Natasha Tomchin Classroom Europe Spring 2012 Final Paper

Women in The Republic of Turkey: Historical Influence and Feminist Efforts

History of the Republic of Turkey The Republic of Turkey was carved out of the Ottoman Empire following World War I. Mustafa Ataturk fought as a military officer in the Turkish National Movement during the Turkish Wars of Independence. He founded the Republic of Turkey after leading a provisional government based on the program of cultural, economic, and political reform. He aspired for secularization and modernizations leaning towards the West. Among them, unification of education, introduction of the civil and penal code, closure of religious courts, and gender equality with full emancipation rights for women. These efforts challenged the notion of Turkey being a Islamic extension of the West and moved in a secular direction. During this time, state feminism was in place, hampering any actual progression until 1980. Following the end of World War II, political instability and tensions threatened the foundations of the country. The next 50 years were tainted with economic hardships, coups, increased authoritarianism, militant rule, and disarray between coalition governments. Ethnic warfare destabilized the country, forcing the military to intervene. Conservative governments swayed back and forth in power, occasionally hosting a liberalized party in between. Social agendas, including womens access and equality, were left behind in lieu of recovery plans. The country planned to be economically stable before addressing any social or cultural program. The governments of the 1960s and 1970s placed an emphasis on global economic recovery plans and conservative social values. 1 Coalition governments in the 1990s worked on introducing human rights (mostly for women and ethnic minorities), a focus on humanitarian aid and increased

Zrcher, Erik Jan. "The Young Turk Era in Turkish History." Turkey: A Modern History. London: I.B. Tauris, 2004. 166-221. Print. 2

secularization while to aid their candidacy for the European Union. More economic shocks sent the country into political turmoil and a rise of party clashes over religious institutions and social factors. The AK party, Justice and Development Party, won elections in 2002 and has since increased popularity, consistently winning elections. They are a centre-right conservative party with a conservative social agenda and liberal market economy aimed at joining the European Union. Western groups typically ascribe their ideology as Islamist and patriarchally based. The AKP counters by claiming that they are doing their duty in upholding moral values while maintaining equality.2 Women were granted voting rights, equality in inheritance and divorce, and held 4.5% of the deputy seats in the Turkish Grand National Assembly in 1935. 3 Yet, gender equality is a facade in Turkey. Secularization prompted a traditionally Islamist patriarchal society into respecting and allowing women equal rights and access through laws, but with the agenda of joining the European Union. Candidacy summits raise concern over the treatment of women, and Turkey produces legislation to address them. However, this is only empty promises. A reason why the feminist revolution hasnt succeeded in Turkey is because it was not their revolution. The status quo did not shift because women demanded it. It shifted because men in power determined a legislation shift was necessary for securing Turkey as a leader in the Western world. Examining the status of women in politics, society, workforce, and education, it becomes apparent that the modern feminist movement in Turkey faces many blockades.

"Justice and Development Party (political Party, Turkey)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. Apr. 2012. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1018363/Justice-andDevelopment-Party>.
3

Ege, Mine. "Feminism in Turkey." Feminism in Turkey. Web. Apr. 2012. <http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/ turkey/may5/feminism_may00.html>. 3

The Status of Women: Education The constitution demands equal access and compulsory primary education with equal opportunities for secondary and tertiary school. The reality is far from it: 90% of females (versus 100% of males) are enrolled in primary school, following 50% in secondary, and dropping off to 30% in tertiary.4 Not only is attendence biased, but the institution itself. Course materials have not been cleansed of discrimination. Literature courses and textbooks reinforce the active role of males in society and passive for females, advocating gender stereotypes of domestic work and societal hierarchy. History books praise the work of males in the public domain and fighting for independence, while casting women's role as preserving the home.5 Women make up 44% of primary school teachers, and 32% of secondary, sharply dropping off for tertiary. They are relegated to teaching easier subject such as reading or writing. Mathematics and Science are held in highest regards, for male professors and male students. Only 3% of women hold a university degree.6 The major cities provide better situations, with a much higher percentage of rural women never having received schooling or participating in the workforce. Many rural women find themselves without any hope for education, contributing to the 5 million illiterate women (compared to 700,000 illiterate men). 7 Education reforms need to be enacted in the rural communities most importantly.

"A Gender Review in Education, Turkey 2003 (10)." UNICEF Turkey / Resources / A Gender Review in Education (10) Analysis of Results (1). Web. Apr. 2012. <http://www.unicef.org/turkey/gr/ge21ja.html>.
5 6 7

Ibid. Ibid. "Turkey." UNdata. Web. Apr. 2012. <http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=TURKEY>. 4

Urbanization will not solve the issue. Villages must place a higher emphasis on female participation. Younger females are more likely to attend schooling because other members of the family are around to help. The locality of the school also makes a difference. If the child will spend a significant amount of time traveling back and forth, the father will generally insist that their time will be better spent contributing to the family. If the mother never attended schooling, the situation is even more bleak.8 The incentive system should be implemented in order to ensure that illiteracy rates are curbed and all children finish compulsory education. Employment Similarly disproportionate, women make up only 25% of the work force. Out of 26 million employable women, only 5.9 million are.9 They have limited access to urban work, hence 50% of them work in the agricultural division. Two million work as unpaid farm workers and very few make enough money for support in the rural area. 10 Unfortunately, migration isnt an answer either. Those who move to urban centers struggle to find jobs and often end up staying at home. The culture encourages women to leave work once they marry to have children, highly contributing to an employer's disposition to hiring a female. There is an additional estimated 3.5 million undocumented women workers, but they mostly are unpaid family workers. When education factors in, the situation becomes even more desperate. Less than one fifth of women with a high school degree or less take part in the labor force, meanwhile only 71% with a college degree find work. 11

8 9

A Gendered Review of Education. UNICEF. Turkey. UNdata.

10

Deliveli, Emri. "Turkey's Long Forgotten Women." Hurriyet Daily News. 7 Mar. 2010. Web. Apr. 2012. <http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438>.
11

A Gendered Review of Education. UNICEF. 5

Females are lacking in military work as well. There are no female generals and majors. They are strongly discouraged from displaying physical strength due to the machismo culture. They are very rarely admitted to military academies, and even upon graduation, have a hard time finding work. There has never been a female police chief and police maltreatment of women is rampant. They frequently beat or harass female detainees, and by keeping them out of the industry, it ensures that no one will intervene. 12 Violence Another widespread issue damaging women is violence. One out of three women experience domestic abuse. Fifty percent of women report having been a victim of violence.13 Women are treated as objects and shamed based on sexual activities. Honor killings, murders to avenge the shame that females brought to a family often through illicit affairs or rape, have been a long standing tradition. Over 200 honor killings a year are committed, mostly to young females.14 Only in 2005 has there been a push in legislation to end them and prosecute the offenders. Now there are mandatory life sentences for perpetrators.15 Since then, families have started pressuring suicide instead. Honor suicides have skyrocketed, forcing the condemned to suicide otherwise they will be murdered by the oldest son. Police dont investigate because many hold the same opinions and even in jail honor killers are revered and treated with respect. 16
12

"Women Statistics in Turkey." HDIM.NGO, 1 Oct. 2009. Web. Apr. 2012. <http://www.osce.org/odihr/ 39071>.
13

Sobeki, Nichole. "Turkey's Shocking Domestic Violence Statistics." GlobalPost. 20 Feb. 2009. Web. Apr. 2012. <http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/turkey/090219/turkeys-shocking-domestic-violencestatistics>.
14

Murphy, Clare. "Spotlight on Turkish Women's Rights." BBC News. BBC, 23 Sept. 2004. Web. Apr. 2012. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3681494.stm>.
15 16

Sobecki, Turkeys Shocking Domestic Violence Statistics. Murphy, Spotlight on Turkish Womens Rights. 6

Virginity testing is being phased out, but in many cases is permissible by law. Certain laws claim to protect females and prosecute the offender, however most of them are done only in spirit, allowing murderers and rapists to walk free. 17 The main aim seems to prevent future assaults, not taking in the problem holistically. Only in 1998 did the Supreme Court make any gestures towards benefitting women and protecting them. They decriminalized adultery and criminalized rape in marriage and sexual harassment. Protection of the Family, a law geared towards changing social attitude on violence against women, became an empty gesture, mostly aimed at keeping the integrity of the family. 18 Additional criteria has since been added to criminal trials and accusations, stipulating that physical evidence is necessary for any charges. Women are frequently threatened and shamed for complaining, creating a sense of helplessness. Most women find it hard to speak out against the crimes theyve faced when officials tell them to return to their husbands and persevere. Even the current Prime Minister, Recep Tayyip Erdogan publicly supports devout muslim women who support their husbands by maintaining the domestic sphere and traditional order even through abuse.19 In terms of government funding, only 38 women's shelters exist and only within the past few years have hotlines been created. Marriage In 2002, women were finally granted equal rights in marriage. Previously, men were given full decision making and control of the family. Women were not able to file suits against their husbands, divorce them, or claim rights to any property. With the new

17 18

Ibid.

Mollins, Julie. "Women's Rights Activist Slams New Turkey Anti-violence Law." TrustLaw. 21 Mar. 2012. Web. Apr. 2012. <http://www.trust.org/trustlaw/news/interview-new-turkey-anti-violence-law-letswomen-down-activist>.
19

Ibid. 7

law, women are allowed to file for divorce and can demand property that they bought or provided. A wife may travel without her husband and work without his consent. Abortions have likewise been legalised, when previously they only were acceptable when the pregnancy was detrimental to the womens health. 20 Yet, women are still inferior to men in matrimonial affairs. A dowry is still paid by families. She can only claim furniture if she paid for it, but the culture encourages women to quit working once they marry. Therefore, any property shared by a husband and wife is usually supplied by the husband's income, hence only 8% of property ownership is womens.21 Divorcees and widows are frowned upon and frequently seen as a threat. They are treated poorly within their own communities, often losing connection with any relatives or friends. Shes seen as loose, bringing poor values to the area.22 Political Access Womens right are not addressed because they have so little participation in politics. Many muslim women are unable to partake because a headscarf ban prohibits observing women from participating in political institutions, accepting degrees from school, and entering some buildings. Those that do not agree with this form of secularization, often do not take part in the political process, or boycott the government. 23 When it comes to voting,

20

Arin, Canon. "The Legal Status of Women in Turkey." Women for Women's Human Rights Reports (1997). Print.
21 22 23

Ibid. Ibid.

Keskin, Burcalc. "Political Participation of Turkish Women." TURKISH WOMEN POLITICAL PARTICIPATION. Middle East Review of International Affairs, Dec. 1997. Web. Apr. 2012. <http://www.library.cornell.edu/ colldev/mideast/womtur~1.htm>. 8

only 11% of married women report voting independently of their husbands. 24 The situation is even more dire when it comes to public offices. Most positions require the member to have some capital in order to campaign and rise through party ranks, which most women can't afford. The party elects its own members into seats and generally only offers up the female if winning the seat is clearly not possible. Historically, conservative coalition governments ensured that women would not even be allowed to have seats in parliament.25 Many critics are pushing for a mandate of female held seats. The only way to ensure women will have a voice is going around the bureaucracy, avoiding party politics. The late 1970s through 2000 saw a rise in women taking seats in municipal governments, owing to local politics being not as important as national. Per office, the percentages rarely were above 1% female involvement. When women did hold office as MPs, it was often part of a government with shorter terms and did not stand chance for reelection. Thats not to say that females do not break through the ranks. 26 Tansu Penbe iller was Turkeys first and only prime minister between 1993 and 1996. However, scholars argue that she did more harm than good for gender equality. She never pushed womens agendas and was portrayed as a female puppet of the President. 27 Within political parties, women usually make up about 5% of the candidates, if not less. In attempt to bring more women into the political sphere, womens branches were created in the 1970s. Unfortunately, the branches are not contributors, rather PR tools

24 25 26

Turkey. UNdata. Keskin, Political Participation of Turkish Women.

Arat, Yesim. "The Patriarchal Paradox: Women Politicians in Turkey." International Journal of Middle East Studies 23.4 (1991): 678-80. Print. 27 Keskin, Political Participation of Turkish Women. 9

for attracting womens votes, increasing fundraising, and branching into new territories.
28

The groups reinforce traditional female roles and contribute to the low number of women

actively pursuing politics. Females held 9.1% of seats of the national parliament in 2010, the highest yet. Only one minister of 26 is a female, and she is head of Family and Social Policy.29 Most governments agree that for women to have an active say in politics, they must make up 30% of the Parliament. For a country of 74 million, and over 50% being female, 9% isnt quite an accurate representation. The Feminist Movement In evaluating education, marriage, attitudes towards violence, employment, and political activism, it becomes apparent how poor the situation for women is in Turkey. According to the UN Gender Empowerment Measure, Turkey ranks 90th out of 93 countries. Based on the World Economic Forums Global Gender Gap Report, Turkey ranks 123rd out of 130 countries in improving the gender gap.30 Feminism emerged towards the end of the Ottoman empire, yet once Kemalist policies were enacted, the feminist movement was disbanded. State initiatives guaranteed certain liberations and negated the progress of the movement31. During the 1970s, a rise in leftist Marxists parties occurred. Yet, womens rights were second class problems in comparison to anti-imperialism and class struggles. The slogans were men and women together, for a free future and called feminist trends bourgeois. 32 The women were invited

28

Women in Politics. Rep. United Nations Development Programme, 2007. Print. Ibid. "Behind the Veil." The Economist. The Economist Newspaper, 12 May 2011. Web. Apr. 2012. <http:// www.economist.com/node/18682644>. Ege, Feminism in Turkey. Ibid. 10

29 30

31 32

to all meetings and participations, but they werent able to raise their concerns. Following the seeming failure of the Left organized movement with the coup of 1980, women branched off into smaller non leader based initiatives that worked on local levels without the dictation of a national group.33 This started a number of feminist publications, support groups, and discussion circles to address violence and discrimination. During the military suppression, women banded together in solidarity against the torture and oppression they faced. Mothers wombs were guilty of producing communist children. They witnessed children and husbands being dragged off and they started protesting in the streets. After some cases that legitimized a husband beating his wife, thousands marched in the street. The focus of these advocacy groups moved from state addressed to private life and control of their bodies.34 The feminist movement actively challenges the patriarchal laced society by demands for safety, pursuing male dominated occupations, and appeals to international organizations for grants. Their primary means is by politicizing the private life and using examples of abortions, family planning, and religious conflicts.35 Presently, over 250 such women oriented groups exist, constantly organizing meetings, protests, and government proposals. KA.DER was founded in 1997 to help nominations for women in general elections and political parties. Likewise, Womens studies has been institutionalized through University programs and specific feminist discourse centers. 36 The AK partys ambition is to join the EU, but by having attention drawn to the

33

Binder, Charlotte. "Feminist Movements In Turkey." Amargi Istanbul. Web. Apr. 2012. <http:// amargigroupistanbul.wordpress.com/feminism-in-turkey/feminist-movements-in-turkey/>.
34 35 36

Ege, Feminism in Turkey. Binder, Feminist Movements in Turkey. Ibid. 11

social position of women, they fail. As more legislation is created, freedoms and progress is occurring. Theres been an increase in womens shelters, psychological support groups, and positions opened up to women. Since the 2000s, government sponsored programs against discrimination in the workforce have been put in place as well. Although theres still much progress to be made, the past 20 years has produced reforms and intervention by international groups, showing promise for more improvements.

12

Works Cited Arat, Yesim. "The Patriarchal Paradox: Women Politicians in Turkey." International Journal of Middle East Studies 23.4 (1991): 678-80. Print. Arin, Canon. "The Legal Status of Women in Turkey." Women for Women's Human Rights Reports (1997). Print. "Behind the Veil." The Economist. The Economist Newspaper, 12 May 2011. Web. Apr. 2012. <http://www.economist.com/node/18682644>. Binder, Charlotte. "Feminist Movements In Turkey." Amargi Istanbul. Web. Apr. 2012. <http://amargigroupistanbul.wordpress.com/feminism-in-turkey/feminist-movements-inturkey/>. Deliveli, Emri. "Turkey's Long Forgotten Women." Hurriyet Daily News. 7 Mar. 2010. Web. Apr. 2012. <http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438>. Ege, Mine. "Feminism in Turkey." Feminism in Turkey. Web. Apr. 2012. <http:// flag.blackened.net/revolt/turkey/may5/feminism_may00.html>. "A Gender Review in Education, Turkey 2003 (10)." UNICEF Turkey / Resources / A Gender Review in Education (10) Analysis of Results (1). Web. Apr. 2012. <http://www.unicef.org/ turkey/gr/ge21ja.html>. "Justice and Development Party (political Party, Turkey)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. Apr. 2012. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/ 1018363/Justice-and-Development-Party>. Keskin, Burcalc. "Political Participation of Turkish Women." TURKISH WOMEN POLITICAL PARTICIPATION. Middle East Review of International Affairs, Dec. 1997. Web. Apr. 2012. <http://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/womtur~1.htm>. Mollins, Julie. "Women's Rights Activist Slams New Turkey Anti-violence Law." TrustLaw. 21 Mar. 2012. Web. Apr. 2012. <http://www.trust.org/trustlaw/news/interview-new-turkeyanti-violence-law-lets-women-down-activist>. Murphy, Clare. "Spotlight on Turkish Women's Rights." BBC News. BBC, 23 Sept. 2004. Web. Apr. 2012. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3681494.stm>. Sobeki, Nichole. "Turkey's Shocking Domestic Violence Statistics." GlobalPost. 20 Feb. 2009. Web. Apr. 2012. <http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/turkey/090219/turkeys-shockingdomestic-violence-statistics>. "Turkey." UNdata. Web. Apr. 2012. <http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx? crName=TURKEY>. Women in Politics. Rep. United Nations Development Programme, 2007. Print. "Women Statistics in Turkey." HDIM.NGO, 1 Oct. 2009. Web. Apr. 2012. <http:// www.osce.org/odihr/39071>. Zrcher, Erik Jan. "The Young Turk Era in Turkish History." Turkey: A Modern History. London: I.B. Tauris, 2004. 166-221. Print.

13