UEEA1313 Basic Electronics Topic 1 (a)

Introduction, PN Junction and Diode

Contents Semiconductors Properties of pn junction The pn junction diode Diode DC models and analysis Other types of diodes

Semiconductors
Atoms
Nucleus (protons and neutrons) Electrons distributed in various shells with different energy levels

Valence electrons
electrons in the outermost shell Determines grouping of elements in periodic table e.g. silicon with 4 valence electrons is in group IV

Semiconductors
Elemental - Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge) Compound- Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

Valence shell (4 valence electrons) shells Valence electron

Valence shell (4 valence electrons)

+ +
Nucleus orbiting electrons orbiting electrons

Valence electron

Germanium

Silicon

Valence shell (3 valence electrons) shells Valence electron shells

Valence shell (5 valence electrons) Valence electron

Nucleus

orbiting electrons

Nucleus

orbiting electrons

Gallium

Arsenic

Crystal structure of silicon valence electrons are shared between atoms, forming covalent bonds

At T = 0 K, all electrons are in their lowest energy state

No bonds are broken Si acts as an insulator

As temperature increases, a bond can break, releasing a valence electron and leaving a broken bond (hole). Current can flow.

Energy Band Diagram

Ev Maximum energy of a valence electron or hole Ec Minimum energy of a free electron Eg Energy required to break the covalent bond (Bandgap energy)

A valence electron in a nearby bond can move to fill the broken bond, making it appear as if the hole shifted locations. In semiconductors, carriers are electrons and holes

Intrinsic semiconductors
Is a single-crystal semiconductor material with no other types of atoms Densities of electrons and holes are equal ni = intrinsic carrier concentration

ni = BT

3 / 2 E g / 2 kT

B coefficient related to specific semiconductor T temperature in Kelvin Eg semiconductor bandgap energy k Boltzmanns constant

for Si at 300K : ni = 1.5 10 cm

10

Increasing carrier concentration

Add controlled amounts of impurities (doping)
Group V atoms: phosphorus, arsenic

The fifth valence electron of P is easily freed to become a conduction band electron, adding to the number of free electrons

Group III atoms: boron

The missing covalent bond is a hole, which can begin to move through the crystal when a valence electron from another Si atom is taken to form the fourth B-Si bond.

Extrinsic semiconductor
Semiconductor materials doped with impurity atoms to increase conductivity by increasing number of free electrons or holes n-type semiconductor
doped with donor impurities Contain excess electrons i.e. electrons are the majority carriers (holes are the minority carriers)

p-type semiconductor
Doped with acceptor impurities Contain excess holes i.e. holes are the majority carriers (electrons are the minority carriers)

Electron and Hole Concentrations

n = electron concentration p = hole concentration

n = n p

2 i

n-type: n = ND, the donor concentration p-type: p = NA, the acceptor concentration

p = ni2 / N D

n = ni2 / N A

The equilibrium pn junction

Initially, holes diffuse from p-region into n-region and electrons diffuse from nregion into p-region These create a diffusion current

This movement of majority carriers creates a depletion region and sets up an electric field near the junction due to net charge at each side at the space charge region. A built-in potential barrier, vb is developed across the junction, which eventually stops the diffusion of carriers (=> equilibrium). Na Nd kT Vb = ln( 2 ) e ni

The electric field causes minority carriers to drift across the junction (electrons move from p- to n-region and holes move from n- to p- region). This creates a drift current. At equilibrium, the drift and diffused carriers are balanced in terms of magnitude and in opposite directions Current density J due to the various carriers:

J p ( drift ) + J p ( diff ) = 0 J n ( drift ) + J n ( diff ) = 0

Forward-biased pn junction
Applied voltage, vD, induces an electric field, EA, in the opposite direction as the original electric field, resulting in a smaller net electric field and smaller barrier between n and p regions. A small amount of current flows.

Reverse-biased pn junction
Applied voltage VR causes the magnitude of the electric field in the depletion region to increase. The depletion region width W also increases.

pn junction diode
Conventional current direction and polarity of voltage drop is shown

anode

cathode

Ideal diode equation

I D = I s (e
qv D nkT

1)

Is = reverse saturation current (~10-15-10-13 A for Si) kT/q is also known as the thermal voltage, VT. VT = 25.9 mV when T = 300K n = emission coefficient (between 1-2), assume n = 1
vD VT

I D = I s (e

1)

Current-Voltage (I-V) Characteristics

The p-n junction only conducts significant current when forward-biased Essentially no current flows when reverse-biased (very small current due to minority carriers). Increase in temperature will cause the barrier potential to decrease.

Barrier potential

Reverse breakdown
When the reverse bias voltage is large enough to breakdown the covalent bonds, a large reverse bias current flows If the current is not limited (by external circuit), large power is dissipated in the junction that may damage the device Avalanche breakdown occurs when carriers crossing the junction gain enough kinetic energy to break covalent bonds, generating more electron-hole pairs.

Breakdown voltage
The breakdown voltage depends on the doping concentrations. Peak inverse voltage (PIV) is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to the diode without causing breakdown. Current through a diode increases rapidly once breakdown has occurred.

DC analysis and models

Diode has non-linear i-v characteristics Large-signal model vs small-signal model
Behaviour of device with relatively large changes of voltage/current vs. small changes

Understand the model helps us to analyse circuit Three models:

Ideal diode model Piecewise model Real model

Ideal diode model

Approximation which assumes Vb = 0. No current flows when reverse biased (=open circuit). No internal resistance to limit current when forward biased (=short circuit).
OFF ON

Input waveform:

Transfer characteristic:

Output waveform:

Piecewise linear model

This is a better approximation for smaller signals (when Vb becomes significant) rf = forward diode resistance
Usually assume it is zero (constant voltage drop model)

V = turn-on voltage (forward voltage)

Usually take the barrier potential Vb i.e. 0.7 V for Si
turn-on voltage

ON

OFF

Off condition (VD < V ): open circuit On condition: replace diode with a battery (V) and a series resistor rf If rf = 0, VD = V when the diode is conducting Current is determined by external resistance (rf is usually too small)

Example: Assume piecewise linear model parameters V = 0.6 V and rf = 10 . Determine diode voltage and current.

Example: Assume piecewise linear model parameters V = 0.7 V and rf = 0 . Determine diode voltage and current.

Real model
Most accurate, based on I D = I s (e Example:
VD VT

1)

VS = I D R + VD = VD + I S R[e
VD VT

1]

VS

This equation cannot be solved directly and requires using iterative or graphical techniques.

The intersection of diode I-V characteristic with the load line is called the quiescent point or Q-point.

Other type of diodes: Zener diode

Designed to provide a specific breakdown voltage and operate in breakdown region Zener breakdown occurs at lower magnitude voltage than avalanche breakdown due to high doping concentrations At breakdown (exceed knee voltage VZK), reverse current increases rapidly for small increase of reverse voltage

Able to maintain nearly constant voltage over a wide range of reverse currents. Hence, can be used to provide voltage reference. Symbol and equivalent circuit for zener diode:

Solar cells
The photons energy break the covalent bonds and generate electrons and holes. Thus a photocurrent flows and voltage is produced across the load.

Photodiode & LED

Photodiode converts optical signals into electrical signals
Pn junction operated with reverse bias voltage. Photons generate electrons and holes, thus a photocurrent is produced

LED (light-emitting diode) converts current to light Usually fabricated from GaAs or other compound semiconductors Output light intensity is proportional to current

Schottky barrier diode

A metal (e.g. aluminium) is joined to a moderately doped n-type semiconductor Compared to pn junction diode, it has lower turn-on voltage (by about half) and faster switching time