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RuthB.

Bottigheimer

FAIRYTALEILLUSTRATIONSANDREALWORLDGENDER: Function,Conceptualization,andPublication1

Fairytalesthathavebeenillustratedwithasingleimageapiecearethemselvesgen erally a commercial enterprise, whose content and design must be conceived in a broadlyacceptablemodeinordertosell.Second,thesellingprocessassumesaprofit motive.Third,itcanbeshownthatthesingleillustrationmoderesultsinprojecting anindividualillustratorsvisionofatale.Fourth,whenlargenumbersofillustrations in singleillustration mode exist in commercially produced books, the aggregate rangeoftheircontentcomprisestherangeofculturallyacceptableimagesforagiven story. (A methodology for analyzing fairy tales with multiple images will be intro ducedseparatelyattheendofthisarticle.)

RELIEF 4 (2), 2010 ISSN: 1873-5045. P142-157 http://www.revue-relief.org URN:NBN:NL:UI:10-1-101246 Igitur, Utrecht Publishing & Archiving Services The author keeps the copyright of this article

ParametersofDiscussion Infairytalestheproportionofillustrationtotextvarieswidely.Abook that consists of a single tale is routinely profusely illustrated. In a tale collection, a single tale may have several small and large illustrations, headpieces,tailpieces,and/ormarginaldecorations.When,however,a talehasbutasingleillustration,thatillustrationsinterpretivethrustis overwhelming.Thatpublishingandillustrationmodeloneillustration perfairytaleistheprincipalsubjectofthefollowingarticle. Ingeneral,illustrationsperformdifferentfunctionsdependingon thegenretheyillustrate.Andso,forinstance,medicaltexts,arthistory textbooks, and instructional manuals have distinct requirements, ones thatdifferfromthosethatfairytaleshave.2 Inthisarticle,Iexamineillustrationswithreferencetotheircon tentratherthantotheiraestheticqualities,technicalachievementsinthe various modes of illustration creation (Alderson, 3739; Pool; Larkin; Paige),ortotheirfantasyimagery(FunazakiandNishiyama;Weinstein,

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6899).Themethodologyofcontentanalysiswillbebothnominal(what is depicted) and dynamic (effective action within illustrations). The il lustrationsconsideredhereareoverwhelminglyrepresentationalrather thanabstract,andtherelationshipsamongobjectsandpeopledepicted inthemcommunicateculturalvaluesaswellasobjectivecontent. Every observer of fairy tale illustrations recognizes that certain iconographic traditions have come to be associated with wellknown fairy tales. Rapunzel (Grimm No. 12, Raiponce3) is in her tower, SleepingBeauty(GrimmNo.50,Rosedpine)onherbed.Preexist ingiconographictraditionsliketowersandrosesplayalargepartinthe imagecontentofsuchfairytalesillustrations,sothatRapunzelwithout hertowerorthesleepingprincesswithoutherbed,thornyrosebushes, andkneelingprincearenearlyunthinkable. Itisalsoselfevidentthatallillustrationsexistwithinculturalcon texts.Andsoitfollowsthatviewersofillustrationsperceiveimagesnot onlywiththeireyes,butalsowithmindsandmemoriesconditionedby theculturalcontextswithinwhichtheyhavelived.ThusR.L.Gregory hypothesizes that illustration viewers perceive images within a pre existingconceptualframework,andthattheyexplorerelationshipsbe tween perceptual and conceptual images (Gregory 310332), while the artcriticIrwinPanofskyconcludedthatwhenpeopleviewimages,they areawareofsociallyencodedmeaningsthatinhereinactionsdepicted onpaperorcanvas(Panofsky331). Analyzing fairy tale illustrations iconographically requires the samerigorasthatdrivingsimilaranalysesofRenaissancepaintings.It also requires a conscious acknowledgement that the illustrations in questionexistwithinculturalnorms,andthatthesenormsarenotcon stant,butthattheydifferfromoneplacetoanotherandfromoneageto anotherinthoseplaces.Theveryfactofdifferingculturalexpectations and assumptions means that collective differences from one cultural community to another distinguish what it is permissible to depict in given fairy tale illustrations of any particular community. Moreover, thisisparticularlyrevealinginthecaseofthosefairytalesthatareillus tratedwithasingleimage. Illustrationfunctionsinfairytales Inmyexperience,illustrationsinfairytalesperformfivekeyfunctions forthetextstheyaccompany:1)decoration,2)visualization,3)interpre tation,4)reformulation,and5)replacement.Iwilldiscusseachofthese
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functionswithexamplesdrawnfromtheillustrationhistoryoftalesfa miliarfromthecollectionassembledbyJacobandWilhelmGrimm,the ChildrensandHouseholdTales(Contespourlesenfantsetlamaison).3 BookdesignersliketheEnglishillustratorWalterCranedeployed decorative images carefully as an important component in his overall visualization of book design. Convinced that pictures could connect with each other and contribute to building the storytelling, Crane enlistedawiderangeofdecorativeillustrationtypes:endpapers,tail pieces,headers,andborders,aswellasthemoretypicaltitlepagesand fullpageand spot illustrations (Hutton, 32). Cranes voluminously il lustrated study of the decorative illustration of books, published in 1896, begins with decorative elements in medieval illuminated manu scripts,continueswithaconsiderationofincunabula,andcontinuesto theendofthenineteenthcentury(whenhehimselfprofuselyillustrated theGrimmstales). Nineteenthcentury childrens books provide innumerable exam plesof illustrations that have little or nothing to do with the text they precedeorfollow.Thesepurelydecorativeillustrationsarerarelyplaced withinthetext,butlikeparentheses,usuallyencloseit.Onenineteenth centuryGermaneditionoftheGrimmstaleshasapictureofabeehive attheconclusionofCinderella(GrimmNo.21,Cendrillon),despite thefactthatabeehiveformsnopartoftheprecedingnarrative.Inwhat was probably the same edition4, an equally irrelevant image of a jolly pairoutforawalkendsTheThreeLittleMenintheWoods(Grimm No.13,Lestroispetitshommesdanslafort).Thesetwoillustrations dramaticallyexpresstheeconomicsofpublishinginthenineteenthcen tury,whenaplatessimpleandcheapavailabilityoftendictatedpicto rialchoiceanduse. Visualizationrepresentsasecondfunctionthatpicturesplaywhen inserted into fairy tale texts. Nikolaus Plumps illustration of The Goosegirl (fig. 1) (Grimm No. 89, La gardeuse doies, Grimm 1962, 272273)embodiesinformationdrawnfromthetext:inresponsetothe goosegirlsincantation,thewindblowsConradshatawayandhemust chaseitwhileshefinishesbraidingherhair. George Cruikshanks earlier 1826 illustration of The Goosegirl insertsatreebendinginthewindthatthegoosegirlhascausedtoblow (fig. 2) (Grimm [1826] 1904, 2:5). His image visualizes an event in the storyintermsoflogic:sincewindcannotbeillustratedinandofitself, CruikshankaddedatreebendinginthewindthatGrimmexplicitlyin

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cludedinthetaleswording.DespitethelogicalnatureofCruikshanks additionofatree,hisdrawingmovesbeyondasimplevisualizationof thetexttowardaninterpretation,becauseitemphasizestheresultofthe single power the goosegirl continues to retain over nature. The Cruik shank example demonstrates that illustrators frequently incorporate moreintheirdrawingsthanisdelineatedinthetext.However,when everanillustrationdiffersfromthetextitaccompanies,eachadded(or deleted) element constructs an interpretive bias. Even the manner in whichthe given elements of a narrative are rearranged on the printed pagecontributestoanoverallshiftinnarrativeemphasis.

Fig.1.JacobandWilhelmGrimm,KinderMrchen,Vienna,VerlagfrJugendund Volk,1966.IllustrationbyNikolausPlump.

Interpretationcanfunctioneitherimplicitlyorexplicitly,dependingon thechoiceandnumberofillustrationmoments.Whenasingleillustra tion accompanies a fairy tale, theillustration moment chosen by an il lustratorsignifiestheimportanceofthechosenmoment,withtheresult thatthechoiceofillustrationmomentinsistentlydefinesatalesnature and content. (See also Nodelman, 266.) Consider the differ entinterpretive emphases that result from single depictions of Snow White(GrimmNo.53,BlancheNeige) 1. asacomelyhousewifecarryingthedwarfssuppertothem (Grimm1883,177); 2. asamotionlesscorpseinaglasscoffin(Grimm1826); 3. or as a plump and delectable beauty gazing uponitself (Bechstein 1858;rpt.1983, 297), whose identity as a vain beauty merges problematically with that of her vain and murderousstepmother.

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Fig.2.JacobandWilhelmGrimm,GermanPopularStories,London,JamesRob ins,1826.ReissuedbyHenryFrowde,1904.IllustrationbyGeorgeCruikshank.

As far as SnowWhites stepmother is concerned, she is made into a primevally and archtypically evil Biblical serpent when her train is drawninreptilianlines(Grimm1947).Thisinterpretationofhercharac ter justifies the horrifying retribution of dancing to death in redhot shoeswhichismetedouttoherforherrepeatedattemptstomurderher stepdaughter(Grimmc1920). Alterations inpictorial details also lead to interpretive shifts, somethingthatisstronglyevidentinthechangesWilhelmGrimmmade to his brother Ludwig Emil Grimms first drafts of illustrations for the 1825SmallEditionofthetales.LudwigEmilhaddrawnagrandmother who had climbed into her bed amid domestic disorder for the tale of Red Riding Hood (Grimm No. 26, Le Petit Chaperon Rouge). Wilhelmrespondedbyinstructinghisbrothertotidyuptheroomand to put a Bible on the bedside table (Koszinowski and Leuschner, 224), whichishowtheimageappearedinthe1825SmallEdition.5Thepicto rial elements that designate the grandmother as a victim who is both

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neatand religiously observant interpret her character and powerfully signalthatsheisentitledtoreaderssympathy. MaxSlevogtmadeanadditionofadifferentnatureinhisillustra tion of a buxom and sexually enticing goosegirl (fig. 3) (Grimm 1976,196),whocapturesourattentionvisually.Butinemphasizingher breasts Slevogt imputes a sexuality to the goosegirl for which the text offers no verbal foundation. Additions to illustrations such as Cruik shanks windblown tree, Ludwig Emil Grimms bedside Bible, and Slevogts sexualized goosegirl go far beyond textual content, and as such,additionsliketheseborderonreformulation.6

Fig.3.JacobandWilhelmGrimm,AlteMrchenmitderFedererzhlt,1920s. ReissuedasDasblaueLichtundandereMrchen,Tbingen,RainerWunderlich,1976. IllustrationbyMaxSlevogt.

Truereformulationofafairytaletextbyanillustrationinvolvespresent ingmateriallydifferentcontentormoodfromthatwhichthetextitself projects. For instance, The Wishing Table, the Gold Ass, and the CudgelintheSack(GrimmNo.36,Petitetablesoismise,lnefaiseur doretgourdinsorsdusac)isclearlyarollickingtalewithrootsdeep inRenaissancebodilyhumor.Inthistaleadonkeysturdsarenotmalo dorous refuse, but nuggets of gold. Although an undated nineteenth centuryReutlingentextkeepstheGrimmsprimwordingthatthedon keyproducedgoldatbothends,itsillustrationreformulatedthattext prudishly, pointedly showing gold coming only from its mouth, not

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from its behind (Grimm n.d.). In another tale, Marys Child (Grimm No. 3, Lenfant de Marie), Wilhelm rejected Ludwig Emil Grimms manuscriptillustrationofajoyfulchildtakenintoheavenbytheVirgin Marytoplaywithangels,toeatsugaredbread,andtodrinksweetmilk and had Ludwig Emil replace it with an image of an abandoned and miserable little girl languishing joylessly in the woods (Grimm 1825, 11). This pictorial change shifted the storys weighting from childish pleasuresinaheavenlypleasurepalacetosternpunishmentinathreat eningearthlywilderness. In all of the examples discussed above, illustrations amplify the texttheyaccompany.Perceptualshiftsmaytakeplaceasafairytaletext isfilteredthroughitsillustration,butitisclearthattheforegoingillus trations all servetext. The balance between text and illustration shifts completely, however, with replacement. When illustrations replace text, illustrationstakeprecedenceoverthewrittentext.Atextsfunctionin verts,asvisualtextbecomesprimary.Nowthewrittenwordservesto amplify visual text. Illustrations in the majority of picture books for the very young function in this manner. There, pictures predominate over words, and words cease being a primary producer of plot and meaning, becoming instead an adjunct to a books images, identifying andexplainingthem. IllustrationConceptualization Anysinglefairytaleprovidesabroadrangeofimagepossibilities.He roesandheroinesmaybeshown in amoment of misery, in their final moment of triumph, or at any moment in between. Thus, whether to createmultipleimagesthatmirrorthenarrativeasawholeortocrafta single image that visually concentrates the narrative into a single mo mentiscrucial.Sincethenumberofillustrationshascommercialconse quences, that decision generally springs from the publisher. On the otherhand,thechoiceofillustrationmoment(s)usuallybelongstothe artist. Let us consider the kinds of information that may be gleaned from fairy tales illustrated with a single image, and let us set up a thought experiment in order to do so. It is first necessary to define meaningfullimits,andsoletuslimittheimagesweconsidertoasingle tale. In this article, Ill concentrate on illustrations for the Grimm tale, TheGooseGirl.

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Asingleimagechosenatrandomfromtheentirebodyofsingleimage illustrations of The Goose Girl has no cultural story to tell. On the other hand, a group of images assembled from illustrations of The GooseGirlproducedindifferenterasandindifferentculturalcontexts shows ranges of what it is culturally permissible to visualize. This, in turn,manifestsasetorsetsofculturalnormsinvisualformthatmaygo beyond what is articulated within the fairytale text itself. The plot of TheGoosegirlfollows: Thedaughterofanoldqueenwasbetrothedtoaprinceinadis tantland.Hermotherpreparedarichdowry,gaveherahandkerchief with three drops of her own blood on it together with a magic horse Faladaandprovidedamaidtoaccompanyherdaughteronthejourney. The maid soon refused to serve her mistress, and when the princess knelttodrinkfromastreamandlosthermotherstalismanichandker chief,themaidrealizedthattheprincesshadtherebylosthermothers magicprotection.Thensheforcedtheprincesstochangeplacesandto promisethatshedtellnooneaboutthebetrayal. When thetwogirlsarrived, theprincemarriedthe maidservant. She, in turn, had Falada beheaded and made the true princess into a goosegirl. The goosegirl, however, contrived to have Faladas head nailedupinanarchway,whereshegreetediteverydayasshepassed byittoherdgeese. OutonthemeadowthegooseboyConradplaguedthegoosegirl bytryingtosnatchgoldenhairsfromherhead,butshewasstillableto conjurethewindtoblowhishatoff,makinghimrunafteritandleave heralone.Conradcomplainedtotheprincesfather,theoldking,who went to see for himself. Realizing something was amiss, he asked the goosegirltotellhimherstory.Havingsworntosaynothingtoanyliv ingperson,shewaspersuadedtotellherstorytoanovenwhilehelis tenedfromtheotherside. Afterwards,theoldkingtoldtheprincehedmarriedthewrong bride and then arranged a great banquet. There the old king told the goosegirlsstoryandaskedthefalsebridehowtoexecuteapersonwho had betrayed her lord, to which the false bride replied, She deserves nothing better than to be stripped naked, put into a barrel thats stud ded inside with sharp nails, and two white horses should drag her to deaththroughallthestreets.

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You have spoken your own sentence, responded the old king. The sentencewascarriedout;theyoungprincemarriedthetruebride;and theyruledtheirkingdominpeaceandhappiness. TheGoosegirlisahorrifyingstorythatoffersmanydramaticil lustration moments. Two scenes founded its iconographic tradition. In thefirst,thegoosegirlwasshownnear,orwithin,thearchway,speak ingtotheheadofhermagicalhorseFalada,ascenethatexemplifiedthe princessslossofhermothersmagicalprotectionandherownworldly status. In the second image, the goosegirl conjured the wind to blow awayConradshat,whichdemonstratedthatsheretainedherindwell ingmagicalpowersoverthenaturalworld. When the image used for The Goosegirl in singleimageper storycollectionswascomparedwiththeimageschosenbythesameil lustratorforothersingleimageperstorytalesinthesamebook,aclear correlationemerged.Whichimageanygivenartistchosetorealizeap pear[ed] to correlate well with his or her view of the fairy tale world andwomensrolewithinit,forinstance,asactiveprotagonistoraspas sivesubjectofotherforces(Bottigheimer1985,6970). An immediate set of questions arises in conjunction with a con clusion like that in the previous paragraph. How may we understand the role of a publishing house and its illustrators within society as a wholeandwithreferencetochildreadersinparticular?Arepublishing housesmerelysluicesthroughwhichgenderprejudicespassneutrally? Do they create, or do they simply perpetuate, gender prejudices? Do suchcommerciallypurveyedillustrationsplayasignificantroleinchil drenssocialization?Howfarintosocietyatlargedosuchviewspene trate? Goodluckprovidedusefulmaterialfortryingtoanswersome,if not all, of those questions, when I stumbled onto an archive of 12,000 drawings by children aged 416 in 1974 which came from all parts of West Germany. They had been drawn in response to readings of fairy tales on television by the genial fairy tale scholar Lutz Rhrich, then professor of folklore at the University of Freiburg. Each drawing bore its young makers name and age, and for The Goosegirl alone there weresomeonehundredsigneddrawings. Two different illustration patterns emerged. The youngest girls often drew the goosegirl on the meadow successfully conjuring the windtoblowConradshataway.Witheachadditionalyearoftheirage, however, the girl illustrators increasingly chose to depict moments of

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the goosegirls loss of power. They showed her in the archway with Faladas head, or drew her as she lost her mothers powerimmanent handkerchief,oronthemeadowandunabletoproducewind,asshown bythefactthatConradshatremainedfirmlyonhishead.Itwaseasyto see that as girls moved from childhood to adulthood, they lost their abilitytoimagineandtoportraythegoosegirlabletowieldpowerover nature.Boysshowednosuchchangeovertime.Instead,littleboysand bigboysapproachingmanhoodalldrewthesamekindsofpicturesfor The Goosegirl. In their pictures, the goosegirl was losing or had al readylosthernaturalandworldlypowers.Inonedrawingthatisem blematic for the boys imagination as expressed in these drawings, the goosegirlandConradstandtogetheronthemeadow;thesunshineson Conrad;rainfallsonthegoosegirl. Thanks to a colleague in the former East Germany, Kristin Wardetzky,itwaspossibletotestthe1970sWestGermandrawingsand my gender analysis of the West German drawings against a 1990 East German cohort of 811 year olds. In the intervening years, publishing housesinbothWestandEast,Germanyhadproducedalargenumber of multipleimage singlestory editions of fairy tales. In all likelihood, all of the East German children had been exposed to singlestory edi tions of The Goosegirl whose illustrations depicted several differing moments in the story. And yet, the pictures produced by girls and by boys in East German classrooms in response to readings of The Goosegirl showed the same sociocultural gender dynamic that had poweredtheconceptualizationsofWestGermangirlsandboysin1974. Theresultswerethesame.The811yearoldEastGermangirlslargely produced images of ineffectual, powerlosing goosegirl figures, while the East German boys overwhelmingly illustrated the goosegirl in her lossorlosingofpower(Bottigheimer1990). Multiimagefairytales The world of commerce provides many opportunities for comparing andcontrastinggenderbiases.HereIexaminetwomultiimageeditions of The Goosegirl, one Japanese and one American. This part of the study has perhaps a limited validity, since a single example chosen fromeachcultureishardlydefinitive,.However,theresultsarestrongly suggestiveinthecontextoftwentiethcenturygenderassumptionsand practices in Japan. An analysis of two picture book editions of The Goosegirl almost exactly contemporary with one another, one Japa
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nese(1983),theotherAmerican(1984),bothtoldindetail,andbothil lustratedbywomenproducedthefollowingresults.
Departure Journey Arrivalatcourt Archway Meadow Oven OldKing Restoration Execution TOTAL JAPANESE
ILLUSTRATIONS

AMERICAN
ILLUSTRATIONS

4=10,0% 8=20,0%40% 4=10,0% 5=12,5%12,5% 5=12,5%12,5% 3=7,5% 5=12,5%20% 3=7,5%7,5% 3=7,5%7,5% 40=100%

4=16,7% 4=16,7%41,6% 2=8,3% 1=4,2%4,2% 3=12,5%12,5% 3=12,5% 4=16,6%29,5% 2=8,3%8,3% 1=4,2%4,2% 24=100%

Becauseeachofthesebookshasmultipleillustrationsandbecausemul tiple images would seem to obviate the powerful interpretive effect of the single emphasis produced by a single illustration for the entire story, the presence of the many chosen illustration moments might seemtoleadtoarangeofnarrativehighlightings.Indeed,manyaspects ofthegoosegirlsstoryarehighlighted,butthedifferingweightingsof illustrationmomentsrevealsignificantculturaldifferencesandcultural pressures. Let us examine the choices made by the two female illustrators. Bothshowanearlyidenticalproportionofimagesthatdepictthehero inesexposuretodangerandhumiliationinthestorysopeningevents (40% and 41.6% respectively). The two illustrators differ greatly, how ever,intheamountofvisualspacetheygivetothearchwaysceneofthe goosegirlshumiliationandlossofpower.TheJapaneseillustratorhas5 illustrations or 12.5% of the total devoted to the archway scene, while theAmericanillustratorhasonly1illustration,or4.16%ofthetotalde voted to the archway and the loss of worldly power that it signifies. Both womens books show exactly the same proportion of meadow scenes and restoration scenes (12.5%, and 7.5/8% respectively), a re markableconsistencyofvision.Ontheotherhand,thetwowomendif fer considerably in the ways they imagine, and put into images, the eventsthatfollow.Theprofounddifferenceindepictionsofthemoment ofthegoosegirlsabjectmiseryasshepassesthroughthearchwayis,as noted above, nearly three times as prominent in the Japanese illustra

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torspicturebook(12.5%vs.4.2%);.Moreover,thegoosegirlsaccessto helpisconsiderablylessintheJapaneseillustratorspicturesbook(oven +oldking20%vs.29.5%intheAmericanillustratorspicturebook).Itis temptingtointerprettheJapanesewomanillustratorsgreateremphasis onthemaidspunishmentasaviolencethatexpressesfrustrationatthe heroines general helplessness, while the American woman illustrator, who has put much more narrative assistance for the suffering heroine into her illustrations, places correspondingly less emphasis on the maidsexecutionevenless,infact,thanthepercentagesuggests,be causehersingleillustrationoftheexecutionisminuteinsize.Giventhe lower number of images of assistance and empowerment in the Japa nesepicturebook,itisnotsurprisingthattheexecutionarymomentof revenge is given significantly greater prominence there (7.5%) than in theAmericanone(4.2%). There is undoubtedly much more that could be written about gender, culture, and the conceptualization of fairy tale images. It will requireresearchamongillustrationsproducedsince2000inavarietyof settings, and among adults and children of different ages. But let us turn now to the processes by which fairy tale images move from con ceptualizationtopublication. Illustrationrealizationandpublication Theimagethatanartistcreatestoillustrateastoryprecedesitsrealiza tionontheprintedpage.Inmethodologicalterms,contentanalysisofa publishedillustrationbeginsbyidentifyingthescenechosenbyanillus trator,inthecaseofTheGoosegirl,themeadowsceneorthearchway scene. It continues by examining the scenes textual components and comparingthemwiththecontentincorporatedbyanillustratoraswell asthespiritinwhichtheillustratordepictsthosecomponents.Oneque ries an illustrations function in the story, asking whether the illustra tionasawholemarksapositiveoranegativemomentandwhetherthe illustrations favors one character over another in terms of autonomy, success, and achieving a happy ending. Collectively, answers to these questionsprovideinsightintoanillustratorsprocessofconceptualizing animage. Thefactofpublicationintroducesadifferentsetofobjectiveand measurable parameters: illustration size, number, variety, placement withinthetextandonthepage,andcolor(blackandwhite,onecolor, twocolor, or threecolor). Let us suppose that a published edition of
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The Goosegirl has two illustrations, typically the archway scene (whichwenowreflexivelyknowdenotesthegoosegirlsweakness)and the meadow scene (which potentially demonstrates her strength and power over nature). Let us further suppose that the archway scene is realizedasafullpagethreecolorillustration,whilethemeadowscene isasmallblackandwhitedrawing.Inthiscase,theoverallsize,color, anddramaticimpactofalargearchwayimageemphasizesanarrative of suffering womanhood. If, on the other hand, the archway scene ap pears as a small black and white drawing and the meadow scene as a threecolor centerfold spread, then the illustration affirms the storys move towards a triumphant conclusion, with the goosegirl restored to herroyalstation. Otheraspectsofthepublishedrealizationofanartistsillustration oftenplayanequallysignificantrole.Considertheeffectofanillustra tionsplacementwithinthefairytaletextasawhole.Itmaybeplacedat thebeginning,whereitsetsthetoneforthereadingofthetextitself.It may equally well appear in the margins of the text, or perhaps on the pagewithinthetext.Ifanillustrationissetwithinthetext,doesitbleed intotheverbaltext,sothatituniteswordsandpictureinasingleentity (Pool33),orisitseparatedfromthetextbywhitespaceorbyaframe (Roque)? Each of those positionings expresses a different relationship between image and text, a relationship that is subject to interpretive analysis. Afurthersetofquestionsreturnsustoquestionsposedatthebe ginning of this article. What relationship to the text does a published illustrationdemonstrate?Doesitreproducetextualinformation,expand textual information, replace textual information, or contradict textual information?Whateffectdoeseachofthosepossibilities,whenrealized asanillustrationonthepage,produceonreadersunderstandingofthe talethattheillustrationaccompanies? Finally,itisworthwhilelookingattherichfieldofthehistoryof therepublicationof preexistingillustrations.Successiverepublications ofthesameimagegiveinsightintodifferentialweightingsbypublish inghousesofvaryingvisualizationsofagiventext.Thisisparticularly true when the same image is reused in a different cultural context. I havefound that Japanesepublishing houses thatreusedGerman illus trations for The Goosegirl in the twentieth century diminished the sizeofimagesofthegoosegirlsstrengthandincreasedtheprominence of illustrations of her weakness. A strong gender linkage can also be

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foundbetweenthesizeofaJapanesepublishinghouseandthesexofits illustrators.Incommissioningnewillustrations,largepublishinghouses have historically displayed a preference for male illustrators, while small, special niche publishing houses have more often offered em ploymenttowomen.Thus,insheernumbersofbooksandillustrations printed,themaleimagination,disseminatedbylargepublishinghouses that produce large print runs, have tended to dominate the visual sphereofillustratedfairytalesinJapan.6 Illustrationsandreaders Theprocessofreadingincorporatesabookintotheperimeterofread erspersonalspace.Peoplesit,abookontheirlap.Ortheyleanovera bookthatisrestingonatable.Thereisaparallelbetweenphysicaland mentalspace,andthereisgoodreasontoassumethatindividualread ers incorporate illustrations they encounter in their childhood into the personalfundofimagesthattheycarrythroughouttheirlives.Anecdo tal evidence supports the concept of the persistence of memory where illustrations in an individuals favorite childrens book are concerned. Does the same persistence of memory apply to illustrated childrens booksasawholeintheearlyreadingexperienceofanygivenindivid ual? Incorporating books and their illustrations into personal space corresponds in some ways to incorporating theirmessage into ones memory.Indeed,illustrationsseemtoenjoyunguardedaccesstoread ersminds.Inawaythatdiffersprofoundlyfromthecriticalmannerin which a viewer perceives thecontent of a painting, a reader regularly unquestioninglyacceptsimagesthatareofferedinillustrations.Iwould contendthatillustrationsprovideaperceptuallensthathasthepower to refocus written text. Rather than being worth a thousand words, a picture may simplyreplace a thousand words, leaving in the readers minditsimageanditsvisionratherthanthatofferedbythetext. Notes
1. This article attempts a unifying synthesis of observations (deriving from articles publishedonfairytaleillustrationsfromthe1980sonward)toarriveatanewlyfor mulated methodology for examining and comparing fairy tale illustrations within culturalandcommercialcontexts. 2.Therangeoffunctionsperformedbyillustrationsdiffersamonggenres.InEnglish firsteditionillustratedfindesiclebooks,Kooistrafindsfivefunctions:1)quotation, 2)impression,3)parody,4)answering,and5)crossdressing(14).Inpicturebooks,

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RitaOittinenliststhree:1)supportivecongruenceofpictureswithtext,2)contradic torytotext,and3)simultaneousdoublingoftext(130131).Variationsontheseways ofunderstandingillustrationsfunction includeHorst Dolverss distinction between depictingandpicturing,thelatterofwhichcreatesvisualcountertextsinsub tleways(202). 3.Frenchtitlesaretakenfrom[GrimmandGrimm],Contespourlesenfantsetlamai son,trans.anded.NatachaRimassonFertin(2009). 4. Bad Homburg v.d. Hhe. Verwaltung der staatlichen Schlsser und Grten Hes sen.Inv.Nr.1.3.661,Blatt33. 5. Reading illustrations is not a natural or instinctive ability, but one that improves withtraining.Adultresearchersandreadersgenerallyhavetodevelopthisskillon their own, but the young have access to assistance. For schoolage readers Eugene Pool prepared a classroom guide that introduces pupils to illustration conventions andtechniques,whichhasmuchtoofferadultsaswell. 6. Assuming that women in the middle ages were less literate than men, Margaret MilesconcludesthattheirviewofChristianitywasformedbythevisibleimageryof theirsurroundingsratherthanbyreligiousandtheologicaltexts.

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