine to unwind silkworm cocoons in 1090. The cocoons were placed in a large basin of hot water, the silk would leave the cauldron by tiny guiding rings, and would be wound onto a large spool, thanks to a backwards and forward motion.[9] Little information exists about spinning techniques in use in China. The spinning wheel, in all likelihood moved by hand, was known by the beginning of the Christian era. The first accepted image of a spinning wheel appears in 1210. There is an image of a silk spinning machine powered by a water wheel that dates to 1313.

French silk brocade - Lyon 1760-1770

More information is known about the looms used. The Nung Sang Chi Yao, or Fundamentals of Agriculture and Sericulture, compiled around 1210, is rich with pictures and descriptions, many pertaining to silk.[25] It repeatedly claims the Chinese looms to be far superior to all others. It speaks of two types of loom that leave the worker's arms free: the draw loom, which is of Eurasian origin, and the pedal loom which is attributed to East Asian origins. There are many diagrams originate in the 12th and 13th centuries. When examined closely, many similarities between Eurasian machines can be drawn. Since the Jin dynasty, the existence of silk damasks has been well recorded, and since the 2nd century BCE, four-shafted looms and other innovations allowed the creation of silk brocades.

Silk in the medieval world

A more abundant luxury

A mature mulberry tree in Provence.

The high Middle Ages saw continued use of established techniques for silk manufacture without any changes to speak of, neither in materials nor in tools used. Between the 10th and 12th centuries, small changes began to appear, though the changes of the 13th century were much larger and more radical. In a short time, new fabrics began to appear; hemp and cotton each also had their own particular techniques of manufacture. Known since Roman times, silk remained a rare and expensive material.[26] Byzantine magnaneries in Greece and Syria (6th to 8th century), and those of the Arabs in Sicily and Spain (8th to 10th century) were able to supply the luxury material in a much greater abundance.[26]

Improved technology

Stained glass panel in the Cathedral of Chartres, the first depiction of a spinning wheel.

The 13th century saw an already changing technology undergo many dramatic changes. It is possible that, as with in England at the end of the 18th century, advances in the textile industry were a driving force behind advances in technology as a whole. Silk indeed occupies a privileged place in history on account of this.[27] At the start of the 13th century, a primitive form of milling the silk threads was already in use. In 1221 Jean de Garlande's dictionary, and in 1226, tienne Boileau's Livre des mtiers (Tradesman's Handbook) enumerated many types of devices which can only have been doubling machines. The instruments used were further perfected in Bologna between 1270 and 1280. From the start of the 14th century, many documents allude to the use of devices that were quite complex.[28] The reel, originally developed for the silk industry, now has multiple uses. The earliest surviving depiction of a spinning wheel is a panel of stained glass in the Cathedral of Chartres.[29] Bobbins and warping machines appear together in the stained glass at Chartres and in a fresco in the Cologne Kunkelhaus (ca 1300). It is possible that the toothed warping machine was created by the silk industry; it allowed the warp to be more uniform and allowed the warp to be of a longer length.[28] Starting at the end of the 14th century, no doubt on account of the devastation caused mid-century by the Black Death, there was a general shift towards less expensive techniques. Many things which would have earlier been completely forbidden by the guilds were now commonplace (using low quality wool, carding, etc.). In the silk industry, the use of water-powered mills grew, and by the 15th century, the loom designed by Jean le Calabrais saw nearly universal use.[30]

The silk industry in France

A picture from the Encyclopdie of Diderot and d'Alembert, showing the different steps in sericulture and the manufacture of silk.

Italian silk cloth was very expensive, as much a result of the cost of the raw material as of the production costs. The craftsmen in Italy proved unable to keep up with the exigencies of French fashion, which continuously demanded lighter and less expensive materials.[31] These materials were used for clothing, and garment production began to be done locally. Nevertheless, Italian silk long remained among the most prized, mostly for furnishings and the brilliant colours of the dyes. Following the example of the wealthy Italian city-states of the era (Venice, Florence, Lucca, etc.), which had become the centre of the luxury textile industry, Lyon obtained a similar function in the French market. In 1466 King Louis XI decided to develop a national silk industry in Lyon. In the face of protests by the Lyonnais, he conceded and moved the silk fabrication to Tours, but the industry in Tours stayed relatively marginal. His main objective was to reduce France's trade deficit with Italy, which caused France to lose 400,000 to 500,000 golden cus a year.[32] It was under Francis I in around 1535 that a royal charter was granted to two merchants, tienne Turquet and Barthlemy Naris, to develop a silk trade in Lyon. In 1540 the king granted a monopoly on silk production to the city of Lyon. Starting in the 16th century Lyon became the capital of the European silk trade, notably producing many reputable fashions.[33] Gaining confidence, the silks produced in the city little by little began to abandon the original oriental styles and moved towards their own distinctive style, with an emphasis on landscapes. Thousand of workers, the canuts, devoted themselves to the flourishing industry. In the middle of the 17th century over 14,000 looms were in use in Lyon, and the silk industry fed a third of the city's population.[33]

A former magnanery in Luberon

In the 18th and 19th centuries Provence experienced a boom in sericulture that would last until the First World War, with much of the silk produced being shipped north to Lyon. Viens and La Bastide-desJourdans are two of the communes of Luberon that profited the most from mulberry plantations that have since disappeared.[34] Working at home under the domestic system, silk spinning and silk treatment employed many people and increased the income of the working class.
Spread to other countries

Portrait of Maria Ivanovna Tatischeva by David Lders (1759) Moscow, State Tretyakov Gallery Mme Tatischeva is shown wearing a paduasoy silk dress.

England under Henry IV was also looking to develop a silk industry, but no opportunity arose until the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in the 1680s when hundreds of thousands of French Huguenots, many of which were skilled weavers and experts in sericulture, began immigrating to England to escape religious persecution. Some areas, including Spitalfields saw many high-quality silk workshops spring up, their products distinct from continental silk largely by the colours used.[35] Nonetheless, the British climate prevented England's domestic silk trade from becoming globally dominant. Many envisioned starting a silk industry in the British colonies in America starting in 1619 under the reign of King James I of England. The silk industry in the Colonies never became very large. Likewise, silk was introduced to numerous other countries, including Mexico, where it was brought by Cortez in 1522. Only rarely did these new silk industries grow to any significant size.[36]

Silk since the Industrial Revolution

The start of the Industrial Revolution

A Jacquard loom.

The start of the Industrial Revolution was marked by a massive boom in the textile industry, with remarkable technological innovations made, led by the cotton industry of Great Britain. In its early years, there were often disparities in technological innovation between different stages of fabric manufacture, which encouraged complementary innovations. For example, spinning progressed much more rapidly than weaving. The silk industry, however, did not gain any benefit from innovations in spinning, as silk is naturally already a thread. Making silk, silver, and gold brocades is a very delicate and precise process, with each colour needing its own dedicated shuttle. In the 17th century and 18th centuries progress began to be made in the simplification and standardization of silk manufacture, with many advances following one after another. Bouchon and Falcon's punched card loom appeared in 1775, later improved on by Jacques de Vaucanson. Later, Joseph-Marie Jacquard improved on the designs of Falcon and Vaucanson, introducing the revolutionary Jacquard loom, which allowed a string of punched cards to be processed mechanically in the correct sequence.[37] The punched cards of the Jacquard loom were a direct precursor to the modern computer, in that they gave a (limited) form of programmability. Punched cards themselves were carried over to computers, and were ubiquitous until their obsolescence in the 1970s. From 1801 embroidery became highly mechanized due to the effectiveness of the Jacquard loom. The mechanism behind the Jacquard loom even allowed complex designs to be mass produced. The Jacquard loom was immediately denounced by workers, who accused it of causing unemployment, but soon it had become vital to the industry. The loom was declared public property in 1806, and Jacquard was rewarded with a pension and a royalty on each machine. In 1834 there were a total of 2885 Jacquard looms in Lyon alone.[33] The Canut revolt in 1831 foreshadowed many of the larger worker uprisings of the Industrial Revolution. The canuts occupied the city of Lyon, and would not relinquish it until a bloody repression by the army, led by Marshal Soult. A second revolt, similar to the first, took place in 1834.

An illustration of spinning, winding, doubling and throwing machines used in silk textile production in England, 1858. Decline in the European silk industry

Silk, cotton and gilt-metal-strip-wrapped cotton panel, machine-woven in Scotland circa 1887. Tulip motif is inspired by Turkish textiles.

The first silkworm diseases began to appear in 1845, creating an epidemic. Among them are pbrine, caused by the microsporidia Nosema bombycis, grasserie, caused by a virus, flacherie, caused by eating infected mulberry leaves or white muscardine disease, caused by the fungus Beauveria bassiana. The epidemic grew to a massive scale, and after having attacked the silkworms, other viruses began to infect the mulberry trees. The chemist Jean-Baptiste Dumas, French minister of agriculture, was charged with stopping the epidemic. In face of sericulturers' call for help, he asked Louis Pasteur to study the disease, starting in 1865.[38] For many years, Pasteur thought that pbrine was not a contagious disease. In 1870 he changed his view, and measures were enacted that caused the disease to decline.

Nevertheless, the increase in the price of silkworm cocoons and the reduction in importance of silk in the garments of the bourgeoisie in the 19th century caused the decline of the silk industry in Europe. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the silk shortage in France reduced the price of importing Asian silk, particularly from China and Japan.[39] Starting from the Long Depression (1873 1896), Lyonnais silk production had become totally industrialized, and hand looms were rapidly disappearing. The 19th century saw the textile industry's progress caused by advances in chemistry. The synthesis of aniline was used to make mauveine (aniline purple) dye and the synthesis of quinine was used to make indigo dye. In 1884 Count Hilaire de Chardonnet invented artificial silk and in 1891 opened a factory dedicated to the production of artificial silk (viscose), which cost much less and in part replaced natural silk.

Silk in modern times

Following the crisis in Europe, the modernization of sericulture in Japan made it the world's foremost silk producer. Italy managed to rebound from the crisis, but France was never able to. Urbanization in Europe saw many French and Italian agricultural workers leave silk growing for more lucrative factory work. Raw silk was imported from Japan to fill the void.[5] Asian countries, formerly exporters of raw materials (cocoons and raw silk), progressively began to export more and more finished garments. During the Second World War, silk supplies from Japan were cut off, so western countries were forced to find substitutes. Synthetic fibres such as nylon were used in products such as parachutes and stockings, replacing silk. Even after the war, silk was not able to regain many of the markets lost, though it remained an expensive luxury product.[5] Postwar Japan, through improvements in technology and a protectionist market policy, became the world's foremost exporter of raw silk, a position it held until the 1970s.[5] The continued rise in importance of synthetic fibres and loosening of the protectionist economy contributed to the decline of Japan's silk industry, and by 1975 it was no longer a net exporter of silk.[40]

A woman making silk in Hotan, China.

With its recent economic reforms, the People's Republic of China has become the world's largest silk producer. In 1996 it produced 58,000 tonnes out of a world production of 81,000, followed by India at 13,000 tonnes. Japanese production is now marginal, at only 2500 tonnes. Between 1995 and 1997 Chinese silk production went down 40% in an effort to raise prices, reminiscent of earlier shortages.[41] In December 2006 the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2009 to be the International Year of Natural Fibres, so as to raise the profile of silk and other natural fibres.
History of Man- made Fibers Although natural fibers were comfortable and all, but they had certain disadvantages too. Cotton and linen wrinkled easily. Silk had to be handled very delicately. Wool shrank and was not moth resistant. With this, efforts began to find out more efficient fibers and then came rayon- the first manufactured fiber -the artificial silk.

Rayon: In the early 1880's, Sir Joseph W. Swan, an English chemist and electrician, invented rayon but it was only in 1910 when its first commercial production was carried on in America. Two basic types of rayon were developed using different chemicals and methods- viscose rayon and cuprammonium rayon.

Rayon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For the administrative unit of some post-Soviet states, see raion.

Rayon is a manufactured regenerated cellulose fiber. Because it is produced from naturally occurring polymers, it is neither a truly synthetic fiber nor a natural fiber; it is a semi-synthetic[1] or artificial[2] fiber. Rayon is known by the names viscose rayon and art silk in the textile industry. It usually has a high luster quality giving it a bright sheen.

Cellulose is treated with alkali and carbon disulfide to yield viscose.

Contents

1 Uses 2 History o 2.1 Nitrocellulose o 2.2 Acetate method o 2.3 Cuprammonium method o 2.4 Viscose method 3 Major fiber properties 4 Gallery of textures 5 Physical structure 6 Production method 7 Disposal and biodegradability 8 Alternative to cotton 9 Controversies 10 Producers 11 See also 12 Further reading 13 References 14 External links

Uses
Some major rayon fiber uses include apparel (e.g. Aloha shirts, blouses, dresses, jackets, lingerie, linings, scarves, suits, neckties, hats, socks), the filling in Zippo lighters, furnishings (e.g. bedspreads, bedsheets, blankets, window treatments, upholstery, slipcovers), industrial uses (e.g. medical surgery products, nonwoven products, tire cord), and other uses (e.g. yarn, feminine hygiene products, diapers, towels).[3] Rayon is a major feedstock in the production of carbon fiber.[citation needed]

History
Nitrocellulose

The fact that nitrocellulose is soluble in organic solvents such as ether and acetone made it possible for Georges Audemars to develop the first "artificial silk" in about 1855, but his method was impractical for commercial use. Commercial production started in 1891, but the result was flammable and more expensive than acetate or cuprammonium rayon. Because of this, production was stopped before World War I. It was briefly known as "mother-in-law silk."[4] Nathan Rosenstein invented the spunize process by which he turned rayon from a hard fiber to a fabric. This allowed rayon to become a popular raw material in textiles.
Acetate method

Paul Schtzenberger discovered that cellulose could be reacted with acetic anhydride to form cellulose acetate. The triacetate is only[citation needed] soluble in chloroform making the method expensive. The discovery that hydrolyzed cellulose acetate is soluble in more polar solvents, like acetone, made production of cellulose acetate fibers cheap and efficient.
Cuprammonium method

The Swiss chemist Matthias Eduard Schweizer (1818-1860) discovered that tetraaminecopper dihydroxide could dissolve cellulose. Max Fremery and Johann Urban developed a method to produce carbon fibers for use in light bulbs in 1897.[5] Production of rayon for textiles started in 1899 in the Vereinigte Glanzstoff

Fabriken AG in Oberbruch. Improvement[citation needed] by the J. P. Bemberg AG in 1904 made the artificial silk a product comparable to real silk.
Viscose method

A device for spinning Viscose Rayon dating from 1901

Finally, in 1894, English chemist Charles Frederick Cross, and his collaborators Edward John Bevan, and Clayton Beadle patented their artificial silk, which they named "viscose", because the reaction product of carbon disulfide and cellulose in basic conditions gave a highly viscous solution of xanthate. The first commercial viscose rayon was produced by the UK company Courtaulds Fibers in 1905. Avtex Fibers Incorporated began selling their formulation in the United States in 1910. The name "rayon" was adopted in 1924, with "viscose" being used for the viscous organic liquid used to make both rayon and cellophane. In Europe, though, the fabric itself became known as "viscose," which has been ruled an acceptable alternative term for rayon by the U.S. Federal Trade Commission. The method is able to use wood (cellulose and lignin) as a source of cellulose while the other methods need lignin-free cellulose as starting material. This makes it cheaper and therefore it was used on a larger scale than the other methods. Contamination of the waste water by carbon disulfide, lignin and the xanthates made this process detrimental to the environment. Rayon was only produced as a filament fiber until the 1930s when it was discovered that broken waste rayon could be used in staple fiber. The physical properties of rayon were unchanged until the development of high-tenacity rayon in the 1940s. Further research and development led to the creation of high-wet-modulus rayon (HWM rayon) in the 1950s.[6] Research in the UK was centred on the government-funded British Rayon Research Association.

Major fiber properties

Rayon is a versatile fiber and has the same comfort properties as natural fibers. It can imitate the feel and texture of silk, wool, cotton and linen. The fibers are easily dyed in a wide range of colors. Rayon fabrics are soft, smooth, cool, comfortable, and highly absorbent, but they do not insulate body heat, making them ideal for use in hot and humid climates.[7] The highest quality Hawaiian shirts produced between the 1930s and the 1950s that are most sought after by collectors are all made of rayon.[citation needed] The durability and appearance retention of regular rayon are low, especially when wet; also, rayon has the lowest elastic recovery of any fiber. However, HWM rayon is much stronger and exhibits higher durability and appearance retention. Recommended care for regular rayon is dry-cleaning only. HWM rayon can be machine washed.[6]

Gallery of textures

A sample of rayon from a skirt, photographed with a macro lens.

Another skirt with a different texture.

A blouse with a texture similar to the second.

Physical structure
Regular rayon has lengthwise lines called striations and its cross-section is an indented circular shape. The cross-sections of HWM and cupra rayon are rounder. Filament rayon yarns vary from 80 to 980 filaments per yarn and vary in size from 40 to 5000 denier. Staple fibers range from 1.5 to 15 denier and are mechanically or chemically crimped. Rayon fibers are naturally very bright, but the addition of delustering pigments cuts down on this natural brightness.[6]

Production method
Regular rayon (or viscose) is the most widely produced form of rayon. This method of rayon production has been utilized since the early 1900s and it has the ability to produce either filament or staple fibers. The process is as follows:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Cellulose: Production begins with processed cellulose Immersion: The cellulose is dissolved in caustic soda: (C6H10O5)n + nNaOH (C6H9O4ONa)n + nH2O Pressing: The solution is then pressed between rollers to remove excess liquid White Crumb: The pressed sheets are crumbled or shredded to produce what is known as "white crumb" Aging: The "white crumb" aged through exposure to oxygen

6. Xanthation: The aged "white crumb" is mixed with carbon disulfide in a process known as Xanthation, the aged alkali cellulose crumbs are placed in vats and are allowed to react with carbon disulfide under controlled temperature (20 to 30 C) to form cellulose xanthate: (C6H9O4ONa)n + nCS2 (C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n 7. Yellow Crumb: Xanthation changes the chemical makeup of the cellulose mixture and the resulting product is now called "yellow crumb" 8. Viscose: The "yellow crumb" is dissolved in a caustic solution to form viscose 9. Ripening: The viscose is set to stand for a period of time, allowing it to ripen: (C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n + nH2O (C6H10O5)n + nCS2 + nNaOH 10. Filtering: After ripening, the viscose is filtered to remove any undissolved particles 11. Degassing: Any bubbles of air are pressed from the viscose in a degassing process 12. Extruding: The viscose solution is extruded through a spinneret, which resembles a shower head with many small holes 13. Acid Bath: As the viscose exits the spinneret, it lands in a bath of sulfuric acid, resulting in the formation of rayon filaments: (C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n + nH2SO4 (C6H10O5)n + nCS2 + nNa2SO4 14. Drawing: The rayon filaments are stretched, known as drawing, to straighten out the fibers 15. Washing: The fibers are then washed to remove any residual chemicals 16. Cutting: If filament fibers are desired the process ends here. The filaments are cut down when producing staple fibers[3]

High wet modulus rayon (HWM) is a modified version of viscose that has a greater strength when wet. It also has the ability to be mercerized like cotton. HWM rayons are also known as "polynosic" or can be identified by the trade name Modal.[8] High-tenacity rayon is another modified version of viscose that has almost twice the strength of HWM. This type of rayon is typically used for industrial purposes such as tire cord.[8] Cupramonium rayon has properties similar to viscose but during production, the cellulose is combined with copper and ammonia (Schweizer's reagent). Due to the environmental effects of this production method, cupramonium rayon is no longer produced in the United States.[8]

Disposal and biodegradability

The biodegradability of fibers in soil burial and sewage sludge was evaluated by Korean researchers who found that biodegradability decreased in the following order: rayon, cotton, acetate (meaning rayon decays more readily than cotton). The ability of individual rayon-based fabrics to repel water was negatively correlated with their speed of degradation (meaning the greater the water-repelling ability of the fibre, the slower it will decompose).[9]

Alternative to cotton
Rising cotton prices in 2010 led clothing makers to begin replacing cotton with rayon in their fabrics. Designers such as Isaac Mizrahi have incorporated rayon into their newest designs. As demand for rayon increases, companies such as Fortress Paper have been investing in pulp mills to increase production. Rayon now sells for as much as $2.70 per pound, which has led to an increase in the retail price of clothing made with rayon, despite rayon's price advantage over cotton.[10]

Controversies
Rayon has been accused by some as contributing to the destruction of rain forests.[11] Although some of the trees destroyed in the world's rain forests might contribute to rayon production, targeting rayon itself is probably misplaced. Rayon production can come from a wide variety of trees and most of its yearly production comes from renewable trees.[12][13] In early 2010, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission warned several retailers that six major manufacturers were falsely labeling rayon products as "bamboo", in order to appeal to environmentally conscious

consumers. While rayon may be produced with bamboo as a raw material, and the two may be used for similar fabrics (though natural bamboo is not as smooth), rayon is so far removed from bamboo by chemical processing that the two are entirely separate.[14]
Acetate: Although in 1893, Arthur D. Little of Boston, invented the cellulosic product, acetate , and developed it as a film, its first commercial textile use in the form of fiber was developed by the Celanese Company in 1924.

Cellulose acetate
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Cellulose acetate (also known as zyl, zylonite,[1] Cellon[Note 1] and Rhodoid[Note 2]), first prepared in 1865, is the acetate ester of cellulose. Cellulose acetate is used as a film base in photography, as a component in some adhesives, and as a frame material for eyeglasses;[1] it is also used as a synthetic fiber and in the manufacture of cigarette filters and playing cards.

Contents

1 History 2 Acetate fiber and triacetate fiber 3 Cellulose acetate film 4 Cellulose acetate computer tape 5 Fiber o 5.1 Fiber properties 6 Production o 6.1 Production method 7 Acetate fiber characteristics 8 Major industrial acetate fiber uses 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links

History
Paul Schtzenberger discovered that cellulose could react with acetic anhydride to form cellulose acetate in 1865. The use of chloroform to make it soluble was expensive, but in 1904 George Miles, an American chemist,[2] discovered that hydrolyzed cellulose acetate is soluble in more solvents like acetone. German chemist Eduard Schweizer discovered that tetraaminecopper dihydroxide could dissolve cellulose.[3] Acetate was first introduced in 1904, when Camille Dreyfus and his younger brother Henri, did chemical research and development in a shed in their father's garden in Basel, Switzerland. Inasmuch as their father was interested in a chemical factory, his influence was probably a factor in their choice of careers. And since Basel was a center of the dyestuffs industry, it was natural that their first achievement should be the development of synthetic indigo dyes. In search of a field that offers really limitless potentialities, they deliberately selected that of cellulose acetate products, including fibers for textile use.[4] For five years, the Dreyfus brothers studied and experimented in a logical, systematic manner in Switzerland and France. By 1910, they had perfected acetate lacquers and plastic film and opened a factory in Basel capable of producing about three tons a day. This was largely sold to the celluloid industry in France and

Germany, and to Pathe Frres in Paris for non-flammable motion picture film base. A small but constantly growing amount of acetate lacquer, called "dope", was sold to the expanding aircraft industry to coat the fabric covering wings and fuselage.[4] After some twenty-odd thousand separate experiments, by 1913, the brothers produced excellent laboratory samples of acetate continuous filament yarn. In 1918 the American Cellulose & Chemical Manufacturing Company was founded in New York by the Dreyfus brothers. The outbreak of World War I postponed completion of development leading to successful commercial production until 1921. The war, of course, necessitated rapid expansion of the Basel factory which terminated its trade with Germany and exclusively supplied the Allied governments with acetate "dope" for military aircraft.[4] In 1927 the American Cellulose & Chemical Manufacturing Company name was changed to the Celanese Corporation of America.[5] In 1849 Mazzucchelli Spa. opened in north of Italy in Castiglione Olona a town near Varese, Como and Milan. The founder Santino Mazzucchelli and his son Pompeo begin working Cellulose nitrate sheets in the late 1800. The idea was to transform the sheets in to combs, brushes, bottons and hair ornaments. This entrepreneurs were able to establish a company that would influence the development of bioplastic material world wide til today. Mazzucchelli grew to become the largest producer of Celluloid Acetate sheets and Cellulose Nitrate sheets worldwide. Today this warm and aesthetically pleasing material is used mostly for making the frames for eyeglasses, followed by hair ornaments, jewellery, stationary and other accessories. The history of Mazzucchelli 1849 Spa. is fascinating being one of the few family company that lasted for 6 generations. The family is still involved in the business and it continues to influence the bioplastic manufactring development in Europe, USA and Asia. Through the year many tests were done and many patterns were created with acetate sheets the most famous is the Tortoise shell look made exclusively by Mazzucchelli. In November 1914, the British Government invited Dr. Camille Dreyfus to come to England to manufacture acetate "dope". The "British Cellulose and Chemical Manufacturing Co" was set up. At the end of World War I, the British Government canceled all contracts and the company changed to produce acetate fibers. In 1918 the company name was changed to British Celanese Ltd. In 1917, the War Department of the United States Government invited Dr. Dreyfus to establish a similar factory in the US after their entry into war. After about six weeks, a contract was negotiated for sale of acetate "dope" to the War Department and a plant site was sought. Dr. Dreyfus and his associates started construction of the American company at Cumberland, Maryland in 1918, but the war was over before the plant could be completed. The business with the Government was completed in due time, construction of the plant continued, the early nucleus of the management began to assemble, and the organization in England completed development of the first commercially successful acetate textile yarn. In England, in 1912, the British company produced the first commercial cellulose acetate yarn. The yarn was sold primarily for crocheting, trimming, and effect threads and for popular-priced linings.[4] The first yarn spun in America was on Christmas Day, 1924, at the Cumberland, Maryland Plant. The first yarn was of fair quality, but sales resistance was heavy, and silk associates worked zealously to discredit acetate and discourage its use. Acetate became an enormous success as a fiber for moir because its thermoplastic quality made the moir design absolutely permanent. The same characteristic also made permanent pleating a commercial fact for the first time, and gave great style impetus to the whole dress industry.[4] This was a genuine contribution. The mixing of silk and acetate in fabrics was accomplished at the beginning and almost at once cotton was also blended, thus making possible low-cost fabrics by means of a fiber which then was cheaper than silk or acetate. Today, acetate is blended with silk, cotton, wool, nylon, etc. to give to fabrics an excellent wrinkle recovery, good left, handle, draping quality, quick drying, proper dimensional stability, cross-dye pattern potential, at a very competitive price.[4]

Acetate fiber and triacetate fiber

Acetate and triacetate are mistakenly referred to as the same fiber; although they are similar, their chemical compounds differ. Triacetate is known as a generic description or primary acetate containing no hydroxyl group. Acetate fiber is known as modified or secondary acetate having two or more hydroxyl groups. Triacetate fibers, although no longer produced in the United States, contain a higher ratio of acetate-tocellulose than do acetate fibers[1].

Cellulose acetate film

Cellulose acetate film was introduced in 1934 as a replacement for the cellulose nitrate film stock that had previously been standard. When exposed to heat, moisture or acids in the film base begin to deteriorate to an unusable state, releasing acetic acid with a characteristic vinegary smell, causing the process to be known as "vinegar syndrome." Acetate film stock is still used in some applications, such as camera negative for motion pictures. Since the 1980s, polyester film stock (sometimes referred to under Kodak's trade name "ESTAR Base") has become more commonplace, particularly for archival applications. Acetate film was also used as the base for magnetic tape, prior to the advent of polyester film.

Cellulose acetate computer tape

Cellulose acetate magnetic tape was introduced by IBM in 1952 for use on their IBM 726 tape drive in the IBM 701 computer. It was much lighter and easier to handle than the metal tape introduced by UNIVAC in 1951 for use on their UNISERVO tape drive in the UNIVAC I computer. In 1956 cellulose acetate magnetic tape was replaced by the more stable PET film magnetic tape for use on their IBM 727 tape drive.

Fiber
Cellulose acetate fiber is one of the earliest synthetic fibers and is based on cotton or tree pulp cellulose ("biopolymers"). These "cellulosic fibers" have been replaced in may applications by cheaper petro-based fibers (nylon and polyester) in recent decades. It was invented by two Swiss brothers, Doctors Camille and Henri Dreyfus, who originally began chemical research in a shed behind their father's house in Basel, Switzerland. In 1905, Camille and Henri developed a commercial process to manufacture cellulose acetate. The Dreyfus brothers initially focused on cellulose acetate film, which was then widely used in celluloid plastics and film. By 1913, Camille and Henri's studies and experiments had produced excellent laboratory samples of continuous filament acetate yarn. In 1918 acetate fiber was first manufactured in quantity at the British Celanese plant in Spondon, Derbyshire. In 1924, the first commercial acetate filament was spun in the United States and trademarked as Celanese. Trade names for acetate include Acele, Avisco, Celanese, Chromspun and Estron.[6]
Fiber properties

Acetate is a very valuable manufactured fiber that is low in cost and has good draping qualities. Properties of acetate have promoted it as the beauty fiber[1]. Acetate is used in fabrics such as satins, brocades, and taffetas to accentuate luster, body, drape and beauty.

Hand: soft, smooth, dry, crisp, resilient Comfort: breathes, wicks, dries quickly, no static cling Drape: linings move with the body linings conform to the garment Color: deep brilliant shades with atmospheric dyeing meet colorfastness requirements Luster: light reflection creates a signature appearance Performance: colorfast to perspiration staining, colorfast to dry cleaning, air and vapor permeable

Tenacity: weak fiber with breaking tenacity of 1.2 to 1.4 g/d; rapidly loses strength when wet; must be dry cleaned Abrasion: poor resistance Heat retention: poor thermal retention; no allergenic potential (hypoallergenic) Dyeability: (two methods) cross-dying method where yarns of one fiber and those of another fiber are woven into a fabric in a desired pattern; solution-dying method provides excellent color fastness under the effects of sunlight, perspiration, air contaminants and washing [1,2]

Acetate usually requires dry cleaning.

Production

The Federal Trade Commission definition for acetate fiber is "A manufactured fiber in which the fiberforming substance is cellulose acetate. Where not less than 92 percent of the hydroxyl groups are acetylated, the term triacetate may be used as a generic description of the fiber." Acetate is derived from cellulose by deconstructing wood pulp into a purified fluffy white cellulose. In order to get a good product special qualities of pulps - dissolving pulps - are used. A common problem with these is that the reactivity of the cellulose is uneven, and thereby will the quality of the cellulose acetate sometimes be damaged. The cellulose is then reacted with acetic acid and acetic anhydride in the presence of sulfuric acid. It is then put through a controlled, partial hydrolysis to remove the sulfate and a sufficient number of acetate groups to give the product the desired properties. The anhydroglucose unit is the fundamental repeating structure of cellulose and has three hydroxyl groups which can react to form acetate esters. The most common form of cellulose acetate fiber has an acetate group on approximately two of every three hydroxyls. This cellulose diacetate is known as secondary acetate, or simply as "acetate". After it is formed, cellulose acetate is dissolved in acetone into a viscous resin for extrusion through spinnerets (which resemble a shower head). As the filaments emerge, the solvent is evaporated in warm air via dry spinning, producing fine cellulose acetate fibers. First U.S. Commercial Acetate Fiber Production: 1924, Celanese Corporation Current U.S. Acetate Fiber Producers: Celanese, Eastman Chemical Company

Production method
[citation needed]

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Purified cellulose from wood pulp or cotton linters.naziya Mixed with glacial acetic acid, acetic anhydride, and a catalyst Aged 20 hours- partial hydrolysis occurs Precipitated as acid-resin flakes Flakes dissolved in acetone Solution is filtered Spinning solution extruded in column of warm air. Solvent recovered Filaments are stretched and wound onto beams, cones, or bobbins ready for use [1]

Acetate fiber characteristics

cellulosic and thermoplastic selective absorption and removal of low levels of certain organic chemicals easily bonded with plasticizers, heat, and pressure acetate is soluble in many common solvents (especially acetone and other organic solvents) and can be modified to be soluble in alternative solvents, including water hydrophilic: acetate wets easily, with good liquid transport and excellent absorption; in textile applications, it provides comfort and absorbency, but also loses strength when wet acetate fibers are hypoallergenic high surface area made from a renewable resource: wood pulp can be composted or incinerated can be dyed, however special dyes and pigments are required since acetate does not accept dyes ordinarily used for cotton and rayon (this also allows cross-dyeing) resistant to mold and mildew easily weakened by strong alkaline solutions and strong oxidizing agents. can usually be washed or dry cleaned; generally does not shrink

Major industrial acetate fiber uses

Apparel: buttons, sunglasses, linings, blouses, dresses, wedding and party attire, home furnishings, draperies, upholstery and slip covers. Industrial uses: cigarette and other filters, ink reservoirs for fiber tip pens. High absorbency products: diapers and surgical products. The original Lego bricks were manufactured from cellulose acetate from 1949 to 1963. Award Ribbon: Rosettes for equestrian events, dog/cat shows, corporate awards, advertising and identification products all use cellulose acetate ribbon. KEM brand playing cards, used at the World Series of Poker and in many poker rooms at major casinos, are made of cellulose acetate. Italian playing card manufacturer Modiano also makes a line of playing cards made of "acetate," though it is unclear whether this is true cellulose acetate.

Nylon: In 1931, as a result of American chemist Wallace Carothers' research on polymers, nylon was invented. Nylon was synthesized completely from petrochemicals as against the first two synthetic fibers, rayon and acetate, that were derived from plant cellulose. Its first commercial production was in 1939 in the US.

Nylon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Nylon (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2008)

Nylon

Density Electrical conductivity () Thermal conductivity

1.15 g/cm3 1012 S/m 0.25 W/(mK) 463624 K 190350 C 374663 F

Melting point

Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers known generically as polyamides, first produced on February 28, 1935, by Wallace Carothers at DuPont's research facility at the DuPont Experimental Station. Nylon is one of the most commonly used polymers.

Contents

1 Overview 2 Chemistry o 2.1 Concepts of nylon production o 2.2 Characteristics 3 Bulk properties 4 Historical uses 5 Use in composites 6 Hydrolysis and degradation 7 Incineration and recycling 8 Etymology 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links

Overview
This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

Wallace Carothers

Nylon is a thermoplastic, silky material, first used commercially in a nylon-bristled toothbrush (1938), followed more famously by women's stockings ("nylons"; 1940). It is made of repeating units linked by amide bonds and is frequently referred to as polyamide (PA). Nylon was the first commercially successful synthetic polymer. There are two common methods of making nylon for fiber applications. In one approach, molecules with an acid (-COOH) group on each end are reacted with molecules containing amine (-NH2) groups on each end. The resulting nylon is named on the basis of the number of carbon atoms separating the two acid groups and the two amines. These are formed into monomers of intermediate molecular weight, which are then reacted to form long polymer chains. Nylon was intended to be a synthetic replacement for silk and substituted for it in many different products after silk became scarce during World War II. It replaced silk in military applications such as parachutes and flak vests, and was used in many types of vehicle tires. Nylon fibers are used in many applications, including fabrics, bridal veils, carpets, musical strings, and rope.

Solid nylon is used for mechanical parts such as machine screws, gears and other low- to medium-stress components previously cast in metal. Engineering-grade nylon is processed by extrusion, casting, and injection molding. Solid nylon is used in hair combs. Type 6,6 Nylon 101 is the most common commercial grade of nylon, and Nylon 6 is the most common commercial grade of molded nylon. For use in tools such as the spudger, a nylon is available in glass-filled variants which increase structural and impact strength and rigidity, and molybdenum sulfide-filled variants which increase lubricity. Aramids are another type of polyamide with quite different chain structures which include aromatic groups in the main chain. Such polymers make excellent ballistic fibers.

Chemistry
Nylons are condensation copolymers formed by reacting equal parts of a diamine and a dicarboxylic acid, so that amides are formed at both ends of each monomer in a process analogous to polypeptide biopolymers. Chemical elements included are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. The numerical suffix specifies the numbers of carbons donated by the monomers; the diamine first and the diacid second. The most common variant is nylon 6-6 which refers to the fact that the diamine (hexamethylene diamine, IUPAC name: hexane-1,6-diamine) and the diacid (adipic acid, IUPAC name: hexanedioic acid) each donate 6 carbons to the polymer chain. As with other regular copolymers like polyesters and polyurethanes, the "repeating unit" consists of one of each monomer, so that they alternate in the chain. Since each monomer in this copolymer has the same reactive group on both ends, the direction of the amide bond reverses between each monomer, unlike natural polyamide proteins which have overall directionality: C terminal N terminal. In the laboratory, nylon 6-6 can also be made using adipoyl chloride instead of adipic. It is difficult to get the proportions exactly correct, and deviations can lead to chain termination at molecular weights less than a desirable 10,000 daltons (u). To overcome this problem, a crystalline, solid "nylon salt" can be formed at room temperature, using an exact 1:1 ratio of the acid and the base to neutralize each other. Heated to 285 C (545 F), the salt reacts to form nylon polymer. Above 20,000 daltons, it is impossible to spin the chains into yarn, so to combat this, some acetic acid is added to react with a free amine end group during polymer elongation to limit the molecular weight. In practice, and especially for 6,6, the monomers are often combined in a water solution. The water used to make the solution is evaporated under controlled conditions, and the increasing concentration of "salt" is polymerized to the final molecular weight. DuPont patented[1] nylon 6,6, so in order to compete, other companies (particularly the German BASF) developed the homopolymer nylon 6, or polycaprolactam not a condensation polymer, but formed by a ring-opening polymerization (alternatively made by polymerizing aminocaproic acid). The peptide bond within the caprolactam is broken with the exposed active groups on each side being incorporated into two new bonds as the monomer becomes part of the polymer backbone. In this case, all amide bonds lie in the same direction, but the properties of nylon 6 are sometimes indistinguishable from those of nylon 6,6 except for melt temperature and some fiber properties in products like carpets and textiles. There is also nylon 9. The 428 F (220 C) melting point of nylon 6 is lower than the 509 F (265 C) melting point of nylon 6,6.[2] Nylon 5,10, made from pentamethylene diamine and sebacic acid, was studied by Carothers even before nylon 6,6 and has superior properties, but is more expensive to make. In keeping with this naming convention, "nylon 6,12" (N-6,12) or "PA-6,12" is a copolymer of a 6C diamine and a 12C diacid. Similarly for N-5,10 N-6,11; N-10,12, etc. Other nylons include copolymerized dicarboxylic acid/diamine products that are not based upon the monomers listed above. For example, some aromatic nylons are polymerized with the addition of diacids like terephthalic acid ( Kevlar, Twaron) or isophthalic acid ( Nomex), more commonly associated with polyesters. There are copolymers of N-6,6/N6; copolymers of N-6,6/N-6/N-12; and others. Because of the way polyamides are formed, nylon would seem to be limited to unbranched, straight chains. But "star" branched nylon can be produced by the condensation of dicarboxylic acids with polyamines having three or more amino groups.

The general reaction is:

A molecule of water is given off and the nylon is formed. Its properties are determined by the R and R' groups in the monomers. In nylon 6,6, R = 4C and R' = 6C alkanes, but one also has to include the two carboxyl carbons in the diacid to get the number it donates to the chain. In Kevlar, both R and R' are benzene rings.
Concepts of nylon production

The first approach: combining molecules with an acid (COOH) group on each end are reacted with two chemicals that contain amine (NH2) groups on each end. This process creates nylon 6,6, made of hexamethylene diamine with six carbon atoms and adipic acid. The second approach: a compound has an acid at one end and an amine at the other and is polymerized to form a chain with repeating units of (-NH-[CH2]n-CO-)x. In other words, nylon 6 is made from a single sixcarbon substance called caprolactam. In this equation, if n = 5, then nylon 6 is the assigned name (may also be referred to as polymer). The characteristic features of nylon 6,6 include:

Pleats and creases can be heat-set at higher temperatures More compact molecular structure Better weathering properties; better sunlight resistance Softer "Hand" Higher melting point (256 C/492.8 F) Superior colorfastness Excellent abrasion resistance

On the other hand, nylon 6 is easy to dye, more readily fades; it has a higher impact resistance, a more rapid moisture absorption, greater elasticity and elastic recovery.
Characteristics

Variation of luster: nylon has the ability to be very lustrous, semilustrous or dull. Durability: its high tenacity fibers are used for seatbelts, tire cords, ballistic cloth and other uses. High elongation Excellent abrasion resistance Highly resilient (nylon fabrics are heat-set) Paved the way for easy-care garments High resistance to insects, fungi, animals, as well as molds, mildew, rot and many chemicals Used in carpets and nylon stockings Melts instead of burning Used in many military applications Good specific strength Transparent to infrared light (12dB)[3]

Bulk properties
Above their melting temperatures, Tm, thermoplastics like nylon are amorphous solids or viscous fluids in which the chains approximate random coils. Below Tm, amorphous regions alternate with regions which are lamellar crystals.[4] The amorphous regions contribute elasticity and the crystalline regions contribute strength and rigidity. The planar amide (-CO-NH-) groups are very polar, so nylon forms multiple hydrogen bonds among adjacent strands. Because the nylon backbone is so regular and symmetrical, especially if all the amide bonds are in the trans configuration, nylons often have high crystallinity and make excellent fibers. The amount of crystallinity depends on the details of formation, as well as on the kind of nylon. Apparently it can never be quenched from a melt as a completely amorphous solid.

Hydrogen bonding in Nylon 6,6 (in mauve).

Nylon 6,6 can have multiple parallel strands aligned with their neighboring peptide bonds at coordinated separations of exactly 6 and 4 carbons for considerable lengths, so the carbonyl oxygens and amide hydrogens can line up to form interchain hydrogen bonds repeatedly, without interruption (see the figure opposite). Nylon 5,10 can have coordinated runs of 5 and 8 carbons. Thus parallel (but not antiparallel) strands can participate in extended, unbroken, multi-chain -pleated sheets, a strong and tough supermolecular structure similar to that found in natural silk fibroin and the -keratins in feathers. (Proteins have only an amino acid -carbon separating sequential -CO-NH- groups.) Nylon 6 will form uninterrupted H-bonded sheets with mixed directionalities, but the -sheet wrinkling is somewhat different. The threedimensional disposition of each alkane hydrocarbon chain depends on rotations about the 109.47 tetrahedral bonds of singly bonded carbon atoms. When extruded into fibers through pores in an industrial spinneret, the individual polymer chains tend to align because of viscous flow. If subjected to cold drawing afterwards, the fibers align further, increasing their crystallinity, and the material acquires additional tensile strength.[5] In practice, nylon fibers are most often drawn using heated rolls at high speeds. Block nylon tends to be less crystalline, except near the surfaces due to shearing stresses during formation. Nylon is clear and colorless, or milky, but is easily dyed. Multistranded nylon cord and rope is slippery and tends to unravel. The ends can be melted and fused with a heat source such as a flame or electrode to prevent this. When dry, polyamide is a good electrical insulator. However, polyamide is hygroscopic. The absorption of water will change some of the material's properties such as its electrical resistance. Nylon is less absorbent than wool or cotton.

Historical uses
The worn out nylon stockings will be reprocessed and made into parachutes for army fliers c. 1942

Bill Pittendreigh, DuPont, and other individuals and corporations worked diligently during the first few months of World War II to find a way to replace Asian silk and hemp with nylon in parachutes. It was also used to make tires, tents, ropes, ponchos, and other military supplies. It was even used in the production of a high-grade paper for U.S. currency. At the outset of the war, cotton accounted for more than 80% of all fibers used and manufactured, and wool fibers accounted for nearly all of the rest. By August 1945, manufactured fibers had taken a market share of 25%, at the expense of cotton. Some of the terpolymers based upon nylon are used every day in packaging. Nylon has been used for meat wrappings and sausage sheaths.

Use in composites
Nylon can be used as the matrix material in composite materials, with reinforcing fibers like glass or carbon fiber; such a composite has a higher density than pure nylon. Such thermoplastic composites (25% glass fiber) are frequently used in car components next to the engine, such as intake manifolds, where the good heat resistance of such materials makes them feasible competitors to metals.

Hydrolysis and degradation

All nylons are susceptible to hydrolysis, especially by strong acids, a reaction essentially the reverse of the synthetic reaction shown above. The molecular weight of nylon products so attacked drops fast, and cracks form quickly at the affected zones. Lower members of the nylons (such as nylon 6) are affected more than higher members such as nylon 12. This means that nylon parts cannot be used in contact with sulfuric acid for example, such as the electrolyte used in lead-acid batteries. When being molded, nylon must be dried to prevent hydrolysis in the molding machine barrel since water at high temperatures can also degrade the polymer. The reaction is of the type:

Incineration and recycling

Various nylons break down in fire and form hazardous smoke, and toxic fumes or ash, typically containing hydrogen cyanide. Incinerating nylons to recover the high energy used to create them is usually expensive, so most nylons reach the garbage dumps, decaying very slowly.[6] Some recycling is done on nylon, usually creating pellets for reuse in the industry.[7]

Etymology
In 1940, John W. Eckelberry of DuPont stated that the letters "nyl" were arbitrary and the "on" was copied from the suffixes of other fibers such as cotton and rayon. A later publication by DuPont explained that the name was originally intended to be "No-Run" ("run" meaning "unravel"), but was modified to avoid making such an unjustified claim and to make the word sound better.[8] An apocryphal explanation is that Nylon is a conflation of "New York" and "London". A humorous backronym is "Now You've Lost, Old Nippon" referring to the supposed loss of demand for Japanese silk.

Acrylic: Having wool like appearance, the first commercial production of acrylic was in 1950 in the United States.

Acrylic fiber
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2011)

Acrylic fibers are synthetic fibers made from a polymer (polyacrylonitrile) with an average molecular weight of ~100,000, about 1900 monomer units. To be called acrylic in the U.S, the polymer must contain at least 85% acrylonitrile monomer. Typical comonomers are vinyl acetate or methyl acrylate. The Dupont Corporation created the first acrylic fibers in 1941 and trademarked them under the name Orlon.[1]

Production
The polymer is formed by free-radical polymerization in aqueous suspension. The fiber is produced by dissolving the polymer in a solvent such as N,N-dimethylformamide or aqueous sodium thiocyanate, metering it through a multi-hole spinnerette and coagulating the resultant filaments in an aqueous solution of the same solvent (wet spinning) or evaporating the solvent in a stream of heated inert gas (dry spinning). Washing, stretching, drying and crimping complete the processing. Acrylic fibers are produced in a range of deniers, typically from 0.9 to 15, as cut staple or as a 500,000 to 1 million filament tow. End uses include sweaters, hats, hand-knitting yarns, rugs, awnings, boat covers, and upholstery; the fiber is also used as a precursor for carbon fiber. Production of acrylic fibers is centered in the Far East, Turkey, India, Mexico, and South America, though a number of European producers still continue to operate. All US producers have ended production. Former U.S. brands of acrylic were Acrilan (Monsanto), Creslan (American Cyanamid), and Orlon (DuPont). Other brand names that are still in use include Dralon (Dralon GmbH).

Textile uses
Acrylic is lightweight, soft, and warm, with a wool-like feel. It can also be made to mimic other fibers, such as cotton, when spun on short staple equipment. Some acrylic is extruded in colored or pigmented form; other is extruded in "ecru", otherwise known as "natural," "raw white," or "undyed." Pigmented fiber has highest light-fastness. Its fibers are very resilient compared to both other synthetics and natural fibers. Some acrylic is used in clothing as a less expensive alternative to cashmere, due to the similar feeling of the materials. Some acrylic fabrics may fuzz or pill easily. Other fibers and fabrics are designed to minimize pilling. Acrylic takes color well, is washable, and is generally hypoallergenic. End-uses include socks, hats, gloves, scarves, sweaters, home furnishing fabrics, and awnings. Acrylic is resistant to moths, oils, chemicals, and is very resistant to deterioration from sunlight exposure. However, static and pilling can be a problem in certain fabrications. Acrylic has a bad reputation amongst some crafters who knit or crochet; acrylic yarn may be perceived as "cheap" because it is typically priced lower than its natural counterparts. The fiber requires heat to "block" or set the shape of the finished garment, and it isn't as warm as alternatives like wool. Some knitters also complain that the fiber "squeaks" when knitted. On the other hand, it can be useful in certain items, like garments for babies, which require constant washing, because it is machine-washable. Acrylic can irritate the skin of people with dermatological conditions such as eczema but this is unusual.

Leading US spinners include National Spinning Co., Inc. Leading acrylic fiber producers include AkSa (Turkey), Montefibre (Spain), Dralon (Germany), and Kaltex (Mexico).
Polyester: J. T. Dickson and J. R. Whinfield produced a polyester fiber through condensation polymerization of ethylene glycol with terephthalic acid which became famous as 'wash & wear' and the textile industry saw a revolution as never before. Its first commercial production was in 1953 in the US and was accompanied by the introduction of triacetate in 1954. Polyester, today is the most used fiber in the textile and related industries followed by nylon.

Polyester
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Background
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Polyester is a synthetic fiber derived from coal, air, water, and petroleum. Developed in a 20th-century laboratory, polyester fibers are formed from a chemical reaction between an acid and alcohol. In this reaction, two or more molecules combine to make a large molecule whose structure repeats throughout its length. Polyester fibers can form very iong molecules that are very stable and strong.

Polyester is used in the manufacture of many products, including clothing, home furnishings, industrial fabrics, computer and recording tapes, and electrical insulation. Polyester has several advantages over traditional fabrics such as cotton. It does not absorb moisture, but does absorb oil; this quality makes polyester the perfect fabric for the application of water-, soil-, and fire-resistant finishes. Its low absorbency also makes it naturally resistant to stains. Polyester clothing can be preshrunk in the finishing process, and thereafter the fabric resists shrinking and will not stretch out of shape. The fabric is easily dyeable, and not damaged by mildew. Textured polyester fibers are an effective, nonallergenic insulator, so the material is used for filling pillows, quilting, outerwear, and sleeping bags.

History
In 1926, United States-based E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Co. began research into very large molecules and synthetic fibers. This early research, headed by W.H. Carothers, centered on what became nylon, the first synthetic fiber. Soon after, in the years 1939-41, British research chemists took interest in the du Pont studies and conducted their own research in the laboratories of Calico Printers Association, Ltd. This work resulted in the creation of the polyester fiber known in England as Terylene. In 1946, du Pont purchased the right to produce this polyester fiber in the United States. The company conducted some further developmental work, and in 1951, began to market the fiber under the name Dacron. During the ensuing years, several companies became interested in polyester fibers and produced their own versions of the product for different uses. Today, there are two primary types of polyester, PET (polyethylene terephthalate) and PCDT (poly-1, 4-cyclohexylene-dimethylene terephthalate). PET, the more popular type, is applicable to a wider variety of uses. It is stronger than PCDT, though PCDT is more elastic and resilient. PCDT is suited to the heavier consumer uses, such as draperies and furniture coverings. PET can be used alone or blended with other fabrics to make clothing that is wrinkle and stain resistant and retains its shape.

Raw Materials
Polyester is a chemical term which can be broken into poly, meaning many, and ester, a basic organic chemical compound. The principle ingredient used in the manufacture of polyester is ethylene, which is derived from petroleum. In this process, ethylene is the polymer, the chemical building block of polyester, and the chemical process that produces the finished polyester is called polymerization.

The Manufacturing Process

Polyester is manufactured by one of several methods. The one used depends on the form the finished polyester will take. The four basic forms are filament, staple, tow, and fiberfill. In the filament form, each

individual strand of polyester fiber is continuous in length, producing smooth-surfaced fabrics. In staple form, filaments are cut to short, predetermined lengths. In this form polyester is easier to blend with other fibers. Tow is a form in which continuous filaments are drawn loosely together. Fiberfill is the voluminous form used in the manufacture of quilts, pillows, and outerwear. The two forms used most frequently are filament and staple.

Manufacturing Filament Yarn

Polymerization

1 To form polyester, dimethyl terephthalate is first reacted with ethylene glycol in the presence of a catalyst at a temperature of 302-410F (150-210C). 2 The resulting chemical, a monomer (single, non-repeating molecule) alcohol, is combined with terephthalic acid and raised to a temperature of 472F (280C). Newly-formed polyester, which is clear and molten, is extruded through a slot to form long ribbons.

Drying

3 After the polyester emerges from polymerization, the long molten ribbons are allowed to cool until they become brittle. The material is cut into tiny chips and completely dried to prevent irregularities in consistency.

Melt spinning

4 Polymer chips are melted at 500-518F (260-270C) to form a syrup-like solution. The solution is put in a metal container called a spinneret and forced through its tiny holes, which are usually round, but may be pentagonal or any other shape to produce special fibers. The number of holes in the spinneret determines the size of the yarn, as the emerging fibers are brought together to form a single strand. 5 At the spinning stage, other chemicals may be added to the solution to make the resulting material flame retardant, antistatic, or easier to dye.

Drawing the fiber

6 When polyester emerges from the spinneret, it is soft and easily elongated up to five times its original length. The stretching forces the random polyester molecules to align in a parallel formation. This increases the strength, tenacity, and resilience of the fiber. This time, when the filaments dry, the fibers become solid and strong instead of brittle. 7 Drawn fibers may vary greatly in diameter and length, depending on the characteristics desired of the finished material. Also, as the fibers are drawn, they may be textured or twisted to create softer or duller fabrics.

Winding

8 After the polyester yarn is drawn, it is wound on large bobbins or flat-wound packages, ready to be woven into material.

Manufacturing Staple Fiber

In making polyester staple fiber, polymerization, drying, and melt spinning (steps 1-4 above) are much the same as in the manufacture of filament yarn. However, in the melt spinning process, the spinneret has many more holes when the product is staple fiber. The rope-like bundles of polyester that emerge are called tow.
Drawing tow

1 Newly-formed tow is quickly cooled in cans that gather the thick fibers. Several lengths of tow are gathered and then drawn on heated rollers to three or four times their original length.

Crimping

2 Drawn tow is then fed into compression boxes, which force the fibers to fold like an accordion, at a rate of 9-15 crimps per inch (3-6 per cm). This process helps the fiber hold together during the later manufacturing stages.

Setting

3 After the tow is crimped, it is heated at 212-302F (100-150C) to completely dry the fibers and set the crimp. Some of the crimp will unavoidably be pulled out of the fibers during the following processes.

Cutting

4 Following heat setting, tow is cut into shorter lengths. Polyester that will be blended with cotton is cut in 1.25-1.50 inch (3.2-3.8 cm) pieces; for rayon blends, 2 inch (5 cm) lengths are cut. For heavier fabrics, such as carpet, polyester filaments are cut into 6 inch (15 cm) lengths.

The Future
Following its introduction to the United States in 1951, polyester quickly became the country's fastestgrowing fiber. Easy care of the permanent press fabric made polyester doubleknits extremely popular in the late 1960s. However, polyester has suffered an "image problem" since that time, and clothes made out of polyester were often devalued and even ridiculed. Several new forms of polyester introduced in the early 1990s may help revitalize the image of polyester. A new form of polyester fiber, called microfiber, was introduced to the public in 1991. More luxurious and versatile than traditional polyester, microfiber fabrics are difficult to tell apart from silk fabrics. Clothing designers such as Mary McFadden have created a line of clothes using this new form of polyester. Textile researchers at North Carolina State University are developing a form of polyester that may be as strong as Kevlar, a superfiber material used to make bulletproof vests. This type of polyester may eventually be used as composite materials for cars and airplanes.

Where To Learn More

Books

Corbman, Bernard P. Textiles: Fiber to Fabric. 6th ed. Gregg Division, McGraw-Hill, 1983, pp. 374-92. Encyclopedia of Textiles. 3rd ed. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1980, pp. 28-33.

Polyester: Fifty Years of Achievement. State Mutual Book & Periodical Service, 1993.
Periodicals

Fellingham, Christine. "Will You Learn to Love Polyester?" Glamour, April 1992, p. 204. Templeton, Fleur. "Show Me a Bulletproof Leisure Suit, In Pink." Business Week, July 6, 1992, p. 65. Thomas, Marita. "At 50 Years, Polyester Gains New Fashion Vitality." Textile World, December 1993, p. 62+. Kristine M. Krapp
Spandex: The first commercial production of spandex, the stretchable fiber was in 1959 in the US again.

Spandex
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Spandex is a lightweight, synthetic fiber that is used to make stretchable clothing such as sportswear. It is made up of a long chain polymer called polyurethane, which is produced by reacting a polyester with a diisocyanate. The polymer is converted into a fiber using a dry spinning technique. First produced in the early 1950s, spandex was initially developed as a replacement for rubber. Although the market for spandex remains relatively small compared to other fibers such as cotton or nylon, new applications for spandex are continually being discovered.

Background
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China Denim Supplier Discover Quality Denim Products & Contact Manufacturers for Export www.GlobalMarket.com

Spandex is a synthetic polymer. Chemically, it is made up of a long-chain polyglycol combined with a short diisocyanate, and contains at least 85% polyurethane. It is an elastomer, which means it can be stretched to a certain degree and it recoils when released. These fibers are superior to rubber because they are stronger, lighter, and more versatile. In fact, spandex fibers can be stretched to almost 500% of their length. This unique elastic property of the spandex fibers is a direct result of the material's chemical composition. The fibers are made up of numerous polymer strands. These strands are composed of two types of segments: long, amorphous segments and short, rigid segments. In their natural state, the amorphous segments have a random molecular structure. They intermingle and make the fibers soft. Some of the rigid portions of the polymers bond with each other and give the fiber structure. When a force is applied to stretch the fibers, the bonds between the rigid sections are broken, and the amorphous segments straighten out. This makes the amorphous segments longer, thereby increasing the length of the fiber. When the fiber is stretched to its maximum length, the rigid segments again bond with each other. The amorphous segments remain in an elongated state. This makes the fiber stiffer and stronger. After the force is removed, the amorphous segments recoil and the fiber returns to its relaxed state. By using the elastic properties of spandex fibers, scientists can create fabrics that have desirable stretching and strength characteristics. The primary use for spandex fibers is in fabric. They are useful for a number of reasons. First, they can be stretched repeatedly, and will return almost exactly back to original size and shape. Second, they are lightweight, soft, and smooth. Additionally, they are easily dyed. They are also resilient since they are resistant to abrasion and the deleterious effects of body oils, perspiration, and detergents. They are compatible with other materials, and can be spun with other types of fibers to produce unique fabrics, which have characteristics of both fibers. Spandex is used in a variety of different clothing types. Since it is lightweight and does not restrict movement, it is most often used in athletic wear. This includes such garments as swimsuits, bicycle pants, and exercise wear. The form-fitting properties of spandex makes it a good for use in under-garments. Hence, it is used in waist bands, support hose, bras, and briefs.

History
The development of spandex was started during World War II. At this time, chemists took on the challenge of developing synthetic replacements for rubber. Two primary motivating factors prompted their research. First, the war effort required most of the available rubber for building equipment. Second, the price of rubber was unstable and it fluctuated frequently. Developing an alternative to rubber could solve both of these problems. At first, their goal was to develop a durable elastic strand based on synthetic polymers. In 1940, the first polyurethane elastomers were produced. These polymers produced millable gums, which were an adequate alternative to rubber. Around the same time, scientists at Du Pont produced the first nylon polymers. These early nylon polymers were stiff and rigid, so efforts were begun to make them more elastic. When scientists found that other polyurethanes could be made into fine threads, they decided that these materials might be useful in making more stretchable nylons or in making lightweight garments. The first spandex fibers were produced on an experimental level by one of the early pioneers in polymer chemistry, Farbenfabriken Bayer. He earned a German patent for his synthesis in 1952. The final development of the fibers were worked out independently by scientists at Du Pont and the U.S. Rubber

Company. Du Pont used the brand name Lycra and began full scale manufacture in 1962. They are currently the world leader in the production of spandex fibers.

Raw Materials
A variety of raw materials are used to produce stretchable spandex fibers. This includes prepolymers which produce the backbone of the fiber, stabilizers which protect the integrity of the polymer, and colorants. Two types of prepolymers are reacted to produce the spandex fiber polymer back-bone. One is a flexible macroglycol while the other is a stiff diisocyanate. The macro-glycol can be a polyester, polyether, polycarbonate, polycaprolactone or some combination of these. These are long chain polymers, which have hydroxyl groups (-OH) on both ends. The important feature of these molecules is that they are long and flexible. This part of the spandex fiber is responsible for its stretching characteristic. The other prepolymer used to produce spandex is a polymeric diisocyanate. This is a shorter chain polymer, which has an isocyanate (-NCO) group on both ends. The principal characteristic of this molecule is its rigidity. In the fiber, this molecule provides strength.

Corset designed by Jacob Kindliman of New York City in 1890. (From the collections of Henry Ford Museum & Greenfield Village, Dearborn, Michigan.)

This corset-clad torso was produced by Jacob Kindliman of New York City in 1890. Kindliman, a corsetiere, hardly needed to advertise. At that time, women thought it was necessary to wear a corset and considered themselves indecently dressed without it until early in the twentieth century. Corsets were a combination brassiere-girdle-waist cincher in an all-in-one garment, forming the foundation shape for fashionable dress. In days before spandex, how did the corset contour the body effectively? In the eighteenth century, thick quilting and stout seams on the corset shaped the body when the garment was tightly laced. In the early nineteenth century, baleen, a bony but bendable substance from the mouth of the baleen whale, was sewn into seams of the corset (hence the term whalebone corsets), however the late 1800s corsets like this were stiffened with small, thin strips of steel covered with fabric. Such steel-clad corsets did not permit movement or comfort. By World War I, American women began separating parts of the corset into two garmentsthe girdle (waist and hip shaper) and bandeau (softer band used to support and shape the breasts). Nancy EV Bryk When the two types of prepolymers are mixed together, they interact to form the spandex fibers. In this reaction, the hydroxyl

Dry-spinning process. groups (-OH) on the macroglycols react with the isocyanates. Each molecule gets added on to the end of another molecule, and a long chain polymer is formed. This is known as a step-growth or addition polymerization. To initiate this reaction, a catalyst such as diazobicyclo[2.2.2]octane must be used. Other low molecular weight amines are added to control the molecular weight of the fibers.

Spandex fibers are vulnerable to damage from a variety of sources including heat, light atmospheric contaminants, and chlorine. For this reason, stabilizers are added to protect the fibers. Antioxidants are one type of stabilizer. Various antioxidants are added to the fibers, including monomeric and polymeric hindered phenols. To protect against light degradation, ultraviolet (UV) screeners such as hydroxybenzotriazoles are added. Compounds which inhibit fiber discoloration caused by atmospheric pollutants are another type of stabilizer added. These are typically compounds with tertiary amine functionality, which can interact with the oxides of nitrogen in air pollution. Since spandex is often used for swimwear, antimildew

Wet-spinning process.

additives must also be added. All of the stabilizers that are added to the spandex fibers are designed to be resistant to solvent exposure since this could have a damaging effect on the fiber.

When they are first produced, spandex fibers are white. Therefore, colorants are added to improve their aesthetic appearance. Dispersed and acid dyes are typically used. If the spandex fibers are interwoven with other fibers such as nylon or polyester, special dying methods are required.

The Manufacturing Process

Spandex fibers are produced in four different ways including melt extrusion, reaction spinning, solution dry spinning, and solution wet spinning. Each of these methods involve the initial step of reacting monomers to produce a prepolymer. Then the prepolymer is reacted further, in various ways, and drawn out to produce a long fiber. Since solution dry spinning is used to produce over 90% of the world's spandex fibers, it is described.
Polymer reactions

1 The first step in the production of spandex is the production of the prepolymer. This is done by mixing a macroglycol with a diisocyanate monomer. The compounds are mixed in a reaction vessel and under the right conditions they react to form a prepolymer. Since the ratio of the component materials produces fibers with varying characteristics, it is strictly controlled. A typical ratio of glycol to diisocyanate may be 1:2. 2 In dry spinning fiber production, the prepolymer is further reacted with an equal amount of diamine. This is known as a chain extension reaction. The resulting solution is diluted with a solvent to produce the spinning solution. The solvent helps make the solution thinner and more easily handled. It can then be pumped into the fiber production cell.

Producing the fibers

3 The spinning solution is pumped into a cylindrical spinning cell where it is cured and converted into fibers. In this cell, the polymer solution is forced through a metal plate, called a spinneret, which has small holes throughout. This causes the solution to be aligned in strands of liquid polymer. As the strands pass through the cell, they are heated in the presence of a nitrogen and solvent gas. These conditions cause the liquid polymer to chemically react and form solid strands. 4 As the fibers exit the cell, a specific amount of the solid strands are bundled together to produce the desired thickness. This is done with a compressed air device that twists the fibers together. In reality, each fiber of spandex is made up of many smaller individual fibers that adhere to one another due to the natural stickiness of their surface.

Final processing

5 The fibers are then treated with a finishing agent. This may be magnesium stearate or another polymer such as poly(dimethyl-siloxane). These finishing materials prevent the fibers from sticking together and aid in textile manufacture. After this treatment, the fibers are transferred through a series of rollers onto a spool. The windup speed of the entire process can be anywhere from 300-500 mi (482.7-804.5 km) per minute depending on the thickness of the fibers. 6 When the spools are filled with fiber, they are put into final packaging and shipped to textile manufacturers and other customers. Here, the fibers may be woven with other fibers such as cotton or nylon to produce the fabric that is used in clothing manufacture. This fabric can also be dyed to produce a desired color.

Quality Control
To ensure the quality of the spandex fibers, manufacturers monitor the product during each phase of production. Inspections begin with the evaluation of the incoming raw materials. Various chemical and

physical characteristics are tested. For example, the pH, specific gravity, and viscosity of the diisocyanate may be checked. Additionally, appearance, color, and odor can also be evaluated. Only by having strict quality control checks on the starting materials can the manufacturer be sure that they will produce a consistent end product. After production, the spandex fibers are also tested. These tests may include those that evaluate fiber elasticity, resilience and absorbency.

The Future
The quality of spandex fibers has continually improved since they were first developed. Various areas of research will help continue their improvement. For example, scientists have found that by changing the starting prepolymers they can develop fibers which have even better stretching characteristics. Other characteristics can be improved by using different prepolymer ratios, better catalysts, and various fillers. In addition to spandex fiber improvements, it is likely that advanced fabrics will be produced which incorporate spandex fibers with conventional fibers. Currently, nylon/spandex fiber blends are available. Finally, improvements in manufacturing will also be discovered. These will focus on producing fibers faster and more efficiently.

Where to Learn More

Books

Jerde, Judith. Encyclopedia of Textiles. Facts on File, 1992. Lewin, M. and J. Preston, ed. High Technology Fibers. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1985.
Other

Devra, A. U.S. Patent 5,303, 882, 1994. Goodrich, C & W. Evans. U.S. Patent 5,028,642, 1991. Perry Romanowski
Polyolefin/ Polypropylene: Largely used in automobile industry, these fibers were commercially produced first in the US in 1961. In 1966, polyolefin became the world's first and only Nobel-Prize winning fiber.

Polypropylene
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search

Polypropylene

IUPAC name[hide] poly(propene)

Other names[hide] Polypropylene; Polypropene; Polipropene 25 [USAN];Propene polymers; Propylene polymers; 1-Propene Identifiers CAS number 9003-07-0 Properties Molecular formula Density Melting point (C3H6)n 0.855 g/cm3, amorphous 0.946 g/cm3, crystalline 130171 C (266340 F)

(verify) (what is: / ?) Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa) Infobox references

Polypropylene (PP), also known as polypropene, is a thermoplastic polymer used in a wide variety of applications including packaging and labeling, textiles (e.g., ropes, thermal underwear and carpets), stationery, plastic parts and reusable containers of various types, laboratory equipment, loudspeakers, automotive components, and polymer banknotes. An addition polymer made from the monomer propylene, it is rugged and unusually resistant to many chemical solvents, bases and acids. In 2008, the global market for polypropylene had a volume of 45.1 million tons, which led to a turnover of about $65 billion (~ 47.4 billion).[1]

Contents

1 Chemical and physical properties o 1.1 Degradation 2 History 3 Synthesis 4 Manufacturing o 4.1 Biaxially Oriented Polypropylene (BOPP) 5 Applications o 5.1 Clothing o 5.2 Medical o 5.3 EPP Model Aircraft 6 Market 7 Recycling 8 Repairing 9 Health concerns 10 References 11 External links

Chemical and physical properties

Micrograph of polypropylene

Most commercial polypropylene is isotactic and has an intermediate level of crystallinity between that of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE). Polypropylene is normally tough and flexible, especially when copolymerized with ethylene. This allows polypropylene to be used as an engineering plastic, competing with materials such as ABS. Polypropylene is reasonably economical, and can be made translucent when uncolored but is not as readily made transparent as polystyrene, acrylic, or certain other plastics. It is often opaque or colored using pigments. Polypropylene has good resistance to fatigue. The melting of polypropylene occurs as a range, so a melting point is determined by finding the highest temperature of a differential scanning calorimetry chart. Perfectly isotactic PP has a melting point of 171 C (340 F). Commercial isotactic PP has a melting point that ranges from 160 to 166 C (320 to 331 F), depending on atactic material and crystallinity. Syndiotactic PP with a crystallinity of 30% has a melting point of 130 C (266 F).[2] The melt flow rate (MFR) or melt flow index (MFI) is a measure of molecular weight of polypropylene. The measure helps to determine how easily the molten raw material will flow during processing. Polypropylene with higher MFR will fill the plastic mold more easily during the injection or blow-molding production process. As the melt flow increases, however, some physical properties, like impact strength, will decrease.

There are three general types of polypropylene: homopolymer, random copolymer, and block copolymer. The comonomer is typically used with ethylene. Ethylene-propylene rubber or EPDM added to polypropylene homopolymer increases its low temperature impact strength. Randomly polymerized ethylene monomer added to polypropylene homopolymer decreases the polymer crystallinity and makes the polymer more transparent.
Degradation

Polypropylene is liable to chain degradation from exposure to heat and UV radiation such as that present in sunlight. Oxidation usually occurs at the tertiary carbon atom present in every repeat unit. A free radical is formed here, and then reacts further with oxygen, followed by chain scission to yield aldehydes and carboxylic acids. In external applications, it shows up as a network of fine cracks and crazes that become deeper and more severe with time of exposure. For external applications, UV-absorbing additives must be used. Carbon black also provides some protection from UV attack. The polymer can also be oxidized at high temperatures, a common problem during molding operations. Anti-oxidants are normally added to prevent polymer degradation.

History
Propylene was first polymerized to a crystalline isotactic polymer by Giulio Natta as well as by the German chemist Karl Rehn in March 1954.[3] This pioneering discovery led to large-scale commercial production of isotactic polypropylene by the Italian firm Montecatini from 1957 onwards.[4] Syndiotactic polypropylene was also first synthesized by Italian Nobel Prize winner Giulio Natta and his coworkers.

Synthesis

Short segments of polypropylene, showing examples of isotactic (above) and syndiotactic (below) tacticity.

An important concept in understanding the link between the structure of polypropylene and its properties is tacticity. The relative orientation of each methyl group (CH3 in the figure) relative to the methyl groups in neighboring monomer units has a strong effect on the polymer's ability to form crystals. A Ziegler-Natta catalyst is able to restrict linking of monomer molecules to a specific regular orientation, either isotactic, when all methyl groups are positioned at the same side with respect to the backbone of the polymer chain, or syndiotactic, when the positions of the methyl groups alternate. Commercially available isotactic polypropylene is made with two types of Ziegler-Natta catalysts. The first group of the catalysts encompases solid (mostly supported) catalysts and certain types of soluble metallocene catalysts. Such isotactic macromolecules coil into a helical shape; these helices then line up next to one another to form the crystals that give commercial isotactic polypropylene many of its desirable properties.

A ball-and-stick model of syndiotactic polypropylene.

Another type of metallocene catalysts produce syndiotactic polypropylene. These macromolecules also coil into helices (of a different type) and form crystalline materials. When the methyl groups in a polypropylene chain exhibit no preferred orientation, the polymers are called atactic. Atactic polypropylene is an amorphous rubbery material. It can be produced commercially either with a special type of supported Ziegler-Natta catalyst or with some metallocene catalysts. Modern supported Ziegler-Natta catalysts developed for the polymerization of propylene and other 1alkenes to isotactic polymers usually use TiCl4 as an active ingredient and MgCl2 as a support.,,[5][6][7] The catalysts also contain organic modifiers, either aromatic acid esters and diesters or ethers. These catalysts are activated with special cocatalysts containing an organoaluminum compound such as Al(C2H5)3 and the second type of a modifier. The catalysts are differentiated depending on the procedure used for fashioning catalyst particles from MgCl2 and depending on the type of organic modifiers employed during catalyst preparation and use in polymerization reactions. Two most important technological characteristics of all the supported catalysts are high productivity and a high fraction of the crystalline isotactic polymer they produce at 70-80 C under standard polymerization conditions. Commercial synthesis of isotactic polypropylene is usually carried out either in the medium of liquid propylene or in gas-phase reactors. Commercial synthesis of syndiotactic polypropylene is carried out with the use of a special class of metallocene catalysts. They employ bridged bis-metallocene complexes of the type bridge-(Cp1)(Cp2)ZrCl2 where the first Cp ligand is the cyclopentadienyl group, the second Cp ligand is the fluorenyl group, and the bridge between the two Cp ligands is -CH2-CH2-, >SiMe2, or >SiPh2.[8] These complexes are converted to polymerization catalysts by activating them with a special organoaluminum cocatalyst, methylalumoxane MAO[9]

Manufacturing
Melt processing of polypropylene can be achieved via extrusion and molding. Common extrusion methods include production of melt-blown and spun-bond fibers to form long rolls for future conversion into a wide range of useful products, such as face masks, filters, nappies (diapers) and wipes. The most common shaping technique is injection molding, which is used for parts such as cups, cutlery, vials, caps, containers, housewares, and automotive parts such as batteries. The related techniques of blow molding and injection-stretch blow molding are also used, which involve both extrusion and molding. The large number of end-use applications for polypropylene are often possible because of the ability to tailor grades with specific molecular properties and additives during its manufacture. For example, antistatic additives can be added to help polypropylene surfaces resist dust and dirt. Many physical finishing

techniques can also be used on polypropylene, such as machining. Surface treatments can be applied to polypropylene parts in order to promote adhesion of printing ink and paints.
Biaxially Oriented Polypropylene (BOPP)

When polypropylene film is extruded and stretched in both the machine direction and across machine direction it is called Biaxially Oriented Polypropylene. Biaxial orentation increases strength and clarity.[10] BOPP is widely used as a packaging material for packaging products such as snack foods, fresh produce and confectionery. It is easy to coat, print and laminate to give the required appearance and properties for use as a packaging material. This process is normally called converting. It is normally produced in large rolls which are slit on slitting machines into smaller rolls for use on packaging machines.

Applications

Polypropylene lid of a Tic Tacs box, with a living hinge and the resin identification code under its flap

Since polypropylene is resistant to fatigue, most plastic living hinges, such as those on flip-top bottles, are made from this material. However, it is important to ensure that chain molecules are orientated across the hinge to maximise strength. Very thin sheets of polypropylene are used as a dielectric within certain high-performance pulse and lowloss RF capacitors. Polypropylene is used in the manufacturing piping systems; both ones concerned with high-purity and ones designed for strength and rigidity (e.g. those intended for use in potable plumbing, hydronic heating and cooling, and reclaimed water).[11] This material is often chosen for its resistance to corrosion and chemical leaching, its resilience against most forms of physical damage, including impact and freezing, its environmental benefits, and its ability to be joined by heat fusion rather than gluing.[12][13][14]

A polypropylene chair

Many plastic items for medical or laboratory use can be made from polypropylene because it can withstand the heat in an autoclave. Its heat resistance also enables it to be used as the manufacturing material of consumer-grade kettles[citation needed]. Food containers made from it will not melt in the dishwasher, and do not melt during industrial hot filling processes. For this reason, most plastic tubs for dairy products are polypropylene sealed with aluminum foil (both heat-resistant materials). After the product has cooled, the tubs are often given lids made of a less heat-resistant material, such as LDPE or polystyrene. Such containers provide a good hands-on example of the difference in modulus, since the rubbery (softer, more flexible) feeling of LDPE with respect to polypropylene of the same thickness is readily apparent. Rugged, translucent, reusable plastic containers made in a wide variety of shapes and sizes for consumers from various companies such as Rubbermaid and Sterilite are commonly made of polypropylene, although the lids are often made of somewhat more flexible LDPE so they can snap on to the container to close it. Polypropylene can also be made into disposable bottles to contain liquid, powdered, or similar consumer products, although HDPE and polyethylene terephthalate are commonly also used to make bottles. Plastic pails, car batteries, wastebaskets, pharmacy prescription bottles, cooler containers, dishes and pitchers are often made of polypropylene or HDPE, both of which commonly have rather similar appearance, feel, and properties at ambient temperature. A common application for polypropylene is as biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP). These BOPP sheets are used to make a wide variety of materials including clear bags. When polypropylene is biaxially oriented, it becomes crystal clear and serves as an excellent packaging material for artistic and retail products. Polypropylene, highly colorfast, is widely used in manufacturing carpets, rugs and mats to be used at home.[15] Polypropylene is widely used in ropes, distinctive because they are light enough to float in water.[16][dead link] For equal mass and construction, polypropylene rope is similar in strength to polyester rope. Polypropylene costs less than most other synthetic fibers. Polypropylene is also used as an alternative to polyvinyl chloride (PVC) as insulation for electrical cables for LSZH cable in low-ventilation environments, primarily tunnels. This is because it emits less smoke and no toxic halogens, which may lead to production of acid in high-temperature conditions. Polypropylene is also used in particular roofing membranes as the waterproofing top layer of single-ply systems as opposed to modified-bit systems.

Polypropylene is most commonly used for plastic moldings, wherein it is injected into a mold while molten, forming complex shapes at relatively low cost and high volume; examples include bottle tops, bottles, and fittings. It can also be produced in sheet form, widely used for the production of stationery folders, packaging, and storage boxes. The wide color range, durability, low cost, and resistance to dirt make it ideal as a protective cover for papers and other materials. It is used in Rubik's Cube stickers because of these characteristics. The availability of sheet polypropylene has provided an opportunity for the use of the material by designers. The light-weight, durable, and colorful plastic makes an ideal medium for the creation of light shades, and a number of designs have been developed using interlocking sections to create elaborate designs. Polypropylene sheets are a popular choice for trading card collectors; these come with pockets (nine for standard-size cards) for the cards to be inserted and are used to protect their condition and are meant to be stored in a binder. Expanded polypropylene (EPP) is a foam form of polypropylene. EPP has very good impact characteristics due to its low stiffness; this allows EPP to resume its shape after impacts. EPP is extensively used in model aircraft and other radio controlled vehicles by hobbyists. This is mainly due to its ability to absorb impacts, making this an ideal material for RC aircraft for beginners and amateurs. Polypropylene is used in the manufacture of loudspeaker drive units. Its use was pioneered by engineers at the BBC and the patent rights subsequently purchased by Mission Electronics for use in their Mission Freedom Loudspeaker and Mission 737 Renaissance loudspeaker. Polypropylene fibres are used as a concrete additive to increase strength and reduce cracking and spalling.[17]
Clothing

Polypropylene is a major polymer used in nonwovens, with over 50% used[citation needed] for diapers or sanitary products where it is treated to absorb water (hydrophilic) rather than naturally repelling water (hydrophobic). Other interesting non-woven uses include filters for air, gas, and liquids in which the fibers can be formed into sheets or webs that can be pleated to form cartridges or layers that filter in various efficiencies in the 0.5 to 30 micrometre range. Such applications could be seen in the house as water filters or air-conditioning-type filters. The high surface area and naturally oleophilic polypropylene nonwovens are ideal absorbers of oil spills with the familiar floating barriers near oil spills on rivers. In New Zealand, in the US military, and elsewhere, polypropylene, or 'polypro' (New Zealand 'polyprops'), has been used for the fabrication of cold-weather base layers, such as long-sleeve shirts or long underwear (More recently, polyester has replaced polypropylene in these applications in the U.S. military, such as in the ECWCS [18]). Polypropylene is also used in warm-weather gear such as some Under Armour clothing, which can easily transport sweat away from the skin. Although polypropylene clothes are not easily flammable, they can melt, which may result in severe burns if the service member is involved in an explosion or fire of any kind.[19] Polypropylene undergarments are known for retaining body odors which are then difficult to remove. The current generation of polyester does not have this disadvantage.[20] The material has recently been introduced into the fashion industry through the work of designers such as Anoush Waddington, who have developed specialized techniques to create jewelry and wearable items from polypropylene.
Medical

Its most common medical use is in the synthetic, nonabsorbable suture Prolene, manufactured by Ethicon Inc.

Polypropylene has been used in hernia and pelvic organ prolapse repair operations to protect the body from new hernias in the same location. A small patch of the material is placed over the spot of the hernia, below the skin, and is painless and rarely, if ever, rejected by the body. However, a polypropylene mesh will erode over the uncertain period from days to years. Therefore, the FDA has issued several warnings on the use of polypropylene mesh medical kits for certain applications in pelvic organ prolapse, specifically when introduced in close proximity to the vaginal wall due to a continued increase in number of mesh erosions reported by patients over the past few years.[21] Most recently, on January 3, 2012, the FDA ordered 35 manufacturers of these mesh products to study the side effects of these devices.[22]
EPP Model Aircraft

Since 2001, expanded polypropylene (EPP) foams have been gaining in popularity and in application as a structural material in hobbyist radio control model aircraft. Unlike expanded polystyrene foam (EPS) which is friable and breaks easily on impact, EPP foam is able to absorb kinetic impacts very well without breaking, retains its original shape, and exhibits memory form characteristics which allow it to return to its original shape in a short amount of time. In consequence, a radio-control model whose wings and fuselage are constructed from EPP foam is extremely resilient, and able to absorb impacts that would result in complete destruction of models made from lighter traditional materials, such as balsa or even EPS foams. EPP models, when covered with inexpensive fibreglass impregnated self adhesive tapes, often exhibit much increased mechanical strength, in conjunction with a lightness and surface finish that rival those of models of the aforementioned types. EPP is also chemically highly inert, permitting the use of a wide variety of different adhesives. EPP can be heat molded, and surfaces can be easily finished with the use of cutting tools and abrasive papers. The principal areas of model making in which EPP has found great acceptance are the fields of:

Wind-driven Slope Soarers Indoor electric powered profile electric models Hand launched gliders for small children

In the field of slope soaring, EPP has found greatest favour and use, as it permits the construction of radiocontrolled model gliders of great strength and maneuverability. In consequence, the disciplines of slope combat (the active process of friendly competitors attempting to knock each other's planes out of the air by direct contact) and slope pylon racing have become commonplace, in direct consequence of the strength characteristics of the material EPP.

Market
Following the slumping recession period and the slow revival state during the post-crisis years, the global market for polypropylene is seeing considerable demand increases as the key end-use fields expand production volumes. The total polypropylene market is not expected to witness complete and bashing downs in the coming 5 years: the polypropylene price is high and consumers are looking more rigidly for the material substitutes.[23]

Recycling

Polypropylene is recyclable and has the number "5" as its resin identification code:

.[24]

Repairing
Many objects are made with polypropylene precisely because it is resilient and resistant to most solvents and glues. Also, there are very few glues available specifically for gluing PP. However, solid PP objects not subject to undue flexing can be satisfactorily joined with a two part epoxy glue or using hot-glue guns. Preparation is important and it is often helpful to roughen the surface with a file, emery paper or other

abrasive material to provide better anchorage for the glue. Also it is recommended to clean with mineral spirits or similar alcohol prior to gluing to remove any oils or other contamination. Some experimentation may be required. There are also some industrial glues available for PP, but these can be difficult to find, especially in a retail store.[citation needed] PP can be melted using a speed welding technique. With speed welding, the plastic welder, similar to a soldering iron in appearance and wattage, is fitted with a feed tube for the plastic weld rod. The speed tip heats the rod and the substrate, while at the same time it presses the molten weld rod into position. A bead of softened plastic is laid into the joint, and the parts and weld rod fuse. With polypropylene, the melted welding rod must be "mixed" with the semi-melted base material being fabricated or repaired. A speed tip "gun" is essentially a soldering iron with a broad, flat tip that can be used to melt the weld joint and filler material to create a bond.

Health concerns
In 2008, researchers in Canada asserted that quaternary ammonium biocides and oleamide were leaking out of certain polypropylene labware, affecting experimental results.[25] Since polypropylene is used in a wide number of food containers such as those for yogurt, Health Canada media spokesman Paul Duchesne, said the department will be reviewing the findings to determine whether steps are needed to protect consumers.[26] The Environmental Working Group classifies PP as of lo
Microfibers: The thinnest and the finest fiber, finer even than silk, was first produced in 1989 in the US. Today, microfibers are produced in a variety of synthetic fibers such as polyester, nylon, acrylic, etc.

A Short History Of Microfiber

Man-Made Fibers - Microfiber Polyesters, e.g., Dacron, produced by the polymerization of the product of an alcohol and organic-acid reaction, are strong and wrinkle-resistant. Microfiber, which was introduced in 1986, is a variety of polyester that has extremely thin filaments. One cannot overstate the importance of Microfiber to our civilization. As a synthetic it provides humans with control over its supply. It is tough, resilient, and can be manufactured to extremely fine tolerances, many times thinner than other synthetics. It is this strength, precision and absolute sheerness as well as its phenomenal absorbency that give rise to so many applications, including an amazing ability to clean and dry surfaces. Now microfiber (specifically polyester) as the sole constituent of a cloth will wear and shed fiber with use, so it is best utilized (as it is in Googalies) in combination with Nylon. Nylon, a synthetic thermoplastic material introduced in 1938, is strong, elastic, resistant to abrasion and chemicals, and low in moisture absorbency.

When combined with the polyester microfiber in just the right combination, a cloth results with the advantages of both synthetics. Too much nylon will result in a cloth that will scratch fine or delicate surfaces like coated optics or fine wood or paint finishes. Too little nylon and the cloth will not last or clean rough surfaces like guitar strings without rapid deterioration. It is this perfect combination of microfiber and nylon that make Googalies the wonder it is. Many of you may find it interesting to more completely explore the evolution of man-made or synthetic fibers so we have provided below and brief yet comprehensive history of these wonderful inventions below. Natural Fibers Historically, the use of fiber was limited to those fibers available in the natural world. However, cotton and linen wrinkled from wear and washings; Silk required delicate handling; Wool shrank, and was irritating to the touch. Only a century ago, rayon - the first manufactured fiber - was developed. Fiber chemistry for endless application began. Manufactured (man-made) fibers are now found in modern apparel, home furnishings, medicine, aeronautics, energy, industry, and more. Fiber engineers can combine, modify and tailor fibers in ways far beyond the performance limits of fiber drawn from natural sources such as the silkworm cocoon that is grown in the fields, or spun from the fleece of animals. The table below illustrates the evolution of man-made fibers. First Commercial U.S. Fiber Production
1910 Rayon 1936 Glass 1941 Saran 1949 Olefin 1924 Acetate 1939 Nylon 1946 Metallic 1950 Acrylic 1930 Rubber 1939 Vinyon 1949 Modacrylic 1953 Polyester 1983 PBI

1959 Spandex 1961 Aramid 1983 Sulfar

1986 Microfiber 1992 Lyocell

The Early Attempts The first patent for "artificial silk" was granted in England in 1855 to a Swiss chemist named Audemars. He dissolved the fibrous inner bark of a mulberry tree, chemically modifying it to produce cellulose. He formed threads by dipping needles into this solution and drawing them out - but it never occurred to him to emulate the silkworm by extruding the cellulosic liquid through a small hole. In the early 1880's, Sir Joseph W. Swan, an English chemist and electrician, was spurred to action by Thomas Edison's new incandescent electric lamp. He experimented with forcing a liquid similar to Audemars solution through fine holes into a coagulating bath. His fibers worked like carbon filament, and they found early use in Edison's invention. It also occurred to Swan that his filament could be used to make textiles. In 1885, he exhibited in London some fabrics crocheted by his wife from his new fiber. First Commercial Production The first commercial scale production of a manufactured fiber was achieved by French chemist Count Hilaire de Chardonnet. In 1889, his fabrics of "artificial silk" caused a sensation at the Paris Exhibition. Two years later, he built the first commercial rayon plant at Besancon, France, and secured his fame as the "father of the rayon industry." Several attempts to produce "artificial silk" in the United States were made during the early 1900's, but none were commercially successful until the American Viscose Company, formed by Samuel Courtaulds and Co., Ltd., began its production of rayon in 1910.

In 1893, Arthur D. Little of Boston, invented yet another cellulosic product - acetate - and developed it as a film. By 1910, Camille and Henry Dreyfus were making acetate motion picture film and toilet articles in Basel, Switzerland. During World War I, they built a plant in England to produce cellulose acetate dope for airplane wings and other commercial products. Upon entering the War, the United States government invited the Dreyfus brothers to build a plant in Maryland to make the product for American warplanes. The first commercial textile uses for acetate in fiber form were developed by the Celanese Company in 1924. In the meantime, U.S. rayon production was growing to meet increasing demand. By the mid-1920's, textile manufacturers could purchase the fiber for half the price of raw silk. So began manufactured fibers' gradual conquest of the American fiber market. This modest start in the 1920's grew to nearly 70% of the national market for fiber by the last decade of the century. Nylon - The "Miracle" Fiber In September 1931, American chemist Wallace Carothers reported on research carried out in the laboratories of the DuPont Company on "giant" molecules called polymers. He focused his work on a fiber referred to simply as "66", a number derived from its molecular structure. Nylon, the "miracle fiber," was born. The Chemical Heritage Foundation is currently featuring an exhibit on the history of nylon. By 1938, Paul Schlack of the I.G. Farben Company in Germany, polymerized caprolactam and created a different form of the polymer, identified simply as nylon "6." Nylon's advent created a revolution in the fiber industry. Rayon and acetate had been derived from plant cellulose, but nylon was synthesized completely from petrochemicals. It established the basis for the ensuing discovery of an entire new world of manufactured fibers. An American Romance DuPont began commercial production of nylon in 1939. The first experimental testing used nylon as sewing thread in parachute fabric, and in women's hosiery. Nylon stockings were shown in February 1939 at the San Francisco Exposition - and the most exciting fashion innovation of the age was underway. American women had only a sampling of the beauty and durability of their first pairs of nylon hose when their romance with the new fabric was cut short. The United States entered World War II in December 1941 and the War Production Board allocated all production of nylon for military use. Nylon hose, which sold for $1.25 a pair before the War, moved in the black market at $10. Wartime pin-ups and movie stars, like Betty Grable, auctioned nylon hose for as much as $40,000 a pair in war-effort drives. During the War, nylon replaced Asian silk in parachutes. It also found use in tires, tents, ropes, ponchos, and other military supplies, and even was used in the production of a high-grade paper for U.S. currency. At the outset of the War, cotton was king of fibers, accounting for more than 80% of all fibers used. Manufactured and wool fibers shared the remaining 20%. By the end of the War in August 1945, cotton stood at 75% of the fiber market. Manufactured fibers had risen to 15%. The Post-War Industry After the war, GI's came home, families were reunited, industrial America gathered its peacetime forces, and economic growth surged. The conversion of nylon production to civilian uses started and when the first small quantities of postwar nylon stockings were advertised, thousands of frenzied women lined up at New York department stores to buy. In the immediate post-war period, most nylon production was used to satisfy this enormous pent up demand for hosiery. But by the end of the 1940's, it was also being used in carpeting and automobile upholstery. At the same time, three new generic manufactured fibers started production. Dow Badische Company (today, BASF Corporation) introduced metalized fibers; Union Carbide Corporation developed modacrylic fiber; and Hercules, Inc. added olefin fiber. Manufactured fibers continued their steady march. By the 1950's, the industry was supplying more than 20% of the fiber needs of textile mills. A new fiber, ""acrylic,"" was added to the list of generic names, as DuPont began production of this wool-like product. Meanwhile, polyester, first examined as part of the Wallace Carothers early research, was attracting new interest at the Calico Printers Association in Great Britain. There, J. T. Dickson and J. R. Whinfield produced a polyester fiber by

condensation polymerization of ethylene glycol with terephthalic acid. DuPont subsequently acquired the patent rights for the United States and Imperial Chemical Industries for the rest of the world. A host of other producers soon joined in. A Wash and Wear Revolution In the summer of 1952, "wash and wear" was coined to describe a new blend of cotton and acrylic. The term eventually was applied to a wide variety of manufactured fiber blends. Commercial production of polyester fiber transformed the "wash and wear" novelty into a revolution in textile product performance. Polyester's commercialization in 1953 was accompanied by the introduction of triacetate. The majority of the 20th century's basic manufactured fibers now had been discovered, and the industry's engineers turned to refining their chemical and physical properties to extend their use across the American economy. In the 1960's and 1970's consumers bought more and more clothing made with polyester. Clotheslines were replaced by electric dryers, and the "wash and wear" garments they dried emerged wrinkle free. Ironing began to shrink away on the daily list of household chores. Fabrics became more durable and color more permanent. New dyeing effects were being achieved and shape-retaining knits offered new comfort and style. Endless Possibilities In the 1960's, manufactured fiber production accelerated as it was spurred on by continuous fiber innovation. The revolutionary new fibers were modified to offer greater comfort, provide flame resistance, reduce clinging, release soil, achieve greater whiteness, special dullness or luster, easier dyeability, and better blending qualities. New fiber shapes and thicknesses were introduced to meet special needs. Spandex, a stretchable fiber; aramid, a high-temperatureresistant polyamide; and para-aramid, with outstanding strength-to-weight properties, were introduced into the marketplace. In the early 1960's, manufactured fiber accounted for nearly 30% of American textile mill consumption. By 1965, the manufactured fiber industry was providing over 40% of the nation's fiber needs. One dramatic new set of uses for manufactured fibers came with the establishment of the U.S. space program. The industry provided special fiber for uses ranging from clothing for the astronauts to spaceship nose cones. When Neil Armstrong took "One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind," on the moon on July 20, 1969, his lunar space suit included multi-layers of nylon and aramid fabrics. The flag he planted was made of nylon. Today, the exhaust nozzles of the two large booster rockets that lift the space shuttle into orbit contain 30,000 pounds of carbonized rayon. Carbon fiber composites are used in as structural components in the latest commercial aircraft, adding strength and lowering weight and fuel costs. Safety and Energy Challenges The early 1970's saw a wave of consumer protection demands, most notably one for a mandated Federal flammability standard for children's sleepwear. The manufactured fiber industry spent $20 million on flammability research and development in 1972 and 1973, and manufactured fiber fabrics became predominant in this market. Flammability standards were also issued for carpet and other products. In the U.S. carpet market, 99% of all surface fibers are now manufactured fibers. In late 1973, when the Nation was struck by a severe energy crisis, the manufactured fiber industry reduced the energy required to produce a pound of fiber by 26%. By then, the industry was using but 1% of the Nation's petroleum supply to provide two-thirds of all fibers used by American textile mills. Today Innovation is the hallmark of the manufactured fiber industry. Fibers more numerous and diverse than any found in nature are now routinely created in the industry's laboratories. Nylon variants, polyester, and olefin are used to produce carpets that easily can be rinsed clean even 24 hours after they've been stained. Stretchable spandex and machine-washable, silk-like polyesters occupy solid places in the U.S. apparel market. The finest microfiber is remaking the world of fashion. For industrial uses, manufactured fibers relentlessly replace traditional materials in applications from super-absorbent diapers, to artificial organs, to construction materials for moon-based space stations. Engineered non-woven products

of manufactured fibers are found in applications from surgical gowns and apparel interfacing to roofing materials, road bed stabilizers, and floppy disk envelopes and liners. Non-woven fabrics, stiff as paper or as soft and comfortable as limp cloth, are made without knitting or weaving.

Microfiber
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(February 2012)

Microfiber cloth. Suitable for cleaning sensitive surfaces.

Microfiber or microfibre refers to synthetic fibers (fiber) that measure less than one denier. The most common types of microfibers are made from polyesters, polyamides (e.g., nylon, kevlar, nomex, trogamide), and or a conjugation of polyester and polyamide. Microfiber is used to make non-woven, woven and knitted textiles. The shape, size and combinations of synthetic fibers are selected for specific characteristics, including: softness, durability, absorption, wicking abilities, water repellency, electrodynamics, and filtering capabilities. Microfiber is commonly used for apparel, upholstery, industrial filters and cleaning products.

Contents

1 Material 2 History 3 Functional uses o 3.1 Clothing o 3.2 Insulation o 3.3 Basketballs o 3.4 Cleaning o 3.5 Other textile uses 4 Environmental and safety issues 5 References

Material
Microfiber is a fiber with less than 1 Decitex per filament (Source: Textile Terms and Definitions, 11th Edition, published The Textile Institute). Decitex is a measure of linear density and is commonly used to describe the size of a fiber or filament. Ten thousand meters of a 1-decitex fiber weighs one gram. Some commercial producers may use a value of less than 1.3 Decitex to define microfibers. Fibers are combined to create yarns which are knitted or woven in a variety of constructions. While many microfibers are made of polyester, they can also be composed of polyamide or other polymers.

History
Production of ultra-fine fibers (less than 0.7 denier) dates back to the late 1950s, using melt-blown spinning and flash spinning techniques. However, only fine staples of random length could be manufactured and very few applications could be found.[1] Experiments to produce ultra-fine fibers of a continuous filament type were made subsequently, the most promising of which were run in Japan during the 1960s by Dr. Miyoshi Okamoto.[2] Okamoto's discoveries, together with those of Dr. Toyohiko Hikota, resulted in many industrial applications. Among these was Ultrasuede, one of the first successful synthetic microfibers, which found its way onto the market in the 1970s. Microfiber use in the textile industry then expanded.[3] Microfibers were first publicized in the early 1990s in Sweden and saw success as a product in Europe over the course of the decade.[4] In 2007, Rubbermaid began a line of microfiber products for American markets, the first major company to do so.[4]

Functional uses
Clothing

Microfiber apparel is often used for athletic wear, such as cycling jerseys, because the microfiber material wicks moisture (sweat) away from the body, keeping the wearer cool and dry. Microfiber is also very elastic, making it suitable for undergarments. Microfibers were used by the US military and many federal agencies, such as in the Future Force Warrior Program in the United States[citation needed] as they dried rapidly and caused less skin irritation due to moisture[citation needed], but the U.S. military has since banned the wearing of most synthetic clothing due to melting and burn risk.[5] Microfiber is also used to make tough, very soft-to-the-touch materials for general clothing use, often used in skirts and jackets. Microfiber can be made into Ultrasuede, an animal-product-free imitation suede that is cheaper and easier to clean and sew than real suede.

Insulation

Microfiber materials such as PrimaLoft are used for thermal insulation as a replacement for down feather insulation in sleeping bags and outdoor equipment, due to their better retention of heat when damp or wet.[6]
Basketballs

With microfiber basketballs already popular worldwide and in FIBA[citation needed], the NBA proposed the use of a microfiber ball for the 200607 season.[7] The ball, which is manufactured by Spalding, does not require a "break-in" period of use as leather balls do, and has the ability to absorb water and oils, meaning that sweat from players touching the ball is better absorbed, making the ball less slippery.[7] Over the course of the season, the league received many complaints from players who found that the ball bounced differently from leather balls, and that it left cuts on their hands.[8] On January 1, 2007, the league scrapped the use of all microfiber balls and returned to leather basketballs.[8]
Cleaning

Cross section of microfiber and cotton threads. Principle of action, illustrated with the movement to the right. Microfiber leaves little or no residue, contrary to cotton. (Top image is microfiber, bottom is cotton.)

Microfiber products used for consumer cleaning are generally constructed from split conjugated fibers of polyester and polyamide. Microfiber used for commercial cleaning products also includes many products constructed of 100% polyester microfiber. Fabrics made with microfibers are exceptionally soft and hold their shape well. When high-quality microfiber is combined with the right knitting process, it creates an extremely effective cleaning material. This material can hold up to eight times its weight in water. Microfiber products have exceptional ability to absorb oils, and are not hard enough to scratch even paintwork unless they have retained grit or hard particles from previous use.

A microfiber mop with velcro back for fastening on handle.

Microfiber is widely used by car detailers to handle tasks such as removing wax from paintwork, quick detailing, cleaning interior, cleaning glass, and drying. Due to their fine fibers which leave no lint or dust, microfiber towels are used by car detailers and enthusiasts in a similar manner to a chamois leather. Microfiber is used in many professional cleaning applications, for example in mops and cleaning cloths. Although microfiber mops cost more than non-microfiber mops, they may be more economical because they last longer and require less effort to use.[9][10] Microfiber textiles designed for cleaning clean on a microscopic scale. According to tests using microfiber materials to clean a surface leads to reducing the number of bacteria by 99%, whereas a conventional cleaning material reduces this number only by 33%.[11] Microfiber cleaning tools also absorb fat and grease and their electrostatic properties give them a high dust-attracting power[citation needed]. Microfiber cloths are used to clean photographic lenses as they absorb oily matter without being abrasive or leaving a residue, and are sold by major manufacturers such as Sinar,[12] Nikon and Canon. Small microfiber cleaning cloths are commonly sold for cleaning computer screens and eyeglasses.

Microfiber is unsuitable for some cleaning applications as it accumulates dust, debris, and particles. Sensitive surfaces (such as all high-tech coated surfaces e.g. CRT, LCD and plasma screens) can easily be damaged by a microfiber cloth if it has picked up grit or other abrasive particles during use. The cloth itself is generally safer to use on these surfaces than other cloths, particularly as it requires no cleaning fluid. One way to minimize the risk of damage to flat surfaces is to use a flat, non-rugged microfiber cloth, as these tend to be less prone to retaining grit. Cleaning textiles made of microfiber must only be washed in regular washing detergent, not oily, selfsoftening, soap-based detergents. Fabric softener must not be used. The oils in the softener and selfsoftening detergents will clog up the fibers and make them less effective until the oils are washed out.
Other textile uses

Microfibers used in tablecloths, furniture, and car interiors are designed to repel liquids and consequently are difficult to stain. Microfiber tablecloths will bead liquids until they are removed and are sometimes advertised showing red wine on a white tablecloth that wipes clean with a paper towel. This and the ability to mimic suede economically are common selling points for microfiber upholstery fabrics (e.g. for couches).[citation needed] Microfibers are used in towels especially those to be used at swimming pools as even a small towel dries the body quickly. They dry quickly and are less prone than cotton towels to become stale if not dried immediately. Paradoxically, microfiber towels need to be soaked in water and pressed before use, as they would otherwise repel water as microfiber tablecloths do.

Environmental and safety issues

Microfiber textiles tend to be flammable and emit toxic gases when burning.[citation needed] They are made with synthetic fibers such as polyester and nylon which are made from petrochemicals. Microfibers are not made from a renewable resource and are not biodegradable. For most cleaning applications they are designed for repeated use rather than being discarded after use[4] (an exception is the precise cleaning of optical components where a 'wet' cloth is drawn once across the object and must not be used again as the debris collected and now embedded in the cloth may scratch the optical surface). In many household cleaning applications (washing floors, furniture, etc.) microfiber cleaning fabrics can be used without detergents or cleaning solutions which would otherwise be needed.[citation needed]

Lyocell: Eco- friendly fiber, obtained from the wood pulp of trees specifically grown for it, were commercially produced first in the US in 1993.

Lyocell
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The label of a coat with Tencel

Lyocell is a regenerated cellulose fiber made from dissolving pulp (bleached wood pulp). It was first manufactured in 1987 by Courtaulds Fibres UK at their pilot plant S25. As of 2010 it is manufactured by Lenzing AG of Lenzing, Austria, under the brand name "Lyocell by Lenzing", and under the brand name Tencel by the Tencel group, now owned by Lenzing AG.[1] The US Federal Trade Commission defines Lyocell as "a cellulose fabric that is obtained by an organic solvent spinning process". It classifies the fibre as a sub-category of rayon. The fiber is used to make textiles for clothing and other purposes.[2]

Contents

1 Major properties 2 The manufacturing process 3 Fabric and garments from Lyocell fiber 4 Uses 5 Producers 6 See also 7 External links 8 References

Major properties
Lyocell first went on public sale as a type of rayon in 1991. It shares many properties with other cellulosic fibers such as cotton, linen, ramie and rayon. Some main characteristics of lyocell fibers are that they are soft, absorbent, very strong when wet or dry, and resistant to wrinkles; lyocell fabric can be machine- or hand-washed or drycleaned, it drapes well, and it can be dyed many colors, and can simulate a variety of textures such as suede, leather, and silk.[3]

The manufacturing process

Hardwood logs are chipped into squares about the size of postage stamps. The chips are digested chemically, to remove the lignin and to soften them enough to be mechanically milled to a wet pulp. This pulp may be bleached. Then it is dried into a continuous sheet and rolled onto spools. At this stage, it has the consistency of thick posterboard paper. The roll of cellulose weighs some 500 lb (227 kg). The waste liquor may be reworked to produce tall oil, used to make alkyd resins.

At the Lyocell mill, rolls of pulp are broken into one-inch squares and dissolved in N-methylmorpholine Noxide, giving a solution called "dope." The filtered cellulose solution is then pumped through spinnerets, devices used with a variety of manmade fibers. The spinneret is pierced with small holes rather like a showerhead; when the solution is forced through it, long strands of fiber come out. The fibers are then immersed in another solution of amine oxide, diluted this time, which sets the fiber strands. Then they are washed with de-mineralized water. The Lyocell fiber next passes to a drying area, where the water is evaporated from it. The strands then pass to a finishing area, where a lubricant, which may be a soap or silicone or other agent depending on the future use of the fiber, is applied. This step is basically a detangler, prior to carding and spinning into yarn. The dried, finished fibers are at this stage in a form called tow, a large untwisted bundle of continuous lengths of filament. The bundles of tow are taken to a crimper, a machine that compresses the fiber, giving it texture and bulk. The crimped fiber is carded by mechanical carders, which perform an action like combing, to separate and order the strands. The carded strands are cut and baled for shipment to a fabric mill. The entire manufacturing process, from unrolling the raw cellulose to baling the fiber, takes about two hours. After this, the Lyocell may be processed in many ways. It may be spun with another fiber, such as cotton or wool. The resulting yarn can be woven or knitted like any other fabric, and given a variety of finishes, from soft and suede-like to silky.[4] The amine oxide used to dissolve the cellulose and set the fiber after spinning is recycled. 98% of the amine oxide is typically recovered. Since there is little waste product, this process is relatively eco-friendly. However, it uses a substantial amount of energy, and uses an organic solvent of petrochemical origin.

Fabric and garments from Lyocell fiber

After the fiber is created it is provided to manufacturers for weaving into fabric, then the fabric is used to create garments. Manufacturers may use environmentally unfriendly or chemical treatments to overcome the natural reluctance of the fiber to take dye and to overcome its natural pilling tendency. Although the closedloop manufacturing process makes Lyocell inherently the most eco-friendly of the naturally regenerating fibers, different fabric and garment manufacturers vary in this respect.[5]

Uses
As of 2010 Lyocell is more expensive to produce than cotton or rayon. It is used in many everyday fabrics. Staple fibres are used in clothes such as denim, chino, underwear, casual wear, and towels. Filament fibers are used in items that have a silkier appearance such as womens clothing and mens dress shirts. Lyocell can be blended with a variety of other fibers such as silk, cotton, rayon, polyester, linen, nylon, and wool. Lyocell is also used in conveyor belts, specialty papers and medical dressings. (Textiles, Kadolph & Langford). Tencel is also used for making some brands of baby diaper wipe.
Innovations have not stopped and newer fibers are regularly being developed in the textile industry for greater specialized uses demanded by the hi- tech industrial environments.