BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF COMPUTING AND ELECTRICALENGINEERING

DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF LOW POWER FM TRANSMITTER By: Ahmed Muhye Menbere Shitaw Yewlsew Mekonen Advisor: Mr. Solomon Lule

Submitted in partial fulfillment for the requirement of B.SC in electrical engineering

Abstract
The aim of the project is to develop a low power fm transmitter to be used in specialized application such as local area net work. Frequency modulation has several advantages over the system of amplitude modulation (AM) used in the alternate form of radio broadcasting. The most important of these advantages is that an FM system has greater freedom from interference and static Various electrical disturbances ,such as those caused by thunderstorms and car ignition systems, crate amplitude modulated radio signal that are received as noise by AM receivers. A well-designed FM receiver is not sensitive to such disturbances when it tuned to an FM signal of sufficient strength. Also the signal to noise ratio in an FM system is much higher than that of an AM system. FM broadcasting stations can be operated in the very high frequency bands at which AM interference is frequently sever, commercial FM radio stations are assigned frequencies between 88 and 108 MHZ and will be the intended frequency range of transmission .

Acknowledgement
We would like to gratefully extend our sincere thanks to all the people who gave generously their time, takes one and all. Specially our supervisor Mr. Solomon Lule for the guidance he showed us right though every stage of the project, from initial conception to final design and construction.

Introduction
The comparatively low cost of equipment for an FM broadcasting station , resulted in rapid growth in the years following world war II.With in three years after the close of the war,600 licensed FM stations were broad casting in the united states and by the end of the 1980s there were over 4,000. Similar trends have occurred in Britain and other countries . Because of crowding in the AM broad cast band and the inability of standard AM receiver to eliminate noise, the tonal fidelity of standard stations is purposely limited. FM does not have drawbacks and therefore can be used to transmit music, reproducing the original performance with a degree of fidelity that cannot be reached on on AM bands. FM stereophonic broad casting has drawn increasing numbers of listeners to popular as well as classical musi, so that commercial FM stations draw higher audience ratings than AM stations. Fm broad caste transition specification 1. Frequency band ( fc)..88 -10MHz 2. Chanel band width ..200kHz 3. Frequency stability 2kHz 4. Frequency deviation (at 100%) .. 75kHz 5. Frequency response.. 50Hz -15kHz 6. . 5 7. Harmonics <3.5% 8. Maximum power 100kw

AM broad caste station technical specification 1. Frequency band ( fc) .550kHz-1600kHz 2. Chanel band width . 10kHz 3. Frequency stability 20Hz assigned frequency 4. Percentage of modulation ...85-95% 5. Audio frequency response 6. Harmonic distortion 2bB from 100Hz-5kHz(with 1kHz being reference ) .. <7.5% for 85-95% modulation

7. Noise

. -4.5dB a large coverage area >50kHz iii medium coverage area max 5kHz

8. Maximum power depend on class i&ii

iv Converse only city limit max 1kHz

RF amplifier function Gives selectivity Greater gain Improved image rejection Improved signal to noise ratio Better coupling between antenna and receiver Prevents radiation through antenna.

Technical background

frequency

Designation

abbreviation

wavelength

3-30kHz 30-300kHz 300-3,000kHz 3-30MHz 30-300MHz 300-3,000MHz 3-30GHz 30-300GHz

Very low frequency low frequency medium frequency high frequency very high frequency ultra-high frequency supper-high frequency extremely- high frequency

VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF

100,000-10,000m 10,000-1,000m 1,000-100m 100-10m 10-1m 1-10m 10cm-1cm 1cm-1mm

Chapter 1 Introduction to communication Communication system engineers attempt to design communication system that transmits information at a higher rate with a higher performance, using the minimum amount of transmitted power and band width. The purpose of any communication system is to transmit information signals from a source located at one point in space to the user/destination located at another point. The originating in put is frequently referred to as the source, where as the terminating /end is frequently referred to as the sink. If the message is understandable, then the information has been converted from the source to the destination. Mostly, the message produced by the source is not electrical in nature. But to carry them over an electrical system the message must be converted to an electrical signal in the same manner at receiver. The electrical signal must be reconverted in to an appropriate form. A transducer performs these functions. Thus, an input transducer used to convert the message generated by the source in to time varying electrical signal called the message signal. Basically, communication consists of three major parts. i. ii. iii. Transmitter Communication channel Receive

Source
Fig

Transmitter

Transition channel

Receiver

Destination

Noise,
distortion& interference

General block diagram for communication system

i.

Transmitter: The sub-system that takes the information signal and processes it prior to transmission. The transmitter modulates the information onto a carrier signal, amplifies the

signal and broadcasts it over the channel. That means the main purpose of transmitter is to modify the message signal in to a form suitable for transition over the channel. It involves modulation and amplification. ii. Channel: The medium which transports the modulated signal to the receiver. Air acts as the channel for broadcasts like radio. May also be a wiring system like cable TV or the Internet? iii. Receiver: The sub-system that takes in the transmitted signal from the channel and processes it to retrieve the information signal. The receiver must be able to discriminate the signal from other signals which may using the same channel (called tuning), amplify the signal for processing and demodulate (remove the carrier) to retrieve the information. It also then processes the information for reception (for example, broadcast on a loudspeaker). In other words the main purpose of the receiver is to reproduce version of transmitted signal after propagation through the channel, this accomplished by using a process of demodulation and amplification. General block diagram of communication system is shown below.

Cha Transducer

Encoder

Modulation

Demodulation

Decode r

Transducer

Fig 2 the basic block diagram of communication After the message is converted to an electrical signal, the signal may directly modulate a carrier (high frequency signal), or it may converted in to another format by an encoder. Encoding is rarely used in analog communication schemes such as, AM and FM. But it is frequently employed in digital modulation schemes. One of the chive advantage of employing the latter type of encoding is that the signal to noise ratio or, in the binary terms. The error rate is almost independent of the number of links or repeating amplifiers in a system. Modulation is employed in order to: a) More efficiently launch the radiated wave in to space. b) Permit multiplexing c) To improve the modulated signal to noise ratio. For efficient launching or reception of an electromagnetic wave or to obtain what is commonly called matching, the radiating or receiving device (antenna) must be a significant portion of wave length in size. The larger the antenna in the wave length, the greater the antennas radiation resistance. The antenna

resistance can thus closely approximately the driving generator impedance and associated transmission line. The wave length of an electromagnetic wave in free space related to the velocity of light by the following relation. c= f where:

c = the speed of light = 300,000 km/s or 3.0 x 108 m/s = the wavelength of light, usually measured in meters or Angstroms (1 = 10-10 m) f = the frequency at which light waves pass by, measured in units of per seconds (1/s).

In communication system the information system, maybe transmitted by itself over the medium or may be used to modulate a carrier for transmission over a long distance. The former is a base band communication, while the later is band pass (modulated signal). The goal of communication system engineer to design systems that provide high quality service for the maximum number user with the smallest cost and least usage of limited resources. The resources to be conserved include hard ware for generating, transmitting and receiving information signal, the channel band width and the transmitter power.

Chapter 2 Modulation The information signal can rarely be transmitted as is, it must be processed. In order to use electromagnetic transmission, it must first be converted from audio into an electric signal. The conversion is accomplished by a transducer. After conversion it is used to modulate a carrier signal. A carrier signal is used for two reasons:

To reduce the wavelength for efficient transmission and reception (the optimum antenna size is or of a wavelength). A typical audio frequency of 3000 Hz will have a wavelength of 100 km and would need an effective antenna length of 25 km! By comparison, a typical carrier for FM is 100 MHz, with a wavelength of 3 m, and could use an antenna only 80 cm long.

To allow simultaneous use of the same channel, called multiplexing. Each unique signal can be assigned a different carrier frequency (like radio stations) and still share the same channel. The phone company actually invented modulation to allow phone conversations to be transmitted over common lines.

The process of modulation means to systematically use the information signal (what you want to transmit) to vary some parameter of the carrier signal. The carrier signal is usually just a simple, single-frequency sinusoid (varies in time like a sine wave). The basic sine wave goes like V (t) = Vo sin (2 f t +) where the parameters are defined below: V (t) the voltage of the signal as a function of time. Vo the amplitude of the signal (represents the maximum value achieved each cycle) f the frequency of oscillation, the number of cycles per second (also known as Hertz = 1 cycle per second) the phase of the signal, representing the starting point of the cycle. To modulate the signal just means to systematically vary one of the three parameters of the signal: amplitude, frequency or phase.

Modulation Techniques Types:

The basic modulation techniques are
1. Amplitude Modulation 2. Angle Modulation
Phase modulation Frequency modulation

1. Amplitude Modulation: In AM, a carrier wave is encoded by varying its amplitude in accordance with instantaneous amplitude of the modulated signal (input signal). For Example in AM radio broadcasting, at the radio transmitter, the modulating wave is the audio-frequency program signal to be communicated; the modulated wave that is broadcast is a radio-frequency, amplitude-modulated sinusoid. Mathematically Amplitude Modulation S (t) = [1 +(na *x(t)]cos(2*pi*fc *t) Where

cos2piSfct = carrier x(t) = input signal na = modulation index is the Ratio of amplitude of input signal to carrier 1 is a dc component that prevents loss of information m(t) = na x(t)

Spectrum of AM Signal: Assume a modulating signal as shown in the figure: To draw the spectrum of AM signal, the spectrum must contain the original carrier and the input signal (modulating signal) translated to a frequency fc. This AM spectrum is shown in the figure b above. From the figure one can see that there are two portions of the spectrum i.e a) |f|>|fc| b) |f|<|fc| Portion "a" of the spectrum is called the upper sideband whereas portion "b" is called the lower sideband. Both these portions of the spectrum are replicas of the original modulating signal but with lower sideband being frequency reversed. As each of the sideband contains the complete spectrum of input signal, therefore s(t) contains unnecessary components. To solve this problem, a variant of AM is introduced. Single Sideband: In SSB only one of the sideband is sent eliminating the other sideband and carrier. Advantages of SSB are: Only half of the bandwidth is required. -Less power is required because no power is used to transmit the carrier or the other sideband.

2. Angle Modulation:
In Angle Modulation, the angle of the sinusoidal carrier wave is varied by the input signal to transmit the data. Mathematically:

Types of Angle Modulation: There are two types of angle Modulation a) Frequency Modulation

b) Phase Modulation 2a) Frequency Modulation Type: Frequency can be defined as the rate of change of phase of a signal. In this type of modulation, information is transferred through a carrier by varying its instantaneous frequency. Frequency modulation uses the information signal, Vm(t) to vary the carrier frequency within some small range about its original value. Here are the three signals in mathematical form:

Information: Vm(t) Carrier: Vc(t) = Vco sin ( 2 fc t + ) FM: VFM (t) = Vco sin (2 [fc + (f/Vmo) Vm (t)]Vm (t) We have replaced the carrier frequency term, with a time-varying frequency. We have also introduced a new term: f, the peak frequency deviation. In this form, you should be able to see that the carrier frequency term: f c + (f/Vmo) Vm (t) now varies between the extremes of fc - f and fc + f. The interpretation of f becomes clear: it is the farthest away from the original frequency that the FM signal can be. Sometimes it is referred to as the "swing" in the frequency.

We can also define a modulation index for FM, analogous to AM: =f/fm , where fm is the maximum modulating frequency used. The simplest interpretation of the modulation index, , is as a measure of the peak frequency deviation,f. In other words, represents a way to express the peak deviation frequency as a multiple of the maximum modulating frequency, fm, i.e. f = fm. Example: suppose in FM radio that the audio signal to be transmitted ranges from 20 to 15,000 Hz (it does). If the FM system used a maximum modulating index, , of 5.0, then the frequency would "swing" by a maximum of 5 x 15 kHz = 75 kHz above and below the carrier frequency. Here is a simple FM signal:

Here, the carrier is at 30 Hz, and the modulating frequency is 5 Hz. The modulation index is about 3, making the peak frequency deviation about 15 Hz. That means the frequency will vary somewhere between 15 and 45 Hz. How fast the cycle is completed is a function of the modulating frequency. FM Spectrum A spectrum represents the relative amounts of different frequency components in any signal. Its like the display on the graphic-equalizer in your stereo which has leds showing the relative amounts of bass, midrange and treble. These correspond directly to increasing frequencies (treble being the high frequency components). It is a well-know fact of mathematics, that any function (signal) can be decomposed into purely sinusoidal components (with a few pathological exceptions) . In technical terms, the sines and cosines form a complete set of functions, also known as a basis in the infinite-dimensional vector space of real-valued functions (gag reflex). Given that any signal can be thought to be made up of sinusoidal signals, the spectrum then represents the "recipe card" of how to make the signal from sinusoids. Like: 1 part of 50 Hz and 2 parts of 200 Hz. Pure sinusoids have the simplest spectrum of all, just one component:

In this example, the carrier has 8 Hz and so the spectrum has a single component with value 1.0 at 8 Hz The FM spectrum is considerably more complicated. The spectrum of a simple FM signal looks like:

The carrier is now 65 Hz, the modulating signal is a pure 5 Hz tone, and the modulation index is 2. What we see are multiple side-bands (spikes at other than the carrier frequency) separated by the modulating frequency, 5 Hz. There are roughly 3 side-bands on either side of the carrier. The shape of the spectrum may be explained using a simple heterodyne argument: when you mix the three frequencies (f c, fm and f ) together you get the sum and difference frequencies. The largest combination is f c + fm +f , and the smallest is fc - fm -f. Since f =fm, the frequency varies ( + 1) fm above and below the carrier. A more realistic example is to use an audio spectrum to provide the modulation:

In this example, the information signal varies between 1 and 11 Hz. The carrier is at 65 Hz and the modulation index is 2. The individual side-band spikes are replaced by a more-or-less continuous spectrum. However, the extent of the side-bands is limited (approximately) to ( + 1) fm above and below. Here, that would be 33 Hz above and below, making the bandwidth about 66 Hz. We see the side-bands extend from 35 to 90 Hz, so out observed bandwidth is 65 Hz. You may have wondered why we ignored the smooth humps at the extreme ends of the spectrum. The truth is that they are in fact a by-product of frequency modulation (there is no random noise in this example). However, they may be safely ignored because they are have only a minute fraction of the total power. In practice, the random noise would obscure them anyway. Example: FM Radio FM radio uses frequency modulation, of course. The frequency band for FM radio is about 88 to 108 MHz. The information signal is music and voice which falls in the audio spectrum. The full audio spectrum ranges form 20 to 20,000 Hz, but FM radio limits the upper modulating frequency to 15 kHz (cf. AM radio which limits the upper frequency to 5 kHz). Although, some of the signal may be lost above 15 kHz, most people can't hear it anyway, so there is little loss of fidelity. FM radio maybe appropriately referred to as "high-fidelity." If FM transmitters use a maximum modulation index of about 5.0, so the resulting bandwidth is 180 kHz (roughly 0.2 MHz). The FCC assigns stations ) 0.2 MHz apart to prevent overlapping signals (coincidence? I think not!). If you were to fill up the FM band with stations, you could get 108 - 88 / .2 = 100 stations, about the same number as AM radio (107). This sounds convincing, but is actually more complicated (agh!). FM radio is broadcast in stereo, meaning two channels of information. In practice, they generate three signals prior to applying the modulation:

the L + R (left + right) signal in the range of 50 to 15,000 Hz. a 19 kHz pilot carrier. the L-R signal centered on a 38 kHz pilot carrier (which is suppressed) that ranges from 23 to 53 kHz .

So, the information signal actually has a maximum modulating frequency of 53 kHz, requiring a reduction in the modulation index to about 1.0 to keep the total signal bandwidth about 200 kHz.

FM Performance
Bandwidth As we have already shown, the bandwidth of a FM signal may be predicted using: BW = 2 ( + 1 ) fm Where is the modulation index and fm is the maximum modulating frequency used. FM radio has a significantly larger bandwidth than AM radio, but the FM radio band is also larger. The combination keeps the number of available channels about the same. The bandwidth of an FM signal has a more complicated dependency than in the AM case (recall, the bandwidth of AM signals depend only on the maximum modulation frequency). In FM, both the modulation index and the modulating frequency affect the bandwidth. As the information is made stronger, the bandwidth also grows. Efficiency The efficiency of a signal is the power in the side-bands as a fraction of the total. In FM signals, because of the considerable side-bands produced, the efficiency is generally high. Recall that conventional AM is limited to about 33 % efficiency to prevent distortion in the receiver when the modulation index was greater than 1. FM has no analogous problem. The side-band structure is fairly complicated, but it is safe to say that the efficiency is generally improved by making the modulation index larger (as it should be). But if you make the modulation index larger, so make the bandwidth larger (unlike AM) which has its disadvantages. As is typical in engineering, a

compromise between efficiency and performance is struck. The modulation index is normally limited to a value between 1 and 5, depending on the application. Noise FM systems are far better at rejecting noise than AM systems. Noise generally is spread uniformly across the spectrum (the so-called white noise, meaning wide spectrum). The amplitude of the noise varies randomly at these frequencies. The change in amplitude can actually modulate the signal and be picked up in the AM system. As a result, AM systems are very sensitive to random noise. An example might be ignition system noise in your car. Special filters need to be installed to keep the interference out of your car radio. FM systems are inherently immune to random noise. In order for the noise to interfere, it would have to modulate the frequency somehow. But the noise is distributed uniformly in frequency and varies mostly in amplitude. As a result, there is virtually no interference picked up in the FM receiver. FM is sometimes called "static free, " referring to its superior immunity to random noise.

2b) Phase Modulation: is a form of modulation that represents information as variations in the instantaneous phase of a carrier wave. Unlike its more popular counterpart, frequency modulation (FM), PM is not very widely used for radio transmissions. This is because it tends to require more complex receiving hardware and there can be ambiguity problems in determining whether, for example, the signal has changed phase by +180 or 180. PM changes the phase angle of the complex envelope in direct proportion to the message signal.

Suppose that the signal to be sent (called the modulating or message signal) is which the signal is to be modulated is

and the carrier onto

Annotated: carrier (time) = (carrier amplitude)*sin(carrier frequency*time + phase shift) This makes the modulated signal

This shows how

modulates the phase - the greater m(t) is at a point in time, the greater the phase

shift of the modulated signal at that point. It can also be viewed as a change of the frequency of the carrier signal, and phase modulation can thus be considered a special case of FM in which the carrier frequency modulation is given by the time derivative of the phase modulation. The mathematics of the spectral behavior reveals that there are two regions of particular interest:

For small amplitude signals, PM is similar to amplitude modulation (AM) and exhibits its unfortunate doubling of baseband bandwidth and poor efficiency.

For a single large sinusoidal signal, PM is similar to FM, and its bandwidth is approximately , Where Rule for PM. and h is the modulation index defined below. This is also known as Carson's

Modulation index As with other modulation indices, this quantity indicates by how much the modulated variable varies around its unpopulated level. It relates to the variations in the phase of the carrier signal: , Where is the peak phase deviation? Compare to the modulation index for frequency modulation.

Frequency Modulation Advantages and Disadvantages

FM is widely used because of the many advantages of frequency modulation. Although, in the early days of radio communications, these were not exploited because of a lack of understand of how to benefit from FM, once these were understood, its use grew. There are many advantages of FM, but also some disadvantages, and as a result it is suitable for many applications, but other modes may be more suited to other applications. An understanding of the disadvantages and advantages of FM will enable the choice of the best modulation format to be made. Advantages of frequency modulation There are many advantages to the use of frequency modulation. These have meant that it has been widely used for many years, and will remain in use for many years.
Resilient to noise: One of the main advantages of frequency modulation that has been utilised by

the broadcasting industry is the reduction in noise. As most noise is amplitude based, this can be removed by running the signal through a limiter so that only frequency variations appear. This is provided that the signal level is sufficiently high to allow the signal to be limited.
Resilient to signal strength variations: In the same way that amplitude noise can be removed, so

too can any signal variations. This means that one of the advantages of frequency modulation is that it does not suffer audio amplitude variations as the signal level varies, and it makes FM ideal for use in mobile applications where signal levels constantly vary. This is provided that the signal level is sufficiently high to allow the signal to be limited.
Does not require linear amplifiers in the transmitter: As only frequency changes are required to

be carried, any amplifiers in the transmitter do not need to be linear.

Enables greater efficiency than many other modes: The use of non-linear amplifiers, e.g. class

C, etc means that transmitter efficiency levels will be higher - linear amplifiers are inherently inefficient. Dis- advantages of frequency modulation There are a number of dis-advantages to the use of frequency modulation. Some are can be overcome quite easily, but others may mean that another modulation format is more suitable.

 Requires more complicated demodulator: One of the minor dis-advantages of frequency

modulation is that the demodulator is a little more complicated, and hence slightly more expensive than the very simple diode detectors used for AM. Also requiring a tuned circuit adds cost. However this is only an issue for the very low cost broadcast receiver market.
Some other modes have higher data spectral efficiency: Some phase modulation and quadrature

amplitude modulation formats have a higher spectral efficiency for data transmission that frequency shift keying, a form of frequency modulation. As a result, most data transmission system uses PSK and QAM.
Sidebands extend to infinity either side: The sidebands for an FM transmission theoretically

extend out to infinity. To limit the bandwidth of the transmission, filters are used, and these introduce some distortion of the signal. There are many advantages to using frequency modulation - it is still widely used for many broadcast and radio communications applications. However with more systems using digital formats, phase and quadrature amplitude modulation formats are on the increase. Nevertheless, the advantages of frequency modulation mean that it is an ideal format for many analogue applications.

CHAPTER 3 GENERAL THEORY OF TRANSMITTER

The transmitter is the part of communication system that accepts the information signal to be transmitted over a long distances. Every transmitter has 3 basic functions. 1. The transmitter must generate a signal of correct frequency a desired point in the spectrum. 2. It must provide some form of modulation that causes the information signal to modify the carrier signal. 3. It must provide sufficient power amplification to insure that the signal level is high enough so that it will carry over the desire distance. Therefore, radio transmitter is a device used for generating high frequency (HF) radio wave called carrier waves, which can be modulated by the information to be transmitted. The modulating carrier wave is then fed into suitable antenna system for radiation .the carrier frequency, which is generally produced at low level by an oscillator is then amplified by a number of RF amplification stages until the level of the output power is obtained. Radio transmitter produces radio frequency energy that its control by the intelligence to be transmitted. The classification of transmitter is based on different parameters. 1) According to the frequency bands of the carriers, the transmitters are classified into the following. i. Long wave transmitters:-these transmitters operate medium or low frequencies (LF, 300 KHz) with carrier power >>100kw. ii. Medium wave transmitters:- these transmitters operate at medium frequencies (MF,300to-3000KHz)with carrier power from 5-to-500kw. iii. Short wave transmitters:-these transmitters are operating at high frequency (HF, 3-to30MHz) with carrier power from 1-to-10kw. iv. Very high frequency(VHF) and ultra high frequency(UHF) transmitters:- these transmitters operate in very high frequency (VHF,30-300MHz) and ultra high frequency(UHF,300-3000MHz)range are used for television and MF radio telephony.

v.

Micro wave transmitters:- these transmitters operate in micro-wave frequency range (>3GHz). The application areas of these transmitters are radar, TV and micro-wave links.

2) According to the nature of service, transmitters are classified as: a) Radio telegraph transmitters:-these transmitters are use for transmitting coded signal and for point to point communication. b) Radio telephone transmitter:-these transmitters are used for transmitting telephone signals over long distances by a means of radio waves. c) Radio broad cast transmitters:-These transmitters are used for transmitting speech, music and information. d) Television transmitters: - These transmitters are used for transmitting sound and picture signals. Introduction to FM transmitter Frequency modulation is used for sound broad casting in the VHF bands for VHF and UHF mobile systems and for wide band UHF and SHF radio relay systems.FM transmitters are used to generate high frequency signal (>40 MHz). Block diagram of FM transmitter

Audio i/p

Pre-emphasis

Modulator

Separator

VHF power amplifier

Antenna

Oscillator Microphone is a transducer, which converts sound pressure variations in to electrical signals of the same frequency and of amplitudes in the same proportion as a pressure variation. Quality of a microphone is determined by the following characteristics: Sensitivity Signal to noise ratio(SNR) Frequency response

 Distortion Directivity Output impedance These characteristics are defined as:-

Sensitivity It is defined is output in mill volts (in DB below volt) for the sound pressure of one micro bar (0.1pa)at 1000Hz. As the normal level of speech provides sound pressure of 1micro bar, the sensitivity based on these criteria is more appropriate and has been used. For instance, sensitivity of microphone is 120dB below 1 volt, and its output becomes 20log (1/Eo) =120therefore, 1/Eo=10-6=1v. Signal -to -noise ratio (SNR) It is generated inside the microphone due to resistance of the circuit, built in transformer, etc.it is represented in terms sound pressure, which would give the same output as the noise output. The output is measured by passing it through a weighting filter, which accounts for the reduced sensitivity of the ear at high and low audio frequencies. S/N=20log(output in the pressure of sound /output in the absence of sound). Frequency response The Frequency response of a micro phone is defined by the band width of audio frequencies in the out of micro phone plus or minus of the out at 1000Hz.although the complete audio frequencies range of sound is 16 to 20hz,a micro phone which gives flat response within plus or minus dB for frequencies 40-to15Hz is considered good for high fidelity audio systems. Distortion Besides frequency distortion (un-even frequency response) described above, the microphone has two types of distortion these are : None linear distortion: distorts the amplitude of the audio signal ,which results in production of such harmonics in the output that are not present in the input sound for quality microphones , such

distortion should be less than 5% . For high fidelity sound systems, distortion should not be more than 1%. Phase distortion: may cause change of phase relationships between components of a complex sound wave. It occurs when multiple microphones are used causing relative path from the source sound. Directivity it is defined with the help of a polar diagram. the angle for half power points in a polar diagram represents directivity of a microphone. Mathematically, microphone is defined as the ratio of actual output when placed in a direction of maximum response to the output which an Omni directional microphone in the same direction would have given , keeping the intensity of sound constant. D=E/Eo in dB, D=20logD Where, E= actual output in the direction of maximum output Eo= output in that direction has the microphone been omni directional. D = directivity Microphones with the following directives are used in practice: Omni directional Figure of eight directivity and Cardioids or heart shaped directivity All pressure microphones have basically Omni directional pattern. In Omni-directional microphones, sound waves, off the main axis bend round due to diffraction and strike the diagram. Pressure gradient or velocity microphones have figure of eight pattern. Cardioids pattern obtained by combination of multiple microphones. Output impedance

A microphone has output impedance, which is represented in a ohms. This is an important parameter which is used to determine which type of matching transformer would be needed to transfer the power efficiently from , microphone to the transmitting line and then to the amplifier. some microphones like dynamic microphones have quite low output impedance, and therefore have built in step up transformer match line impedance. Requisites of a good microphone A good microphone should have a high sensitivity, high signal to noise ratio, flat response over most of the audible frequency range , natural resonant frequency outside the audible frequency range, and very low distortion. It should have correct output impedance(with or without built in transformer) to match with the line impedance. The directivity of the microphone should be such as to meet the requirements of application from the point of impedance, the microphone are divides in to three categories: 1. Very low impedance: from 0 to 50 2. Medium impedance: from 100 to 600 3. High impedance: from 750k and higher Audio amplifier An audio amplifier is a device used to amplify from audio signal of frequency range 16Hz to 20KHz . Two types of audio amplifier: 1. Voltage amplifier 2. Power amplifiers Voltage amplifier is used as pre- amplifier, buffer amplifier and derive amplifier. Their main function is to amplify the audio signal voltage in stages, so that finally the derive amplifier gives output voltage sufficient to reduce the resistance of the power amplifier and hence to derive it to give power amplifier. The final amplification stage is always power amplifier, which feeds audio power to loud speaker for conversion of the electrical signal in to sound wave. For low power output, it can be a single transistor stage but for high power output, two transistors are used generally in push pull configuration. The characteristics of audio amplifier

 Gain :- ratio of output signal to input signal is called gain of an amplifier . Av = 20log(v2/v1) Av = 10log(p2/p1) The higher level of input signals less is than the gain. Linear ICs used as amplifiers have much higher gain . Bandwidth:- an audio amplifier should pass the whole audible frequency range which is from 16Hz to 20KHz. Distortion:- an amplifier can suffer from the following types of distortion : Frequency distortion Phase distortion Amplitude distortion Distortion due to self oscillation

When not all the audio frequencies are amplified equally well it causes frequency distortion. It is due to series coupling capacitor (for low noise) and shunt capacitor (for high notes). Phase distortion: - when the relative phase relationship as in, the input signal is not maintained in the output signal, it causes phase distortion. It is due to reactive components, which causes phase changes in the signal. Its effect is to change the frequency because the stage of phase and frequency depends on each other. Amplitude distortion: - it is caused due to passage of signal through non linear portion of the characteristics curve of transistors. The positive and negative peaks of large signal are clipped due to saturation at positive peaks and cutoff the negative peak. This deformation of signal results in the production of new harmonic frequencies, which were not present in the input signal. Typically non linear distortion of a good audio amplifier is less than 1% . Power output: - As an amplifier, system finally gives power to some devices loud speakers in case of audio amplifiers output powers. Which can be taken out from the power amplifier is an

important parameter. In fact, the number of voltage amplifiers preceding the power depends on how much power output is required of the final power amplifier. Impedance: - In put impedance of a transistor is amplifier an important parameter. For maximum transfer of power from the power amplifier to the loud speaker, the impedance of the amplifier called source impedance must much with the load impedance. Amplifier circuit Voltage amplifier: - pre amplifier and other amplifying stages preceding the final power amplifier stage are all voltage amplifiers. It is the RC coupled amplifier operating on linear portion of the characteristic curve as class A amplifier, controls like loudness control and bass controls are normally used in the output of pre amplifier.

Fig

Amplifier circuit

Q is NPN transistor, baser biasing is provided by R1 and R2 restabilizes the bias, ce by passes the audio frequency to ground son that there is only DC across Re. In the absence of Ce audio voltage will also across Re which would reduce the gain by causing negative feedback. This signal is feed between base and emitter through the coupling capacitor Cc. The output develops across the loud resistance RC. The output is feed to the processing circuit through C1 and is processed by loudness control, bass control and treble control.

Power amplifier Power amplifiers used in audio system are three types: 1) Single transistor amplifier 2) Push pull amplifier using similar transistor 3) Push pull amplifier using complimentary symmetry pair of transistor. Voltage amplifier precedes all [power amplifiers. The final voltage amplifier, which is just before the power amplifier, is called driver because the larger voltage signal in its output reduces the dynamic resistance of the power amplifier stage and hence drive it to give more power. The transistor chosen for power amplification must have low internal resistance and should be able to withstand heavy dissipation of power. Another requirement of power amplifier is matching transformer in its output to match the low impedance of the LS with the impedance of the power amplifier.

Fig. Power amplifier using a single transistor circuit diagram

The function of R1, R2, Cc and Ce are the same as explained for an amplifier circuit; load in the collector of Q transistor is the output transformer. The power developed in the output is transferred to the loud speaker through the output transformer.

FREQUENCY MODULATION If we make the frequency of our carrier wave a function of time, we can get a generalized function that looks like this:

We still have a carrier wave, but now we have the value ks(t) that we add to that carrier wave, to send our data.

As an important result, ks(t) must be less than the carrier frequency always, to avoid ambiguity and distortion.

Deriving the FM Equation Recall that a general sinusoid is of the form:

Frequency modulation involves deviating a carrier frequency by some amount. If a sine wave is used to deviate the carrier, the expression for the frequency at any instant would be:

where: instantaneous frequency carrier frequency carrier deviation modulation frequency This expression describes a signal varying sinusoidally about some average frequency. However, we cannot simply substitute this expression into the general equation for a sinusoid to get the FM equation. This is because the sine operator acts on angles, not frequency. Therefore, we must define the instantaneous frequency in terms of angles.

It should be noted that the modulation signal amplitude governs the amount of carrier deviation while the modulation signal frequency governs the rate of carrier deviation.

The term

is an angular velocity (radians per second) and is related to frequency and angle by the

following relationship:

To find the angle, we must integrate

with respect to time:

We can now find the instantaneous angle associated with the instantaneous frequency:

This angle can now be substituted into the general carrier signal to define FM:

The FM modulation index is defined as the ratio of the carrier deviation to modulation frequency:

Consequently, the FM equation is often written as:

FM Bandwidth

FM generates upper and lower sidebands, each of which contain an infinite number of side frequencies. However, the FM bandwidth is not infinite because the amplitude of the higher order side frequencies decreases rapidly. Carson's Rule is often used to calculate the bandwidth, since it contains more than 90% of the FM signal. Carson's Rule

In commercial broadcast applications, the maximum modulation index ( carrier deviation ( ) = 75 kHz, and maximum modulation frequency (

) = 5, the maximum, ) = 15 kHz. The total

broadcast spectrum according to Carson's rule is 180 kHz, but an additional 20 kHz guard band is used to separate adjacent radio stations. Therefore, each FM radio station is allocated 200 kHz. Noise In AM systems, noise easily distorts the transmitted signal however, in FM systems any added noise must create a frequency deviation in order to be perceptible.

The maximum frequency deviation due to random noise occurs when the noise is at right angles to the resultant signal. In the worst case the signal frequency has been deviated by:

This shows that the deviation due to noise increases as the modulation frequency increases. Since noise power is the square of the noise voltage, the signal to noise ratio can significantly degrade.

To prevent this, the amplitude of the modulation signal is increased to keep the S/N ratio constant over the entire broadcast band. This is called pre-emphasis. Pre & De-emphasis

Increasing the amplitude of high frequency baseband signals in the FM modulator (transmitter) must be compensated for in the FM demodulator (receiver) otherwise the signal would sound quite tinny (too much treble). The standard curves resemble:

In commercial FM broadcast, the emphasis circuits consist of a simple RC network with a time constant of 75 Sec and a corner frequency of 2125 H.

The magnitude of the pre-emphasis response is defined by:

FM Transmission Power Since the value of the amplitude of the sine wave in FM does not change, the transmitted power is a constant. As a general rule, for a sinusoid with a constant amplitude, the transmitted power can be found as follows:

Where A is the amplitude of the sine wave, and RL is the resistance of the load. In a normalized system, we set RL to 1. The Bessel coefficients can be used to determine the power in the carrier and any side frequency:

is the power in the unmediated carrier. is the total power and is by definition equal to the un modulated carrier power. As the modulation index varies, the individual Bessel coefficients change and power is redistributed from the carrier to the side frequencies.

CHAPTER FOUR DESIGN OF LOW POWER FM TRANSMITTER Small signal amplifier design procedure Biasing and stabilization Biasing in electronics is the method of establishing predetermined voltages or currents at various points of an electronic circuit to set an appropriate operating point. Biasing: for faithful amplification the following point should satisfied and they are called transistor biasing. Proper zero signal collector current: value of zero signal collector current should be at least equal to

maximum collector current due to signal alone so that the negative half cycle of signal also appear in output. Proper minimum base emitter voltage: at any instant base to emitter, voltage should not fail below 0.3v for Ge and 0.7v for Si transistor at any instant. Hence, input voltage over comes potential difference at base junction ones potential barrier over come, base current and hence collector current increases sharply. Proper minimum collector emitter voltage at any instant: the collector to emitter voltage should not fail below 0.5v for Ge and 1v for Si transistor at any instant, otherwise collector to base junction will not be properly reverse biased and cannot attracts the charge carrier emitted by emitter. Stabilization The biasing circuit must ensure stabilization of operating point, which is process of making operating point in dependent of temperature change and variation in transistors parameter. Need of stabilization Temperature dependence of collector current The collector current consists of two parts

Useful (wanted) current IC = IB

Unwanted leakage current ICO which is temperature dependent but independent of input current ICO = (1+) ICO Thermal run away The flow collector current produce heat with in transistor this rises transistor temperature and thus leakage current. This produce cumulative and IC may be very large to burn out transistor this self destruction of and stabilize transistor known as thermal run away. Individual variation In semi conductor technology to transistor even if the same type dont have the same parameters and therefore change operating point. Biasing circuit selection We select voltage divider biased circuit for output amplifier design on the following reasons: 1) It has high degree of stability 2) Operating point doesnt depend on beta Illustration
VCC 9V +V

R1 1k

Rc 1k

BJT-NPN-VIRTUAL IR2

Q1 NPN

R2 1k

Re 1k

FIGURE: voltage divider

Let us apply voltage divider rule at input circuit Vb it is voltage for ward biased base to emitter junction vb =
2 1+2

KVL at base circuit Vb=Ve+Vbe Vb=IeRe+Vbe therefore Ie= KVL at out put circuit Vcc=Vc+Vce+Ve Vcc=IcRc+Vce+IeRe since Ic ~Ie Vcc=Vce+Ic (Re+Rc) And Vce=Vcc- Ic (Re+Rc) therefore Ic= Determining amplifier specification Amplifier gain Frequency response Load resistance Input impedance Source characteristics Power supply available
( ) + ( )

Since we select voltage divider bias (VDB) amplifier configuration and has the following specifications:

 Frequency response : 30 to 1500Hz Load resistance: Amplifier gain :12V Input impedance : 5k Source characteristic:20mvpeak to peak and Power supply available: 12V, 4mA To design the amplifier circuit that fulfills the following specification: As we mentioned that the circuit bias configuration is voltage divider biased.
VCC 9V +V

R1 1k

Rc 1k

BJT-NPN-VIRTUAL IR2

Q1 NPN

R2 1k

Re 1k

Description of voltage divider biased circuit Resistor R1 and R2 form voltage divide that provide the base biased voltage. The resistor Re allows the emitter to raise the above ground potential. The capacitor c1 used to coupled Ac signal voltage from source to voltage divider point and the capacitor block Dc-Ac source an affected by Dc level but ac signal is pass through the capacitor. CE is by pass capacitor this capacitor (by pass) of shunt any Ac signal parallel to component to ground and there for increase Ac signal voltage gain. Cc is blocking capacitor it block Dc and provide Ac signal path from point to point.

We select transistor that has low noise and high gain. We have got the following parameter from ECG book. PN3563 transistor data sheet, parameters & specifications Type designator:PN3563 Material of transistor: si Transistor Polarity :NPN Maximum collector current dissipation(pc):310mw Maximum collector-base voltage (VCB):30V Maximum collector-emitter voltage(VCE):12V Maximum emitter base voltage(VEB):4V Maximum collector current(IC max):50mA Maximum junction temperature(T j):150 Transition frequency(ft):600MHz Collector capacitance(CC):1.7Pf Forward current transfer ratio (hfe), min/max:20/200 Package of PN3563 transistor:TO92 Application :VHF , low power

Design procedure for CE power amplifier 1. Selection of transistor: select the transistor according to the frequency of operation, power requirement and hfe. For example PN3563 (TO-92) has frequency of operation up to 600MHz, hfe <200 and wattage=310mW. There for, the transistor must be selected in such way that the minimum hfe should be greater than or equal to the Av required. 2. Selection of the supply voltage VCC and setting of quotient voltage VCEQ : The supply voltage vcc must be selected in- such a way that the quotient voltage VCEQ 50% VCC should give distortion less output and protect from thermal stability. This means, the output voltage swing in either positive or negative direction with half of VCC. Therefore, the design criteria is

VCEQ Let VCC =10V

3. The data sheet: go through the data sheet and make note of the important parameters. From the data sheet of TO-92,we can find the following specifications. Maximum rating: VCB=30V, VCE=12v, VEB=4v, IC=50mA Normal rating: VCE=10v, IC=8mA , hfe=20to 200 4. Selection of the collector current IC: collector current will be given in data sheet. Normally the collector current of the power amplifier will be at ampere range; however those of normal transistors will be at mA range. Collector current IC is the biased current at which hfe is measured. Therefore, the collector current IC is selected based up on hfe which is obtained from the datasheet. In this design, let we select IC =8mA. 5. DC biasing condition: As a design criteria, normally,40%VCC is allocated for the collector resistor RC , 50%VCC is allocated for the quotient drop VCEQ , and 10% VCC is allocated for the emitter resistor RE. therefore ,the design criterion is VC 40%VCC =0.4 VCC=0.4 10=4v VCEQ 50%VCC=0.5 VCC=0.510=5v VE 10 %VCC =0.110=1v

6. Design of RE: therefore, the emitter resistor should be RE =

1 810
-3

0.125K .

Where, VE

10

0.110=1v
0.4 4 810
-3

7. Design of RC: the collector resistor should be RC

500

8. Design of voltage divider or biasing resistors R1 and R2: the value of IB is obtained using the relation IB=
(min )

8 20

=0.4mA. However for better design , the current flowing through the

resistor R1 should be 10IB.With this assumption, 9IB flows through the resistor R2. Now the values of R1 and R2 can be calculated from the DC potential created by the respective currents. Voltage across R2:V2=9IBR2=VBE+VE=0.7+1=1.7V Or 9 0.4 10-3 R2=1.7V R2=90.4103 =0.47k Voltage across R1=VCC-V2=10IB R1 Or 10v-1.7v=10810-3R1 R1=108103 =80 k= 108.7
8.7 8.7 1.7

9. Design of RL: the voltage gain of the CE amplifier can be obtained by using the relation Av== - / but re=25mv/IE =25mv/8mA=3.125 e Let the required gain be 100 (i.e Av=100). Substituting back we get

||

100= - + .
+

using cross multiplication we get

=-1250

RL=414

10. Design of coupling capacitor C1 and C2: the purpose of the coupling capacitor is to couple the AC signal to the input of the amplifier and block DC. it also isolates the input signal source and the voltage divider network. The value of the coupling capacitor C C is set in such a way that the reactance XC at the lowest frequency(say 104.5MHz) , should be equal to one tenth or less of the series impedance that is being driven by the signal passing through the capacitor. That is X C
10

Design of coupling capacitor C1: XC

10

But, Rin=R1 || R2|| hie =108.7 || 470 || 20=1.7k Therefore, 2 1 =2 104 .51 C1=8.9*10-12 F= 8.9pF Design of coupling capacitor C2: XC2 But , Rout=RC= 500 Therefore, 2 2 =2 104.5 2 C23.04uF 11. Design of the emitter by-pass capacitor CE: the purpose of the by- pass capacitor is to bypass the signal currents to the ground. To bypass lowest frequency component the reactance XE at the lowest frequency (say 104.5MHz) , should be equal to one tenth or less of the emitter resistance. That is XCE
1 2 1 10 1 1 500 10 10 1 1 1.7k 10

= 0.1RE =0.1*125=12.5 12.5

Therefore,

2 104 .5

CE 1.21*10-10 F

Designing of an oscillator Oscillators are necessary in any low power transmitter because they generate a necessary RF signal. There are different types oscillator configuration such as Hartley, Winebridg, colipits and other. Because of good stability and high resonant frequency operation we take colippit oscillator.

Where L = Self inductance of the coil (H) C = Capacitance of the condenser (F)

C1, C2 = capacitances of the two capacitors in the tank circuit.

Description :- The Colpitts oscillator is designed for generation of high frequency sinusoidal
oscillations (radio frequencies ranging from 10KHz to 100MHz). They are widely used in commercial signal generators up to 100MHz. Colpitt's oscillator is same as Hartley oscillator except for one difference. Instead of using a tapped inductance, Colpitt's oscillator uses a tapped capacitance. The circuit diagram of Colpitts oscillator using BJT is shown in Fig. It consists of an R-C coupled amplifier using an n-p-n transistor in CE configuration. R1 and R2 are two resistors which form a voltage divider bias to the transistor. A resistor R E is connected in the circuit which stabilizes the circuit against temperature variations. A capacitor CE is connected in parallel with RE, acts as a bypass capacitor and provides a low reactive path to the amplified ac signal. The coupling capacitor CC blocks dc and provides an ac path from the collector to the tank circuit. The feedback network (tank circuit) consists of two capacitors C 1 and C2 (inseries) which placed across a common inductor L. The centre of the two capacitors is tapped (grounded). The feedback network (C1, C2 and L) determines the frequency of oscillation of the oscillator. The two series capacitors C1, and C2 form the potential divider led for providing the feedback voltage. The voltage developed across the capacitor C2 provides regenerative feedback which is essential for sustained oscillations.
THEORY :- When the collector supply voltage Vcc is switched on, collector current starts rising and charges the capacitors C1 and C2. When these capacitors are fully charged, they discharge through coil L setting up damped harmonic oscillations in the tank circuit. The oscillatory current in the tank

circuit produces an a.c. voltages across C1, C2. The oscillations across C2 are applied to base-emitter junction of the transistor and appears in the amplified form in the collector circuit and overcomes the losses occurring in the tank circuit. The feedback voltage ( across the capacitor C2) is 180 out of phase with the output voltage ( across the capacitor C1), as the centre of the two capacitors is Grounded. The following figure show us Colipit oscillator circuit diagram.

Colipit oscillator circuit diagram and out put

RF power amplifier circuit diagram and the out put

Fm transmitter circuit diagram and the output of the transmitter

Conclusion In conclusion the FM transmitter with a variable inductor design was a success. The FM transmitter was able to broadcast at frequency 104.5MHz. A lot was learned from the experiment without the aid of a variable inductor schematic. Even though much guidance was given from other schematics, it still took some time to complete the final project. Also a better understanding of BJT transistors, amplifiers, modulators, oscillators, capacitors and inductors were developed. In addition, a better understanding of the oscilloscope was also achieved. The mastering of horizontal and vertical position controls to find the output frequency took some patience. In the future, an oscilloscope could be used to find the precise frequency. Also, better components and a higher voltage supply would allow for a larger transmitting distance.