Chapter - 2 LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 DEFINITION OF DYES

By definition Dyes can be said to be colored, ionizing and aromatic organic compounds which shows an affinity towards the substrate to which it is being applied. It is generally applied in a solution that is aqueous. Dyes may also require a mordant to better the fastness of the dye of the material on which it is applied.

At the very basic level the use of color in identifying individual components of tissue sections can be accomplished primarily with dyes. Although there are other means, Dyes are however, the largest group that can easily be manipulate to our liking. Dyes are applied to numerous substrates for example to textiles, leather, plastic, paper etc. in liquid form. One characteristic of dye is that the dyes must get completely or at least partially soluble in which it is being put to. The rule that we apply to other chemicals is similarly applicable to dyes also. For example certain kind of dyes can be toxic, carcinogenic or mutagenic and can pose as a hazard to health.

Both dyes and pigments appear to be colored because they absorb some

wavelengths

of light preferentially. In contrast with a dye, a pigment generally is insoluble, and has no affinity for the substrate. Some dyes can be precipitated with an inert salt to produce a lake pigment, and based on the salt used they could be Aluminum lake, Calcium lake or Barium lake pigments. Archaeological evidence shows that, particularly in India and the Middle East, dyeing

has been carried out for over 5000 years. The dyes were obtained from animal, vegetable or mineral origin, with no or very little processing. By far the greatest source of dyes has been from the plant kingdom, notably roots, berries, bark, leaves and wood, but only a few have ever been used on a commercial scale.

2.2 WHAT MAKES THE DYE COLORED

Chromophore- is part (or moiety) of a molecule responsible for its color

This is a very common question that occurs in every bodies mind. The answer to which is explained by the presence of a substance called Chromophore in the dyes. By definition dyes are basically aromatic compounds. Their structures have aryl rings that has delocalised electron systems. These structures are said to be responsible for the absorption of electromagnetic radiation that has varying wavelengths, based upon the energy of the electron clouds.

It is actually because of this reason that chromophores do not make dyes coloured. Rather it makes the dyes proficient in their ability to absorb radiation. Chromophores acts by making energy changes in the delocalised electron cloud of the dye. This alteration invariably results in the compound absorbing radiation within the visible range of colors and not outside it. . Another possibility is that if the electrons are removed from the electron cloud, it may result in loss of color. Removing electrons may cause the rest of the electrons to revert to the local orbits. A very good example is the Schiff's reagent. As sulphurous acid reacts with pararosanilin, what happens is that a sulphonic group attaches itself to the compound's central carbon atom. This hampers the conjugated double bond system of the quinoid ring, and causes the electrons to become localised. As a consequence the ring ceases to be a chromophore. As a result, the dye becomes colourless.

2.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF DYES

2.4.1 ACID DYES

2.4.2 BASIC DYES

2.4.3 REACTIVE DYES

2.4.4 MORDANT DYES

2.4.5 DIRECT DYES

2.4.6 VAT DYES

2.4.1 ACID DYES

Acid dyes are water soluble anionic dyes which are applied to fibers such as silk, wool, nylon & modified acrylic fibers from neutral to acid dye baths. Attachment to the fiber is attributed, at least partly, to salt formation between anionic groups in the dyes and cationic groups in the fiber. Acid dyes are not substantive to cellulose fibers. Acid dyes are used both commercially and by the studio dyer to dye protein/animal fibers such as wool, silk, mohair, angora, alpaca and some nylons and synthetics. Acid dyes require the use of an acid such as vinegar, acetic or sulphuric acid to set the color.

2.4.2 BASIC DYES

Basic dye is a stain that is cationic (+ ve charged) and so will react with material that is (-ve) negatively charged. The cytoplasm of all bacterial cells has a slight negative charge when grown in a medium of near neutral pH and will therefore attract and bind with basic dyes. Some examples of basic dyes are crystal violet, safranin, and basic fuchsin and methylene blue. Its applied to wool, silk, cotton and modified acrylic fibres. Usually acetic acid is added to the dye bath to help the take up of the dye onto the fibre. Basic dyes are also used in the coloration of paper.

2.4.3 MORDANT DYES

Mordant dyes are those dyes which require a mordant in their application and which upon combination with the mordant deposit insoluble color on the substrate, e.g., dyes with metal chelating groups. Like the name suggests these dyes require a mordant. Mordants are substances of organic or inorganic origin which combine with the coloring matter and are used to fix the

same in the production of the color. For the purpose of this class, such materials as oils and sulfonated oils, soaps, fats and higher acids, are not generally considered as mordants, but as coming within the scope of assistants in dyeing. The mordant substances include such acids as tannic acid, sumac, gall nuts, bark extracts, oleic and stearic acids, and Turkey red oil; and metallic substances such as various combinations or soluble salts of chromium, aluminum, iron, copper, and tin. The latter, the metallic mordants, are more used than the acid mordants. Mordant improves the fastness of the dye on the fibre such as water, light and perspiration fastness. The choice of mordant is very important as different mordants can change the final colour significantly. Most natural dyes are mordant dyes and there is therefore a large literature base describing dyeing techniques.

2.4.5 DIRECT DYES

Dyeing is normally done in a neutral or slightly alkaline dye bath, at or near the boil, with the addition of either sodium chloride (NaCl) or sodium sulphate (Na2SO4). Also known as hotwater dye, this type can be used with hot tap water and requires no leveling or exhausting agents. It is convenient but lacking in light-fastness and wash-fastness. Direct dyes are used on cotton, pa

2.4.6

VAT DYES

Vat dyes are those dyes which are applied to the substrate in reduced, soluble form and then oxidize to the original insoluble pigment. Common vat dyes are quinonic dyes and particularly common are anthraquinones and indigoids. These dyes are essentially insoluble in water and incapable of dyeing fibres directly. However, reduction in alkaline liquor produces the water soluble alkali metal salt of the dye. In this leuco form these dyes have an affinity for the textile fibre. Subsequent oxidation reforms the original insoluble dye. Most vat dyes are less suitable than, say, fiber reactive dyes, for the home dyers, as they are difficult to work with; they require a reducing agent to solubilize them. Indigo is an example of this dye class.

per, leather, wool, silk and nylon. They are also used as pH indicators and as biological stains.