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iI
of sub-
groups is denoted by
_
iI
G
i
. The singleton subgroup is denoted by E. If H is
a subgroup, the notation H means the normal subgroup generated by H. The
commutator of two elements x, y is the element xy = x
1
y
1
xy. The commu-
tator of two subgroups K, H of G is the subgroup K H generated by all the
commutators k h with k K and h H. The commutator K H is a normal
subgroup of KH; in particular GH is a normal subgroup of G. For any sub-
group H of G, by setting G
1
H = GH , G
n+1
H = G(G
n
H) (n = 1, 2, . . . ),
one obtains a decreasing sequence G
1
H G
n
H . . . of normal sub-
groups of G.
Now let G = G
1
G
n
be a nite direct product of groups. For each
i = 1, . . . , n, let H
i
= (g
1
, . . . , g
n
) G [ g
j
= e for j ,= i. It is easy to see that
the H
i
s are normal subgroups of G which generate G and for each i = 1, . . . , n,
the intersection between H
i
and the subgroup of G generated by the other H
j
s
reduces to E. Therefore, following A.G. Kurosh [1953], a group G is a direct
product of a family G
i
iI
of subgroups, written
G =
iI
G
i
,
provided the following conditions are satised:
each G
i
is a normal subgroup of G ;
G =
_
iI
G
i
= ;
(i I) G
i
_
jI{i}
G
j
= E .
O.N. Golovin has introduced the following more general concept. A group
G is a regular product of a family G
i
iI
of subgroups, written
G =
iI
G
i
provided the following conditions are satised;
G =
_
iI
G
i
,
(i I) G
i
_
JI{i}
G
j
= E.
Golovin has also dened the rst normalized commutator of the subgroups
G
i
as
K
1
=
i,jI;i=j
(G
i
G
j
) ,
and the n-th step normalized commutators are dened inductively:
K
n+1
= G K
n
(n = 1, 2, . . . ) ;
they form a decreasing sequence of normal divisors of G.
Following Benado, a subgroup H of a group G is called an n-step normal
subgroup if G
n
H H. The conventional normal subgroups coincide with the
1-step normal subgroups, but for n > 1 there exist n-step normal subgroups
4
that are not normal subgroups. Clearly each n-step normal subgroup is also an
(n + 1)-step normal subgroup. For each n, the n-step normal subgrups form a
complete sublattice of the lattice of all subgroups of G.
Also, a regular product
iI
G
i
is called by Benado an n-step direct product,
written
(n)
iI
G
i
,
provided its factors are n-step normal subgroups: G
n
G
i
G
i
(i I).
Here are a few sample results linking these concepts [31].
A regular product is an n-step direct product if and only if K
n
= E. The
n-step direct product is associative, to the eect that if G =
(n)
iI
G
i
and each
G
i
=
(n)
jJ
i
G
ij
(i I), then G
i
=
(n)
iI,jJ
i
G
ij
. The subgroup property says
that if G =
(n)
iI
G
i
and H
i
are subgroups of G such that H
i
G
i
(i I), then
_
iI
H
i
=
(n)
iI
H
i
. A non-trivial free group cannot be expressed as an n-step
direct product. If G = G
1
G
2
and G
1
(or G
2
) is an n-step normal subgroup,
then K
n
G
1
(or K
n
G
2
).
The above theorems (previously known for n = 1) and other similar results
generalize theorems due to Baer, Levi and Golovin, and solve a problem raised
by Malcev and Golovin.
Benado also found [21] a condition equivalent to the complete associativity
of a regular product, meaning that if G =
iI
G
i
then for any partition
I = I
, I
= we have G = (
iI
G
i
) (
iI
G
i
).
On the other hand, the concept of a direct product of subgroups can be lifted
to a lattice-theoretical level, as Kurosh rst did. He introduced the concept of a
completely modular latice, meaning a complete lattice L which satises the fol-
lowing strengthening of the modular law: for every two families x
i
iI
, y
i
iI
of elements of L, if x
i
y
j
for all i, j I with i ,= j, then
(
iI
x
i
) (
iI
y
i
) =
iI
(x
i
y
i
) .
Taking a two-element set I and y
1
= x
1
x
2
, one sees that every completely
modular lattice is indeed modular, but there exist modular complete lattices
that are not completely modular. Kurosh dened direct decompositions
5
a =
.
_
iI
a
i
in a completely modular lattice, meaning that the following conditions are ful-
lled:
a =
_
iI
a
i
,
(i I) a
i
a
i
= 0, where a
i
=
_
jI{i}
a
j
.
So a direct product of groups
iI
G
i
is a direct decomposition of the greatest
element G of the completely modular lattice of normal divisors of G.
5
which he rather improperly called direct sums
5
The endomorphisms of a direct decomposition 1 =
.
_
iI
a
i
of the unit 1 of L
are the mappings
i
: L L dened by
i
(x) = a
i
(x a
i
) (i I) .
These functions are in fact just order-preserving maps, but when applied to the
lattice of normal subgroups they yield a system of group endomorphisms.
In order to study regular products of groups, Benado uses a similar tech-
nique, but unlike Kurosh, his axiomatics has in view the lattice of all subgroups
of a group, which is not modular. So, in his lattice-theoretical approach, Benado
works with a complete lattice in which he needs a closure operator as a model
for the passage from a subgroup to the normal subgroup generated by it. Based
on works by O. Ore, V. Kornek and D. Barbilian, Benado [30] endows L with a
binary relation N subject to the following axioms. Whenever aNb one requires
that a b and
a x y imply x (b y) = (x b) y ,
a y b and a x imply y (x b) = (y x) b ,
a x implies xN(x b) ,
a x and xNy imply (b x)N(b y) :
further, 1N1, 1N0 and the set L
N
= a L [ 1Na is a complete sublattice
of L. The lattice L is then called a Lie lattice. The idea of this axiomatization
is that L should represent the lattice of subgroups of G, the relation ANB
meaning that B is a normal subgroup of the subgroup A, the element 1 L
represents the group G, so that L
N
is an abstract version of the sublattice of
normal subgroups of G. It should be noted that L
N
is a modular lattice by
the rst axiom above, but need not be a completely modular lattice. Other
instances of Lie lattices are the lattice of subalgebras of a Lie algebra and the
lattice of subrings of a ring [27]; in the latter case ANB means that B is a
two-sided ideal of the subring A.
Benado works with the closure operator associated with L
N
. So he denes
[30] a regular product
a =
iI
a
i
by the following conditions:
a =
_
iI
a
i
,
(i I) a
i
(a a
i
) = 0 .
The Fitting endomorphisms associated with a regular product are the order
endomorphisms
i
: L L (i I) dened by
i
(x) = a
i
(x (a a
i
)) (i I) .
The Fitting endomorphisms characterize the regular product [30] to the eect
that they satisfy six conditions with the property that conversely, any system
iI
of order endomorphisms satisfying these conditions is the system of Fit-
ting endomorphisms of the regular product a =
iI
a
i
with a
i
=
i
(1) ( i
I).
6
The results concerning regular products of groups are generalized to the
lattice-theoretical level. Thus e.g. if 1 =
iI
a
i
and a
i
=
jJ
i
a
ij
(i I)
then 1 =
iI,jJ
i
a
ij
; if 1 =
iI
a
i
and b
i
a
i
(i I) then setting
b =
_
iI
b
i
one obtains b =
iI
b
i
; etc. Benado concentrates on the so-
called renements of two regular decompositions. Here is a sample result [30].
Consider two regular products 1 =
iI
a
i
and 1 =
jJ
b
j
with associated
Fitting endomorphisms
i
iI
and
j
jJ
, respectively. Then the following
conditions are equivalent for two renements a
i
=
jJ
a
ij
(i I) and b
j
=
iI
b
ji
(j J) : for all i I and j J,
(I)
i
(b
ji
) = a
ij
&
j
(a
ij
) = b
ji
& a
ij
= b
ji
;
(II)
i
j
(1) =
j
i
(1) .
Moreover, if these conditions hold, then for every i I and j J,
(III)
i
j
(1) = a
ij
&
j
i
(1) = b
ji
.
A variant of this result [32] says that relations (III) hold if and only if
(IV)
_
iI,jJ
(
i
j
(a
i
)
j
i
(b
j
)) = 0 ,
where a
i
=
_
kI{i}
a
k
and b
j
=
_
kJ{j}
b
k
. Besides, (IV) implies
i
(b
ji
) =
a
ij
and
j
(a
ij
) = b
ji
for all i I and j J.
Another tool used by Benado in the abstract theory of regular products
was the concept of a relative closure operator (operateur de fermeture relatif),
meaning a map which associates with every pair x, y satisfying x y, an element
y
x
subject to the following conditions:
(FR1) x
x
= x ,
(FR2) x y =(y
x
)
x
y
x
,
(FR3) x y z =y
x
z
x
z
y
.
It is easily seen that these properties imply
x y =x y
x
y ,
x y =(y
x
)
x
= y
x
.
So, for a xed x the map
x
is a closure operator on the set (x] of all lower
bounds of x.
For instance, if
is a Kuratowski closure on a distributive lattice, then
y
x
= xy is a relative closure operator. Note that the elements aa
i
, occurring
in the denitions of a regular product and of the Fitting endomorphisms and
largely used by Benado in the theory of regular products, are in fact the relative
closures (a
i
)
a
. Another relative closure operator which occurs here is H
G
=
(G
n
H) H.
7
Benado has also developed [27], [28], [29], [32], [37], [41] a more comprehen-
sive theory of Lie lattices endowed with a commutating function (commuta-
trice), that is, a function q(x, y) obeying a list of 12 axioms which abstract the
properties of the n-step commutator H
n
K of subgroups. As a matter of fact,
the ultimate goal of Benado in this series of papers refers to groups. So he pays
attention to lattices of subgroups equipped with a function q(H, K) satisfying
the axioms of a commutatrice. A subgroup H of a group G is called q-normal
provided q(G, H) H, while a regular product
iI
G
i
is said to be q-regular
provided all the factors G
i
are q-normal. We conclude this Section with the
following sample theorem [37], which generalizes several previous theorems. If
G =
iI
G
i
is a regular product for which there exists i
0
I such that all
the factors G
i
with i ,= i
0
are q-normal, then G
i
0
is q-normal too, so that the
product is q-regular.
Part B
Schreier-Zassenhaus and Jordan-Holder theorems in
arbitrary lattices
There is a huge literature around the Schreier-Zassenhaus and Jordan-Holder
theorems in group theory and their generalizations to modular lattices and be-
yond. One of the major research lines of Benado refers to this eld, which may
be characterized as dealing with renements of chains. The main concern of
Benados work in this area was the passage from modular lattices to arbitrary
lattices [5], [10], [13], [14], [20] and even to posets [13] and multilattices [17],
[23]. The results were announced in [2], [3], [6], [7], [9], 11] and, with emphasis
on groups, in [18], [19], [22]. We can only sketch his ample contributions and to
do this we begin with a short presentation of the modular lattice background.
The two theorems in question are related to another well-known result, which
states that in a modular lattice, every two intervals of the form H = [a, a b]
and K = [a b, b] are isomorphic. This is proved by using the isotone maps
+
: H K dened by x
+
= b x and
: K H dened by y
= a y,
which we call the canonical maps associated with the conjugate or transposed
intervals H and K. Modularity implies that for every x H and every y K,
x
+
= a (b x) = (a b) x = x ,
y
+
= b (a y) = (b a) y = y .
These identities show that the canonical maps establish an order isomorphism
between H and K, hence a lattice isomorphism, too.
Benado proves the following converse of the above theorem: if in a lattice L
the canonical maps satify x
+
= x (a, b L) (x H) or y
+
= y (a, b
L) (x H), then the lattice is modular.
8
Indeed, note rst that the canonical maps can be dened and are isotone in
every lattice. Now suppse e.g. the identity y
+
= y holds. Take a, b, c L
with c b. Then
b b (a c) (b a) c a b ,
hence (b a) c K, therefore
(b a) c = ((b a) c)
+
= (a c)
+
= b (a c) (b a) c ,
so that (b a) c = b (a c), proving that L is modular.
So every lattice in which the canonical maps asociated with a, b L es-
tablish an isomorphism is modular. Note that this result cannot be proved
by observing that in the pentagon non-modular lattice o, a, b, c, u we have
[a, a b] = a, c, u and [a b, b] = o, b, because the intervals H and K of the
entire lattice may be dierent from the above.
Now let us come to the problem we have announced, i.e., the renement of
chains. We deal with nite chains x
0
x
1
x
n
of a modular lattice L.
The intervals [x
i1
, x
i
] (i = 1, . . . , n 1) are called the factors of the chain (a
term reminiscent of the quotient or factor groups G
i
/G
i1
of a normal chain
G
0
G
1
G
n
dealt with in group theory). A factor [x
i1
, x
i
] is called
proper if x
1
,= x
i
. The length of a chain is the number of its proper factors.
A renement of a chain a
0
a
1
a
r
is a chain c
0
c
1
c
t
such that a
0
= c
0
, a
r
= c
t
and a
0
, a
1
, . . . , a
r
c
0
, c
1
, . . . , c
t
. If the latter
inclusion is strict, the renement is called proper. The Zassenhaus renements
of two nite chains having common extremities, that is,
(1.1) a
0
a
1
a
r
,
(1.2) b
0
b
1
b
s
,
(1.3) a
0
= c
0
, a
r
= b
s
,
are the chains a
ij
and b
ji
dened by
(2) a
ij
= a
i
(a
i1
b
j
) (i = 1, . . . , r; j = 0, 1, . . . , s) ,
(3) b
ji
= b
j
(b
j1
a
i
) (i = 0, 1, . . . , r; j = 1, . . . , s) .
This makes sense because, as can be easily checked,
(4) a
0
= a
10
a
i1
= a
i0
a
i1
a
is
= a
i
a
rs
= a
s
,
(5) b
0
= b
10
b
j1
= b
j0
b
j1
b
jr
= b
j
b
js
= b
s
.
Another property is that for every i 1, . . . , r and every j 1, . . . , s,
there are two isotone maps
: [a
i, j1
, a
ij
] [b
j, i1
, b
ji
] ,
9
: [b
j, i1
, b
ji
] [a
i, j1
, a
ij
] ,
dened by
(x) = b
j
(a
i1
b
j1
x) ,
(y) = a
i
(a
i1
b
j1
y) ,
respectively. Indeed, set a
i1
= m a
i
= M and b
j1
= n b
j
= N. Then
b
j, i1
= N (n m) N (m n x) = (x) .
But x a
ij
= M (m N), therefore
(x) N (m n (M (n N))) N (M n) = b
ji
and similarly (y) [a
i, j1
, a
ij
].
As a matter of fact, the Zassenhaus renements and the existence of the
isotone maps and are valid in arbitrary lattices. If the lattice is modular,
there exist rs isomorphisms
(6) [a
i, j1
, a
ij
] [b
j, i1
, b
ji
] (i = 1, . . . , r; j = 1, . . . , s) .
To prove this we x i and j. Using the above notation, we observe that
M (m N) x M (m N) ,
from which we infer
(x) = M (m n (N (m n x))) = M (m n N) (m n x)
= M (m N x) (m n x) = M (m n x) = (M (m n)) x = x
and similarly (y) = y.
At this point the following denition is necessary. Two chains C and C
are said to be isomorphic if they have the same length and there is a bijection
between the proper factors of C and the proper factors of C
0
is a Zassenhaus
renement of C
0
, then C
0
is not a proper renement, hence it must be of the
form
. . . (a
i1
) = a
i0
= a
i1
= = a
i, k(i)
< a
i, k(i)+1
= = a
is
(= a
i
) . . .
for i = 1, . . . , r. It follows that C
0
is a maximal chain isomorphic to C
0
.
We are now in a position to prove the Jordan-Holder theorem for modular
lattices: if maximal chains do exist, then every strict chain can be rened to a
maximal chain and all maximal chains have the same length.
6
Indeed, let C be a strict chain and C
, C
0
the Zassenhaus renements of C
and the maximal chain C
0
, respectively. Then the proper factors of the maximal
chain C
0
are two-element chains, and since C
is isomorphic to C
0
, the proper
factors of C
the
redundant terms we obtain a strict chain C
is maximal.
For the second claim suppose that C is also a maximal chain. Then C and
C
0
are isomorphic to their Zassenhaus renements C
and C
0
, and the latter are
isomorphic. But the isomorphism of chains is clearly an equivalence relation,
therefore the strict chains C : a
0
< a
1
< < a
r
and C
0
: c
0
< c
1
< < c
s
are isomorphic, which implies r = s.
Benado proves the following Schreier-Zassenhaus theorem which holds in
arbitrary lattices. Suppose the chains (1) satisfy the isomorphisms
(7.1) [a
i
, a
i
b
j
] [a
i
b
j
, b
j
] ,
(7.2) [b
j
, a
i
b
j
] [a
i
b
j
, a
i
] ,
for i = 1, . . . , r 1 and j = 1, . . . , s1. Then their Zassenhaus renements (2),
(3) have the same length and the isomorphisms (6) hold. Besides,
(8.1) [a
i, j1
, a
i, j1
b
j, i1
] [a
i, j1
b
j, i1
, b
j, i1
] ,
(8.2) [b
j, i1
, a
i, j1
b
j, i1
] [a
i, j1
b
j, i1
, a
i, j1
] ,
for i = 1, . . . , r 1 and j = 1, . . . , s 1.
Also, Benado obtains the following Jordan-Holder theorem for arbitrry lat-
tices. Suppose the chains (1) are strict, satisfy (7) and for every i = 1, . . . , r 1
and every j = 1, . . . , s 1 there are no elements a [a
i1
, a
i
] and b [b
j1
, b
j
]
satisfying simultaneously [a, a b] [a b, b] and [b, a b] [a b, a]. Then
r = s and the intervals of the two chains are isomrphic (in a certain order).
Another major concern of Benado was the theory of normality in arbitrary
lattices, initiated by O. Ore. An element b is called -normal if
x z =x (b z) = (x b) z ;
6
Unlike what happens for groups, in a lattice the isomorphism of two maximal chains
having the same length is trivial, because the proper factors are two-element chains.
11
an element a is said to be -normal if
a z =a (y z) = (a y) z ,
and an element which is both -normal and -normal is called seminormal.
Benado studied in great detail these concepts, as well as several new related
concepts of normality introduced by himself, for instance a concept called binor-
mality such that seminormal = binormal = -normal. With each of these
concepts a corresponding concept of chain is associated, called -normal chain,
-normal chain, seminormal chain, etc. Benados endeavour was to establish
Schreier-Zassenhaus and Jordan-Holder theorems for the various types of chains.
For example, an interval [x, y] is called -normal if x is an -normal element
of the sublattice (y] = z L [ z y. A chain (1.1) or (1.2) is said to be
-normal if all of its proper intervals are -normal. Then the corresponding
Schreier-Zassenhaus theorem states the following properties of two -normal
chains with common extremities (1): the Zassenhaus renements have the same
length, the isomorphisms (6) hold and each a
ij
is -normal in [a
i, j1
, a
i
] and
each b
ji
is -normal in [b
j, i1
, b
j
]. Further, an interval [x, y], where x < y,
is called -normal-prime if among the elements -normal in [x, y] there is no
element z such that x < z < y. The corresponding Jordan-Holder theorem
states that if all the intervals of two -normal chains with common extremities
(1) are -normal prime, then r = s and the intervals of the two chains are
isomorphic (in a certain order).
The paper [13] proposes an axiomatic approach which passes from the var-
ious normality relations such as -normality, -normality, etc., to an abstract
normality N, the problem under investigation being: what conditions can be im-
posed upon N such as to force the validity of the Schreire-Zassenhaus theorem?
Also, Benado obtains generalizations to posets [14] by creating a technique based
on Dedekind quadrilaterals (, a, b, ), which mean a and b ,
thus generalizing (a b, a, b, a b). For the generalizations to multilattices [17]
see Section C1.
The paper [26] introduces several normality relations and characterizes them
by appropriate relative closure operators. For instance, the operator y
x
= yx
is associated with the normality relation
xKy x y and x y = y .
Then every two nite K-normal chains with common extremities have isomor-
phic Zassenhaus renements.
PART C
C1. Multilattices
In 1953 Mihail Benado introduced the concept of a multilattice in a paper [12]
which announces two equivalent denitions of this concept and a few examples.
12
The standard reference for the theory of multilattices is the paper [17] (with
corrections in [24]), while other papers of Benado on multilattices and their
applications are [15], [16], [33], [35], [36]. [39], [40], [51]. In this Section we
select several denitions and theorems from [17].
The basic denition is the following. Let M be a partially ordered set. If
a, b M, denote by U(a, b) and L(a, b) the (possibly empty) sets of upper
bounds of a, b and of lower bounds of a, b, respectively. The poset M is a
multilattice if for any c U(a, b), the set U(a, b) x M [ x c has a
minimal element, and dually. Note that lattices are dened by the stronger
requirement that for all a, b M, the non-empty sets U(a, b) and L(a, b) have
least element and greatest element, respectively.
It is easily seen that this denition is equivalent to the following one:
A multilattice is a poset M such that the following conditions are fullled
for any a, b M:
(MLsup) every upper bound of a, b includes a minimal upper bound,
and
(MLinf) every lower bound of a, b is included in a maximal lower bound;
if there is no common upper bound of a, b/common lower bound of a, b, then
condition (MLsup)/condition (MLinf) is vacuously satised.
The denition of multilattices can also be given in terms of the follow-
ing three well-known pre-orders (which are important in the context of non-
deterministic programming languages):
X _
S
Y y Y x X x y (Smyth ordering) ,
X _
H
Y x X y Y x y (Hoare ordering),
X _
EM
Y X _
S
Y & X _
H
Y (Egli Milner ordering) .
A remarkable theorem says that a multilattice M is a lattice if and only if
M is directed, i.e., every two elements a, b M have upper bounds and lower
bounds, and has the Riesz Interpolation Property (RIP), i.e., if a
i
, b
j
M satisfy
a
i
b
j
(i, j = 1, 2), then there exists c M such that a
i
c b
j
(i, j = 1, 2).
For every upper bound of a, b, let (ab)
):
(M1) (commutativity) if a b ,= then a b = b a;
(M2) (partial associativity) if a b ,= and (a b) c ,= , then b c ,=
, a (b c) ,= and for every m (a b) c there is m
a (b c) such
that m m
,= and m m
= m;
(M3) (absorption) if a b ,= then a (a b) = a;
(M4) a a ,= ;
13
(M5) if the elements a, b, m, m
satisfy m, m
a b, m m
,= and
m ,= m
, then m, m
, m m
.
Conversely, if M is a set endowed with two multioperations , : M
2
) does not follow from the other axioms of the system above, and
(ii) if the multioperations and are associative and M is directed, then the
multilattice M is in fact a lattice, the latter hypothesis being essential.
Multilattices appear in various contexts, such as divisibility theory [14], [15]
(see the next Section), Jordan-Dedekind chain conditions, the Mobius func-
tion [33], [35], [40], partial dierential equations (the paper [16] solves a prob-
lem about the wave equation in two-dimensional space-time raised by G. Birk-
ho [1948, Ch.9,13]), functional analysis, theory of geometrical continua (e.g.
squares ordered by set inclusion), or topological complexes. See [17] and the
survey papers [39], [51].
Benado introduces the concepts of modular multilattice and distributive mul-
tilattice by generalizing two well-known charcterizations of modular lattices and
distributive lattices, respectively. A multilattice M is distributive (modular) if
the conditions v a b, v a b
, u a b, u a b
(and b b
) imply that
b = b
.
Lihova and Repask y [LiRe] have proved that the classes of directed modular
multilattices and directed distributive multilattices are varieties, that is, they
are closed under the constructions of submultialgebras, homomorphic algebras
and direct products.
The set of all squares with the sides parallel to two rectangular directions,
partially ordered by set inclusion, is a multilattice which is not a lattice; cf.
Benado [17], page 312. This multilattice is modular, since the map v which
assigns to any square a the length v(a) of its side, is a norm, as shown on page
336, and any multilattice pssessing a norm is modular by Theorem 5.5 on page
337. It would be interesting to check when the multilattices provided by words,
partially ordered by
pf
,
sf
or
fct
(see C3), are modular or distributive.
The following reexive relation is introduced between the quotients x/y (i.e.,
intervals [y,x]): x/y x
/y
provided x x
, y y
, x (x
y)
x
and
y
(x
y)
y
. The transitive closure of is called T-similarity. Then the
following generalization of the Schreier renement theorem holds: in a modular
multilattice, two chains with common extremities possess a system of canonical
renements having the same length and whose conjugate quotients are T-similar.
A technique introduced by Benado in [14] and largely used throughout his
14
entire work is the use of what he calls Dedekind quadrilaterals or simply quadri-
laterals. A quadrilateral is a very particular case of two chains with common
extremities, namely a quadruple (, ; a, b), where a, b . A subquadri-
lateral of (, ; a, b) is any quadrilateral (m, d; a, b) with m and d.
Given a quadrilateral (, ; , b) and two elements m (a b)
and d
(a b)
) = (a p
)
m
, p
b/,
and similarly
(q) and
(q
) = (ab
),
showing that ab ab
, hence b b
, therefore (b) = (b
,
h
)
is locallynite, in the sense that every interval is nite, for h = pf, sf, fct.
Moreover, L = (
, , e,
h
) is a monoid and a multilattice, the identity e being
the rst element.
Every locally nite poset is also chain-nite and therefore L satises both
the ascending and descending chain conditions, i.e., L is an archimedean poset
in the terminology of Benado [14].
The one-sided compatibility of the concatenation with the partial orders
h
, h = pf, sf, is readily checked. For the relevance of these partial orders see
Lothaire [Lot].
Partially additive semantics. The idea of partially additive semantics is the
following. Given a program prg Prog and its set of data D = InputOutput,
a possible execution exec
i
, i I, is viewed as a partially dened function
f
i
= exec
i
(prg) : D
D, dom(f
i
) = d
i
Input .
In the model introduced by Manes and Arbib [MA], dierent executions f
i
of
prg should have disjoint domains. The semantics is dened as a sum of the
possible executions
sem(prg) = f =
(f
i
[ i I) P = Pfn(D, D) ,
where Pfn(D, D) is the set of partially dened functions D
D, the sum
being dened in a partially dened monoid, by
dom(f) =
_
(dom(f
i
) [ i I), dom(f
j
) dom(f
k
) = , j ,= k ,
f(x) ::= if ( i I) (x dom(f
i
)) then f
i
(x), else undened .
The reference structure is a partially additive naturally ordered or sum-ordered
associative semiring (Pfn(D, D),
1
, , 0, 1, ). In P
1
if the sum
f +
1
g exists then it coincides with f g. This sum exists i f and g are
compatible, in the sense that there exists h Pfn(D, D) such that f, g h.
Three more properties of Pfn(D, D) related to its structure can be provided
merely for motivating a further study.The proofs should remain for another
paper.
The sum decomposition property (SDP), saying that
0 x a +b =( s, t) 0 s a &0 t b &x = s +t ,
21
is equivalent to (RIP) under rather general conditions, but this equivalence is
nor proved for P and therefore an independent proof is needed.
Property 1. If f, g, h Pfn(D, D) and f g +
1
h then g and h exist such
that g
1
g, h
1
h and f = g
1
+
1
h x dom(f).
Property 2. Every directed family of functions has a sup.
Property 3. In P
1
the relative complements, whenever they exist, are unique.
As a matter of fact, it turns out that mulilattices and several more general
structures have applications in theoretical computer science and in logic. We
plan to come back in a future paper on the literature which quotes Benado in
this respect. Right now we illustrate the intended applications only by a few
references which are not coming from a rigorous selection, being rather a result
of our limited knowledge.
Thus the papers [Cab], [Cord] and [Mart] are examples of the systematic and
constant attention devoted to multilattices by the Spanish school. The lecture
[Mark] states that lattices are not enough for the specic needs of computer
science. Moreover, the basic examples given therein concern syntax word
ordering and semantics partially dened functions yet without a specic
development for these examples. The book [DP] does not quote Benado, but the
interesting and new examples of order structures proposed to the reader suggest
possible links for a future investigation, e.g., dierence posets or interpolation
conditions. The study [Maru] motivates an interest for many-valued logics based
on lattice-ordered algebraic structures and thus possibly based on multilattice-
ordered monoids.
Part D
D1. The general theory of partially ordered sets
Benado aimed at a general theory of partially ordered sets, which he cre-
ated under this very name. The results were announced in [34], [38], [42]-[46],
[49], [50], and full proofs were given in [47], [48], [52]. As curious as it may
seem nowadays, Benado regarded his theory of multilattices as being just an
intermediate step towards the general theory of partially ordered sets.
Roughly speaking, the idea is to endow a partially ordered set (poset) with
a supplementary structure in such a way that the most important classes of
posets and lattices be obtained as specializations of this general structure.
Technically speaking, Benado considers a poset (P, ) endowed with two
correspondences , between P and the set of subsets of P, subject to the
conditions
dA =d is an u.b. of A and mB =m is a l.b. of B,
where u.b. and l.b. stand for upper bound and lower bound, respectively;
besides, it is assumed that tuples (a, b, d, m) such that da, b and ma, b
do exist. We refer to all this as a (, ) structure.
22
A few particular (, ) structures play an important role:
1) the Dedekind structure (
0
, M
0
), dened by
d
0
A d is the l.u.b. of A and mM
0
B m is the g.l.b. of B;
2) the Hausdor structure (
H
, M
H
), dened by
d
H
A d is a minimal u.b. of A, and
mM
H
B m is a maximal l.b. of B;
3) the Riesz structure (
R
, M
R
), dened by
d
R
A d is an u.b. of A and for any u.b. u of A there is an u.b. t of A
such that t d, u, and
mM
R
B m is a l.b. of B and for any l.b. v of B there is a l.b. w of B
such that w m, v;
4) the ltering structure (structure ltrante) (
F
, M
F
), dened by
d
F
A d is an u.b. of A and for every u.b. u of A there is an u.b. t of
A such that t d, u, and
dM
F
B m is a l.b. of B and for every l.b. v of B there is a l.b. w of B
such that w m, v;
5) the discrete structure (, M) dened by
dA d is an u.b. of A, and mMB m is a l.b. of B.
Having in view a triple (a, a, a, a), we see that the discrete structure is a
paraphrase of the concept of poset itself. A multilattice is a Hausdor structure
satisfying the following conditions:
u a, b = d u d & d
H
a, b,
v a, b = m v m & mM
H
a, b.
The general theory of posets consists in the study of numerous conditions
that a (, ) structure may full, meaning the discovery of relationships that
exist between these conditions, called elementary incidence properties. Here
are a few samples. A (, ) structure is said to be: natural, if a b =
aa, b & ba, b; saturated, if d, d
a, b &m, m
a, b &d d
&m
m
= d = d
&m = m
&ma, b &ma, b
&b b
= b =
b
;
O-modular, if the conditions da, b &ma, b &d a
a &b b
m
imply a
a, b
, b;
W-modular, if da, b &ma, b =[a, d] [m, b] (lattice isomorphism);
G-distributive, if da, b &da, b
&ma, b &a, b
=b = b
;
23
G
and m m
imply b b
.
The above types of modularity are not equivalent, nor are the variants of
distributivity. Also, distributivity does not imply modularity, unless certain
supplementary hypotheses are assumed.
Among the numerous theorems obtained by Benado in this eld we mention
a Schreier-like renement theorem for W-modular rening structures, and a
generalization of the Glivenko theorem which makes every normed lattice into
a metric space. Another theorem characterizes the Dedekind structure of a
Boolean algebra viewed as a poset.
Benado acknowledges the valuable observations made by M. Kolibiar and J.
Jakubk in their correspondence with him during the preparation of the general
theory of partially ordered sets.
D2. Monotone connections
Another research project of Benado concerns the monotone conenctions in-
troduced in [5]. Certain peculiarities of the Zassenhaus renements of -normal
chains and
1
-normal chains have led thim to the introduction of the concepts
of monotone connections of type I and II, respectively, while the monotone con-
nections of type III have been suggested by the well-known Galois connections.
Let P and Q be two posets, and let (+, ) be a pair of isotone (also called
increasing) functions + : P Q and : Q P. Then (+, ) is called a
monotone connction of type I or II or III between P and Q according as
x
+
x x P & y
+
y y Q or
x x
+
x P & y y
+
y Q or
x
+
x x P & y y
+
y Q .
Recall also that a covariant or isotone Galois connection between P and Q is a
pair (+, ) of isotone functions + : P Q and : Q P such that
x x
+
x P & y
+
y y Q ,
while a contravariant or antitone Galois connection between P and Q is a pair
(+, ) of antitone (also called decreasing) functions + : P Q and : Q
P such that
x x
+
x P & y y
+
y Q .
The paper [59] continues the study of monotone connections of type I. In
the introduction to [59] Benado states that he has introduced the monotone
connections of type I rather in order to exhaust the types of monotone con-
nections (plutot en exhaustion des esp`eces de connexions monotones), among
which those of type III, introduced by J.R. B uchi under the name Paarungen,
have been independently rediscovered by myself and by R. Croisot.
However the aforementioned ve concepts do not exhaust the eight possibil-
ities of combining +, isotone or +, antitone with x P x x
+
24
or x P x
+
x and with y Q y y
+
or y Q y
+
y .
We want to note here that exhaustion is however realized, to the eect that the
study of these eight concepts reduces to the study of Benados monotone connec-
tions of type I and of type III. Indeed, denote by X
op
the dual of a poset X. It
was remarked by Benado himself that the monotone connections of type I and
II are dual to each other, to the eect that if + : P Q and : Q P form
a connection of type I (of type II), then + : P
op
Q
op
and : Q
op
P
op
form a connection of type II (of type I). Therefore the properties of monotone
connections of type II are obtained by duality from the properties of monotone
connections of type I. It is also immediately seen that the monotone connections
of type III and the covariant Galois connections are dual to each other, therefore
the study of the latter reduce to the study of the former. We have thus proved
that the study of the four isotone connections (meaning that +, are isotone)
reduces to the study of the monotone connections of types I and III, and it
remains to show that the same reduction is valid for the four antitone connec-
tions (meaning that +, are antitone). This follows immediately by observing
that if we associate with each monotone connection + : P Q, : Q P
of type I or III the two antitone connections + : P
op
Q,
:
Q P
op
and
+ : P Q
op
, : Q
op
P, then we obtain the four antitone connections.
The paper [59] is devoted to monotone connections of type I. It studies
involutive connections, meaning that x P x
++
= x
+
and y Q y
+
=
y
= a y ,
form a monotone connection of type I such that for every x (a] and every
y (b] the following properties hold:
(S1) x
+
x and y
y ,
(S2) x
+
= x x a &x b and y
+
= y y a &y b .
Conversely, if P is a poset such that for every a, b P there is a monotone
connection of type I + : (a] (b], : (b] (a] satisfying (S1) and (S2),
then P is a meet semilattice.
To prove the second statement, take a, b P and use the monotone con-
nection associated with these elements. Then a
+
(b], that is a
+
b, while
a
+
a by (S1). Now take an arbitrary lower bound v of a and b. Then v (a]
and v
+
v (type I). On the other hand v
+
= v by (S2) and v a implies
v
+
a
+
a
+
by (S1), hence v a
+
. 2.
Benado intended to continue this study by obtaining characterizations of
other ordered structures, such as lattices and multilattices, or Kurepas ramied
sets and trees. Unfortunately, this research project has been interrupted, the
paper [59] being apparently the last paper of Benado.
25
D3. Metric lattices
The paper [8], whose results were announced in [4], studies lattices endowed
with a metric. While K. Menger, V. Glivenko and other mathematicians in-
vestigate lattices equipped with a valuation which plays the role of a norm in
analysis and which in particular induces a distance, Benado takes the opposite
way. He denes a distance-like function which he studies in great detail; in
particular this function induces a valuation of the intervals of the lattice.
Following M. Frechet, Benado denes a semidistance on a lattice L as a
function d : L
3
R satisfying, for all x, y, z L,
d(x, y) 0 ,
d(x, y) = 0 x = y ,
d(x, y) = d(y, x) ;
if, moreover, d fulls the triangle inequality
d(x, z) d(x, y) +d(y, z) ,
then d is called a distance or a metric. We refer to a lattice equipped with a
semidistance or a distance as an sd-lattice or a d-lattice, respectively.
8
Thus
every d-lattice is a metric space. A semidistance d on L and the lattice L
itself are called regular or convex or concave according as the identity d(x, y) =
d(x y, x y) or d(x, y) d(x y, x y) or d(x, y) d(x y, x y) holds; note
that a semidistance may have none of these properties. The semidistance and
the lattice are said to be additive provided
x y z =d(x, z) = d(x, y) +d(y, z) .
Taking x := x y and z := x y, we see that every additive sd-lattice satises
the weak additivity property
9
d(x y, x y) = d(x y, x) +d(x, x y) = d(x y, y) +d(y, x y) .
The functions
H
1
(x, y) = d(x y, x) d(y, x y) ,
H
2
(x, y) = d(x y, y) d(x, x y) ,
called torsions, are essentially due to D. Barbilian [1964]. Note that H
2
(x, y) =
H
1
(y, x). Let us say that an sd-lattice is torsion free if H
1
= 0 identically,
or equivalently, H
2
= 0 identically. This amounts to the equivalent identities
d(x y, x) = d(y, x y and d(x y, y) = d(x, x y).
Benado studies the relationships between the above and other properties.
Here are a few typical results.
If an sd-lattice satises
8
Benado uses the terms metrisable lattice and metric lattice, respectively. Yet the estab-
lished terms metrisable topological space and metric lattice have dierent meanings.
9
Called elementary additivity by Benado.
26
(0) x y a x y =d(a, x) +d(a, y) = d(a, x y) +d(a, x y) ,
then it is regular, torsion free, weakly additive and distributive.
To prove this we write down the hypothesis on a, x, y taking in turn a :=
x, a := y, a := x y, a := x y :
(1) d(x, y) = d(x, x y) +d(x, x y) ,
(2) d(y, x) = d(y, x y) +d(y, x y) ,
(3) d(x y, x) +d(x y, y) = d(x y, x y) ,
(4) d(x y, x) +d(x y, y) = d(x y, x y) .
The sums (1) + (2) and (3) + (4) yield
2d(x, y) = d(x y, x) +d(x y, y) +d(x, x y) +d(y, x y) = 2d(x y, x y) ,
hence the lattice is regular. Now (1) together with the regularity condition and
(4) yield
d(x, x y) +d(x, x y) = d(x, y) = d(x y, x y) = d(x, x y) +d(y, x y) ,
hence d(x, xy) = d(y, xy), that is, the lattice is torsion free. This transforms
(3) into d(y, xy)+d(xy, y) = d(xy, xy), showing that d is weakly additive.
It is well known that a lattice is distributive if and only if it satises
a x = a y & a x = a y =x = y .
So we assume the elements a, x, y full ax = ay and ax = ay and must
prove that x = y. But these elements satify a y x a y, so that taking
a := x and x := a in the hypothesis (0) we get
d(x, a) +d(x, y) = d(x, a y) +d(x, a y) .
Using again the hypothesis (0) for a x x a x and the hypothesis on
a, x, y, we obtain
d(x, a) = d(x, a x) +d(x, a x) = d(x, a y) +d(x, a y) .
By comparing the results we obtain d(x, a) + d(x, y) = d(x, a). So d(x, y) = 0,
therefore x = y, completing the proof.
Any additive distance is convex.
For the hypotheses imply
d(x y, x y) = d(x y, x) +d(x, x y) ,
d(x y, x y) = d(x y, y) +d(y, x y) ,
d(x, y) d(x, x y) +d(x y, y) ,
27
d(x, y) d(x, x y) +d(x y, y) ,
hence 2d(x, y) 2d(x y, x y), as was claimed.
Any additive regular distance is torsion free.
For the hypotheses imply
d(x y, y) +d(y, x y) = d(x y, x y) = d(x, y) d(x, x y) +d(x y, y) ,
d(x y, x) +d(x, x y) = d(x y, x y) = d(x, y) d(x, x y) +d(x y, y) ,
therefore d(y, xy) d(x, xy) and d(xy, x) d(xy, y), that is, H
1
(x, y) =
0.
The following converse holds: any torsion free additive regular semidistance
is a distance. Therefore an additive regular semidistance lattice is a distance
lattice if and only if it is torsion free. A large part of the paper is devoted to
these lattices, called elementary d-lattices. Other classes of sd-lattices are also
introduced and studied, many results being expressed in terms of valuation. This
means that if x y, then d(x, y) is interpreted as a valuation of the interval
[x, y] = z L [ x z y and this is written in the form
d(x, y) = v(
y
x
) .
The research, suggested by previous works of Glivenko [1936] and Barbilian
[1946], generalizes several results of these authors.
Benado has gone farther in [17], where he introduced the concept of a normal-
ized multilattice (multistructure normee). This means a multilattice M equipped
with a map v : M M (valuation) which satises the conditions
a < b =v(a) < v(b) ,
a b ,= ,= a b =v(a) +v(b) = v(m) +v(d) ( m a b) ( d a b) .
The following theorems generalize well-known results of Glivenko for lattices:
1. Every normalized multilattice is modular.
2. Every directed normalized multilattice is a metric space with respect to
the distance (a, b) = v(m) v(d).
Another approach was taken by Kolibiar [Kol1], who dened a metric mul-
tilattice as a multilattice which is also a metric space with respect to a distance
which satises the following supplementary conditions:
a b c =abc, x a b =axb, x a b =axb ,
where xyz denotes metric betweenness, i.e., (x, y) + (y, z) = (x, z). The
directed metric multilattices coincide with Benados normalized multilattices.
Two metric lattices M and M
A
1
A
2
, where denotes iso-
morphism and
A is the dual of A. In [Kol2], necessary and sucient conditions
are given for a metric space to be partially orderable so as to become a metric
multilattice.
A related concept was introduced by Jakubk [Jak4]. A graph isomorphism
between two multilattices M, M
is a bijection : M M
is said to be a
diametric isomorphism if the equalty (a, b) =
) are isomorphic.
There are several variants of this concept, studied in some detail.
Another favourite research theme refers to interpolation properties. To state
many of these properties one needs the following notation. If is a binary
relation on E and A, B E, then we dene AB ( a A) ( b B) ab;
as usual, we write aB and Ab instead of aB and Ab. The interpolation
properties are certain implications which a diametric space may or may not
satisfy. For instance, A B = c A c B and A IT B = c A c B,
where is the natural order and IT is the relation internally tangent, are
two interpolation properties. The relationships between many interpolation
properties have been studied, with the aim of establishing sucient conditions
for their validity.
30
Another concern of Benado was the construction of diametric spaces from
given partially ordered sets. Here is a sample theorem. Recall that the concept
of a ramied set, introduced and studied by D. Kurepa, means any poset whose
order ideals are chains. Suppose (K, ) is a dually directed ramied set for
which there is a strictly increasing function f : K R. Then K can be
made into a diametric space (K, ) which satises (a, b) = max((a, a), (b, b))
whenever a and b are comparable. Besides, the natural order of (K, ) is ner
than the original order of K, i.e., a b =(a, b) (b, b).
Denote by H the hypothesis of the above theorem. A certain condition (
has been found such that H&( = coincides with the natural order = (.
Part E
Papers of Mihail Benado
1. Series canoniques principales du probl`eme de Galois. Bull. Math. Soc.
Roumaine Sci. 47(1946), 49-61.
2. Nouveaux theor`emes de decomposition et dintercalation attaches `a la
normalite . C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris 228(1949), 529-531. MR 10, p.502.
3. Le fondement axiomatique du theor`eme Jordan-Holder relatif aux series
principales. C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris 229(1949), 332-334. MR 11, p.309.
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31
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Further research
We are planning a possible sequel of this paper, including references to sev-
eral articles that cite Benado, including more remarks like those in Section C3,
and with substantial references to articles that develop the theory of multilat-
tices and/or use it as a tool in computer science. We would also refer to some
papers that do not cite Benado, but nevertheless contain ideas in the same direc-
tion. Such a study is appropriate in the present context since it will show that
his work, far from remaining isolated, provides remarkable ideas, some of them
not yet explored, for (i) the theory of partially ordered algebraic systems more
general than the lattice ordereded algebraic systems, (ii) a more comprehensive
theory of posets suitable for applications in the algebraic theoretical conputer
science, and (iii) a theory of general order structures. Obviously, only a few
examples can be shortly indicated here, the substantial part remaining for the
projected future paper.
As for (i), the starting point consists of papers [14], [15], already quoted here.
We are compiling a bibliography which so far contains about 15 entries referring
to multilattices, and among them 9 mention multilattices in their titles, e.g.
[Kol3], [Kol4], and [McA1], [McA2], [McA3]. The recent paper [GaP] considers
multilattice groups, quoting [Vai] and [Jak3]. The latter solves a problem raised
in [Vai]; namely, Jakubk shows that every -group can be embedded into a
J-group (as introduced in [Vai]) which is not a multilattice group.
For (ii) consider again an example, the Plotkin order; cf. [Plot]. Given a
poset A and a nite subset U of A, a set V if minimal upper bounds for U
is said to be complete, if for every upper bound x of U, there is y V with
y x. A characteristic feature for a Plotkin order is that every nite subset has
35
a complete set of minimal upper bounds, i.e., the characteristic requirement in
order to hve an upper semimultilattice. The paper [GuS] studies the theory of
Plotkin orders for semantic domains.
In the last decade, an important school of computer scientists at the Uni-
versity of Malaga is very active in focussing a great deal of research on mul-
tilattices as introduced by Benado in [12] and [14]-[17]. Their works recover
multilattices for use in very diversied contexts, both theoretical and applied
[Mart], [Med]. Since the operations of multi-suprema and multi-inma are no
longer single-valued, their research leads to the theory of hyperstructures as in
[Cord2], [Cord3].
As for (iii), the theory of multilattices developed to some extent according
to [Bir67] is one of the achievements of the school of Kolibiar [Kol1]-[Kol4]
and Jakubk [Jak1], [Jak2], [Jak4]. Their joint paper [JK] on isometries of
multilattice groups has been very inuential; see e.g. [Jas]. One should also
note the connections with universal algebra [Li], [HaLi] and the treatment of
valuations and distances in directed multilattices [Li2].
Acknowledgements
This paper is our tribute to Mihail Benado. We were his students, his courses
have determined our interest in the subject and have remained a reference to
us.
We thank Dragic Bankovic, Gheorghe Costovici, Ioana and Laurent iu Leustean,
who provided several papers of Benado not available in our libraries. Thanks
are also due to Traian Serbanut a and Andrei Popescu for references to Math.
Sci. Net.
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