Smart Applications for Energy Harvested WSNs

Prabhakar T.V.,Shruti Devasenapathy,H.S.Jamadagni

Centre for Electronics Design and Technology Indian Institute of Science Bangalore,India (tvprabs,spshruti,hsjam)@cedt.iisc.ernet.in

R Venkatesha Prasad
TUDelft, The Netherlands R.R.Vekateshaprasad@tudelft.nl

AbstractA Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) powered using harvested energies is limited in its operation by instantaneous power. Since energy availability can be different across nodes in the network, network setup and collaboration is a non trivial task. At the same time, in the event of excess energy, exciting node collaboration possibilities exist; often not feasible with battery driven sensor networks. Operations such as sensing, computation, storage and communication are required to achieve the common goal for any sensor network. In this paper, we design and implement a smart application that uses a Decision Engine, and morphs itself into an energy matched application. The results are based on measurements using IRIS motes running on solar energy. We have done away with batteries; instead used low leakage super capacitors to store harvested energy. The Decision Engine utilizes two pieces of data to provide its recommendations. Firstly, a history based energy prediction model assists the engine with information about in-coming energy. The second input is the energy cost database for operations. The energy driven Decision Engine calculates the energy budgets and recommends the best possible set of operations. Under excess energy condition, the Decision Engine, promiscuously sniffs the neighborhood looking for all possible data from neighbors. This data includes neighbors energy level and sensor data. Equipped with this data, nodes establish detailed data correlation and thus enhance collaboration such as lling up data gaps on behalf of nodes hibernating under low energy conditions. The results are encouraging. Node and network life time of the sensor nodes running the smart application is found to be signicantly higher compared to the base application. Index TermsEnergy efciency, Energy harvesting, Energy neutral communication.

I. I NTRODUCTION Energy harvester entities capture small amounts of energy over a long time from several sources such as ambient light, linear motion, temperature differential, vibration, RF energy etc. Such energies can be stored in super capacitors. Today, energy harvesting or energy scavenging is possible from sources such as waste heat from industrial plants, vibrations and temperature differentials in aircrafts and automobiles, and even from human action such as walking, lifting and pressing. The power generated can be several hundreds of milliwatts, sufcient to drive low power electronics used for embedded applications. Table I[1]shows the power densities for a few energy sources. The gure shows that thermogeneration has a signicantly higher power density compared to other sources. While photonic power density can be promising under 978-1-4244-5489-1/10/$26.00 c 2010 IEEE

a good light condition, vibration energy can only form a supplementary source of power. The self powered Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) nds its applications where battery replacements are difcult both when the sensor nodes are not easily accessible, or because they are deeply embedded. Such applications include rail and road bridge monitoring, aircraft health and human health care monitoring. When harvested energies are used to power up WSN nodes, for perpetual communication, the harvested energy should at least be equal to the consumed energy. The energy requirements for a sensor node include the energy consumed by the processor, energy required for sensing, and nally a signicantly large amount of energy for communication. In recent years, energy harvesting has reached a certain level of maturity due to advancements in low power electronics and design technologies. For instance, the standby current of a typical microcontroller such as Texas Instruments MSP430 is about 160 microamperes. Photovoltaic panels have become economical in scale and under moderate light provide sufcient energy to power mote class devices. Several research and commercial solutions have demonstrated that solar energy is indeed a good source of energy. The Sensorscope project [2] offers a complete weather monitoring station powered by solar energy. We conducted power output measurements for a solar panel size of 95mm X 65mm. The panels were sourced from [3]. The Voltage (V)- Current (I) characteristics indicate that even in low light condition of about 3600 Lux light intensity, the system can offer about 8mw of power. The V-I characteristics are shown gure 1. Figure 1 shows the power generated from the panels under laboratory conditions using incandescent lamps. A light meter was used to measure the incident light intensity. As one can observe, signicant energy generation of about 30 mW is possible with sufciently bright light by applying maximum power point tracking algorithms (MPPT). Similarly, wireless light switches have started appearing to free the use of extensive copper wiring for homes. We looked at Enoceans ECO 100 [4] linear motion harvester which has a typical application as a wireless light switch. The energy generated by such switches is sufcient to signal a wireless receiver at the lamp load to control the load. Vibration energy harvesting has seen advancements due to processing of Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT) materials. These materials

TABLE I P OWER D ENSITIES OF DIFFERENT ENERGY HARVESTERS 3V exible solar cell 1000 lx 3V exible solar cell 10000lx Vibration generator (60 Hz) a = 0.24 m/s2 Vibration generator (60 Hz) a = 0.98 m/s2 Thermoelectric generator T=10K Thermoelectric generator T=40K 7mW/kg 280mW/kg 2.78mW/kg 37mW/kg 8W/kg 131W/kg

have long been known to exhibit piezoelectric effects. We conducted a V-I characterization of one such PZT based macro composite bers from [5]. Figure 2 shows the results of its power viability. Figure 2 shows that several 100s of microwatts of energy generation is possible from small and light weight composites.

not the energy (2) Power availability varies with time (3) Power availability might be different in different nodes (4) No single node has complete knowledge of the entire networks energy opportunity. The impact of these peculiarities affects several aspects related to task scheduling. Firstly, fresh arriving data should be prioritized over backlogged data that was not transmitted due to lack of instantaneous power. The node operations have to be done in a suitable manner to match the energy availability. Secondly, in the event of excess energy availability at one of the nodes, there are several possibilities for node collaboration. In the framework we have described, our philosophy is that nodes have to perform the maximum number of operations subject to matching the energy available with a view that the morphed application is closest to the base application. Nodes should be in a position to decide between the different operations such as sense, compute, store and communicate. Accurate energy prediction together with energy budgets for operations and coupled with operation priority rule book should show us the way to to build such a decision engine. III. E NGINE D ESIGN As we stated earlier, the goal for the Decision Engine is to maximize the number of operations. We have done away with batteries; instead used low leakage super capacitors to harvest the energy. The capacitor buffer is divided into two halves. The lower half of the energy is used for routine activities such as neighbor discovery, route establishment, channel sensing and other housekeeping activities. The upper half energy is used by the application, and our engine, in the rst step checks if the energy is above the lower threshold. Time is divided into xed slots and energy arrival in a slot is used by the engine to provide its recommendations. The Decision Engine utilizes two pieces of data to provide its recommendations. Firstly, an energy prediction model helps identify in-coming energy. The second input is the energy cost database for operations required for energy budgeting. This database was built using real measurements. Figure 3 shows the architectural design of the engine. All operations associated with the base application are shown. The base application comprises of sensing two environment parameters such as light and acoustic data. Since the read from ash R and W write to ash are performed on a longer time scale, the gure displays them separately. While the light data requires to be encrypted, acoustic data can go as plain text. A forwarding node for multiple sensors has the additional role of aggregating acoustic data. Each block in the base application indicates a timer re to complete an activity. The energy aware Decision Engine calculates the total energy requirements in each time slot and assisted by a Heuristic rule book decides operation prioritization. The system nally recommends the best possible set of operations matching the arrived energy. Broadly, the Decision Engine offers a combination of the following outputs: (a) Sensing and Computation (b) Communication (c) Storage and nally, (d) provision for network collaboration. The Decision Engine, under good energy conditions, promiscuously sniffs the neighborhood looking for

Fig. 1.

A photovoltaic panel for motes

Fig. 2.

PZT based MFCs power offering

II. M OTIVATION AND G OAL Although several harvesting sources are available to power WSN devices, networking with harvested power is a challenge because sensor nodes cannot follow a strict regime of activities. Let us take an example of an application that is expected to: (a) periodically sense the environment, (b)encrypt the data (c) communicate the data over multiple hops to a base station. If the node is also a relay then it additionally has the activity to fuse data values from several sensors and then communicate the information. This application running out of harvested energies may be difcult to run due to the following peculiarities: (1) Available power is limited although 978-1-4244-5489-1/10/$26.00 c 2010 IEEE

all possible data from neighbors. This data includes neighbors energy level and sensor data. Equipped with this data, high energy nodes perform detailed data analysis and establish data correlation to enhance collaboration. The objective is to ll up data gaps of nodes hibernating due to low energy conditions. The engine takes care of special cases where sometimes no energy arrives soon after the capacitor is fully charged. In these cases, apart from node collaboration, the morphed application is a slowed down version of the base application. For instance, temperature data if sampled every 2s in the base application is now sampled every 4s. A. Energy Budgets and Heuristic rule book One may broadly associate three dimensions to energy budgets. The rst dimension is to evaluate the percentage of energy required for a node to participate in the network. Budgets are required towards neighbor discovery, route establishment and maintenance, and transaction of security keys for secure communication. To support all these activities, the engine has to ensure that the node never depletes its energy below a certain threshold. In this work, although we do not focus on this dimension, we implicitly take care of this requirement by suitably partitioning the super-capacitor energy level. The second dimension of energy budget is required to handle workloads. Given that the operation state is different on each node in the network, workloads can be different as well. Such workloads could be characterized either in terms of backlogged data or backlogged operations. For instance, some nodes can have large amounts of backlogged data to transmit because of neighbor or parent nodes energy depletion or loss of connectivity. Furthermore, such nodes can be burdened with backlog of operations caused due to nodes own energy constraint. One may have to address questions related to the quantity of data that can be scheduled and agging important data. Finally, the third dimension related to the communication budget plays an important role. Which node among the neighbors has energy to receive data? If the nodes own energy is high enough, would it be possible to communicate directly with other overlay high energy nodes? The Decision Engine in this paper is an attempt to address the rst two dimensions of energy budgets. Concerning the Heuristic rule book, the rules shown in Figure 3 are dened based on the application design. The rules are organized hierarchically. At the highest level is Packet Communication which has a higher priority over Packet Processing. The next level has data 1 (Light data) has to be encrypted and its transmission has a higher priority over reception. Packet Processing rule has data sensing prioritized over computation. These rules can be entered by the user. Our chosen application requires data1 to be communicated securely and data2 requires to be fused at a hop node by way of computing the average value. Rules have to be designed in such a manner that the morphed application attempts to be as close as possible to the base application. For instance, one such rule could be sensor data should be sampled twice slower than the base application. 978-1-4244-5489-1/10/$26.00 c 2010 IEEE

Fig. 3.

Architectural overview of the engine

IV. R ELATED WORK Our focus is on maximizing the number of operations to match the in-coming harvested energy. During periods of no energy in a time slot, no operation is performed and during periods of excess energy the nodes get proactive and acquire as much information as possible from the environment. Perhaps PUMA[6] comes closest to our Decision Engine. It describes a hardware switch used for power distribution to various components of the hardware. An algorithm is proposed to increase the utility of harvested power, by matching power consumed with the power provided by the harvesting sources. Similar efforts Most other literature propose harvested energy management and battery based residual energy management hybrid schemes. Current literature on energy harvesting focuses on energy-neutral systems both in terms of analytical models for harvesting and consuming entities and derived theorems that characterize their achievable performance. In [7] the authors propose a harvesting distributed framework for nodes to learn their environment energy. The learning helps in energy aware assignment of leader elections for clustering techniques and load balancing. The authors propose new algorithms for scheduling and task allotment. Extensive simulations are conducted with their scheme and compared with base residual energy schemes. In [8] an energy-conservation taxonomy is detailed around a sensor system for residual energy based design. Broadly, three vertical segments related to duty cycling, data driven and mobility based energy conservation schemes are surveyed. In [9] the authors propose a tool for developing energy efcient software code using application level knowledge. V. E XPERIMENTAL S ETUP The experimental setup consisted of Iris motes [10] powered by solar energy through Heliomote [11] using two 22F supercapacitors from [12] in series as the energy storage buffer. A simple scenario of a single energy harvested node and

B. The Base Application The base application running on the harvesting nodes consists of a combination of all the operations that a node can perform. Motes performing low power listening (LPL) sample four different kinds of data: light, acoustic data, super-capacitor terminal voltage and solar panel terminal voltage. Light and acoustic sensor values are as sensed by the MTS300[18] sensor board from Crossbow , while the solar panel terminal voltage is from the Heliomote [11] board and the capacitor terminal voltage is from Iris motes on-board ADC. Of these measured parameters, light data, transmitted every 10s, is taken as data to be encrypted using a light-weight encryption algorithm known as TinyDragon [20], acoustic data is sensed and transmitted every second. If the node is a relay node, it receives neighbor information as well and averages all this data before transmitting it to its parent. The average of all these values is transmitted every 50s. In order to maintain a database of solar panel voltage, the values are read from the heliomote circuit and written to ash every 30 minutes. A read from ash operation of the solar panel voltage is performed by the base application every 15 minutes. These operations together constitute the base application. In our experiments, to acquire information about the applications performance, the number of operations performed by the node was transmitted with acoustic data in the same packet, while super-capacitor voltage and solar panel voltage were transmitted with light data in the same packet. The base application packet size was 24 bytes. C. The Energy Prediction Tool For energy-matched applications, it is necessary to be able to predict the amount of energy that would be available to the harvesting node in the next time slot, when node operations are to be performed. Time series prediction [19], is most often performed using methods such as exponentially weighted moving average methods and their derivatives. In the implementation of the Decision Engine, we used an exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA) method to predict the incoming energy. EWMA, popular for time series forecasting[17], assigns weights to data in the time series, assigning lower weights to older data and giving importance to more recently acquired data. The forecast value in the time slot t+1 is given by: S(t+1) = X(t) + (1-)S(t) X(t) is the measured value of the time series data in the time slot t. Here X(t) is the solar panel terminal voltage which gives us the trend of the incoming energy. The weight is given a value between 0 and 1. We chose a value as 0.5 after testing several values for least error in prediction. The value of 0.5 was chosen in [17] as well. This prediction is obtained once every 1s, which is the duration of the assumed time slot t. D. Energy Budget Calculator The other tool used by the Decision Engine is the Energy budget calculator, which looks up a table of values of energy

Fig. 4. Self-Discharge comparison between a single capacitor and capacitor bank

base station were part of the testbed. The base station was equipped with the MIB520 [13] base station board connected to a PC running the serial forwarder application. The nodes ran applications written using TinyOS-2.1.0[14] code. A. Experiments with Supercapacitors Supercapacitors have the advantage of energy density much higher than conventional capacitors and power density surpassing all known types of batteries. One of the major advantages over batteries is that they have virtually unlimited cycle life and simple charging methods. Supercapacitors do not contain any chemicals that may explode. Some manufacturers such as [15] even mention they are explosion, re and smoke free when the polarity is accidentally reversed. Such features make supercapacitors attractive in aerospace applications. However, one of the biggest disadvantages of these capacitors is the self-discharge, or internal leakage current. This is found to be higher than conventional batteries. Our application requirement is such that energy harvested in say 12 hours should be sufcient to drive the network for remaining 36 or 48 hours. If energy replenishment does not occur within this period, nodes might switch to hibernating mode. To facilitate this requirement, it is extremely important to ensure that self-discharge of the supercapacitors is minimal. For our tests, we selected capacitors from [12]. We selected 22F, 2.3volt capacitors since experiments in [16] shows this value to be satisfactory. Since our voltage requirement is 2.8 volts, we arranged the individual capacitors in series combination to achieve the required voltage. We then conducted self-discharge measurements on a single 22F capacitor and the series combination capacitors. We charged the individual capacitor and the capacitor pair using a constant current source to the same voltage level and let them discharge under no load condition and conducted periodic measurements of the capacitor terminal voltage using a 10M impedance oscilloscope probe. Our comparison results are shown in Figure 4. As expected, due to lower capacitance, the gure shows that the series-capacitor provides a lower self discharge compared to individual capacitor. We used the capacitor pair for all our experiments described here. 978-1-4244-5489-1/10/$26.00 c 2010 IEEE

TABLE II E NERGY CONSUMED PER OPERATION BY I RIS MOTES Operation Average of 50 samples Finding peak among 50 samples Sensing once from ADC Writing 1 byte to Flash Reading 1 byte from Flash Transmitting @0dBm 28 bytes once Receiving 28 bytes once 7.056 J 7.392 J 16.128 J 0.136 mJ 28.224 J 0.784 mJ 0.672mJ

consumed per operation by Iris motes. The experimental setup included a current probe amplier connected to an Oscilloscope to measure the current consumed by a node for an operation. These experiments conducted on IRIS motes are documented in Table II. It can be seen that the communication operation together with writing to ash require signicantly higher energy compared to other operations. The sum of energy consumed by the next operation is calculated each time a scheduled operations timer res. Only if the predicted energy inow is the greater than the energy needed to perform the scheduled operation, it is performed. If the predicted inow is lesser than the needed amount, the scheduled operation is ignored and other operations that can be accommodated are performed. To decide between multiple matches, the heuristic rule book is used to decide the priority. At the next scheduled operation timer-re, the node checks for previously ignored operations and goes back to perform them if incoming energy is sufcient in this time slot. E. Heuristic Rule Book Implementation In order to achieve the objective of maximizing number of operations performed, the Decision Engine uses a rule book that helps to make decisions under low energy inow conditions. This rule books hierarchy was mentioned earlier. It contains the following rules: 1) Transmission has higher priority than reception 2) Reception is performed before transmission, when backlogged data is large 3) Sensing has a higher priority over computation 4) Computation is done before sensing, when backlogged data is large 5) Increase communication range when there is excess energy 6) Slow down the application by half when there is excess energy but no new energy comes in These rules are specic for the chosen application and may vary for different application areas. In this application rule (1) were enforced by turning the radio OFF, thus stopping lowpower listening, and turning it on just before transmission. Rules (2), (3) and (4) were executed by simply deferring execution with the help of setting of appropriate ag conditions. Rule (5) and (6) were done by setting the RF power in the application and by modifying the timer intervals respectively. 978-1-4244-5489-1/10/$26.00 c 2010 IEEE

Fig. 5.

Measured solar panel terminal voltage vs. predicted values

Fig. 6. Morphing of the application when energy is depleted and replenished

F. Excess energy In our work, we dene excess energy condition as one where the energy harvested by the system is over 90% of full capacity. Under excess energy, node collaboration was triggered. We have implemented data correlation realized using simple mean difference for photonic sensor data. In this experiment, we had two nodes and a base station. When the low energy node went into hibernation, the high energy node was able to predict and transmit its data. VI. R ESULTS AND D ISCUSSIONS The results shown in this section capture several implementation aspects of the Decision Engine. Figure 5 illustrates the operation of the EWMA time series forecasting. It can be seen from the gure that the predicted value adapted to changes in the actual measurement. A weight of 0.5 also ensured smoothing the curve as a correction for measurement noise. Figure 6 shows a plot of energy contained in the supercapacitor and illustrates the application response to incoming energy. The lower limit prevents energy depletion from the super-capacitor. We conducted all the experiments outdoor under bright sun light. During the course of the experiment, to emulate low light conditions, we blocked the light to the solar panels. This blocking is apparent at the times 0 to 350s, 935 to 1450s and 2600 to 3770s. During periods of bright light, the node performed operations matching closely

(a) Energy Contained in the super-capacitor

(b) Number of Operations Performed Fig. 7. Comparison of Applications Behaviour at High Energy Inow vs Low Inow

with the base application. During low light conditions, it modied its operation states and also stopped all operations when the super-capacitor energy level crossed the no light condition threshold. When energy inow resumed, the node allowed for a certain amount of energy to accumulate before resuming energy-matched operations. Each point represents a packet transmission. The oscillatory behaviour during energy inow was found to be attributed to the heliomote. Figure 6 also shows the transmitted packet count ( right Y axis) at the node. One can observe 3 distinct slopes, indicating the modication of the transmission interval from 2s to 4s and 5 s. The three slopes may be attributed to uctuation in energy availability. While the rst slope indicates a fall in energy for a shorter interval, the second and third slopes are due to energy unavailability for signicantly longer periods. Since the light blocking was shorter the rst time, the number of packet transmissions adjusted to this energy availability. We nd that 500 packets were transmitted in the rst 1200 seconds, compared to fewer number of packet transmissions due to longer intervals of light blocking. Figure 7 shows the behaviour of the morphed application. We conducted specic experiments to study the applications response to excess energy both when energy was constantly replenished and otherwise. We performed a comparison of operation of the sensor node in 2 cases : Case(1) when the node 978-1-4244-5489-1/10/$26.00 c 2010 IEEE

is ooded with incoming harvested energy and Case (2) when there is no incoming energy, but the super-capacitor has a high amount of stored energy. While gure 7(a) shows the energy contained in the super-capacitor in both cases throughout the experiment, gure 7(b) illustrates the the cumulative count of the number of operations that the node performed in each case. It can be seen that in Case(2), the application modied itself and performed lesser number of operations than in Case(1). The super-capacitor energy level remained constant in Case(1) which clearly shows that the node performed energy matched operation. For example, we looked at the behaviour of the application between instances of time t = 200s to 300s. The number of operations performed by the node in Case (1) were 165, whereas for the same interval of time, in Case(2), the node performed 108 operations. Of the 165 operations in Case(1), sense and compute operations alone accounted for 54 and the remaining 111 operations were transmit operations. In Case(2) however, the number of transmissions dropped to 57 and the number of sense and compute operations was 51. The application found an opportunity in Case(1) to transmit as many packets as possible compared to Case(2) in which it continued to operate, depleting slowly from the energy storage buffer. A manual calculation of energy consumption against inow veried the applications behaviour from its energy consumption. Finally, the node performed node collaboration by snooping on messages transmitted by neighbours, acquired information of neighbour energy and also its sensed data. It formed a correlation between its sensed data and that of the neighbour node. When the neighbour went into hibernation, the node enjoying high energy availability, transmitted the dead nodes data with its own, thus lling gaps in data at the base station. VII. S UMMARY AND F UTURE W ORK In this work we explored building smart and autonomous applications using exciting opportunities presented by energy harvesting sources. We proposed a decision engine attached to the application that directs it to morph according to energy availability. We have shown that data sensing, computing, communication and storage operations are energy matched. We have also incorporated data correlation schemes to exploit excess energy. Our results are encouraging and provide several interesting opportunities for further work. For instance, in the event of excess energy, an overlay network of high energy nodes that can extend their sensing and communication range can be explored. The Decision Engine is currently tied to the base application. Our future efforts will be concentrated on making it a plug and play and generic solution for any application to be run on an energy harvesting node. We have presented a prediction tool based on the EWMA and found it suitable for solar energy harvesting. It would also be interesting to model prediction based on the Holt-Winters method to exploit the trend and seasonality of data. We need to explore several other time series models suitable for energy harvesting sources such as vibration, thermogeneration and linear motion. The current heuristic rule book does not

incorporate any network and link impairments and possible operations under these conditions. For instance, if the link quality is poor, the calculation of the energy budget should take into account the fact that there is a likelihood of packet retransmission. Alternately, the Decision Engine could also advice a different operation set. Finally, specic harvester electronics is needed for super-capacitor buffers. Heliomote was designed for harvesting systems that used rechargeable batteries as a storage buffer. While it can be used with supercapacitors as we have shown in this paper, its operation is not optimal. Also, since this electronics does not perform MPPT and lacks the ability to extract all harvested energy below the Vbatt , our demonstrable results were limited. We think that a hardware similar to Ambimax [21] may be more suitable since it has a signicantly higher efciency. VIII. C ONCLUSION We present our application layer based multiple input Decision Engine. It tries to recommend operations in an energy matched manner that allows the morphed application to follow the base application as closely as possible. Since harvested energies can replenish storage devices, in the event of excess energy, several new operations are explored. These include neighbor energy level information, link quality, and neighbor proxying. We present results obtained from measurements conducted on hardware, consisting of a solar energy harvested wireless sensor node with a super-capacitor energy buffer. IX. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by ANRC - Project 2B. R EFERENCES
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