Applied Energy 88 (2011) 36033614

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

A critical review of photovoltaicthermal solar collectors for air heating

Rakesh Kumar , Marc A. Rosen
Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, 2000 Simcoe Street North Oshawa, Ontario, Canada L1H 7K4

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
Integrated photovoltaicthermal solar collectors have become of great interest in the solar thermal and photovoltaic (PV) research communities. Solar thermal systems and solar PV systems have each advanced markedly, and combining the two technologies provides the opportunity for increased efciency and expanded utilization of solar energy. In this article, the authors critically review photovoltaicthermal solar collectors for air heating. Included is a review of photovoltaic thermal technology and recent advances, particularly as applied to air heaters. It is determined that the photovoltaicthermal (PV/T) air heater is or may in the future be practicable for preheating air for many applications, including space heating and drying, and that integrated PV/T collectors deliver more useful energy per unit collector area than separate PV and thermal systems. Although PV/T collectors are promising, it is evident that further research is required to improve efciency, reduce costs and resolve several technical design issues related to the collectors. 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 7 December 2010 Received in revised form 14 April 2011 Accepted 15 April 2011 Available online 17 May 2011 Keywords: Solar energy Photovoltaic Solar thermal collector Photovoltaicthermal air heater Design Performance

Contents 1. 2. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Photovoltaic systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. Types of photovoltaic installations and technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2. Parametric effects on PV module efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Solar thermal collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Flat plate solar collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Solar thermal air collectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Photovoltaicthermal (PV/T) collectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PV/T air heating collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1. Designs of PV/T air collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2. Numerical simulation of PV/T air collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3. Integration of PV/T air collectors with existing systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Commercial development of PV/T collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3603 3604 3604 3605 3606 3606 3606 3607 3608 3608 3609 3611 3612 3613 3613 3613

3.

4. 5.

6. 7.

1. Introduction Improvements in quality of life and rapid industrialization in many countries are increasing energy demand signicantly, and the potential future gap between energy supply and demand is predicted to be large. Interest in sustainable development and
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 905 721 8668; fax: +1 905 721 3370.
E-mail addresses: rakesh.kumar@uoit.ca (R. Kumar), Marc.Rosen@uoit.ca (M.A. Rosen). 0306-2619/$ - see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.04.044

growth has also grown in recent years, motivating the development of environmental benign energy technologies. Research on applications of solar energy technologies have as a consequence expanded rapidly, exploiting the abundant, free and environmentally benign characteristics of solar energy. However, widespread acceptance of solar energy technology depends on its competitiveness, considering factors such as efciency, cost-effectiveness, reliability and availability. Some solar thermal systems, such as solar water heaters, air heaters, cookers, dryers and distillation devices, have advanced

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Nomenclature cf Tref To Tc efciency of conventional thermal power plant temperature of PV cell corresponding to reference conditions (C) maximum temperature at which the efciency of PV cell drop to zero (C) cell temperature (C) efciency of PV cell at reference condition efciency of PV cell at the cell temperature Tc equivalent thermal efciency of PV/T collector electrical efciency of PV cell amorphous silicon crystalline silicon poly c-Si polycrystalline silicon Acronyms and abbreviations min minimum max maximum avg average c-Si crystalline silicon a-Si amorphous silicon mono c-Si mono crystalline silicon poly c-Si poly crystalline silicon Eff. efciency Temp. temperature

gref gc gt gel
a-Si c-Si

notably in decades in terms of efciency and reliability. Efciencies of these devices typically range from about 40% to 60% for low- and medium-temperature applications [1]. Also, the direct conversion of solar energy to electricity has advanced markedly over the last two decades, leading to signicantly reduced prices of photovoltaic modules, and applications have increased especially due to the availability of incentives in many parts of the world [2]. However, the efciency of mono crystalline silicon based module is still around 20% and the cost of production of PV power remains considerably higher than the cost of generating solar thermal heat [3]. The efciency of photovoltaic cells or modules is measured under controlled conditions (solar irradiance 1000 W/m2, cell temperature 25 C, air mass 1.5), although the nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT) in actual applications is much higher than the reference cell temperature 25 C; the higher NOCT is considered a major cause of reduced efciency and electrical power output of photovoltaic modules [4]. To enhance and possibly maximize the output of photovoltaic modules, the heat generated in the module can be extracted by passing a heat recovery uid (water, oil, glycol, air) under and/or over the module [5]. This integrated approach, in which thermal and electrical energy are generated simultaneously, is the basis of photovoltaicthermal (PV/T) collectors. The potential of PV/T collectors has been recognized since 1970 and has received increased attention in the past decade. Compared to using separate solar technologies for heat and electricity, the production of heat and electricity from the same collector surface is often considered more cost effective [6], requires less space and exhibits signicantly lower balance-of-system costs. The potential of PV/T collectors is large, as many potential users have simultaneous requirements for heat and electricity. In this article, we critically review photovoltaicthermal solar collectors for air heating and recent advances. Included are discussions of the status, development and applications of various PV and solar thermal technologies, and major developments in PV/T collectors and PV/T air heater systems. Characteristics of PV/T collectors are examined including efciency, cost and design. The objective is to increase understanding of solar PV/T collectors and heaters and help increase their adoption. The review provided herein is important since, although the application of PV/T solar air heater is practicable for the generation of electricity and heat, acceptance is a challenge given it as a relatively new technology. 2. Photovoltaic systems The photovoltaic phenomenon has been recognized since 1839, when French physicist Edmond Becquerel was able to generate electricity by illuminating a metal electrode in a weak electrolyte solution. The photovoltaic effect in solids was rst studied in

1876 by Adam and Day, who made a solar cell from selenium that had an efciency of 12%. The photovoltaic effect was explained by Albert Einstein in 1904 via his photon theory [7]. A signicant breakthrough related to modern electronics was the discovery of a process to produce pure crystalline silicon by Polish scientist Jan Czochralski in 1916 [8]. The efciency of rst generation silicon cells was about 6% [9], which is considerable lower than that of contemporary solar cells (about 1420%). Early efforts to make photovoltaic cells a viable method of electricity generation for terrestrial applications were unsuccessful due to the high device costs. The energy crises of 1970s spurred a new found of initiatives in many countries to make photovoltaic systems affordable, especially for off-grid applications. The signicant reductions in the prices of photovoltaic cells in more recent years has rejuvenated interest in the technology, e.g., the annual growth since 2000 in the production of PV system has exceeded 40% and present total installed capacity worldwide has reached about 22 GW [10]. 2.1. Types of photovoltaic installations and technology Four main types of PV installations exist: grid-tied centralized (large power plants); grid-tied distributed (roof/ground mounted small installations); off-grid commercial (power plants and industrial installations in remote areas); and off-grid (mainly stand alone roof/ground based systems for houses and isolated applications). The balance-of-system requirements of each installation differ signicantly. For example, off-grid stand alone applications often require a battery bank or alternative electrical storage capacity. Photovoltaic systems can be further distinguished based on the solar cell technology (Fig. 1). Silicon (Si) based technologies can be categorized as a crystalline silicon and amorphous silicon or thin lm, and are considered the most mature. Crystalline silicon cells can have different crystalline structures: single crystalline silicon, multi-crystalline silicon and ribbon cast multi-crystalline silicon [11]. A key feature of photovoltaic systems is their ability to provide direct and instantaneous conversion of solar energy into electricity without complicated mechanical parts or integration [12]. The market shares in 2006 are given in Fig. 2 for several types of photovoltaic cells, including mono crystalline silicon (Mono c-Si), polycrystalline silicon (Poly c-Si), amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium diselenide (CIS), ribbon crystalline silicon (Ribbon c-Si) and others. About 90% of total PV market is seen to be based on crystalline silicon (c-Si), with the shares of mono c-Si and poly c-Si comprising about 42% and 45%, respectively [10]. In recent years, signicant growth has been reported for applications of amorphous or thin lm Si technology, likely due to its advantages over c-Si and poly c-Si cells, which in-

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Fig. 1. Various PV technologies. (Reprinted from Energy, 34, M. Raugei, P. Frankl, Life cycle impacts and costs of photovoltaic systems: Current state of the art and future outlooks, 8, 2009, with permission from Elsevier.)

50 45 42.2

45.2

Market share (%)

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Mono c- Multi c-Si Si a-Si CdTe CIS Ribbon c- Others Si 5.2 4.7 0.5 2.2

0.1

Fig. 2. Market share for various photovoltaic cell technologies in 2006. (Adapted from M. Raugei, P. Frankl, 2009 [11].)

greater number of photons associated with higher solar irradiance creates more electronhole pairs and consequently more current in the photovoltaic cell. The packing factor of a PV, dened as the fraction of absorber area occupied by the photovoltaic cells, significantly affects electrical output. A higher packing factor increases the electrical output per unit collector area, but also increases the module temperature. PV efciency decreases as PV temperature increases, mainly because a higher cell temperature decreases the voltage signicantly (even though it increases current by a very small amount). Many correlations have been developed for the cell temperature (Tc) as a function of climatic parameters (solar radiation, ambient air temperature, wind speed, etc.). Also, numerous correlations are available to calculate the inuence of cell temperature on the efciency of a PV cell (gc), but in most practical applications the following linear relation for the cell efciency can be used without incurring signicant loss in accuracy [15]:

clude lower cost per unit collector and little variation of cell efciency with temperature. However, the lower cell efciency, rapid performance degradation and shorter life of thin lm cells relative to c-Si are likely to hinder growth in utilization. Other PV technologies such as CdTe, CIS are in the early phase of development, but are considered promising due to their use of multi-junction cells [13]. Photovoltaic/thermal collectors have received signicant attention in the last few years [14]. In PV/T collectors, thermal and electrical energy are generated simultaneously and the combined system produces more electrical energy per unit collector area. 2.2. Parametric effects on PV module efciency The electrical efciency of photovoltaic modules is inuenced by module construction and climatic parameters, with the primary parameters being solar irradiance, packing factor and module temperature. PV cell efciency increases with solar irradiance, as the

gc gref 1 bref T c T ref

where gref is the efciency of the photovoltaic cell at temperature Tref. The temperature coefcient bref is mainly determined by the cell material, which usually is provided by the manufacturer, and on the Tref, and can be written as [14]:

bref

1 T 0 T ref

Here To is the maximum temperature at which the efciency of the PV cells decreases to zero. For a crystalline Si cell this temperature is about 270 C [15]. A range of values of bref are suggested for silicon based PV technologies (see Table 1). The variation of the efciency ratio gT/gref with temperature for various PV technologies is shown in Fig. 3. Here, gref and gT are the efciencies at the temperatures Tref (reference) and T. The inuence of temperature is greater for mono crystalline silicon (m-Si) modules for all values of temperature coefcients (avg., min. and max.)

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Table 1 Temperature coefcients for various solar technologies [15]. PV cell type Mono c-Si Poly c-Si a-Si PV/Thermal
a

3.1. Flat plate solar collectors The at plate solar collector is most common solar thermal device and has been used for many decades. A at plate collector consists of an absorber, a transparent cover, a frame and, commonly, insulation. Usually a low-iron tempered glass is used as a transparent cover. The absorber surface is the heart of the at plate solar collector and is typically made of copper or aluminum and painted black or selectively coated. When used, insulation is located at the back and sides of the collector to limit heat losses. The most common insulations material for at plate collectors are polyurethane and mineral wool. A frame of tubes is attached to the absorber surface to allow for the ow of a heat transfer uid. The thermal efciency of this collector type normally ranges from 40% to 60% for the low- to medium-temperature applications, and decreases rapidly as temperatures exceed 60 C. These collectors are generally used for temperatures less than 100 C and a preferred choice for combined photovoltaicthermal modules [1719].

Temperature coefcienta, bref (C1) 0.0030.005 0.004 0.00110.0026 0.003750.0063

The reference temperature for each case is 25 C.

and less for the thin lm modules. The decrease in the efciency of m-Si cells and thin lm cells are observed to be about 15% and 5%, respectively, as the module temperature rises from 300 K to 330 K. Currently, most of the growth in solar PV utilization is mono c-Si and poly c-Si technologies (Fig. 2), which are the PV types for which is most affected by module temperature. A cooling mechanism is needed with these PV modules to maintain efciency at high temperatures.

3. Solar thermal collectors 3.2. Solar thermal air collectors A solar collector converts solar radiant energy into useful thermal energy, which is transferred to a uid (water, air, glycol, oil, etc.) owing through the collector. The collected energy can be used for a variety of applications, such as space or water heating and steam generation or it can be stored in a thermal storage for later use. Solar collectors can be categorized in various ways based on working principle and other factors. A common categorization is as follows: (1) non-concentrating (e.g., at plate) and (2) concentrating (e.g., compound parabolic concentrators) [16]. Another categorization based on heat transfer uid separates solar collectors into liquid heating and air heating types. Stationary solar collectors without tracking device are common for low- and medium-temperature (less than 100 C) applications, whereas concentrating collectors with tracking systems are more often used for applications at medium to high temperature, i.e., (2502500 C). Stationary solar collectors are generally use for water and air heating applications, while most concentrating collectors with tracking are used for high temperature heating and solar thermal power generation. Details are provided in the next section on stationary solar collectors, which are generally used for low- and mediumtemperature applications and suitable for combined photovoltaicthermal (PV/T) systems. The working principle of a solar thermal air collector is similar to that for a at plate solar collector, the main differences being the heat transfer uid (air) and the air ow passage conguration. Solar thermal air collectors have some advantages over conventional at plate collectors [20]:  The use of air as the heat transfer uid avoids the need for special heat transfer uids (oil or glycol) able to withstand freezing conditions.  Corrosion is less of a concern.  Leakage through joints and ducts is less of a concern.  High-pressure protection is not required.  The device is more compact and lightweight, less complicated and easy to install. Nonetheless, the solar thermal air heater has some shortcomings relative to at plate liquid collectors. In particular, the heat transfer rate is relatively slow due to lower thermal conductivity of air, and a greater volume of air per unit collector area is required to store the thermal energy due to the lower specic heat capacity of air.

Fig. 3. The ratio gT/gref as predicted by the EvansFlorschuetz efciency correlation for typical silicon based PV module types. (Reprinted from Solar Energy, 83, E. Skoplaki, J.A. Palyvos, On the temperature dependence of photovoltaic module electrical performance: A review of efciency/power correlations, 11, 2009, with permission from Elsevier.)

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Glazing two Glazing Absorber Air Channel Insulation Glazing Absorber Air Channel Insulation Absorber Air Channel Insulation Glazing Absorber Air Channel Insulation Glazing one Absorber Air Channel Insulation

Fig. 4. Selected proposed and commercial designs of solar air heaters.

The commercial acceptability of solar air heaters depends mainly on their thermal performance and cost-effectiveness, with most studies suggesting that the key parameter to enhance the performance of the air heater is the heat transfer rate between the absorber surface and the owing air. To meet this objective, many modications have been proposed in the design and air movement in solar air collectors (Fig. 4), including the use of nned, corrugated absorbers and multiple-pass air ow congurations [2127]. The lower thermal efciency of solar air heaters and their continuous pumping power requirements are the main areas of concern to researchers. PV/T air collectors are improving in terms of energy output and cost-effectiveness, and research on PV/T collectors in general and PV/T air heaters in particular is reviewed in the next section.

depleting supplies of oil and natural gas, signicant reductions in PV cell/module prices, space concerns related to the use of separate solar collectors (PV and thermal), interest in green buildings and the possibility of integrating PV/T systems into buildings for multiple energy advantages. Advantages have been reported of PV/T collectors relative to individual collectors in various investigations [28]:  Two adjacent collectors with areas of 1 m2 each, one for domestic hot water and the other a photovoltaic module, were shown to generate 520 kWh of useful thermal energy and 72 kWh electrical energy, respectively, while a combined PV/T collector of area 2 m2 would yield energy outputs of 720 kWh thermal and 132 kWh electrical [30]. Thus, a PV/T collector could produce about 44% more energy than separate systems of similar area.  The higher energy yield per square meter collector area was seen to be benecial in most locations, but is normally more advantageous for densely populated areas (Japan, India, etc.). Furthermore, large scale integration of PV/T collectors into buildings supports global efforts to increase the contributions of renewable energy and decrease greenhouse gas emissions [33].  The payback time for PV/T collectors was found to be considerably lower than for individual systems based on an investigation in an Italian climate. Also, an economic study of PV/T for Greece determined that a combined PV/T system reduced the payback time by 10 years for c-Si modules and 6 years for a-Si modules, while the reduction in payback time for solar thermal collector is about 3 years [31,32].  Installed PV/T collectors appear to be more aesthetically pleasing to consumers due to the uniform appearance it provides on roofs [33].  PV/T collectors are thermodynamically advantageous as they generate high-grade (electrical) and low-grade (thermal) energy simultaneously [3436].  Building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) systems are growing in many countries, thin lm photovoltaic module is an integral part of roong shingles [37]. BIPV reduces installation cost, produces electricity and helps to control heating and cooling loads of buildings. Like solar thermal collectors, PV/T collectors can be categorized based on working uid, e.g., PV/T water collector and PV/T air collector. The main differences in these two collectors are heat transfer conduit shape and the ow pattern. The remainder of this article focuses on PV/T air collectors, although PV/T water collectors are noted for comparative at times.

4. Photovoltaicthermal (PV/T) collectors The merits of photovoltaic technology relative to other power generation technologies include noiseless, relatively environmentally benign, proven, long life (e.g., 2030 years for crystalline silicon modules) and low maintenance. However, several factors limit the efciency of photovoltaic module, e.g., 20% or less for crystalline Si and 12% or less for amorphous Si. In particular, the efciency of PV devices decreases as temperature increases and PV cells utilize only a part of solar spectrum (less than 1.11 lm for c-Si) for electricity generation. Even the total energy collected in the solar spectrum less than 1.11 lm is not converted into electricity, due to the band gap restriction of silicon (1.12 eV) [28]. Therefore, much of the collected solar energy in a PV module elevates the temperature of its cells. This absorbed heat needs to be extracted to maintain a high electrical output. This requirement creates an opportunity, as the extracted heat can be utilized for many low- and medium-temperature applications. The concept of photovoltaicthermal collectors (PV/T) began in the 1970s and now some companies are marketing such collectors. In PV/T collectors, the photovoltaic cells are integral part of the absorber surface. These collectors are known as hybrid solar collectors due to their inherent ability to generate electricity and heat simultaneously. The working principle of these collectors is similar to at plate solar collectors, except part of the incident solar radiation is converted into electricity. If the heat transfer uid (air) is owing through the ow passage attached with the absorber surface, collectors are categorized as a photovoltaicthermal air collectors or simply PV/T air heaters [29]. Recent growth in PV/T technology is attributable to increased environmental concerns, increased energy resource prices and

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5. PV/T air heating collectors Signicant research has been performed on PV/T collectors over the last four decades, on such topics as design development, numerical simulation, prototype design, experimental testing and testing methodologies for PV/T collectors. In the subsequent sections we describe major investigations on PV/T solar air collectors. 5.1. Designs of PV/T air collectors Hegazy [38] compared the performances of four commonly used PV/T air collector congurations (Fig. 5). In the four designs, the air ow passage is located above the absorber (model I), below the absorber (model II) and on both sides of the absorber, in a single-pass (model III) or double-pass (model IV) mode. Numerical solutions of the energy balances indicate that the electrical and thermal outputs for models IIIV are similar and superior to that for model I, and that the pumping power needed is lowest for model III and second lowest for model IV. Tonui and Tripanagnostopoulos [39,40] improved PV/T air collectors by enhancing heat extraction. They addressed some inherent shortcomings of PV/T air collectors, such as the low density, volumetric heat capacity and thermal conductivity of air, by using a thin suspended at metallic sheet between the absorber surface and back plate and/or by using ns on the back plate of the air duct

(Fig. 6). They report energy efciencies of 30%, 28% and 25%, respectively, for nned, suspended metallic plate and normal air heaters. The choice of particular design depends on location, especially latitude. The use of nned systems is advantageous for higher latitudes where higher heat gains are needed in winter, whereas the PV/T system with a suspended metallic sheet is usually preferable for low latitude or tropical countries. The use of a CPC with a double-pass PV/T air heater was examined by Othman et al. [41]. In the considered design, the bottom surface of the absorber has vertical ns (Fig. 7). Electricity production from the PV/T air collector was observed to depend signicantly on the air ow rate and to decreases with increasing air temperature. The latter result implies that the air temperature should be maintained at a lower value to generate more electrical energy. These observations are in line with the results reported by Garg and Adhikari [4244] for PV/T air collectors using CPCs. The present authors [45] recently investigated PV/T solar air heaters with a double-pass conguration for air ow and vertical ns in the lower channel (Fig. 8). This investigation provided insights into the effects of modications (double-pass with ns) on the electrical and thermal outputs of PV/T collectors. Dubey et al. [46,47] developed an expression for the electrical efciency of the PV/T module of PV/T air collectors as a function of climatic and design parameters, and applied it to several cases (glass-to-glass PV module with and without ducts, glass-to-tedlar

Air in

Air out Air in Insulation PV Cell Absorber Glass cover Air out Insulation PV Cell Absorber Glass cover

Model I
Air in Air in Air out Air out Insulation PV Cell Absorber Glass cover Air out Air in

Model II

Insulation PV Cell Absorber Glass cover

Model III

Model IV
Fig. 5. Various PV/T models. (Adapted from A. Hegazy, 2000 [38].)

(a)

(b)

Suspended plate

(c)
Fins

Fig. 6. Cross-sections of (a) a typical PV/T air collector, (b) a PV/T air collector with a suspended plate, and (c) a PV/T air collector with ns. Air ow is perpendicular to the page in all cases. (Adapted from J.K. Tonui, Y. Tripanagnostopoulos, 2007 [39].)

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PV module with and without ducts). The highest electrical efciency and outlet air temperature were shown to be achieved for the case of a glass-to-glass PV module with a duct (Fig. 9).

5.2. Numerical simulation of PV/T air collectors Prakash [48] used a transient simulation model to predict the electrical and thermal behaviors of PV/T collectors with air and water heat transfer uids, and found the electrical efciency of PV/T collectors to be improved marginally relative to photovoltaic modules without heat extraction. The thermal efciencies of PV/T water and air collectors are 5067% and 1751%, respectively (Table 2), highlighting the higher outputs of PV/T water collectors

Fig. 7. Double pass PV/T air heater with CPC and ns. (Reprinted from Renewable Energy, 30, M.Y.H. Othman, B. Yatim, K. Sopian, M.N.A. Bakar, Performance analysis of a double-pass photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) solar collector with CPC and ns, 13, 2005, with permission from Elsevier.)

Upper glass cover Air in Air out top air channel Solar cells Fin Plate Back surface Back & Side Insulation
Fig. 8. Double PV/T air heater with ns. (Adapted from R. Kumar, M.A. Rosen, 2010 [45].)

bottom air channel

Fig. 9. Views of a PV/T air collector, including (a) cross-section, (b) thermal resistance circuit diagram, and (c) an elemental length dx of ow duct. (Reprinted from Applied Energy, 87, F. Sarhaddi, S. Farahat, H. Ajam, A. Behzadmehr, M.M. Adeli, An improved thermal and electrical model for a solar photovoltaic thermal (PV/T) air collector, 7, 2010, with permission from Elsevier.)

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Table 2 Variation of thermal efciencies of P/VT water and air heaters with selected system parameters. Channel depth (cm) Average thermal efciency (%) PV/T air collector Flow rate (kg/h) 100 1 2 3 34 22 17 200 45 33 25 300 51 38 31 PV/T water collector Flow rate (kg/h) 40 64 57 50 80 66 60 54 120 67 61 55

over PV/T air collectors, which is largely due to the higher heat transfer rate between the absorber surface and the water. Sarhaddi et al. [49,36,50] evaluated various electrical parameters for a specic PV/T air heater design using thermal and electrical modeling and experimental validation. The parameters considered include electrical efciency, open-circuit voltage, short-circuit current, maximum power and ll factor. The authors report thermal, electrical and overall efciencies of 17%, 10% and 45%, respectively. An extension of the research using an exergy approach found the overall exergy efciency of the PV/T air collector to be 11%, which is much lower than the corresponding energy efciency of 45%. Garg and co-workers in the Center of Energy Studies at IIT Delhi investigated PV/T air and water collectors in the 1990s. Garg and Adhihri [42,43] carried out detailed computer simulation studies on conventional PV/T air heating collectors, and developed PV/T collector thermal efciency curves for various types of absorbers. For single and double glass congurations of PV/T air heating collectors, solutions of the related differential equations allowed the air temperature along the direction of uid ow to be expressed. A parametric study by Garg and Adhihri [44] of the use of a compound parabolic concentrator (CPC) with PV/T air collectors revealed that thermal and electrical outputs increase with increasing collector length, air mass ow rate and packing factor, and decrease with increasing duct depth. A CPC was seen to improve collector output due to increased solar gain but to be relatively expensive due to the device cost and the need for a solar tracking mechanism. Dubey et al. [46,47] developed energy and exergy efciencies of in-series PV/T air collectors, in which the front and the back surfaces of the photovoltaic module are made of glass and a gap is considered above and below the absorber surface. Air ow above and below the absorber surfaces was considered in comparative evaluations. Annual thermal outputs as well as electrical and exergy efciencies were evaluated for ve cities in India (Fig. 10). The

Fig. 10. Annual gain in thermal energy, exergy and electrical energy for ve cities in India. (Reprinted from Energy and Buildings, 41, S. Dubey, S.C. Solanki, A. Tiwari, Energy and exergy analysis of PV/T air collectors connected in series, 8, 2009, with permission from Elsevier.)

design with air ow above the absorber performed efciently with only a single collector, while the design with air ow below the absorber was advantageous for lower air velocities and two or more PV/T collectors attached in-series. At the Center for Energy Studies in IIT Delhi, Tiwari et al. have conducted extensive studies on PV/T air and water collectors, involving numerical simulation, experimentation, prototype design and testing procedure development [5154]. In one study, an expression similar to the HottelWhillerBliss (HWB) equation was derived in terms of design and climatic parameters. The performance results for various climatic zones of India were reported. It was demonstrated that the glazed PV/T air collector without tedlar performs better than other designs, and that the system with a small number of in-series collectors yields a higher output than an equivalent single collector. In another investigation, the PV/T collector performance with water/air heat transfer uids was evaluated for several cases: unglazed and glazed with tedlar and unglazed and glazed without tedlar. The daily efciency of PV/T water collectors was noted to be higher than that for PV/T air collectors for all congurations, except glazed without tedlar. The maximum thermal efciency of the PV/T systems was reported to be about 65% (summer) and 77% (winter). Kalogirou and Tripanagnostopoulos [27] simulated PV/T collectors using TRNSYS for industrial applications. Processes heat requirements in the range of temperature 6080 C were considered and water was used as the heat transfer uid in a system consisting of 300 m2 of hybrid PV/T collectors (considering both poly c-Si and a-Si modules). The poly c-Si modules exhibited greater electrical energy generation per unit collector area than the a-Si modules. The PV/T system electrical output with poly c-Si module decreased about 25% from standard test conditions (STC) output due to the operation of photovoltaic cells in the temperature range 6080 C. The lower initial cost of a-Si cells was found make them a more economically viable option for PV/T collectors than poly c-Si cells. In another TRNSYS simulation of PV/T collectors, Mei et al. [55] evaluated air pre-heating by a ventilated PV facade, to reduce the building cooling and heating loads in summer and winter. It was found that the cooling loads are marginally higher with the PV facade for all locations considered, whereas the impact of the facade on the heating load depends on the location. The results were validated experimentally with data for a 6.5 m high PV facade on the Mataro Library near Barcelona, Spain. Sandnes and Rekstad [56] applied polymer solar collectors with mono crystalline PV cells and compared three collector designs: thermal collector (T), photovoltaicthermal collector (PV/T) and photovoltaicthermal collector with additional glass cover (PV/ Tg). It was observed (Fig. 11) that the thermal outputs of the thermal and PV/T collectors are lower than that for the PV/Tg collector. This observation is likely due to the conversion of part of the solar energy into electricity, the dissipation of thermal energy into cells, the lower absorptivity of solar cells and the presence of additional glazing in the PV/Tg collector. Vokas et al. [57] compared theoretically PV/T collector system for domestic heating and cooling with a at plate solar collector. The thermal efciency of PV/T collector observed to be about 9% less than that of the at plate solar collector. The average domestic heating and cooling loads satised by the PV/T system were found to be 48% and 25%, respectively, for a total surface area of 30 m2 in Athens. Solar coverage decreased by 6.6% using PV/T collector compared to at plate solar collector, but this decrease is not very signicant as the same system generated 1220% high-grade electrical energy (depending on PV cell type). Coventry and Lovegrove [58] determined electrical and thermal output ratios for a PV/T system in order to develop a rational approach to optimize designs. The ratios are evaluated with a

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thermodynamic approach using the exergy concept, a market approach for both open markets and renewable energy markets based on incentives and policy measures, and an environmental approach based on greenhouse gas emissions. The authors conclude that the renewable energy market method is more logical in the design and promotion of PV/T collectors relative to the other approaches (thermodynamic and environmental). By considering both levelized energy cost and energy value ratio, the authors demonstrated for a specic case that a-Si cells are more cost effective than c-Si cells. Chow [59] has developed a dynamic or transient model for PV/T collectors with a single glass cover and water as the working uid. As the input energy source (solar irradiance) is transient in nature, the performance of PV/T collectors is correspondingly dynamic. A comparison of the performance predicted by the dynamic approach with that for the steady state and experimental results, the dynamic approach was found to improve accuracy. Kumar and Rosen [45] found that adding ns to the lower air channel increases heat transfer area to air and improves thermal and electrical outputs (Fig. 12). The extended n area also reduces the cell temperature and consequently improves the electrical efciency. An almost linear relation between thermal efciency was observed with solar irradiance and inlet air temperature. The electrical efciency is signicantly affected by the cell temperature, which depends on solar irradiance, inlet air temperature, air ow rate and packing factor. The depth of the air heater is signicant in both channels, but the depth of the lower channel plays a more prominent role in heat transfer to air. 5.3. Integration of PV/T air collectors with existing systems The overall energy efciency of PV/T collectors is often evaluated by adding the electrical and thermal efciencies. An efciency based on energy saving was introduced by Huang et al. [34], which reects the fact that the economic value of electrical and thermal energy generally differs, since electricity is high-grade energy and heat at near-environmental temperatures is low-grade energy. To convert the electrical efciency of photovoltaic cells to an equivalent thermal efciency for a thermal power plant, the concept of equivalent thermal electrical efciency is introduced. Huang et al. developed this concept of energy saving for calculating the equivalent thermal efciency of PV/T collectors gt, as follows:

Solar irradiance = 800 W/m2; Flow rate = 0.06 kg/s; Inlet air temperature = 25 C
70 60 90 80

50 40
Thermal Eff. Electrical Eff. Cell Temp. Total Eff.

60 50 40
Temp. Rise

30 20

30 20

10 0 With-fins Without-fins

10 0

Fig. 12. Variation of several efciencies with rise in air and cell temperatures for a PV/T air heater, with and without ns. (Adapted from R. Kumar, M.A. Rosen, 2010 [45].)

gt

gel
cf

gth

where gel is the electrical efciency of photovoltaic cells, gth is the thermal efciency of a PV/T collector and cf is the efciency of elec-

Fig. 11. Thermal efciency curves for three collector congurations: thermal collector (T), photovoltaic/thermal absorber (PV/T) and photovoltaic/thermal absorber with an additional cover glass (PV/Tg). (Reprinted from Solar Energy, 72, B. Sandnes, J. Rekstad, A photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) collector with a polymer absorber plate. Experimental study and analytical model, 11, 2002, with permission from Elsevier.)

tric generation by a conventional thermal power plant. Values of cf between 0.350.40 are suggested for most PV/T studies. The value of gt was reported to exceed 60%, which is greater than the efciency of separate conventional solar collectors or photovoltaic systems. An early study of PV/T hybrid collectors was carried out at the University of Delaware by Boer and Tamm [60], who examined roof-integrated solar collectors in a solar house and compared two designs based on air and water heat transfer uids. He found air collectors require more expensive ducting and ns and more pumping power, while water collectors have higher heat transfer rates and lower pumping power needs, but operate at lower temperatures. Mei et al. [61] designed and experimentally tested a PV/T air heater to satisfy partly the cooling load of Mataro Library, near Barcelona. The system is designed to utilize the surplus heat generated from the PV ventilated face and PV sheet elements during summer to reduce the building cooling needs. The system consists of a desiccant cooling machine (DCM) with additional solar collectors to achieve a desired air temperature. It was found that an air temperature of the PV solar air heating system of 70 C or more can be efciently used to regenerate the process in the DCM and to achieve a solar fraction of up to 75%. Becali et al. [62] investigated the performance of a desiccant cooling system with a single glazed standard collector and an attached hybrid PV/T air collector under hot and humid conditions. The performances of three congurations of solar-assisted air handling units (AHUs) were studied and the performance results compared with a standard AHU unit. The air cooling technology (SAC) system equipped with PVT/air collectors exhibited superior performance in terms of collector area, energy cost savings and payback period. Fang et al. [63] have investigated experimentally the integration of PV/T air collector with heat pump air conditioning systems, by examining performance parameters (e.g., temperature, efciency) of the heat pump air conditioning system, the water heater and the photovoltaic modules. The electrical efciency of the photovoltaic module in the PV/T air collector was observed to increase about 24% over that for conventional photovoltaic modules. A coefcient of performance (COP) of 2.88 was attained for the air conditioning unit, as was a water temperature rise of about 42 C. Similar to Tonui and Tripanagnostopoulos [39,40], Shahsavar and Ameri [64] used a suspended aluminum sheet between the absorber surface and the back plate to increase the heat transfer surface area for owing air. The PV output is used in the system to operate the DC fans. The air mass ow rate is unsteady and changes with climatic parameters, and consequently inuences the electri-

Temperature (C)

70

Efficiency (%)

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Fig. 13. Thermal efciency for various PV/T collector congurations. (Reprinted from Solar Energy, 74, H. A. Zondag, D. W. de Vries, W. G. J. van Helden, R. J. C. van Zolingen, A. A. van Steenhoven, The yield of different combined PV-thermal collector designs, 17, 2003, with permission from Elsevier.)

Fig. 14. Electrical efciency for various PV/T collector congurations. (Reprinted from Solar Energy, 74, H. A. Zondag, D. W. de Vries, W. G. J. van Helden, R. J. C. van Zolingen, A. A. van Steenhoven, The yield of different combined PV-thermal collector designs, 17, 2003, with permission from Elsevier.)

cal and thermal outputs. Testing indicated that the glass cover over the PV module increases its thermal output but decreases its electrical efciency. The results were validated with theoretical modeling under natural and forced circulation modes. Zondag et al. [65] compared nine PV/T collector congurations, dened by number of glass covers, number of absorbers, type of conduits and working uid (water and/or air). The greatest efciency was observed for a channel below a the collector surface for a transparent PV design, but the annual gain with this design is only 2% higher than that for PV with a sheet and tube design, which is easier to manufacturer. Therefore Zondag et al. [65] suggest PV in a sheet and tube design as a good alternative that does not detract signicantly from performance (Figs. 13 and 14). 6. Commercial development of PV/T collectors Presently, two separate markets are developing for solar thermal and photovoltaic systems. Continuing growth is evident in solar water and air heater applications in most parts of world, while a more sudden expansion has been observed in the past decade in the PV sector. However, relatively little effort has been expended

to commercialize PV/T systems, even though studies have demonstrated their advantages over individual photovoltaic and thermal collectors. Some companies have tried to develop commercially viable PV/T collectors but with limited success. Two companies, Grammer in Germany and SolarWall in Canada, are presently seeking to expand product lines and applications for PV/T air systems [33,66]. Earlier attempts were made in Germany, by Solarwatt, Zenith and Solarwerk, to commercialize PV/T collectors [28] and a company from Israel, Solar, developed a number of PV/T collector demonstration projects. However, none of these initiatives led to signicant market acceptance for such reasons as lack of public awareness about PV/T systems, long-term eld experience and signicant nancial incentives. It was also reported that the marketing strategies used for solar thermal and PV systems might not work for PV/T systems, as solar thermal and PV are attractive to different market segments. As PV/T systems simultaneously produce heat and electricity, an intersection of the PV and solar thermal markets is likely to be the main initial market for PV/T system applications. The Canadian company SolarWall points out the following benets in marketing PV/T systems [33]:

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 PV/T air collectors have up to 10% higher electrical outputs than PV modules.  The heat generated by PV/T systems is a supplemental benet that reduces building heating loads.  The SolarWall PV/T hybrid system can produce 200300% more thermal energy than electrical energy.  The 200300% gain in thermal energy can be achieved at a cost increase of 20%.  PV/T systems yield reduced greenhouse gas emissions compared to equivalent separate photovoltaic and thermal collectors. The potential for large scale use of PV/T technology is signicant and will increase with further research advances, appropriate policy making and education of end users regarding benets. 7. Conclusions PV/T collectors convert solar energy into electricity and heat simultaneously. The overall efciency of a PV/T collector is higher than the sum of the efciencies of separate solar thermal and PV collectors. Advantages of PV/T collectors include greater energy product per unit collector area, enhanced cost-effectiveness, simultaneous production of high- and low-grade energy products and enhanced exploitation of roof area, which is usually limited. Over the last three decades various designs have been proposed for PV/T air heaters and some have achieved a degree of market success. Most research and development is related to simulation of new designs rather than enhancing commercial viability. The main reasons for limited acceptance of PV/T collectors are a lack of information on systems and inadequate long-term performance data. Further efforts are needed to make PV/T collectors a viable alternative to photovoltaic and solar thermal collectors. Presently, some companies are attempting to expand product lines for and use of PV/T collectors. The PV/T air collector is a promising technology and its viability will improve further as efciency increases, cost reduces and technical design issues associated with this integrated technology are resolved. Acknowledgment The authors gratefully acknowledge the nancial support provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. References
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