You are on page 1of 19

BARRIERS TO EMPOWERMENT

CHAPTER 3

Barriers to empowerment

Policies and programmes alone cannot guarantee empowerment. Unless peoples individual and social capabilities can enhance their position in competitive bargaining or to hold institutions accountable, they may not be able to take advantage of the opportunities created by reforms. Both policies and institutions must be examined to assess their relevance to the challenges faced by the poor and the very causes of their poverty.

sarily a Hindu society and as cultural pluralism within a hierarchical caste system, certainly since the 18th century. The many communities subordinated by the unifying King Prithvi Narayan Shah and his followers responded with accommodation and assimilation, but also with out-migration or resistance, sometimes violent.3 Nepalese culture is rooted in discriminations based on religion, which have perpetuated both practices of untouchability and the exploitation of women. It has also worked against the preservation of the cultures of various ethnic groups, including indigenous people of the country. Without eliminating these biases, the empowerment process cannot become sustainable. Despite the provisions in the Constitution of 1990, which clearly state the freedom to profess and practice ones own religion, Hindu values have exerted vast influence over the nations other religions and its general cultural practices. Although the National Country Code of 1963 abolished the caste system, it remains very much alive in practice. Indeed, the National Country Code amended in 1992 has upheld the preservation of traditional practices. 4 Even the Constitution contains some degree of ambiguity in this regard. The low status of women, systems of patrilineal descent, patri-local residence and rules of inheritance interact to isolate and subordinate women throughout the country. Gender issues are thus interwoven systematically into the basic social structure of

SOCIO -CULTURAL EMPOWERMENT


As chapter 1 pointed out, socio-cultural empowerment is the process through which people and groups become aware of the societal and cultural forces at work in their lives and learn how to influence their dynamics particularly those of deep-rooted social inequality and exclusion. If we understand the term culture in the widely accepted sense of all the capabilities and habits acquired by human beings as members of societies, we can begin to appreciate the weight of Nepals deeply hierarchical social structures with their interlocking systems of caste and ethnicity. 1 Despite the countrys 100 ethnicities, 92 languages and nine religions, its people can be broadly examined in five cultural categories: caste-origin Hindu groups; Newars; the ethnic/tribal groups (nationalities); Muslims; and others.2 These categories have significantly impeded the pace of empowerment. Nepal has been described as a Hindu kingdom and Hindu polity, though not neces-

Nepalese culture is rooted in discriminations based on religion, which have perpetuated both practices of untouchability and the exploitation of women

31

N E PA L H U M A N D E V E L O P M E N T R E P O R T 2 0 0 4

Nepalese society, as are other traditional cultural values. Deeply embedded, they obstruct the empowerment of the poor and the disadvantaged groups throughout the country.

The effectiveness of educational reforms


In 1951, Nepal could boast a literacy rate of only 2%; 321 primary schools and 11 high schools constituted the whole of its public educational establishment. By 2002, the literacy rate had mounted to 54%, the number of primary schools to 25,927, lower secondary schools to 7,289 and secondary schools to 4,350.5 Under the 1971 National Education System Plan, the government assumed the full cost of primary education and 75% of the costs of vocational school. However, the state-controlled education system discouraged peoples participation in school management, undermined educational quality and also ignored the deep-rooted discriminatory practices of the school system. The new Constitution of 1990 guaranteed the universal right to education and therefore encouraged the introduction of preferential policies for educating girls and other disadvantaged groups. Since 1992, the government has taken a number of additional steps to increase access to education and improve its quality, including the establishment of the National Education Commission to frame policy and oversee the implementation of a variety of programmes and projects aimed at enhancing basic and primary education. Since 1996, early childhood education (at the preprimary level) has been emphasized in conjunction with the slogan Education for all to meet the goal of universal education by 2015. School management also changed, with added emphasis on the community management of schools. The Ninth Plan period (1997-2002) witnessed additional reforms, notably: ! Ensuring that within one decade, all children enrolled complete a five-year primary education;
32

Unless primary education is made compulsory, the principle of universalization will not become operative

Developing an integrated cycle of secondary education linked to the labour market and widely accessible to girls and to poorer students; Improving the quality of university and other tertiary education; Introducing greater cost recovery and targeting public subsidies to students from poor households, thereby restructuring a system that subsidizes the upper classes, especially because of skewing towards the tertiary level; Developing a school management system; communities now manage their own primary schools, with a view to reducing costs, broadening access and improving quality through local supervision. Encouraging further private sector investment in education. In 2001, private schools constituted 8.7% of all primary schools, 17.8% of all lower secondary schools and 21.3% of all secondary schools, percentages that are increasing.6

The Tenth Plan/PRSP (2002-07) envisages the extension of education in the spirit of Education for All (EFA). Accordingly, EFA 2004-2009 was initiated at the beginning 2004. This programme is expected to cope with the countrys low literacy and the low access of girls, Dalits, ethnic communities, disabled persons and people living below the poverty line and to achieve the goal of education for all by 2015. A number of innovations have therefore been undertaken in the education sector to ensure universal primary education and to attain equity. Nonetheless, despite all these initiatives and others, Nepals education system has been unable to enhance the access of women, disadvantaged indigenous communities and Dalits. The shortfalls reinforce the impression that statesubsidized education benefits the privileged: ! Neither backward communities nor settlements in the mountain and remote hill regions have adequate access to education; the rural/urban gap persists; ! Less than half of all children complete the primary cycle and only 10% of those entering grade 1 reach grade 10, even af-

BARRIERS TO EMPOWERMENT

ter repeating several times; less than half of the secondary level students pass the School Leaving Certificate (SLC) examination; pass rates in higher secondary and at the University are comparable. These inequities stem both from the supply side (limited physical access and poor quality of schooling) and the demand side (high perceived cost of education in relation to foregone benefits). They also suggest that unless primary education is made compulsory, the principle of universalization will not become operative. The high subsidies to tertiary education, the politicization of educational institutions and the rigidity of general education have all discouraged reforms of the present education system. In addition, most teachers receive little training; no provision exists for pre-service training, there is very limited in-service training, and teachers are poorly motivated because of inadequate incentives, coupled with few options for career growth. Moreover, community participation in the education system has remained low, in large measure because the centralized system of teacher recruitment, resource allocation and monitoring school operations have excluded community members from decision-making processes. Local elites continue to dominate even the school management committees, silencing the voices of women, Dalits and disadvantaged/indigenous groups. However, there are some innovative community-managed schools, which have proved to be quite successful as demonstrated by the UNDP-supported Community Owned Primary Education (COPE) project in some districts of Nepal (see box 3.1).

change of 1990 fostered many new policy and programme initiatives, including: ! The 1991 National Health Policy aimed at expanding primary healthcare facilities for the rural population and giving priority to preventive health services so as to reduce infant and child mortality rates. ! Emphasis on community participation at all levels of healthcare especially through the participation of female community health volunteers (FCHVs) and traditional birth attendants. And, indeed, the 45,000 FCHVs have contributed significantly to polio eradication, Vitamin A distribution and family
BOX 3.1 A model school in a remote area of Okhaldhunga district
The story of Sansari Primary School located in Khijijichandesori, a small village in the western part of Okhaldhnuga district, is a bright example of what can be achieved by communities' commitment and combined resources, especially in rural and disadvantaged areas. In 2000, this site was selected by the DDC for the establishment of a COPE school. The community launched the Sansari Primary School, conducting grade one at the house of a local resident. They formed a School Management Board (SMB).As part of the COPE programme's approach to ensuring the sustainability of schools, it initiated a link between the school and the Sansari Community Organization, a local UNDP-supported community savings group. The VDC supported the operation of the Sansari savings group from then on. The community constructed the COPE school building by mobilizing local resources; each household contributed 10 days' labour to erect a structure with four rooms and a two-room toilet. Currently, 83 pupils, 43 of them girls, are receiving primary education (from grade 1 to 4). The school serves the disadvantaged community of the VDC; most of its students come from a "backward" Sunuwar group. Its three local female teachers are all trained. The SMB has approximately Rs. 60,000 in the school fund, which is invested with the Sansari savings group at an interest rate of 24%, most of which is used for school operation costs, while the remainder is reinvested in the school account. The SMB meets every month to discuss issues related to the school. It has formed a very active parent-teacher association, which regularly provides feedback to teachers about the performance of the students. This school is regularly monitored by the SMB, along with a monitoring committee formed by the parents. The Sansari Primary School has become the model community school of the entire district, often cited as such by the district Education Office in commenting upon government-run primary schools. The performance of the students is highly rated, as parents are happy with their children's learning achievements. Source: Community Owned Primary Education Programme (COPE), UNDP/HMG/N 2004.

The effectiveness of health reforms


In 1971, Nepal had only 58 hospitals, 277 medical doctors and 2,098 hospital beds.7 By 2001, these figures had increased, respectively, to 89, 5,415 and 5,310, plus 3,921 nurses.8 As in education, the democratic

33

N E PA L H U M A N D E V E L O P M E N T R E P O R T 2 0 0 4

Life expectancy in Nepal remains one of the lowest in South Asia, while its infant and maternal mortality rates rank among the highest with appalling statistics

planning practices. According priority to the supplies of drugs by increasing domestic production. The special focus of both the Second Long-t erm Health Plan (1997-2017) and the Nepal Health Sector Plan (2002-2007)9 on improving the health of the most vulnerable groups, notably by placing technically qualified health personnel in under-served areas. The formulation of Nepal Health Sector Reform Strategy to move the health sector towards strategic planning and sector wide approach. This strategy has three programme outputs prioritized essential health care services, decentralized management of health facilities and the expansion of public/private partnership. The Nepal Health Sector Strategy Implementation Plan (2004-2009) provides operational guidelines to implement the activities of the Health Sector Reform Strategy during the first five years. The main focus of the Plan is to expand outreach and improve the quality of essential healthcare services with special emphasis on the poor and vulnerable groups.

ternal mortality stems in large measure from the low level of access to antenatal, delivery and post-natal care; about 90% of births take place at home and without professional health assistance. Gradually, HIV/AIDS has emerged as a major problem;13 WHO estimates more than 50,000 cases and a prevalence rate of 0.29%.14

Nepals public sector per capita health allocation US$ 2 per annum in 1999/00 compares unfavourably with the average per capita annual cost of US$ 12 for essential healthcare alone in a developing country in the mid-range of the HDI.15 Even the fiscal year 2003/04 allocation still stood at US$ 2 per capita. Accessing public healthcare outlets and procuring the drugs they prescribe consumes 59% of household expenditure on health. The regional distribution of available facilities is also highly uneven, with the mid-western and far western development regions and mountain ecological belts lagging far behind the others. Life expectancy in the mountain trails that of Tarai by 7 years; rural people generally live 10 years less than their urban counterparts. For the most part, the countrys health services are centrally managed with little participation by local communities in either health policy decision-making or the monitoring of health service delivery. Procurements, staff recruitment and transfers, and supervision of local health institutions remain outside local purview, one factor in the shortfalls of local authorities in fostering a sense of stakeholding in the delivery of public health services. Moreover, the state has not set out clear roles and responsibilities for the central and district level health authorities regarding decentralization. Nor has it provided an effective system to ensure the quality and fair pricing of private sector health services. Although the involvement of the private sector in service delivery has expanded service availability, these services remain costly, effectively shutting out the poor. And in the

Nonetheless, life expectancy in Nepal remains one of the lowest in South Asia, while its infant and maternal mortality rates rank among the highest with appalling statistics: ! Nepals infant mortality rate (IMR) of 64 per 1,000 live births in 2001 compares ill with that of 17/1,000 in Sri Lanka.10 The female rate (96) is slightly lower than the male IMR (100) and rural babies are exposed 1.6 times more to risks of death than their urban counterparts. ! Maternal mortality, a key indicator of reproductive healthcare services, stands at 539 per 100,000 women aged 15-49 years,11 one of the highest in the world;12 27% of all deaths of women aged 15-49 years are attributed to childbirth complications. This level of ma-

34

BARRIERS TO EMPOWERMENT

absence of a universal healthcare system, the poor, women and disadvantaged groups remain deprived of the basic services necessary for a decent life in a competitive society. Although the rural health service infrastructure is both large and relatively equitable in its penetration of the countryside, the quality of its services remains extremely poor because of a number of administrative problems: ! Inadequate number of medical and paramedical staff positioned in Primary Healthcare Centers and Service Centers; ! Inadequate residential accommodation for health staff; ! Unsatisfactory supply and maintenance of equipment, medicines and vaccines. Unless these needs are met by the regular budget, the health infrastructure will remain an unproductive investment. Encouraging community participation in primary healthcare by their members involvement in decision-making processes would give local units greater responsibility for planning and budgeting, collecting fees, and determining how collected funds and government transfers would be used. This would ! improve incentives for fund collections; ! increase accountability; ! ensure appropriateness of services to the local service centre; and ! minimize administrative costs. The effectiveness of local institutions for the promotion of primary healthcare requires empowering local bodies through the devolution of power and other necessary support. Universalizing primary health is even more urgent. Until it becomes the fundamental goal of health policy, all other goals and objectives matter very little.

health benefits that they promote. But access of the Nepalese people to drinking water services is low. Although drinking water coverage reached 71.6% of the population in 2002, the quality of water supply is very poor. Contaminations at source, at water collection points, in water collection jars and in storage within households, among other dangers, are common in Nepal, contributing significantly to high rates of water-borne diseases such as diarrhea, dysentery, jaundice, typhoid and cholera. In addition, arsenic contamination in tube-well water is now emerging as a major problem. Although drinking water from pipes, tubewells and boreholes is regarded as safe, its quality from different sources is poor, and does not meet either the former or recently defined national standards. In 2001, it is believed that only 4.4% of the total population had access to first-grade quality water and only 6.4% to the medium-quality standard. Approximately 60% of the population falls into the third category supplied with a basic service level of drinking water facilities. Current plans call for providing 25% of the total population with high-quality drinking water, while almost the entire population now living with the basic service water supply will move into the second category, having access to medium quality water by 2015. Government budgetary allocations to the drinking water sector have declined in recent years, from approximately 4% in 1990 to 2% of the entire budget in 2002. Greater resources demanded by the Melamchi Water Project are likely to crowd out the resources available to small drinking water projects. The sustainability of water supply projects has also remained challenging. The process of urbanization has exerted strong pressures for faster extension of water supply services with greater resource demands.

Universalizing primary health is even more urgent. Until it becomes the fundamental goal of health policy, all other goals and objectives matter very little

Drinking water
Drinking water facilities have strong implications for the domestic work burdens of women and girls, time-saving for more productive work, sanitation services and the

Social protection
The social protection system safeguards people who cannot find jobs, who cannot work because of sickness, disability, old
35

N E PA L H U M A N D E V E L O P M E N T R E P O R T 2 0 0 4

The present economic reform programme risks marginalizing people who cannot compete in the marketplace or survive its vagaries

age or maternity, who have lost breadwinners, or who suffer from natural disasters, armed conflict or forced displacement. Because poverty in Nepal is deep and widespread throughout a large population base, vulnerability is high because of the large number of people near the poverty line for whom even a marginal income fluctuation can have serious consequences. Limited government budgetary capacity constrains a broader provision of significant social assistance arrangements. Although a variety of formal safety net programmes (such as food for work, cash transfers and food subsidies) exist, their coverage is very limited; only a small fraction of the population has been benefited from these schemes. Nepal recently initiated universal social security through the introduction of social assistance to the citizens above the age of 75, the disabled, and widows. No single institution in Nepal has the mandate for supervising social security affairs. Provident funds and pensions, the most popular social security arrangements, are confined to the government sector and some of the public enterprises that cover no more than 5% of the labour force. Nepal has a predominantly informal economy; the formal sector can currently provide job opportunities to less than 10% of the employed labour force. This means that social protection schemes designed for the formal sector can cover a very small proportion of the population at this stage of development. While a number of social security schemes exist in the public enterprises, they are neither uniform nor justified in terms of the financial capabilities of these bodies an issue that often provokes labour conflicts and strikes. Moreover, as most of such benefits remain unfunded,16 the sustainability of such schemes is questionable and constitutes another major policy challenge in this general area. Access to basic social services is one of the major protections against unemployment

and other income risks. To reduce their financial vulnerability and to achieve a decent standard of living, people must have access to basic public goods, including basic and primary education, primary healthcare and nutrition, drinking water and sanitation. Progress in poverty reduction, empowerment and human development in Nepal is critically dependent on expanding the provision of basic social services. The present economic reform programme risks marginalizing people who cannot compete in the marketplace or survive its vagaries. New labour market arrangements such as contracting, sub-contracting and outsourcing pose new threats to the social security of the labour force. Protecting people from income risks and actually empowering them economically require putting extensive social protection institutions and practices in place.

ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT
Macroeconomic policies and empowerment
Macroeconomic policy affects the empowerment of people because of its impacts on allocations of resources and access to them, along with income distribution and wealth. Generally, macroeconomic policy that promotes economic growth empowers the poor by creating or expanding income-earning opportunities. It also helps generate public resources for pro-poor development programmes. However, the impact of macroeconomic pro-growth measures on poverty itself depends on the magnitude and quality of growth.17 And this quality, in turn, depends on: ! the sources of growth, ! its distribution, ! its employment potential, and ! access to productive resources. Policies that influence the allocation of resources will have differential impacts on output and employment. For instance, high levels of deficit financing can adversely impact the poor through rising interest rates

36

BARRIERS TO EMPOWERMENT

and price effects. Another way in which macroeconomic policies impact empowerment is the inclusion and extent of price controls, licensing rules and other regulations. If the policy is too interventionist and favours one segment of the population at the cost of others, distributional conflicts usually emerge. Conversely, policy that does not promote efficiency with an equitable structure of incentives leads to further marginalization of the poor. The relative strength and bargaining power of various socio-political groups influences the direction and magnitude of macroeconomic policies themselves. Consequently, we must look at the nature of macroeconomic policies as both the cause and effect of empowerment. Their content and pattern decisively influences the speed and direction of empowerment overall.

prioritize agriculture in the growth process, evolved an integrated agriculture development strategy, and aimed at enhancing production and productivity through modernization and commercialization of production. To accelerate growth, APP has proposed substantial increases in investments in irrigation, rural roads, fertilizer and technology. However, several recent policy initiatives have ignored the APP phasing strategy for abolishing input and output subsidies. Thus, as subsidies in fertilizer, irrigation and credit have been withdrawn, administered food prices have been lifted too on the assumption that relative changes in the agriculture input and output prices would boost the growth of the sector through production incentives and thereby help solve peoples livelihood problems. Heavily regulated and protected for several decades until the mid-1980s, Nepals industrial sector has experienced the de-licensing of industries; the opening of foreign investment up to 100% equity participation; a reduction in tax rates; and the privatization of government enterprises, among other reforms. In addition, the liberalization of trade, foreign exchange and tariff regime were similarly undertaken to promote market-orientation on the premise that a vibrant industrial sector with sufficient backward linkages would evolve, ensuring broad-based growth. Monetary and financial sector reforms have included the deregulation of interest rates and liberalization of financial activities for private sector participation in banking and finance. This has led to an expansion of micro-finance activities, resulting in improved access to institutional credit. Still, however, less than 20% of the countrys population now has access to institutional credit. Since 1998, Nepalese monetary policy has been made more flexible with a view to lowering interest rates and promoting investment. The trade liberalization initiated in the mid1980s accelerated during the early 1990s. Almost all imports are now subject to an

The effectiveness of macroeconomic policies


During the last two decades, Nepals macroeconomic policies have undergone drastic changes in orientation from the domestic to the external. As in many other developing countries, before the mid-1980s, the state determined the countrys economic policies and undertook various interventions that encouraged distortions and inefficiencies, fueling huge fiscal and external sector deficits and high inflation. As a result, structural adjustment programmes were introduced to stabilize the economy, to reorient production structures towards the market system, to create the correct incentives for increased private sector involvement in economic activity and to increase openness. These reforms emphasized maintaining short-term stabilization and promoting long-term growth and were intensified after the restoration of multi-party system so as to further openness and the liberalization of the economy.18 The agricultural sector has witnessed major policy reforms since the mid-1990s. The Agriculture Perspective Plan (APP), launched in 1996, underscored the need to

Policy that does not promote efficiency with an equitable structure of incentives leads to further marginalization of the poor

37

N E PA L H U M A N D E V E L O P M E N T R E P O R T 2 0 0 4

Figure 3.1

Sectoral composition of GDP

Source: MoF 1990/1991 and 2002/2003.

Figure 3.2

Sectoral composition of development expenditure

Source: MoF 1990/1991 and 2002/2003.

As figure 3.1 shows, a major structural shift in output has occurred, together with the spectrum of macroeconomic reforms. The contribution of agriculture to total output has declined. Nearly half of the fall in relative share of agriculture has been compensated by increase in the value added of finance and real estate, followed by trade, restaurants and hotels, manufacturing and construction, and social services. The composition of exports, too, reflects this shift in economic structure. Manufacturing exports have overtaken food and animal products. However, because of weak backward linkages, as well as concentration in a few products based on imported raw materials, the benefits produced by this sector have been extremely uneven indeed, limited largely to the urban business community. Although fiscal balance has been maintained over the years, this has been derived from cuts in the level of development expenditure mainly in the economic sectors. As figure 3.2 indicates, the agriculture sector has been hard hit. All in all, the macroeconomic policy reforms have had limited impact on promoting broad-based growth. Consequently, despite moderate economic growth rate during the 1980s and the 1990s, it has not been pro-poor. 19 Agricultural growth has been too slow to diversify its production structure. Growth in other sectors has been urban biased, generating income-earning opportunities to limited groups with the result of rising income disparity. The withdrawal of subsidies without proper sequencing and a phase-out plan consistent with APP has impaired growth in the agricultural sector. Moreover, the inflow of subsidized food grains from India has generally discouraged producers. This inflow, together with poor infrastructure and weak and fragmented markets has undermined any expected supply side response. 20 To complicate this general effect, low and declining public investment has had adverse effects on expanding support services and introducing new technology in agriculture thereby discouraging private sector investment in agriculture as well.

open general licensing system. Tariff rates have been reduced and their structure rationalized. With expectation of wider market opportunities and broad-based growth under the World Trade Organization (WTO) trade regime, additional trade openness policies are now being pursued. Foreign direct investment of up to 100% has been invited in most of the areas, except for cottage industries and those related to security. Nepali currency has been made fully convertible in the current account. Nonetheless, the exchange rate against Indian rupee remains pegged. On the fiscal front, a restructuring of various tax slabs has been carried out with drastic cuts in the tax rates. The value added tax (VAT) has been introduced by replacing sales and other small indirect taxes. A new income tax law has also been enacted. Fiscal balance and macroeconomic stability now have priority. In accordance with Nepals PRSP, public expenditure has begun focusing explicitly on poverty reduction programmes, an initiative reflected in the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework.
38

BARRIERS TO EMPOWERMENT

In the meantime, Nepalese industry has faced stiff competition because of high transaction, transit and infrastructure costs, as well as low productivity.21 The liberal industrial policy failed to establish backward linkages because of insufficient policy incentives to industries based on domestic resources producing both poor macro and micro linkages. The collapse of small and medium industries further accentuated the problem. All these factors have thwarted growth in agriculture and industry, severely limiting the economic empowerment of poor farmers. Although financial liberalization has indeed helped expand the number of financial institutions, it has broadened financial services largely in the urban areas and largely for their big business houses. But efficiency in the financial system has remained a critical problem. This has also prevented reducing the gap between lending and deposit rates. Similarly, financial liberalization has resulted in closures and mergers of rural financial networks where the need for financial services is growing. The coverage of micro-finance institutions is low and their service costs high. The phase-out of the priority sector credit programme and the withdrawal of the interest subsidy without alternative arrangements has also created a resource crunch for poor farmers. Moreover, the outbreak of armed conflict has further squeezed financial services in the rural areas; only a few micro-finance institutions and non-governmental organizations have been working in the countryside and supporting the income-generating activities of the poor. But because of their limited outreach and the fact that the hard-core poor are less likely to be mobilized in the micro-credit process, the overall impact of financial liberalization on poverty reduction and empowerment has been insignificant. In the absence of competitive marketing structures and effective monitoring and regulatory mechanisms, the deregulation of state-controlled prices and the privatization of both essential services

and commodities encouraged upward price adjustments.

Building economic infrastructures and strengthening markets


The development of basic infrastructure services like transportation, communication and electricity contribute to sustainable growth, poverty reduction and empowerment of the people by reducing transaction costs and encouraging economic activities that help promote and heighten production for the markets all these kinds of actions lead to shifts in the production and employment structure.22 The communication network facilitates information flow about prices and marketing prospects. Economic infrastructures also contribute to developing human capital by ensuring better access to schools and health facilities.23

Transportation
Nepals road network expanded from 1,198 km in 1962 to 15,905 km in 2000; of the countrys 75 districts, 60 are now connected by road. However, the most remote districts and backward areas still lack roads. Moreover, the existing road network is predominantly fair-weather and low quality. This has hobbled farmers shifting from subsistence to commercial production. In the regions with extended road networks, commercial agriculture has been evolving rapidly, indicating roads play a key role in agricultural transformation. The weak supply response of the rural economy has adversely affected the poor and disadvantaged.24 High costs and inferior road services also have hindered the growth in the small-scale industries and business services that benefit the poor. In addition, the transportation of essential commodities to the remote areas has become prohibitively expensive since the withdrawal of transport subsidies. The inability to expand agricultural roads in line with APP has adversely impacted the creation and expansion of rural markets. 25 Even in the areas where transport networks

The outbreak of armed conflict has further squeezed financial services in the rural areas; only a few microfinance institutions and non-governmental organizations have been working in the countryside and supporting the incomegenerating activities of the poor

39

N E PA L H U M A N D E V E L O P M E N T R E P O R T 2 0 0 4

are available, the poor and vulnerable remain unprotected because of the lack of complimentary investments. Road construction and maintenance through a participatory approach is relatively new. The Tenth Plan, LSGA and annual budgets together spell out the roles and responsibilities of the various agencies, including local bodies and user groups. But the institutional mechanism to promote efficiency, check leakages and enhance capacity at the local level has yet to evolve.26 The APP has also prioritized the construction of agricultural roads to expand intra-district road networks and link infrastructure facilities with production, exchange and marketing. Since private sector involvement in the establishment and expansion of air services gained momentum after liberalization, it is hoped that the recent adoption of a build-own-operate-transfer act will encourage private investment in roads as well. Directly or indirectly, Nepals inadequate road network has undermined the empowerment process. First, the delivery of basic services to the areas that still lack road connections has been extremely difficult a problem compounded by the conflict situation, which denies people such essential items as basic foods. Second, the absence of roads has constricted social mobilization and community participation in development activities. Finally, inadequate or non-existent transport infrastructure has constrained access to markets and information.

the Village Development Committees (VDCs) still have no telephone facilities.27 Although access to information has improved, it has faltered in publicizing economic opportunities. Likewise, such gaps have adversely affected the functioning of the markets that directly impact vulnerable groups. Moreover, the allocation of funds during the last few years indicates low priority to rural telecommunication services28 despite the fact that the Nepal Telecommunication Corporation has adequate resources to give the hinterlands far greater attention. Policies and institutional arrangements for new incentives to attract the private sector to telecommunications have recently been initiated; but have so far been inadequate. This has affected not only timely availability, but also affordability of telecommunication services.

Even in the areas where transport networks are available, the poor and vulnerable remain unprotected because of the lack of complimentary investments

Electricity
Nepal has been able to harness only 0.63% of its hydropower potential.29 Until the mid1990s, the government accorded priority to the medium and large-scale hydropower projects, all executed by the state-owned Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA). The liberal policies embodied in the Power Development Policy of 2000 encouraged joint venture companies and local entrepreneurs to invest in small and micro-hydro projects. But only 31.1% of households nationwide had access to electricity in 2001.30 While 82.5% of the urban population enjoys electricity, only 21% of rural households have access to this form of power. Electricity has been expanded to only 41% of the VDCs.31 The distribution among the ecological regions is even more uneven; only 6.1% and 9.8% of households living in the far western mountain and far western hills, respectively, have access to electricity. Further, per unit electricity prices in Nepal are the highest in the South Asian region, directly affecting the competitiveness of industry and also taking it well beyond the reach of the poor.

Communication
The restoration of democracy accelerated the expansion of the communication sector. A large portion of the households in both rural (50.3%) and urban areas (64.8%) has access to radio. The distribution of telecommunication services, however, shows a clear urban bias. While 20.2% of urban households have television sets, the rural areas account for only 1%. The national ratio of 14 telephones per 1,000 people still concentrates largely on towns and cities; 55% of
40

BARRIERS TO EMPOWERMENT

The generation and distribution of electricity has focused on the grid system, which has prevented penetration into the rural areas. Electricity (including alternative sources of energy) plays an important role in the empowerment process; it expands opportunities for initiating a number of productive activities, including processing industries, and reduces the drudgery of women. However, the NEA cannot reach out to rural areas in part because of the prohibitive power purchase agreements it signed with private investors. The creation of the Power Development Fund in 2003 has provided some incentives to local entrepreneurs. Similarly, new initiatives taken to allow cooperatives to distribute electricity at the village and community levels should contribute to expanding access in the rural areas. The hydro-power development strategy of the past failed to take account of more efficient and cost-effective ventures; without the establishment of an inventory, expensive projects were selected and implemented. The frequent hikes in electricity rates have encouraged inefficiency and made electricity increasingly unaffordable at the same time. The preconditions attached to the payment of the electricity purchased by the NEA from joint venture companies have escalated electricity prices on an annual basis (see annex 3, table 1). Consequently, the NEA has to bear huge liabilities which, again, are shifted to the consumers, including potentially productive enterprises.

structures that promote the expansion of medium and small enterprises. 32 The economic reforms of 1991 also focused on market institutions. The new enterprise, foreign investment and technology transfer and privatization acts had special provisions to enhance market functioning. The years since have witnessed the establishment of numerous financial institutions, co-operatives, insurance companies and micro level credit institutions. 33 Nepal is now a member of the WTO, whose rule-based trading arrangements will in principle provide predictable market access, increased flows of information, enhanced access to technology and thereby expand economic choices and opportunities. The country must build upon past reforms so as to benefit from its membership of this global trade body. Despite some positive results, the reforms of the 1990s did not achieve the outcomes desired for a variety of reasons, among them:34 ! The initial conditions, including existing physical infrastructure, along with rules and regulations required for market development, were not duly considered; ! The reforms were focused mainly on trade, industry, finance and taxes with little attention to institutional reform of the agricultural sector; ! Deregulation policies were expedited without addressing market efficiency and governance-related issues. Consequently, medium and small enterprises either collapsed or found themselves unable to expand in the absence of institutional incentive structures. This not only weakened the link between agriculture and non-agricultural sectors, but also prevented the transformation of the urban informal sector. Emphasis on openness and free trade policies alone can adversely affect pro-poor growth if the institutions that safeguard the interests of various socio-economic groups are not created.
41

Per unit electricity prices in Nepal are the highest in the South Asian region, directly affecting the competitiveness of industry and also taking it well beyond the reach of the poor

Market institutions
Market institutions and enforcement mechanisms play decisive roles in influencing the pace and direction of economic empowerment. Institutions that foster widely shared and participatory growth enhance both income and employment opportunities. Reductions in transaction costs, guarantees of property rights and enforcement of contracts improve efficiency and generate greater resources for poverty reduction. In short, market institutions become propoor when they have inbuilt incentive

N E PA L H U M A N D E V E L O P M E N T R E P O R T 2 0 0 4

Emphasis on openness and free trade policies alone can adversely affect pro-poor growth if the institutions that safeguard the interests of various socio-economic groups are not created

Current multilateral and regional trading arrangements limit the scope for promoting human development. For example, while the WTO Agreement on Agriculture may work to stabilize food prices and ensure food security, cheap imports can put the livelihood of traditional farmers at risk. Similarly, the Agreement on Trade-related aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), which requires the protection of patent rights on seeds, agriculture inputs and pharmaceutical products, may adversely affect food security. The Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (ASCM) may limit the incentives necessary for promoting small and medium enterprises. And the Agreement on Trade-related Investment Measures (TRIMS) limits a countrys scope for imposing conditions on foreign investors for the use of local materials. Depending upon their impact on production structures, liberalizing a national economy and increasing commercialization can and usually does affect women negatively as well. All in all, failing to mitigate such impacts through policy interventions can disempower people and widen the development gap.

share of employment has been much slower than the decrease of this sector s contribution to GDP; this indicates that agricultural productivity has diminished over the years. Employment opportunities have been confined largely to the informal sector lowpaid, low-skilled and lacking any social security system. Self-employment still accounts for more than 67% of livelihoods and of the total self-employed population, 78% work in agriculture. This has deepened underemployment throughout the sector, now estimated at 32.3%.35 Moreover, according to the labour force survey, 73.3% of the non-agricultural labour force works in the informal sector. Together with agricultural activities, largely unorganized and self-employed in nature, informal sector employment has mounted as high as 93.6%. And as two-thirds of these workers are unskilled, they have little access to training opportunities.36 Unorganized, bereft of collective bargaining power and job security, they continue to operate outside the realm of public policy. Policy reforms and new initiatives taken in accordance with the PRSP have yet to show visible impact in promoting broad-based economic growth and employment opportunities resulting in weak links between employment, growth and the empowerment of the poor. Employment elasticity of growth has remained low, estimated at 0.30-0.35 over the last two decades. Consequently, if Nepal attains a growth rate of about 4.0%, as it did during the Ninth Plan, only 100,000 jobs can be created annually. At the present level of economic growth, twothirds of the new entrants into the job market are unlikely to be absorbed into the working labour force. Empowerment demands the creation of new job opportunities and the promotion of work consistent with human dignity. The education system also lacks vocational training that would lead to jobs.37 To date, private sector undertakings have proceeded

Employment opportunities
Wherever land distribution and access to resources are deeply inequitable, employment opportunities become critical to sustaining and restoring dignity. Labour-intensive production techniques, skill development programmes and social security in the informal sector, coupled with the growth of agricultural productivity and the creation of alternative jobs outside agriculture are essential to enhancing empowerment. Various economic policy initiatives have fostered certain structural shifts in employment. Whereas in 1981, about 91% of Nepals economically active population engaged in agricultural activities, only 66% did so by 2001. Manufacturing and trade contributed largely to this shift. However, the rate of decline in agricultures

42

BARRIERS TO EMPOWERMENT

without standard policy guidance, resulting in poor quality of training. Institutional arrangements in vocational and training programmes overlap. The government has not yet set clear-cut policy or created mechanisms to administer and monitor such programmes. On the one hand, inflexible labour law has encouraged an informalization of employment, while, on the other, the absence of social security in the informal sector has increased vulnerability in the labour market. This situation jeopardizes the empowerment of wageworkers.

Access to productive assets


Land in Nepal is a major productive asset and a traditional source of power. Land ownership is also a symbol of economic and social status. Poverty is therefore closely linked to the distribution of land-holding and its productivity.38 In Nepal, a wide disparity exists in the distribution of land, with inequality of 0.544 as measured by the Gini coefficient.39 According to the Agriculture Census 2002, 47% of the land-owning households owned only 15% of the land with an average size of less than 0.5 hectares, whereas the top 5% owned nearly 37% of the land. Almost 29% of rural households do not own any farmland.40 The gender dimension of land ownership is even more critical; men own almost 92% of these holdings. Land ownership also exhibits caste and ethnic disparities; most Dalits are landless. Past land reform efforts could ensure tenancy rights to just 2% of Nepals agricultural households. Land redistribution was limited and its benefits went less to the landless than to existing landowners. Land reform has been a major politico-economic agenda item of the governments of the last decade. Recently, the government announced the establishment of a land bank to provide credit to the poor for land purchases. This constitutes a beginning; to make land reform meaningful, much more needs to be done.

Access to institutional credit is even more skewed in favour of big business houses and large farmers. In a traditional system of collateral-based bank lending, land ownership virtually ensures access to institutional credit. This practice has largely barred small, marginal and landless households from institutional borrowing, as 86% of formal credit is granted against the collateral of land and other tangible forms of property. The microcredit system, which provides loans without collateral, has covered less than 200,000 households, some of which are actually nonpoor. All in all, while the deregulation of financial services and reforms of the financial sector have enhanced the stability of the financial system, it has not yet extended financial services in the rural areas.

Food security
Food security is a state in which all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.41 High population growth, slow growth in agricultural output and lack of adequate livelihood opportunities, among other causes, have translated into various types of food security problems among different population sectors. Nepals uneven distribution of income and productive assets like land and credit, along with wide differences in soil productivity, have contributed to the countrys high incidence of poverty and food insecurity, with marked consequences for peoples productive capacity and their capability for acquiring adequate education and health care. Food insecurity has therefore perpetuated poverty and disempowerment. This kind of problem can be addressed only through strengthening the agricultural production base, reinforcing participatory institutional arrangements, fostering gender-sensitive rural and agricultural development strategies, and providing social protection to people at high income-risk.

All in all, while the deregulation of financial services and reforms of the financial sector have enhanced the stability of the financial system, it has not yet extended financial services in the rural areas

43

N E PA L H U M A N D E V E L O P M E N T R E P O R T 2 0 0 4

Some policies and programmes have been implemented for food security during the last several years. These include the implementation of the APP, the food-for-work programme, school feeding programmes, nutrition programmes, food transportation subsidy to deficit districts, and incentives for local food production in these areas. Nonetheless, hunger and food scarcity have become major problems in the food deficit districts. The increase in armed conflict and related violence has exacerbated this problem, as most of the food security programmes run by the government have been disrupted.

and trigger distributional conflicts.48 Indeed, armed violence has intensified in countries where state institutions have lost their power and failed to address acute inequities among social groups in the distribution of political opportunities, assets, state jobs and social services.49 Conversely, well-functioning institutions lead to good policies, which in turn make the institutions themselves accountable to their grassroots constituents.

Well-functioning institutions lead to good policies, which in turn make the institutions themselves accountable to their grassroots constituents

The democratic constitution and reform initiatives


In Nepal, the promulgation of the democratic Constitution in 1990 restored political freedom and civil rights. Bestowing sovereign power on the people, the Constitution accepts constitutional monarchy and embraces multi-party parliamentary democracy. It guarantees basic human rights to every citizen, including freedom of the press, the right to information and constitutional remedies for violations of these rights. It also guarantees property rights and prohibits all forms of discrimination in the name of religion, caste, race and sex. Though not directly enforceable, social, economic and cultural rights are embodied in the fundamental principles.50 In addition, Constitutional provisions enable various institutions to better the functioning of a democratic system. It proposes a two-tier parliamentary system and grants executive power to the Council of Ministers, accountable to Parliament. The Supreme Court is entrusted with the power to interpret the Constitution and protect the fundamental rights of citizens. Other Constitutional bodies include the AuditorGenerals Office for maintaining financial discipline in government-funded organizations, the Election Commission for conducting free and fair elections, the Commission for the Investigation of the Abuse of Authority (CIAA), which controls the misuse of power, and Constitutional Council, which recommends appointments to these and

POLITICAL EMPOWERMENT
Democracy and freedom are the two main pillars of political empowerment. Basic political and liberal rights strengthen human capabilities and facilitate peoples abilities to define their needs constructively.42 Democracy enables citizens to draw attention to these needs and to demand appropriate public action.43 Only in a democratic environment can basic preconditions of development, including minimum legal and contractual structures and property rights be enforced effectively.44 Institutions enhance economic performance through incentive structures, which promote efficiency and reduce uncertainties.45 Participatory democracy delivers higher-quality growth and squarely addresses poverty and empowerment issues.46 In addition, democratic institutions improve growth performance and reduce poverty in low-income countries by strengthening the rule of law, transparency, accountability and good governance.47 Generally, though, in less developed countries, formal democratic institutions tend to be constrained by preexisting power relations and structures that often dominate these fledgling bodies from the outset of their establishment. In traditional societies with strong discriminatory practices, these poorly functioning institutions magnify external shocks, delay policy responses

44

BARRIERS TO EMPOWERMENT

other bodies. The Constitution has also established the National Security Council for civilian control of the military. However, just as policies and programmes cannot guarantee empowerment, constitutional provisions alone cannot strengthen democracy. Their translation into action depends upon existing practices and enforcement. Effective courts, responsive electoral systems, a functional Parliament and local legislative bodies, and free and open media, along with participatory institutions at both the central and the local level are essential to inclusive governance and effective delivery systems. In a democratic system parliamentary committees have to be proactive and influential. They have to ensure that the law-making processes create viable policies and institutions. Likewise, they have to carry out their monitoring and supervisory responsibilities so as to make governments accountable to the people through Parliament.

accountability continued to delay or circumvent decisions. Service providers are still non-responsive and discriminatory practices continue unabated while traditionally privileged groups continue to dominate the civil service.52 Fair elections could not be institutionalized. Grassroots voters low level of political consciousness, abetted by high illiteracy and the various seductions of demagoguery and radical populism, obstructed their judgments of which parties worked for them, committed to Nepals development. The Election Commission has been ineffective in maintaining checks and balances in the voting process. Only since the enactment of new law in 2001, has the CIAA been able to take steps towards improving governance. Some politicians and civil servants have been arrested and further investigation is going on. Parliaments committees, notably under the proactive influence of the Public Accounts Committee, also took steps to expose and contain corruption.53 Similarly, in 2001, Parliament enacted a bill to ensure financial transparency in the political parties. Yet no major reforms were undertaken in the justice system. Major policy decisions were taken without consultation with Parliament. The Auditor-Generals Office could not perform effectively. Nor could the Public Service Commission expand the access of the disadvantaged to state institutions. The security forces remained outside the democratic process. In short, institutional reforms initiated during the last 14 years have been only incremental, falling far short of deepening democracy. The recommendations of Mallik and Administrative Commissions, as well as several Parliamentary Committees have not been implemented in the spirit of reform essential to democratic functionality.54 The bureaucracys lack of norms and accountability measures, accompanied by both the patronage system and the absence of legal and institutional provisions for represen45

Institutional reforms initiated during the last 14 years have been only incremental, falling far short of deepening democracy

State institutions, service delivery and governance


To build an accountable governance system, a high-level commission investigated abuses of authority during the Panchayat regime. Similarly, the High-Level Administrative Reform Commission formed in 1992 made a number of recommendations, including a reduction in the number of ministries and districts, the downsizing of the civil service by 25% and its depoliticization, and the initiation of corruption control measures. However, in the absence of legislative reforms, the downsizing of the bureaucracy could not be carried out. The patronage and client-based system gradually grew dominant, leading to rampant corruption. Only in the late 1990s were several reforms initiated but on a piecemeal basis. Temporary hiring and frequent transfers were discouraged to check the politicization of the bureaucracy.51 Some civil service positions were either frozen or abolished. None of these steps, however, could adequately reduce the size of the bureaucracy. Lack of

N E PA L H U M A N D E V E L O P M E N T R E P O R T 2 0 0 4

tation of the deprived in the state institutions, have resulted in ineffective service delivery and discriminatory practices. Even attempts to rectify existing structural weaknesses in society through the promulgation of parental property rights to women or the introduction of new land ceilings could not be realized because of either inadequate provisions or Supreme Court rulings. Although the new Anti-Corruption Act has given more power to the CIAA, corruption continues unchecked in Constitutional bodies and other governance institutions. The judicial system remains weak, dispensing justice only sluggishly. The inefficiency of the judiciary in acting on the cases before it is illustrated in annex 3, table 2.55 The absence of free legal services and the sheer physical remoteness of the courts further limit the access of the poor to the justice system. Moreover, the judiciary has failed to hold the executive and legislative branches accountable. All these factors have led at times to illegitimate attempts to assume the judicial role, most notably the insurgents efforts to establish their own judiciary. The dominance of the privileged class in Parliament, which has failed to monitor the executive or formulate policies that could help abolish various discriminatory practices and augment social welfare mechanisms in the spirit of the Constitution is illustrated in annex 3, table 3. Six years were needed even to pass the Political Parties Regulation bill. Despite several attempts, Parliament also failed to adopt the Election Reforms bill. The inability to check ad hoc appointments or to control financial irregularities has obstructed both the Public Service Commission and the AuditorGenerals Office.56

zational strength and proximity to voters. Although Nepals major political parties have strong organizational networks at the grass-roots level and represent almost all segments of society, they are still in the process of democratizing their structures and enforcing the governance system. A hierarchical party leadership and exclusiveness in the organization continue to block changes in political power and social relations. Uniform and transparent criteria in selecting candidates for parliamentary elections have yet to be developed, along with structures for financial transparency. The conflicts of interest among contending groups and coalitions on the one hand and, on the other, the lack of strong inner party democracy in major decisionmaking processes have led to splits in the major political parties. As annex 3, tables 4 and 5 demonstrate, the political parties have also failed to ensure fair representation of varied socio-cultural groups at all levels of their hierarchies leading to the contradictions that have permitted the insurgents to gain more and more strength. Despite high voter turnout, the democratic process continues to exclude the representation of the disadvantaged groups. Social preparedness through political mobilization to enact reforms for adequate representation of women and the underprivileged could not take place. Livelihood issues were slighted by both Parliament and the media, which focused instead on trade and investment issues that benefit only a small segment of Nepalese certainly not Dalits, indigenous people and the women who have formed national organizations to protect their rights, but find themselves still largely powerless in the face of inadequate institutions to address discriminatory practices. This institutional impotence contradicts the obligations of the state to guarantee the fundamental rights of all Nepalese citizens in accordance not only with the countrys Constitution, but the 16

Uniform and transparent criteria in selecting candidates for parliamentary elections have yet to be developed, along with structures for financial transparency

Political institutions, peoples representation and social justice


Political parties play a vital role in deepening democracy if they are responsive to the electorate.57 They can help transform society by mobilizing their organi46

BARRIERS TO EMPOWERMENT

commitments it has made concerning human rights at international forums (see annex 3, box 1).58

Local institutions and social transformation


Local bodies and civil society institutions play a catalytic role in transforming society, encouraging citizens to voice their views and mobilizing pressure to make institutions work for the poor. The democratic change of 1990 provided an enabling environment for Non-governmental Organizations and civil society institutions to expand their activities throughout the country. Many are involved in social mobilization, local infrastructure building, providing basic social services and protecting human rights. Further, in 1992, the democratically elected government strengthened decentralization processes for the devolution of authority by enacting separate VDC, Municipality, District Development Committee (DDC) and the Local Bodies Election Acts, all of which facilitated the establishment of elected bodies at the grassroots level. In the spirit of local self-help, the Build Our Village Ourselves programme was launched in 1994 to boost development from the grassroots.59 The Local Self-Governance Act, adopted in 1999, is regarded as a milestone for enhancing the decentralization of governance; it provides authority to local bodies in collecting taxes, selecting and implementing local-level programmes and preparing periodic district plans. It also reserves 20% of the seats in local bodies for women. The recent handover of schools and health posts to the local communities has also begun to deepen the decentralization process further. Nonetheless, despite the attention garnered by the decentralization process, the devolution of power and authority to the local bodies has yet to occur. The LSGA1999 contains many contradictions still unaddressed.60 Nor has there been any serious

attempt to implement fiscal decentralization. 61 Local governments lack the legal power to coordinate and supervise any local level programme. There are no clear-cut models for full-fledged participation by the beneficiaries or institutional provisions to ensure the representation of the socially excluded in local governance. Effective decentralization depends essentially on local capacity-building through social mobilization. NGOs have been instrumental to such processes in addition to their promotion of health, education, and drinking water services, as well as micro-credit programmes. Many have scored major successes in targeted programmes for the poor, Dalits and deprived communities. However, the sustainability of NGO-supported programmes has aroused concern. Many NGOs are urban-based and externally funded. Lack of financial transparency, weak coordination and monitoring has undermined their performance and delivery.

Despite the attention garnered by the decentralization process, the devolution of power and authority to the local bodies has yet to occur

Institutional failures and violent conflict


The Peoples Movement of 1990 that restored multi-party democracy generated high expectations among the Nepalese. In a newly democratic milieu, various societal groups naturally voiced their concerns and demands. The media network and civil society organizations accelerated that process. The new democratic Constitution of 1990 and commitments made by the main political parties to poverty alleviation also raised citizen aspirations. The successive development plans added new hopes. At the same time, as we have seen throughout this chapter, policies fell behind to generate the kind of growth essential to job creation and equitable income distribution. And as annex 3, box 2 shows, many commitments or agreements with opposition parties remained paper goals. By the same token, orthodox parliamentary practices overlooked the exclusionary social struc-

47

N E PA L H U M A N D E V E L O P M E N T R E P O R T 2 0 0 4

ture. Deep-rooted social cleavages and discrimination in terms of caste, ethnicity, gender, region, culture and religion provided fertile ground for escalating conflict simply because socio-political marginalization was being perpetuated at just the moment when political awareness among its principal victims had begun increasing. A development paradigm that stipulated directives from the elite to benefit the vast majority of the population top-down development found itself overwhelmed by narrowly-based growth policies, widened income inequalities and distributional conflict. Rising unemployment and poverty created frustration among young professional people as well as disadvantaged youth and others traditionally excluded from equitable participation. Political instability, manifested in intra-party struggles as well as hung Parliaments, could provide no effective measures to address rising social contradictions. The Maoists took advantage of the situation to expand their networking and to escalate violence. The governments inability to democratize the security apparatus also obstructed possibilities of transforming power relations. The Maoist insurgency led to the postponement of the mid-term election. This resulted in the countrys current political and constitutional crisis. Two years have passed without a representative body at the local level. Nor will Parliament be able to reconvene without a general election which is itself unlikely to take place before the settlement of Maoist problem. Political reconciliation to strengthen democracy and achieve peace is an absolute precondition for enhancing the capacity of the state to implement pro-poor policies and programmes and, arguably more important, to open governance institutions to participation by grassroots citizens so that they may begin using their agency to rebuild communities as they themselves see fit.

SUMMATION
The Peoples Movement of 1990, together with the new democratic Constitution and commitments of the main political parties, created expectations that remained unfulfilled because of an increased gap between commitments and actions and also between actions and outcomes. Legal, policy-related and institutional discriminations continued to inhibit equal access and opportunities for the disadvantaged on the political, social and economic fronts and thus obstructed the constitutional provisions that in principle abolished all types of discrimination and guaranteed social justice. The status quo or piecemeal approach to realizing these rights, coupled with rising popular consciousness of constitutional rights, fueled the contradictions that have led to the violent conflict that cripples the country today. The incongruities between the political and social and economic empowerment indices presented in chapter 2 also reveal these contradictions. The perpetuation of practices concerning untouchability and the exploitation of women have also obstructed the development and preservation of the culture of various indigenous people and other communities. Empowerment cannot evolve sustainably without the elimination of these culture-based discriminations. The education system has been slow to enhance access of women, disadvantaged indigenous community and Dalits in education. Barriers on both the supply side (limited physical access and poor quality of schooling) and the demand side (high perceived cost of education in relation to foregone benefit) have contributed to hobbling progress. The government-subsidized education has benefited primarily the privileged. Exclusionary institutional arrangements for hiring teachers and managing schools at different levels have remained obstacles to changing existing discriminatory practices. The

Deep-rooted social cleavages and discrimination in terms of caste, ethnicity, gender, region, culture and religion provided fertile ground for escalating conflict

48

BARRIERS TO EMPOWERMENT

same is true of Nepals public health system, whose per capita allocations, among the worlds lowest, have been exacerbated by steep disparities in access to health services among the countrys different regions and communities. Macroeconomic policies have not worked effectively to promote pro-poor growth and ensure equitable income distribution. The neglect of agricultural development following the APP strategy has accentuated problems in this sector. In addition, over-emphasis on the deregulation of input and output prices in an agrarian structure characterized by marginal and small farmers on the one hand and, on the other, a continuous inflow of subsidized commodities from India have inhibited supply response in agriculture. The decrease of the development budget, low access to institutional credit and the decline of small and medium-sized enterprises have emerged as major problems on the macro policy front. Underdeveloped, low-quality and high cost-infrastructure, along with the predominance of unskilled workers in the labour market, has remained a barrier to enhancing productivity and competitiveness in the economy. Nepals underdeveloped market institutions have also obstructed the enforcement of rules and regulations that could create an adequate market incentive structure. Last but hardly least, the poor backward linkages of the industrial sector have so far failed to establish the macro and micro linkages necessary for reducing poverty and empowering the countrys disadvantaged people. While the democratic changes of 1990 increased peoples political empowerment

as indicated by increases in candidacies and voter turnout in both parliamentary and local elections subsequent reforms in state, political and local institutions were either too slow or inadequate to ensure better service delivery and governance. On the political front, a status quo approach impeded changes in traditional power and social relations; this, in turn, blocked social transformation processes. No concerted efforts were made in changing rules, regulations and exclusionary practices to ensure equitable representation of the disadvantaged in political institutions. Orthodox parliamentary practices took little account of the exclusionary social structure and thereby fell far short of the abolition of discrimination, the guarantee of social justice and the protection of human rights projected by changes to the Constitution. At the same time, the political instability mounted as infighting increased within the mainstream political parties leading to divisions and reunions, which in turn continued to stall the peace process. Political crisis deepened with the obstruction of elections at both the national and local levels. Without elected bodies to frame laws or implement grassroots development programmes, new initiatives to increase empowerment cannot take effect. Yet once citizens have experienced democratic political practices, social contractions are bound to mount, whether because of historical or contemporary factors. The fact that these contradictions have now resulted in violent conflict throughout Nepal points clearly to a need for radical, dynamic social, economic and political transformation through systemic reforms in policies and institutions.

Political crisis deepened with the obstruction of elections at both the national and local levels

49

You might also like