LECTURE 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS (IR)

Introductory Q.

What is the difference between International Relations (IR) and international relations?

Origin of IR as a discipline

WWI war was the greatest problem facing humanity and efforts should be taken to avoid future wars. War was an interstate in nature. To avoid war a study on inters-states relations was necessary. The study on IR as a discipline started at the University of Wales immediately after WWI.

What is IR

Traditionally it meant the study on States and how they interact with other states. o Flaw of this definition existence of new actors in IR eg IOs, NGOs, MNCs, Pressure Groups etc . o What are the roles of non-state actors in IR.

Then what is the most accurate definition

Study on states and how they interact with other actors. o Interaction can be conflictual/cooperative.

So it is not focused only on interstate relations

What is the meaning of interacting?

Perception;

Stand taken on issues; Stand taken on the position of other actors; Influencing other actors to support ones position.

How do you determine/assess the stand or position taken by an actor?

Public statement eg. Speeches, Joint Statement, Joint Communique, Declaration, Agreements; Voting pattern at international fora; Action taken eg. war, sanctions, containment etc; Election manifesto.

Is IR related to History, Political Science, Sociology, Economics, Social Issues?

IR is interdisciplinary in nature. Economic/historical memory/social issues do affect interstate relations. IR is not a stand alone discipline.

Are domestic issues relevant to IR?

Yes if it affects foreign policy. How?

In IR who are the actors? State:

Must have a territory/people/government.

Non-state actors.

States have sovereignty:

Sovereignty means a state has the power to make/enforce laws, collect taxes and power over its inhabitants/citizens. Sovereignty is recognized by other states through diplomatic recognition.

Who represent the State:

The people or Head of Government?

All states enjoy sovereignty but do all of them have the same power?

Economic power, military power etc. o Super power/middle power.

How can one explain events/activities that take place in IR?

Through theories i.e. an attempt to construct a coherent explanation for a certain phenomenon. Theory is like a camera, one ```````can have a micro/macro/panoramic view.

How many theories are there in IR? Many but suffice to know REALISM, LIBERALISM, RADICALISM, CONSTRUCTIVISM

Realism

Starts with the premise that human by nature is selfish. States, like men behave in an selfcentred manner.

Focus of the theory is on power. o Economic o Military o Size

Realism emphasizes the importance of states. They have to preserve their national interest. What is national interest? Is the emphasis/weightage the same for all states?

How does a state promote its national interest? Power! What is power? Is the meaning the same for all states?

The world is anarchical in nature. What is the meaning?

Survival of the fittest.

Zero-sum game.

States lacking in power have to align itself with a bigger power. Balance of Power.

Who are the actors from the realist approach? Is this true on the ground now?

Machiavelli, Hobbes, Morgenthau, Waltz, Hedley Bull.

Liberalism

Liberalists believe that all human beings are rational in their behaviour, so are states. Rational means, the ability to understand moral principles and live accordingly to the rule of law. There is cooperation and interdependence. Free trade & interdependence, integration. Commonality of interest and therefore there is tendency to work for common good. Liberals value individual liberty above all else. Why?

National self-determination, open governments responsive to public opinion. Collective security. Actors: MNCs, IOs, Civil Societirs, NGOs etc.. Locke, Woodrow Wilson, Doyle. Weakness: Tends to ignore POWER.

Radicalism

Marxist approach capitalism is the root cause of world conflict. Capitalist states compete to maximize profits and treat socialism as an enemy as this ism is anathema to Capitalism. Off-shoot of this theoretical approach: o World system theory o Dependency theory o Centre-periphery theory. o Way out to oust capitalism and establish a revolutionary government.. o Build tariff barriers. o Have import substitution industry. o Actors : Staes and MNCs. o Weaknesses- emphasis is on exploitation.

Constructivism

Construction of common norms and values. Construction of common identity.. Based on sociological theory.. Pooling of sovereignty. Actor: people and society.

Formulation of Foreign Policy

Who are responsible in formulating foreign policy? 1st World and 3rd World countries differ in the process of formulation; 3rd World-decided by their political elite.

Contributory factors in the formulation of foreign policy

External/domestic/idiosyncratic..

What constitutes idiosyncrasy?

Individual traits Perception/weaknesess and strenghth/talent/leadership style/personal experiences/likes and dislikes/racial origin etc..

Ideological leaning Socialism etc

Leadership style

Decisive Impulsive Assertive Authoritarian Consensus building

Internal politics

Political system Historical background Society homogenous/plurat/fractious

Regime stable or not? Economic strength Geopolitics

External factors

Global Cold War/Alliance/Globalisationi Regioanl situation/attitude of neighbours etc.

Lecture 2: Overview of Malaysias Foreign Policy

For ease of analysis Malaysias FP could be divided into 4 phases:

Dilemma of Independence 1957 to1970; Era of Accommodation 1970 to 1976; Era of International Activism/Adventurism 81 to 2003; Abdullah Badawis/Najibs FP?

1957 1970 : Under Tunku Abdul Rahman. Era of Dilemma of Independence 1957 to1970. Why this label?

Focus was on consolidating political and economic stability. Two legged economy tin and rubber / trading houses located in UK. Economy was closely linked to British and Western economies. Highly dependent on UK for defence AMDA. Why? FP Pro West anti communist at home and abroad. Why?

However there were exceptions to the Pro West posture:

S. African apartheid policy and Australias white policy. 1st experiment with regionalism ASA in 1960.

Diplomacy West Irian conflict. Formation of Malaysia in 1963. Konfrontasi. Lessons learned too pro West and neglecting NAM and the 3W countries. Formation of ASEAN in 1966. Development of norms and values that brought regional stability.

1970 1976 : Under Tun Abdul Razak Era of Accommodation 1970 to 1976 Why this label?

Took cognizance of the lessons learned from Konfrontasi, the changing world order: and the need for nation-building (bringing the 3 major races together).

Changing world order

Dtente. Tripolar nature of world politics. Changing British policy. Changing US policy.

With dtente Malaysia needed to realign its FP to suit changing situation.

Adoption of a non-aligned foreign policy. Equidistance relations with all the 3 super powers. Declaration of ZOPFAN for Southeast Asia. o SEA to be free from super power rivalries; o Neutrality to be guaranteed by the 3 super powers.

Recognition of PRC in 1974 the 1st ASEAN country to do so.

Reasons for recognizing PRC (Internal Reasons) To checkmate the link between the CPM with CPC and the PRC government. The need consolidate efforts at nation-building in Malaysia. Stateless Chinese. To solve the problem of dual citizenship.

Security guarantee. Market opportunities.

Reasons for recognisisng China (External reasons)

Dtente. Tripolar nature of world politics. Changing British policy. Changing US policy.

1981 to 2003 : Dr. Mahathirs Era Era of International Activism/Adventurism 81 to 2003. Why this label?

Broke away from the FP postures of his predecessors. Broke away from the West.

Critical and called a spade a spade. Laid bare the hypocrisy of the West. West sometime unable to stomach Dr. Ms crticisms.

He internationalized Malaysias FP by taking up international issues of common interest/concern to all, especially the 3W countries.

Was his criticism destructive in nature?

Many 3W countries were not able to raise those issues at intl fora for a number of reasons heavy debt, too dependent and too beholden on the West etc.

Thus Mahathir was dubbed as the spokesman of the 3W countries.

Issues highlighted by Mahathir

North-South Relations/ Structural Differences between North and South o Debt and how the W made use of the bank and commercial banks to control the economy and politics of 3W countries. o Called for a New International Financial Architecture how? o IMF not to use one size fits all formula to overcome some of the economic problems of the 3W. o Economic bailout by IMF meant bailing out foreign banks owned by the West. o IMFs so called solution to the problems impoverished the 3W further. o IMF and WB instruments of US foreign policy.

Call for a new Intl Economic Order. o Better terms of trade for the S countries. o When the W talked about trade liberalization they were more interested in penetrating the financial/banking/service sector. o Liberalisation should mean market access for the products/produce of the S. US should also remove trade distorting policies. o Tendency of the West to shift the goal post all the time to their advantage. NTB and linking trade and economic issues to other issues like Human Rights, Labour Standards etc.

Hypocrisy of the West on issues like: Human rights. Different standards applied to different countries. Imposing Western values on non-Western countries. Unilateralism on the part of the West/US eg invasion/ occupation of Iraq.

The UN. o Veto power of the P5 should be revisited. o Multilateralism as opposed to unilateralism. o Support peacekeeping efforts Congo, Gulf, Cambodia, Bosnia, Timor Leste, Liberia etc.

Antarctica. o Should be made the common heritage of mankind. The developed countries have no right to carve Antarctica as their preserve. o The future of Antarctica would also affect the livelihood of all and therefore all should be involved in the issue of Antarctica. Whatever the Antarctic Treaty countries do there should be transparent and open to the participation of the others.

Related to global warming was the issue of environment. West was responsible for environmental degradation and should underwrite the responsibility. Should stop pointing their fingers at the South countries. While championing issues dear to the interest of the 3W Mahathir came out with several platforms to bring the 3W together: o Making use of existing platforms like NAM. o NAM should not focus on political issues anymore as the Cold War is already history. o Should address issues of common concern like trade, market access, transfer of technology etc.

Group of 15/G15

The most developed of the 3W countries should provide the role model for S-S Cooperation. Investment. Transfer of technology. Education and training by offering each others centres of excellence. Bilateral Payment Arrangement etc.

In East Asia.

Idea of an East Asia Economic Grouping (EAEG) in response to regionalism elsewhere. Lukewarm response from Japan and Korea why? After the Financial Crisis EAEG became relevant again.

EAEG became a reality but with another name the EAS.

Islam

Strengthening of the OIC Secretariat. Islam is not equal to terrorism. West is concentrating more on the symptoms rather than the root causes. Genocide and the massacres of Muslims. Sending of Malaysian armed forces to Bosnia for peacekeeping work. While calling for unity of the Ummah, Mahathir was also critical of the hypocrisy and disunity among the Muslims.

Abdullahs/Najibs FP

Less of microphone diplomacy. More of persuasive diplomacy.

Repriotising focus of Malaysias FP. Priority to be given to issues directly related

to Malaysian national interest.

Less on rhetoric eg calling on OIC to talk less about politics but to concentrate more on economic cooperation

Lecture 3: Dasar Luar Tunku Abdul Rahman

What is Foreign Policy?

Nature how we conduct relations with state actors and non-state actors.

Who are the state actors?

All independent states.

Who are the non-state actors?

IOs MNCs NGOs Liberation Movement

What re the objectives of FP?

Protection of national interest? Are national interest the same for all countries?

What are the interest that are common to all?

To protect ones independence, territorial integrity & sovereignty; To protect ones economic well being; To protect ones principle, ideology and belief.

That is why when a country achieves its independence it would immediately apply for UN membership.

To gain recognition of its existence as an independent and sovereign state. To show commitment to the UN Charter: to maintain of intl peace and security; suppression of acts of aggression; pacific settlement of dispute; promotion of econ growth and social progress.

Malaysia achieved its independence on 31/8/1957. Political scenario then:

World divided into 2 Blocs; Cold War at its height; Superpowers did not fight each other. They use proxies. In Asia?

China fell to the Communist in 1949. Believe in exporting the Communist ideology especially to SEA. Who were their agents?

Situation became more threatening to Msia. Why?

In 1957, out of a population of 6.2M , 3.2M were Chinese. Majority were not Malaysian citizen; Internal security threatened by armed insurrection waged by the CPM. Who were the supporters of the CPM internally/externally; Did not have a proper defence force: 9 battalions of land soldiers, no air force, no naval force.

What were the options then: many but we must remember Msia has to defend its national interest!!

Sought for British defence umbrella through AMDA; Confluence of interest between Britain and Malaysia. Why? For Britain : Economic; Strategic interest. For Msia: Economic, strategic planning, pragmatism.

Could Msia afford to break its ties with UK and its Allies?

Have to fight internal communist threat; Have to face a bigger threat from PRC; Have to maintain economic prosperity.

Stance of Msia FP was pro West. Manifestation?

AMDA allying Msia with the West in the E-W Conflict; adjunct to SEATO; Membership of the Commonwealth; Anti Communist at home and in FP. Manifestation? Diplomatic relations, position taken on EW conflict eg Tibet, Sino-India War, Vietnam War etc.

We have seen the internal and external factors in contributing to Msias FP. What is the other contributing factor?

Ideosyncratic. Personality of the Tunku? Conservative/pragmatic/imbued with Western intellectual and political liberalism.

Besides being pro West what were the other characteristics of Tunkus FP

Experimented with regionalism.1960 initiated SEA Cultural and Econ Cooperation. ASA. Who were the members of ASA. What about the participation of Indonesia? End of ASA. Establishment of ASEAN. What made ASEAN tick?

Universal cause:

Anti-Apartheid: S.Africa, 1960 White Australian Policy. Islamic Commonwealth. Tried to mediate the Irian Barat dispute.

3rd World interest.

Commodity.

Konfrontasi& formation of Malaysia

Indonesia: Neokolim, bigbrotherism. Philippines: Claim on Sabah.

Lessons from Konfrontasi

SEA countries need to know and understand each other. Msia cannot put its egg in one basket the West & Britain. Indonesia must play its regional role.

Posers

Statements by Tunku on his pro West and anti China policy. Exam Q. FaktorPenyumbang Ciriciridasarluar. Ada ciriciri regionalism & 3rdWorldism.

References Abdullah Ahmad (1985), Tengku Abdul Rahman& Malaysias Foreign Policy 1963-1970, Berita Publishing, K. Lumpur. RuhanasHarun (ed.) (2006), Malaysias Foreign Relations: Issues and Challenges, University of Malaya Press. J. Saravanamuttu (1983), The Dilemma of Independence: Two Decades of Malaysias Foreign Policy, 1957-1977, USM School of social Sciences, Penang.

Lecture 4: Dasar Luar Tun Razak Kenapa zaman transisi? Apa yang berlaku:

Razak menjadi Pengarah Mageran dan de facto PM.

Berakhirnya konfronatsi. Pengajaran: Dasar terlalu pro Barat harus dikaji semula/Merapatkan diri dgn Negara NAM/Asia Afrika.

Penubuhan ASEAN melalui Deklarasi BKK 1967.Implikasi keatas keselamatan serantau.

Peristiwa 13 Mei. Harus mempercepatkan proses pembentukan Negara bangsa. Cabaran: Kemiskinan Bandar &luar Bandar, hubungan antara kaum.

Makna kemiskinan: Pelajaran/harta/kesejahteraan.

Menghapuskan profesi mengikutkaum: Melayu petani/India estate/China perniagaan.

Dgn Indonesia: tamat konfrontasi /tertubuhnya ASEAN dan termetarinya Perjanjian Persahabatan dgn Indonesia pada 1970 menggantikan Perjanjian 1959.

1970 Malaysia menghadiri Persidangan NAM buat kali pertamanya. Pada Persidangan tersebut Razak menggariskan DL Msia selari dgn prinsip2 NAM dan menyatakan: Dengan dtente Negara membangun harus memastikan kuasa2 besar tidak mengenepikan kepentingan Negara2 kecil/tendensi hegemoni negara2 besar harus dibenteras/dunia bukan bipolar tetapi sudah menjadi tripolar/Membuat perhatian bahawa kebanyakan negara2 membangun tidak mempunyai hubungan diplomatic dgn PRC.

Memperingati Negara membangun harus berpegang teguh kpd prinsip2 NAM iaitu prinsip peaceful coexistence, berkecuali, tidak campurtangan dlm hal domestik, menghormati keutuhan wilayah/kemerdekaan/kedaulatan.

Signifikan keatas dasar luarMsia.

Di Lusaka Razak juga:

Buat pertama kalinya membuat kenyataan secara rasmi cadangan neutralisasi SEA. Ianya merangkumi seluruh SEA : Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia dan Myanmar.

Adakah cadangan ini idea baru? TunDr. Ismail pernah mencadangkannya dalam perbahasan Parliamen pada 1968.

Apa yang dicadangkan oleh beliau?

Apa terjadi pada Tun Dr. Ismail:

1970 menjadi anggota cabinet TunRazak. DPM dan rakan setia Razak.

Personality Tun Razak dan Dr. Ismail: Percaya NAM dan juga diplomasi boleh menjamin keselamatan disamping kekuatan ketenteraan.

Kenapa Razak mengubah DL Msia?

Faktor personality: Mahukan DL yang lebih pragmatic mengikut perubahan semasa/FaktorTunDr. Ismail/Perubahan persepsi bahawa kekuatan pertahanan bukan bermakna membawa keselamatan. Keselamatan harus dilihat dari perspektif social dan military,

Faktor luaran:

Dunia sudah menjadi tripolar.

Harus menerima reality di Asia: China sbg kuasa besar dan Negara Asia harus memastikan kuasa besar tidak berpakat2 dan mengenepikan kepentingan Negara kecil.

Dasar pertahanan British: Menarik keluar tentera Timur dari Suez. Bermula 1969 dan berakhir 1971/AMDA digantiakn dgn FPDA. Apa signifikannya?

Tidak mahu terlalu bergantung kpd British dan Barat. Ekonomi? Politik?

Faktor dalaman:

Peristiwa 13 Mei. Konflik kaum/Perkiraan pembentukan Negara bangsa/penubuhan BN.

Menangani masaalah PKM. Cari jalan lain untuk mematikan pengaruh mereka.

Usaha2 yang diambil memperkukuhkan DL berkecuali:

Memperkukuhkan ASEAN sebagai alat CBM. ASEAN: non-ideological/nonmilitary/non-antagonistic. Kupasan?

Prinsip/Norma ASEAN:

Tidak campurtangan hal ehwal domestic.

Menghormati keutuhan wilayah/kemerdekaan.

Perbedaan diselesaikan dgn jalan damai.

Menggalakkan kerjasama sosio-ekonomi.

Pengkalan asing tidak boleh digunakan untuk subvert/coerce Negara Negara jiran.

Deklarasi ZOPFAN 1971. Signifikan dari sudut DL Malaysia?

DL sama jarak/coexistance.

Mengukuhkan pegangan kpd Deklarasi BKK.

Objektif terakhir neutralisasi Asia Tenggara.

Macam mana ianya boleh tercapai: Guarantee dari Kuasa2 Besar termasuk PRC. Secara tersirat ASEAN harus mengiktiraf PRC.

Signifikan ZOPFAN keatas dasarluar Msia.

1974 Msia mengiktiraf PRC. Kenapa? Fakto rLuaran: Pendirian Britain/Pendirian USA/China menganggotai PBB/Dunia sudah tripolar/dtente antara USA dan PRC. Faktor dalaman: PKM/Dwikerakyatan/Warganegara China/Keutuhan wilayah/merealisasikan ZOPFAN. Personaliti?

References: J. Saravanamuttu, The Dilemma of Independence, USM, 1983. RuhanasHarun, Malaysias Foreign Relations: Issues & Challenges, UM Press, 2006. Joint Communiqueantara Malaysia dan PRC, Beijing, 31 May 1974.