Professional Documents
Culture Documents
e
This book is a
ontinuation Mathemati
al Olympiads 1995-1996: Olympiad
Problems from Around the World, published by the Ameri
an Mathemati
s Competitions. It
ontains solutions to the problems from 25 national
and regional
ontests featured in the earlier pamphlet, together with sele
ted problems (without solutions) from national and regional
ontests
given during 1997.
This
olle
tion is intended as pra
ti
e for the serious student who
wishes to improve his or her performan
e on the USAMO. Some of the
problems are
omparable to the USAMO in that they
ame from national
ontests. Others are harder, as some
ountries rst have a national
olympiad, and later one or more exams to sele
t a team for the IMO. And
some problems
ome from regional international
ontests (\mini-IMOs").
Dierent nations have dierent mathemati
al
ultures, so you will nd
some of these problems extremely hard and some rather easy. We have
tried to present a wide variety of problems, espe
ially from those
ountries
that have often done well at the IMO.
Ea
h
ontest has its own time limit. We have not furnished this information, be
ause we have not always in
luded
omplete
ontests. As a
rule of thumb, most
ontests allow a time limit ranging between one-half
to one full hour per problem.
Thanks to Walter Mientka for his
ontinuing support of this proje
t,
and to the students of the 1997 Mathemati
al Olympiad Summer Program
for their help in preparing solutions.
The problems in this publi
ation are
opyrighted. Requests for reprodu
tion permissions should be dire
ted to:
Dr. Walter Mientka
Se
retary, IMO Advisory Broad
1740 Vine Street
Lin
oln, NE 68588-0658, USA.
Contents
1 1996 National Contests:
Problems and Solutions
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.17
1.18
1.19
Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . .
Canada . . . . . . . . . . .
China . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cze
h and Slovak Republi
s
Fran
e . . . . . . . . . . . .
Germany . . . . . . . . . .
Gree
e . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . .
Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Japan . . . . . . . . . . . .
Poland . . . . . . . . . . . .
Romania . . . . . . . . . . .
Russia . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spain . . . . . . . . . . . .
Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . .
United Kingdom . . . . . .
United States of Ameri
a .
Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Austria
Bulgaria
Canada
China .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
3
9
12
17
22
25
27
29
34
38
41
44
47
57
76
81
84
89
96
100
100
103
108
110
114
118
131
131
132
136
137
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
3.20
3.21
3.22
3.23
3.24
3.25
3.26
Colombia . . . . . . . . . .
Cze
h and Slovak Republi
s
Fran
e . . . . . . . . . . . .
Germany . . . . . . . . . .
Gree
e . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hungary . . . . . . . . . . .
Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . .
Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Japan . . . . . . . . . . . .
Korea . . . . . . . . . . . .
Poland . . . . . . . . . . . .
Romania . . . . . . . . . . .
Russia . . . . . . . . . . . .
South Afri
a . . . . . . . .
Spain . . . . . . . . . . . .
Taiwan . . . . . . . . . . . .
Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ukraine . . . . . . . . . . .
United Kingdom . . . . . .
United States of Ameri
a .
Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
139
140
141
142
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
152
153
155
161
162
163
165
166
167
168
169
170
170
171
173
174
175
177
178
179
1.1 Bulgaria
1. Prove that for all natural numbers n 3 there exist odd natural
numbers xn ; yn su
h that 7x2n + yn2 = 2n .
Solution: For n = 3 we have x3 = y3 = 1. Now suppose that
for a given natural number n we have odd natural numbers xn ; yn
su
h that 7x2n + yn2 = 2n; we shall exhibit a pair (X; Y ) su
h that
7X 2 + Y 2 = 2n+1. In fa
t,
xn yn
2
2
7xn yn
2
2
One of (xn + yn)=2 and jxn ynj=2 is odd (as their sum is the larger
of xn and yn , whi
h is odd), giving the desired pair.
2. The
ir
les k1 and k2 with respe
tive
enters O1 and O2 are externally tangent at the point C , while the
ir
le k with
enter O is
externally tangent to k1 and k2 . Let ` be the
ommon tangent of k1
and k2 at the point C and let AB be the diameter of k perpendi
ular
to `. Assume that O and A lie on the same side of `. Show that the
lines AO2 ; BO1 ; ` have a
ommon point.
Solution: Let r; r1 ; r2 be the respe
tive radii of k; k1 ; k2 . Also let
3. Let a; b;
be real numbers and let M be the maximum of the fun
tion
y = j4x3 + ax2 + bx +
j in the interval [ 1; 1. Show that M 1
and nd all
ases where equality o
urs.
Solution: For a = 0; b = 3;
= 0, we have M = 1, with the
maximum a
hieved at 1; 1=2; 1=2; 1. On the other hand, if M < 1
for some
hoi
e of a; b;
, then
4. The real numbers a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an (n 3) form an arithmeti
progression. There exists a permutation ai1 ; ai2 ; : : : ; ain of a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an
whi
h is a geometri
progression. Find the numbers a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an if
they are all dierent and the largest of them is equal to 1996.
Solution: Let a1 < a2 < < an = 1996 and let q be the ratio of
AC 2 = CD CE
AB AE:
AB AE = AC 2
CD CE = CA2
CA AF = AC AF;
2p )(5q
2q ).
as to just tou
h, and that a dis
of radius 2 easily ts into the third
orner without overlap. On the other hand, if the dis
s of radii 3
and 4 t into an equilateral triangle without overlap, there exists a
line separating them (e.g. a tangent to one perpendi
ular to their
line of
enters) dividing the triangle into a triangle and a (possibly
degenerate)
onvex quadrilateral. Within ea
h pie
e, the dis
an be
moved into one of the
orners of the original triangle. Thus the two
dis
s t into the
orners without
p overlap, so the side length of the
triangle must be at least 11 3.
8. The quadrati
polynomials f and g with real
oe
ients are su
h
that if g(x) is an integer for some x > 0, then so is f (x). Prove that
there exist integers m; n su
h that f (x) = mg(x) + n for all x.
Let f (x) = ax2 + bx +
and g(x) = px2 + qx + r;
assume without loss of generality p > 0 and q = 0 (by the
hange
of variable
px ! x q=(2p)). Let k be an integer su
h that k > s
and t = (k s)=p > q=(2p). Sin
e g(t) = k is an integer, so is
f (t) = a(k s)=p + bt +
, as is
Solution:
k+1 s
p
b
1
k s
=p p
p
p k+1 s
a
+ :
s p
pn a n=pn
n
1
for n 1, whi
h will imply the
laim. These inequalities
learly
hold for n = 1; 2; 3. Now assume the inequality for some n. Let
fn(x) = x=n + n=x. We rst have for n 3,
p
n
n
=p
> n + 1:
an+1 = fn (an ) fn p
n 1
n 1
6
n 1
(n 1)2 + n2 (n 2) p
p
an+1 = fn (an ) < fn p
=
< n + 2:
n 2
(n 1)n n 2
Solution:
1.2 Canada
1. If ; ;
are the roots of x3
x 1 = 0, ompute
1 1 1
+
+
:
1+ 1+ 1+
Solution: The given quantity equals
1
1
1
+
+
+1 +1
+1
3:
BC =
sin
sin
sin
; BD =
; AD =
:
sin 2
sin 3
sin 3
4 ) sin 3 = (sin(
4 ) + sin ) sin 2:
os 7 = os 2
os 6 + os
os 3:
os 6 , whi
h
11
1.3 China
1. Let H be the ortho
enter of a
ute triangle ABC . The tangents from
A to the
ir
le with diameter BC tou
h the
ir
le at P and Q. Prove
that P; Q; H are
ollinear.
Solution: The line P Q is the polar of A with respe
t to the
ir
le,
so it su
es to show that A lies on the pole of H . Let D and E
be the feet of the altitudes from A and B , respe
tively; these also
lie on the
ir
le, and H = AD \ BE . The polar of the line AD
is the interse
tion of the tangents AA and DD, and the polar of
the line BE is the interse
tion of the tangents BB and EE . The
ollinearity of these two interse
tions with C = AE \BD follows from
applying Pas
al's theorem to the
y
li
hexagons AABDDE and
ABBDEE . (An elementary solution with ve
tors is also possible
and not di
ult.)
2. Find the smallest positive integer K su
h that every K -element subset of f1; 2; : : : ; 50g
ontains two distin
t elements a; b su
h that a + b
divides ab.
Solution: The minimal value is k = 39. Suppose a; b 2 S are su
h
that a + b divides ab. Let
= g
d(a; b), and put a =
a1 ; b =
b1 , so
that a1 and b1 are relatively prime. Then
(a1 + b1 ) divides
2 a1 b1,
so a1 + b1 divides
a1 b1 . Sin
e a1 and b1 have no
ommon fa
tor,
neither do a1 and a1 + b1 , or b1 and a1 + b1. In short, a1 + b1 divides
.
Sin
e S f1; : : : ; 50g, we have a + b 99, so
(a1 + b1 ) 99, whi
h
implies a1 + b1 9; on the other hand, of
ourse a1 + b1 3. An
exhaustive sear
h produ
es 23 pairs a; b satisfying the
ondition:
a1 + b1 = 3
a1 + b1 = 4
a1 + b1 = 5
a1 + b1 = 6
a1 + b1 = 7
a1 + b1 = 8
a1 + b1 = 9
Let M = f6; 12; 15; 18; 20; 21; 24; 35; 40; 42; 45; 48g and T = f1; : : : ; 50g
M . Sin
e ea
h pair listed above
ontains an element of M , T does
not have the desired property. Hen
e we must take k jT j +1 = 39.
On the other hand, from the 23 pairs mentioned above we
an sele
t
12 pairs whi
h are mutually disjoint:
(6; 3); (12; 4); (20; 5); (42; 7); (24; 8); (18; 9);
(40; 10); (35; 14); (30; 15); (48; 16); (28; 21); (45; 36):
Any 39-element subset must
ontain both elements of one of these
pairs. We
on
lude the desired minimal number is k = 39.
3. Let f : R ! R be a fun
tion su
h that for all x; y 2 R,
(1)
Solution:
(2)
In parti
ular, x and f (x) always have the same sign, that is, f (x) 0
for x 0 and f (x) 0 for x 0.
Let S be the set
and so
f ((a + b)x) =
=
=
=
By indu
tion, we have n 2 S for ea
h positive integer n, so in parti
ular, f (1996x) = 1996f (x) for all x 2 R.
4. Eight singers parti
ipate in an art festival where m songs are performed. Ea
h song is performed by 4 singers, and ea
h pair of singers
performs together in the same number of songs. Find the smallest
m for whi
h this is possible.
Solution: Let r be the number of songs ea
h pair of singers performs together, so that
4
8
=r
2
2
f1; 2; 3; 4g
f3; 4; 5; 6g
f2; 4; 5; 7g
f1; 2; 7; 8g
n
X
i=1
Pn
i=1 xi
= 1.
xi p
< :
xi + + xn 2
0 + + xi 1
p1 + x
px
1
+ + xn (1+ x0 + + xn ) = 1;
2
P
so that the middle quantity is at least xi = 1. For the right
inequality, let
p
1 + x0 + x1 + + xi
i = ar
sin(x0 + + xi ) (i = 0; : : : ; n)
so that
1 + x0 + x1 + + xi
14
px + + x =
os
i
n
i
sin i sin i
os i 1
i=1
< :
2
+
= 2
os i i 1 sin i i 1 <
osi 1 (i i 1 );
2
2
using the fa
ts that i 1 < i and that sin x < x for x > 0, so that
sin i
sin i
n
X
sin i sin i
os i 1
i=1
<
n
X
i=1
i
i
= n
0 < ;
2
as
laimed.
6. In triangle ABC , \C = 90, \A = 30 and BC = 1. Find the
minimum of the length of the longest side of a triangle ins
ribed in
ABC (that is, one su
h that ea
h side of ABC
ontains a dierent
vertex of the triangle).
Solution: We rst nd the minimum side length of an equilateral
7
x
2x + 1 =
4
4
7
2
3
+ :
7
if the verti
es move onto the extensions of the sides, sin
e the bound
above applies in that
ase as well.)
p
Hen
e the mininum is indeed 3=7, as desired.
16
(n = 1; 2; 3; : : :);
then
(a) G(k) G(k 1) for any positive integer k;
(b) no integer k exists su
h that G(k 1) = G(k) = G(k + 1).
Solution:
(a) We show by indu
tion that G(n) G(n 1) 2 f0; 1g for all n.
If this holds up to n, then
1)=2.
2. Let ABC be an a
ute triangle with altitudes AP; BQ; CR. Show
that for any point P in the interior of the triangle P QR, there exists
a tetrahedron ABCD su
h that P is the point of the fa
e ABC at
the greatest distan
e (measured along the surfa
e of the tetrahedron)
from D.
17
Solution:
KA Y B = XA MB = LA LB 6= 0:
Solution: Suppose K; L; M have already been
onstru
ted. The
triangles ALK and BY L are similar be
ause \LAK = \Y BL and
KA=LA = LB=Y B . Hen
e \ALK = \BY L. Similarly, from the
similar triangles ALX and BML we get \AXL = \MLB . We
also have \MLB = \ALK sin
e M; L; K are
ollinear; we
on
lude
\LY B = \AXL. Now
! Z su h that
19
are ongruent and hen e have the same inradius. Let R be the ommon ir umradius; then
a2 = b2 +
2 2b
os A
2
2 2b
1 2
2p
+
a =
2
os A:
3
3
3
33
20
21
1.5 Fran
e
1. Let ABC be a triangle and
onstru
t squares ABED; BCGF; ACHI
externally on the sides of ABC . Show that the points D; E; F; G; H; I
are
on
y
li
if and only if ABC is equilateral or isos
eles right.
Suppose D; E; F; G; H; I are
on
y
li
; the perpendi
ular bise
tors of DE; F G; HI
oin
ide with those of AB; BC; CA,
respe
tively, so the
enter of the
ir
le must be the
ir
um
enter O
of ABC . By equating the distan
es OD and OF , we nd
Solution:
=4):
un+1 =
un if un is even
un + a otherwise.
1
2
a, there is a smaller subsequent term. These form a de
reasing subsequen
e whi
h must eventually terminate, whi
h only
o
urs on
e un a.
(b) If um a, then for all n m, either un a, or un is even
and un 2a, by indu
tion on n. In parti
ular, un 2a for all
m n, and so some value of un eventually repeats, leading to
a periodi
sequen
e.
hoose
3. (a) Find the minimum value of xx for x a positive real number.
(b) If x and y are positive real numbers, show that xy + yx > 1.
Solution:
1, or
9 = 7 + 2; 10 = 6 + 4; 11 = 10 + 1; 12 = 9 + 3; 13 = 8 + 5:
(
) Imitating the above example, we pair 2k with 1, 2k 1 with 3,
and so on, up to 2k (k 1)=2 with k (where k = (2n 3)=5),
giving the sums 2k + 1; : : : ; n 1. Now we pair 2k (k + 1)=2
with 2, 2k (k + 3)=2 with 4, and so on, up to k + 1 with k 1,
giving the sums from (5k + 1)=2 to 2k.
24
1.6 Germany
1. Starting at (1; 1), a stone is moved in the
oordinate plane a
ording
to the following rules:
(i) From any point (a; b), the stone
an move to (2a; b) or (a; 2b).
(ii) From any point (a; b), the stone
an move to (a b; b) if a > b,
or to (a; b a) if a < b.
For whi
h positive integers x; y
an the stone be moved to (x; y)?
Solution: It is ne
essary and su
ient that g
d(x; y ) = 2s for some
4. Prove that every integer k > 1 has a multiple less than k4 whose
de
imal expansion has at most four distin
t digits.
Let n be the integer su
h that 2n 1 k < 2n. For
n 6 the result is immediate, so assume n > 6.
Let S be the set of nonnegative integers less than 10n whose de
imal
digits are all 0s or 1s. Sin
e jS j = 2n > k, we
an nd two elements
a < b of S whi
h are
ongruent modulo k, and b a only has the
digits 8, 9, 0, 1 in its de
imal representation. On the other hand,
Solution:
b a b 1 + 10 + + 10n
hen
e b a is the desired multiple.
26
k ;
4
1.7 Gree
e
1. In a triangle ABC the points D; E; Z; H; are the midpoints of the
segments BC; AD; BD; ED; EZ , respe
tively. If I is the point of
interse
tion of BE and AC , and K is the point of interse
tion of
H and AC , prove that
(a)
(b)
(
)
(d)
AK = 3CK ;
HK = 3H ;
BE = 3EI ;
the area of ABC is 32 times that of E H .
2. Let ABC be an a
ute triangle, AD; BE; CZ its altitudes and H its
ortho
enter. Let AI; A be the internal and external bise
tors of
angle A. Let M; N be the midpoints of BC; AH , respe
tively. Prove
that
(a) MN is perpendi
ular to EZ ;
(b) if MN
uts the segments AI; A at the points K; L, then KL =
AH .
Solution:
28
1.8 Iran
1. Prove the following inequality for positive real numbers x; y; z :
(xy + yz + zx)
Solution:
omes
sym
1
1
1
+
+
2
2
(x + y)
(y + z )
(z + x)2
49 :
4x5 y
x4 y2 3x3 y3 + x4 yz 2x3 y2 z + x2 y2 z 2 0;
where the symmetri
sum runs over all six permutations of x; y; z . (In
parti
ular, this means the
oe
ient of x3 y3 in the nal expression
is -6, and that of x2 y2z 2 is 6.)
Re
all S
hur's inequality:
y) 0:
sym
x4 yz 2x3 y2 z + x2 y2 z 2 0:
(x5 y
sym
x4 y2 ) + 3(x5 y x3 y3 ) 0
a
a
a
m = k + k 1 ++ t ;
t
k 1
k
where
ak > a k
> > at t 1:
29
m
b 1
b k+1
b +1
bk
+ k
+ + k
< k
k
k 1
1
k
m;
a
ontradi
tion.
To show existen
e,
apply the greedy algorithm: nd the largest ak
su
h that akk m, and apply the same algorithm with m and k
repla
ed by m akk and k 1. We need only make sure that the
sequen
e obtained is indeed
de
reasing, but
be
ause by
this follows
assumption, m < akm+1 , and so m akk < kak1 .
3. In triangle ABC , we have \A = 60 . Let O; H; I; I 0 be the
ir
um
enter, ortho
enter, in
enter, and ex
enter opposite A, respe
tively,
of ABC . Let B 0 and C 0 be points on the segments AC and AB su
h
that AB = AB 0 and AC = AC 0 . Prove that:
(a) The eight points B; C; H; O; I; I 0 ; B 0 ; C 0 are
on
y
li
.
(b) If OH interse
ts AB and AC at E and F , respe
tively, the
perimeter of triangle AEF equals AB + AC .
(
) OH = jAB AC j.
Solution:
(
) We use a; b;
to denote the lengths of BC; CA; AB . By a standard
omputation using ve
tors, we nd OH 2 = 9R2 (a2 +b2 +
2 ), but sin
e a = 2R sin 60, we have OH 2 = 2a2 b2
2 . By
the Law of Cosines, a2 = b2 +
2 b
, so OH 2 = b2 +
2 2b
=
(b
)2 , and so OH = jb
j.
4. Let ABC be a s
alene triangle. The medians from A; B; C meet
the
ir
um
ir
le again at L; M; N , respe
tively. If LM = LN , prove
that 2BC 2 = AB 2 + AC 2 .
Let G be the
entroid of triangle ABC ; then triangles NLG and AGL are similar, so LN=AC = LG=CG. Similarly
LM=AB = GL=BG. Thus if LM = LN , then AB=AC = BG=CG.
Using Stewart's theorem to
ompute the lengths of the medians, we
have
AB 2 2AB 2 + 2BC 2 AC 2
=
AC 2 2AC 2 + 2BC 2 AB 2
whi
h redu
es to (AC 2 AB 2 )(2BC 2 AB 2 AC 2 ) = 0. Sin
e the
triangle is s
alene, we
on
lude 2BC 2 = AB 2 + AC 2 .
Solution:
31
ai = 96;
n
X
i=1
a2i = 144;
n
X
i=1
a3i = 216:
Solution:
Solution:
we may assume P (x) is moni
and has integer
oe
ients; let P (0) =
0 . If p is a su
iently large prime, the equation P (x) = p +
0
has a single real root, whi
h by assumption is rational and whi
h we
32
i xi ; i 2 f0; 1g
i=(n + 1). To see that this
annot be improved, note that for any
permutation of f1; : : : ; ng, at most one of the sets f(1); : : : ; (i)g
for i = 1; : : : ; n has sum lying in I . Thus if T is the set of subsets
whose sum lies in I , we have
X
t2T
t!(n t)! n! ,
33
n
t
t2T
1:
1.9 Ireland
1. For ea
h positive integer n, nd the greatest
ommon divisor of n!+1
and (n + 1)!.
Solution: If n + 1 is
omposite, then ea
h prime divisor of (n + 1)!
is a prime less than n, whi
h also divides n! and so does not divide
n! + 1. Hen
e f (n) = 1. If n + 1 is prime, the same argument
shows that f (n) is a power of n + 1, and in fa
t n + 1jn! + 1 by
Wilson's theorem. However, (n + 1)2 does not divide (n + 1)!, and
thus f (n) = n + 1.
2. For ea
h positive integer n, let S (n) be the sum of the digits in the
de
imal expansion of n. Prove that for all n,
(i) f (1) = 1,
(ii) f (x) 0 for all x 2 [0; 1,
(iii) if x; y and x + y all lie in [0; 1, then f (x + y) f (x) + f (y).
34
yielding (a). As for (b), one
omputes that the period mod 4 is 6.
The period mod 25 turns out to be 100, whi
h is awfully many terms
to
ompute by hand, but knowing that the period must be a multiple
of 20 helps, and verifying the re
urren
e Fn+8 = tFn+4 + Fn , where t
is an integer
ongruent to 2 modulo 5, shows that the period divides
100; nally, an expli
it
omputation shows that the period is not 20.
7. Prove that for all positive integers n,
n
P1
1
X
n
n=1 n=2
= 2:
1 X
1 1 X
1 1
n X
=
=
n
k
n 1 = 2:
n=1 2
n=1 k=n 2
n=1 2
8. Let p be a prime number and a; n positive integers. Prove that if
2p + 3p = an ;
then n = 1.
Solution: If p = 2, we have 22 + 32 = 13 and n = 1. If p > 2, then
10. On a 5 9 re
tangular
hessboard, the following game is played. Initially, a number of dis
s are randomly pla
ed on some of the squares,
no square
ontaining more than one dis
. A turn
onsists of moving
all of the dis
s subje
t to the following rules:
(i) ea
h dis
may be moved one square up, down, left, or right;
(ii) if a dis
moves up or down on one turn, it must move left or
right on the next turn, and vi
e versa;
(iii) at the end of ea
h turn, no square
an
ontain two or more
dis
s.
The game stops if it be
omes impossible to
omplete another turn.
Prove that if initially 33 dis
s are pla
ed on the board, the game
must eventually stop. Prove also that it is possible to pla
e 32 dis
s
on the board so that the game
an
ontinue forever.
Solution: If 32 dis
s are pla
ed in an 8 4 re
tangle, they
an all
move up, left, down, right, up, et
. To show that a game with 33
dis
s must stop, label the board as shown:
1
2
1
2
1
2
3
2
3
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
3
2
3
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
3
2
3
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
3
2
3
2
1
2
1
2
1
37
1.10 Italy
1. Among triangles with one side of a given length ` and with given
area S , determine all of those for whi
h the produ
t of the lengths
of the three altitudes is maximum.
Solution: Let A; B be two xed points with AB = `, and vary
C along a line parallel to AB at distan
e 2S=`. The produ
t of the
altitudes of ABC is 8S 3 divided by the lengths of the three sides, so
it su
es to minimize AC BC , or equivalently to maximize sin C .
Let D be the interse
tion of the perpendi
ular bise
tor of AB with
the line through C . If \D is not a
ute, the optimal triangles are
learly those with a right angle at C .
Suppose \D is a
ute and C 6= D, and assume C is on the same
side of the perpendi
ular bise
tor of AB as B : we show \D \C ,
and so the optimal triangle is ABD. The triangles DAC and DBC
have equal base and height, so equal altitude. However, AC > BC
sin
e \CAB > \CBA, so sin \DAC < sin \DBC , and sin
e the
former is a
ute, we have \DAC < \DBC . Adding \CAB + \ABD
to both sides, we get \DAB + \DBA < \CAB + \CBA, and so
\ADB > \ACB , as
laimed.
Solution:
= (a
b2 = ( + b)( b) = a2
5)=2 and
3:
38
r2 4r + 2 = 0 and so r = 2
outside of the
ube).
n 2k ways. So
pla
es, and thePremaining
n 2kpositions
an be lled in 2
n
the answer is k 2k 2
. To
ompute this, note that
(1 + x)n + (1
x)n
=2
X n
2k
x2k ;
so the answer is
1 n
1
2 [(1 + 1=2)n + (1 1=2)n = (3n + 1):
2
2
5. Let C be a
ir
le and A a point exterior to C . For ea
h point P on
C ,
onstru
t the square AP QR, where the verti
es A; P; Q; R o
ur
in
ounter
lo
kwise order. Find the lo
us of Q as P runs over C .
Solution: Take the
ir
le to be the unit
ir
le in the
omplex
plane. Then (Q P )i = A P , so Q = A + (1 i)P . We
on
lude
the lo
us of Q ispthe
ir
le
entered at A whose radius is the norm
of 1 i, namely 2.
39
for the segments from (i; 0) to (i; 1) and from (i; n 1) to (i; n) for
0 < i < n. Ea
h of the aforementioned horizontal segments shares a
square with only two of the verti
al segments, so the only possible
arrangements are the one we gave above without the square with
orners (0; 0) and (n; n), and the 90 rotation of this arrangement,
both of whi
h are insu
ient. Hen
e 2n 1 squares are ne
essary.
40
1.11 Japan
1. Consider a triangulation of the plane, i.e. a
overing of the plane
with triangles su
h that no two triangles have overlapping interiors,
and no vertex lies in the interior of an edge of another triangle.
Let A; B; C be three verti
es of the triangulation and let be the
smallest angle of the triangle 4ABC . Suppose no verti
es of the
triangulation lie inside the
ir
um
ir
le of 4ABC . Prove there is a
triangle in the triangulation su
h that \ 4ABC 6= ; and every
angle of is greater than .
Solution: We may assume = \A. The
ase where ABC belongs
sn = sm sn m
5m7m sn 2m ;
+ +1
= an and solving
+1
and so x is rational.
Put y = xp and
bm =
pX1
k=0
2k
pn = qk + ak 1 qk
n = 2k + ak
+ + a1 2 + a0
42
+ + a1 q + a0 :
Prove that there exist innitely many positive integers k for whi
h
there does not exist a positive integer l su
h that p2k < pl < p2k+1 .
Solution: Dene the sequen
e an as follows:
a2 m =
m
X
k=0
22k ;
a2m+1 =
m
X
k=0
22k+1 :
qpr + 1
qp2an 1 +1 + 1
n even, l = 2r + 1
qp2an 1 + 1
q2 pr
q2 p2an 1 +1
n even, l = 4r
q2 p2an 2
q 2 pr + q
q2 p2an 2+1 + q
n even, l = 4r + 2
q2 p2an 2 + q
qpr
qp2an 1 +1
n odd, l = 2r
qp2an 1
q 2 pr + 1
q2 p2an 2 +1 + 1
n even, l = 4r + 1
q2 p2an 2 + 1
n even, l = 4r + 3 q2 p2an 2 + q + 1 q2 pr + q + 1 q2 p2an 2+1 + q + 1.
43
1.12 Poland
1. Find all pairs (n; r), with n a positive integer and r a real number,
for whi
h the polynomial (x + 1)n r is divisible by 2x2 + 2x + 1.
Solution: Let t = ( 1 + i)=2 be one of the roots of 2x2 + 2x + 1;
i xi ,
n
X
result as
x2i
i=1 1 ai
n 1 i
!
x2i
:
1 ai
=1
!
n
X
i=1
(1 ai )
44
n
X
i=1
!2
xi
= 1:
i (1
Solution: Assume AB 6= CD. Draw the plane through AC bise
ting the dihedral angle formed by the planes ABC and ACD,
then draw a line ` in that plane perpendi
ular to AC through the
midpoint O of AC . Now let B 0 and D0 be the images of B and D,
respe
tively, under the half-turn around the line `; by assumption,
B 0 6= D and D0 6= B . Sin
e \BAC = \ACD, B 0 lies on CD and
D0 lies on AB . Now note that the quadrilateral BB 0 D0 D has total angular sum 2. However, a nonplanar quadrilateral always has
total angular sum less than 2 (divide it into two triangles, whi
h
ea
h have angular sum , and apply the spheri
al triangle inequality
\ABC + \CBD > \ABD), so the lines AB and CD are
oplanar,
ontradi
ting the assumption that ABCD is a tetrahedron.
5. For a natural number k, let p(k) denote the smallest prime number
whi
h does not divide k. If p(k) > 2, dene q(k) to be the produ
t
of all primes less than p(k), otherwise let q(k) = 1. Consider the
sequen
e
x p(x )
x0 = 1;
xn+1 = n n
n = 0; 1; 2; : : : :
q(xn )
Determine all natural numbers n su
h that xn = 111111.
Solution: An easy indu
tion shows that, if p0 ; p1 ; : : : are the primes
f (i) i + 1
45
i = 1; 2; : : : ; n:
Solution:
46
1.13 Romania
Solution:
i=n .
e
real t,
2
n
X
j =1
f (z + t j ) = 0:
f (z k + j ) = 0:
n X
n
X
m=1 k=1
f (z (1 m ) k ) = 0:
For m = n the inner sum is nf (z ); for other m, the inner sum again
runs over a regular polygon, hen
e is 0. Thus f (z ) = 0 for all z 2 C .
2. Find the greatest positive integer n for whi
h there exist n nonnegative integers x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn , not all zero, su
h that for any sequen
e
1; 2 ; : : : ; n of elements of f 1; 0; 1g, not all zero, n3 does not divide
1x1 + 2 x2 + : : : + n xn .
Solution: The statement holds for n = 9 by
hoosing 1; 2; 22 ; : : : ; 28 ,
f
os(nx) +
os(ny)jn 2 N g
is nite, then x; y 2 Q .
Solution: Let an =
os nx and bn = sin nx. Then
(an + bn )2 + (an
K = fBC CB ; IC IB ; ID IA ; AD DA g; L = fAB BA ; IA IB ; IC ID ; CD DC g:
Consider the re
tangle BC ID BA P , where P is an unknown point.
From the se
ond observation above, the midpoint K of diagonal
BA BC is the midpoint of ar
CDA, so it lies on the internal bise
tor
BK of triangle ABC . Again by the rst observation, we
on
lude
M = DA , so DA lies on the lines BC CB and BA AB , and so on,
proving the
laim.
fi (1 + mx) =
n
Y
i=1
[ i + fi (x)T = a(1 + xT )n ;
xm = a1 + ma2 + + mn 1 am
for any integer m. Then
0=
n
Y
i=1
fi (xm ) =
n
Y
i=1
a2 a3 an < 1:
ak =
n
X
k=2
X1 n
1
1
1
:
=
+ ++
p1 p2
pk
pn p p
1 n
pn p p
X
n
2
p
pn
!
1
1 X
1
< n +
4 k=1 (2k + 1)2
!
1
n X
n
1
<
= :
4 k=1 k(k + 1)
2
50
Thus
ity,
Pn
k=2 ak
a2 + a3 + + an n 1
a2 a3 a n <
n 1
1 n 1
e
3
1
< n 1 < n 1:
< n 1 1+
2
n 1
2
2
x1 + x2 + : : : + xn
x1 + 2x2 + : : : + (n 1)xn
1
1
nonnegative integers
= n
= 2n 2:
F (x1 ; : : : ; xn 1 ) =
nX1
k=1
Now note
nX1
k=1
k2 xk =
nX1
k=1
k=1
Pn
k=1 k
1
xk .
P 2M \k
f (P ) 0 (mod p):
xi (xn+i
xi )
v
u n
uX
t
xn+1 (xn+1
i=1
xi ):
xn+1 (xn+1
xi ) = nx2n+1 xn+1
53
n
X
i=1
xi = (n 1)xn+1 :
xi
n 1 xn+1
i=1
xi
xn+1
1
1 xi =xn+1 1 (n 1)
xi
+
= +
= 1:
2
x
2(n 1)
2 2(n 1)
i=1 n+i
12. Let x; y; z be real numbers. Prove that the following
onditions are
equivalent.
(i) x; y; z > 0 and x1 + y1 + 1z 1.
(ii) For every quadrilateral with sides a; b;
; d, a2 x + b2y +
2z > d2 .
Solution: To show (i) implies (ii), note that
a x+b y+
z
2
1 1 1
(a x + b y +
z )
+ +
x y x
(a + b +
)2 > d2 ;
2
y
z
1 1 1
x
+ + >
+ +
x2 y2 z 2
x y z
1
n
2
Sin
e this holds for all n, we may take the limit as n ! 1 and get
1 1 1
+ +
x y z
1 1 1
+ +
x y z
1
n
2
55
f (a; b;
) = (b a;
b):
The domain of f
ontains n6 elements. The range of f , on the other
hand, is
ontained in the subset of X X of pairs whose sum is at
most n3 , a set of
ardinality
3 1
nX
k=1
k=
n3 (n3 1) n6
< :
2
2
56
1.14 Russia
1. Whi
h are there more of among the natural numbers from 1 to
1000000, in
lusive: numbers that
an be represented as the sum
of a perfe
t square and a (positive) perfe
t
ube, or numbers that
annot be?
There are more numbers not of this form. Let n =
k2 + m3 , where k; m; n 2 N and n 1000000. Clearly k 1000 and
m 100. Therefore there
annot be more numbers in the desired
form than the 100000 pairs (k; m).
Solution:
X1 O2 = O1 Y2 ; Y1 O3 = O2 Z2; Z1 O1 = O3 X2
or
X1 A + AB + BO2 = O1 B + BC + CY2 ;
Y1 C + CD + DO3 = O2 D + DE + EZ2 ;
Z1 E + EF + F O1 = O3 F + F A + AX2 :
Adding these equations and noting that
BO2 = O1 B; DO3 = O2 D; F O1 = O3 F
57
AB + CD + EF = BC + DE + F A;
as desired.
Note: The analogous statement is also true in the
ase where the
hexagon has re
ex angles at B; D; F . In both
ases, we also have
the equality AB CD EF = BC DE F A, or equivalently, the lines
AD; BE; CF
on
ur. Moreover, the latter statement remains true
even if the assumption of equal radii is removed, and this fa
t leads
to a proof of Brian
hon's Theorem.
xn + yn = pk :
Prove that if n > 1 is odd, and p is an odd prime, then n is a power
of p.
Let m = g
d(x; y). Then x = mx1 ; y = my1 and by
virtue of the given equation, mn (xn1 + y1n) = pk , and so m = p for
some nonnegative integer . It follows that
Solution:
xn1 + y1n = pk n :
(1)
Sin e n is odd,
xn1 + y1n
= x1n
x1 + y1
x yn
1 1
+ y1n 1:
Let A denote the right side of the equation. By the
ondition p > 2,
it follows that at least one of x1 ; y1 is greater than 1, so sin
e n > 1,
A > 1.
From (1) it follows that A(x1 + y1 ) = pk n , so sin
e x1 + y1 > 1,
and A > 1, both of these numbers are divisible by p; moreover,
x1 + y1 = p for some natural number . Thus
A = x1n 1 x1n 2 (p
= nx1n 1 + Bp:
x1 ) + x1 (p
58
x1 )n
+ (p
x1 )n
16000 15999 3
3:
2
However,
16000 803
16000 15999 42
16000 15999 3
3 > 16000 803
2
2
2
16000 43
+ 213 106 212 106
=
4
> 212 106 = 16003:
1
is divisible by 729. In fa
t, 1081n 1 = (1081)n 1n = (1081 1) A,
and
1081
1 = 9| :{z: : 9}
81
= 9| :{z: : 9} 10
: : 01} 10
: : 01} : : : 10
: : 01}
| :{z
| :{z
| :{z
9
= 9 |1 :{z: : 1} 10
: : 01} 10
: : 01} : : : 10
: : 01} :
| :{z
| :{z
| :{z
9
The se
ond and third fa
tors are
omposed of 9 units, so the sum of
their digits is divisible by 9, that is, ea
h is a multiple of 9. Hen
e
1081 1 is divisible by 93 = 729, as is 1081n 1 for any n.
6. In the isos
eles triangle ABC (AC = BC ) point O is the
ir
um
enter, I the in
enter, and D lies on BC so that lines OD and BI are
perpendi
ular. Prove that ID and AC are parallel.
60
+1
+1
61
xs + (A x1
xm ) xt + (A y
: : : yt );
x1 + : : : + xs + x(t s) y1 + : : : + yt ;
whi
h is what we will prove.
If t s, then
x1 + : : : + xs + x(t s) = (x1 + : : : + xs ) + (x + + x)
|
(y
{z
t s
+ : : : + ys ) + (ys+1 + : : : + yt );
x1 + : : : + xs y1 + : : : + yt + (x + : : : + x) :
|
{z
t s
x1 + : : : + xs y1 + : : : + ys = (y1 + : : : + yt ) + (yt+1 + : : : + ys )
and ys : : : yt+1 x.
First Solution:
62
overd by k L's, so at least 12k L's must be used in total. But these
over 3 12k > 35k
ells in total, a
ontradi
tion.
Se
ond Solution: Color the
ells of the
he
kerboard alternately
bla
k and white, so that the
orners are all bla
k. In ea
h bla
k
square we write the number 2, and in ea
h white square 1. Note
that the sum of the numbers in the
ells
overed by ea
h L is nonnegative, and
onsequently if we are given a
overing of the board
in k layers, the sum over ea
h L of the numbers
overed by that
L is nonnegative. But if this number is S and s is the sum of the
numbers on the board, then
S = ks = k( 2 12 + 23 1) = k < 0:
We have a
ontradi
tion.
Note: It is proved analogously that a
overing of the desired form
If three ounters lie on a line and have integer oordinates, then we an make any two of them oin ide.
64
3n m
= xy:
Note:
x2
xy + y2
xy + y2
x + y an alternatively be
x y = (x y)2 + (x 1)(y 1) 1 0;
sin
e (x y)2 1.
12. Show that if the integers a1 ; : : : ; am are nonzero and for ea
h k =
0; 1; : : : ; m (n < m 1),
a1 + a2 2k + a3 3k + : : : + am mk = 0;
then the sequen
e a1 ; : : : ; am
ontains at least n + 1 pairs of
onse
utive terms having opposite signs.
Solution: We may assume am > 0, sin
e otherwise we may multiply ea
h of P
the numbers by 1. Consider the sequen
e b1 ; : : : ; bm,
where bi = nj=0
j ij for an arbitrary sequen
e of real numbers
0 ; : : : ;
n . From the given
ondition
m
X
i=1
ai bi =
m
X
i=1
ai
n
X
j =0
ij
j =
n
X
j =0
n
X
i=1
ai ij = 0:
14. Three sergeants and several solders serve in a platoon. The sergeants
take turns on duty. The
ommander has given the following orders:
(a) Ea
h day, at least one task must be issued to a soldier.
(b) No soldier may have more than two task or re
eive more than
one tasks in a single day.
(
) The lists of soldiers re
eiving tasks for two dierent days must
not be the same.
(d) The rst sergeant violating any of these orders will be jailed.
Can at least one of the sergeants, without
onspiring with the others,
give tasks a
ording to these rules and avoid being jailed?
66
15. A
onvex polygon is given, no two of whose sides are parallel. For
ea
h side we
onsider the angle the side subtends at the vertex farthest from the side. Show that the sum of these angles equals 180.
Denote by Pa the vertex of the polygon farthest from
the line
ontaining side a. Choose an arbitrary point O in the plane.
We
all the two verti
al angles,
onsisting of all lines through O
and parallel to the segment Pa Q for some Q on side a, the angles
orresponding to side a.
We prove rst that the angles
orresponding to dierent sides do
not overlap. Let a ray ` with vertex O lie inside one of the angles
orresponding to a. The line parallel to this ray passing through
Pa interse
ts side a at some interior point A. Draw through Pa the
line b parallel to the line
ontaining side a. From the
onvexity
of the polygon and the denition of Pa , it follows that the polygon
lies in the strip bounded by b and
. Moreover, sin
e the polygon
has no parallel sides, Pa is the only vertex of the polygon lying
on b. Therefore the segment Pa A is stri
tly longer than any other
segment formed as the interse
tion of the polygon with a line parallel
to `. If ` lay inside the angle
orresponding to another side b, then
ontrary to this
on
lusion, the longest su
h segment would be Pb B
for some B , and hen
e this
annot o
ur. In other words, the angles
orresponding to a and b do not overlap.
We now prove that the angles we have
onstru
ted
over the entire
plane. Suppose this were not the
ase. Then there would exist some
angle with vertex O not
overed by any of the angles
onstru
ted.
Solution:
67
Choose within this angle a ray m, not parallel to any side or diagonal
of the polygon. Of all of the segments formed by interse
ting the
polygon with a line parallel to m,
hoose the one of maximum length.
Clearly one of its verti
es must be a vertex P of the polygon, while
the other lies on some side a. Draw the line
through P parallel to
the line b
ontaining a. If one of the sides adja
ent to P did not lie
inside the strip bounded by b and
, then we
ould have found a line
parallel to m interse
ting the polygon in a segment longer than P A.
Consequently, our polygon lies within the strip bounded by b and
,
from whi
h we dedu
e that P is the farthest vertex from the line b
ontaining side a. This means m lies in the angle
orresponding to
a,
ontradi
ting our
hoi
e of m.
We thus
on
lude that our
onstru
ted angles
over the plane without overlap, and hen
e the sum of their measures is 360. To nish
the proof, simply note that the sum of the desired angles is half that
of the
onstru
ted angles.
16. Goodnik writes 10 numbers on the board, then Nogoodnik writes 10
more numbers, all 20 of the numbers being positive and distin
t. Can
Goodnik
hoose his 10 numbers so that no matter what Nogoodnik
writes, he
an form 10 quadrati
trinomials of the form x2 + px + q,
whose
oe
ients p and q run through all of the numbers written,
su
h that the real roots of these trinomials
omprise exa
tly 11 values?
Solution: We will prove that Goodnik
an
hoose the numbers
Lemma 1
trinomial
x2 + ax + b
(b) If
68
Lemma 2
x2 + dx + a
: : : 0} 1 and 1 00
: : : 0} 1 99
: : : 9};
99
: : : 9} 1 00
| {z
| {z
| {z
| {z
p
i<jn
Vij > 0:
Vij = 2
1
i<jn
Vij > 0:
Hen
e for some j , ni=1 Vij > 0. Sin
e Vij
annot in
rease over time,
the sum of the distan
es from Pj to the other hikers is de
reasing
throughout the period.
70
A1 A2 ; Ak+1 Ak+2 and Ak Ak+3 are parallel, and hen
e the lines
B1 B2 ; Bk+1 Bk+2 and Bk Bk+3 must meet in a point, whi
h is
impossible, sin
e Bk+1 Bk+2 jjBk Bk+3 , while the lines B1 B2 and
Bk+1 Bk+2 are not parallel.
Note: For n = 3; 4, the statement of the problem is not true. For
examples,
onsider a regular tetrahedron having a square as a
rossse
tion, and a square pyramid whose lateral fa
es are equilateral
triangles, whi
h has a regular pentagon as a
ross-se
tion.
Also, the presented solution may be more
on
isely expressed using
entral proje
tion, and the property that under
entral proje
tion,
the images of lines passing through a single point (or parallel) are
lines passing through a single point (or parallel). It su
es to proje
t
the
ross-se
tion of the pyramid onto the plane of the base with
enter the vertex of the pyramid.
20. Do there exist three natural numbers greater than 1, su
h that the
square of ea
h, minus one, is divisible by ea
h of the others?
Solution: Su
h integers do not exist. Suppose a b
satisfy the
21. In isos
eles triangle ABC (AB = BC ) one draws the angle bise
tor
CD. The perpendi
ular to CD through the
enter of the
ir
um
ir
le
of ABC interse
ts BC at E . The parallel to CD through E meets
AB at F . Show that BE = F D.
Solution: We use dire
ted angles modulo . Let O be the
ir
um
ir
le of ABC , and K the interse
tion of BO and CD. From the
equality of the a
ute angles BOE and DCA having perpendi
ular
sides, it follows that \BOE = \KCE (CD being an angle bise
tor), whi
h means the points K; O; E; C lie on a
ir
le. From this it
follows that \OKE = \OCE ; but \OCE = \OBE , so OB = OC ,
and hen
e \BKE = \KBE , or in other words BE = KE . Moreover, \BKE = \KBE = \KBA, and so KE jjAB . Consequently,
72
Solution:
bk 1
= x1 + : : : + xk
bk
b
x1 x2 + x1 x3 + : : : + xk 1 xk = k 2
bk
and so
It follows that
b2
x21 + : : : + x2k = k 2 1
bk
b2
km2 x21 + : : : + x2k = k 2 1
bk
b
2 k 2:
bk
b
2 k 2
bk
M
m
2
2
+2
M
:
m
73
we
onstru
t the quadruple (a4m 3 ; a4m 2 ; a4m 1 ; a4m ) in the following manner:
1:
2:
3:
4:
(k2m
(k2m
(k2m
(k2m
; ; ; k2m);
0
1 ; ; k2m ; k2m )
0
0
1 ; k2m 1 ; k2m ; k2m )
0
1 ; k2m 1 ; ; k2m );
75
1.15 Spain
1. The natural numbers a and b are su
h that
a+1 b+1
+
b
a
is an integer. Show
p that the greatest
ommon divisor of a and b is
not greater than a + b.
Solution: Let d = g
d(a; b) and put a = md and b = nd. Then we
2a2 + 2
2 b2
2
3(b2
2 )
p
= p 2
2a + 2b2
2 + 2a2 + 2
2 b2
3(b2
2 )
p
< p
2(b
)2 + 2b2
2 + 2(b
)2 + 2
2 b2
sin
e a2 > (b
)2 by the triangle inequality. However, 2(b
)2 +
2b2
2 = (2b
)2 , so we have
3(b2
2 )
3(b
) <
:
2b
+ j2
bj
If b 2
then the two sides are equal, a
ontradi
tion. If b > 2
we
get 9(b
)2 < 3(b2
2 ); upon dividing o 3(b
) and rearranging,
we get 2b < 4
, again a
ontradi
tion. Thus we
annot have b >
or similarly b <
, so b =
.
3(b
) =
2a2 + 2b2
76
f (x) = ax2 + bx + ;
g(x) = x2 + bx + a:
Given that
jf (
1)j 1;
jf (0)j 1; jf (1)j 1;
jf (x)j 54
and
jg(x)j 2:
k 1 a(1 t)2 1
(1 t)2
= 1
t
(1 t)
t=(1 t)
k 1
(1 t)2 1 (1 t)2 2:
4. Find all real solutions of the equation
p
x2
p + 2 x2
1=x
x2 = 5x2 4 p + 4 (x2
p)(x2
1):
p)(x2
1) = (4x2
x=
p 4)2 ;
p 4j
pj16
8p
j3p
4j + 2jpj = 4 p:
Solution: We say two agents are partners if neither wat hes the
other. First note that ea
h agent wat
hes at least 7 others; if an agent
were wat
hing 6 or fewer others, we
ould take away 6 agents and
leave a group of 10 whi
h
ould not be arranged ina
ir
le. Similarly,
ea
h agent is wat
hed by at least 7 others. Hen
e ea
h agent is allied
with at most one other.
Given a group of 11 agents, there must be one agent x who is not
allied with any of the others in the group (sin
e allies
ome in pairs).
Remove that agen t and arrange the other 10 in a
ir
le. The removed
agent wat
hes at least one of the other 10 and is wat
hed by at least
one. Thus there exists a pair u; v of agents with u wat
hing v,
u wat
hing x and x wat
hing v (move around the
ir
le until the
dire
tion of the arrow to x
hanges); thus x
an be spli
ed into the
loop between u and v.
6. A regular pentagon is
onstru
ted externally on ea
h side of a regular
pentagon of side 1. This gure is then folded and the two edges
meeting at ea
h vertex of the original pentagon but not belonging
to the original pentagon are glued together. Determine the volume
of water that
an be poured into the resulting
ontainer without
spillage.
Solution: The gure formed by the water is a prismatoid of height
equal to the verti
al
omponent of one of the glued edges. To determine
this
omponent, introdu
te a
oordinate system
entered at one of the
base verti
es, su
h that (
os 36; sin 36; 0) and (
os 36; sin 36; 0) are two
verti
es. (All angles are measured in degrees.) The third vertex adja
ent
to this one has
oordinates (0; y; z ) for some y; z with z > 0, y2 + z 2 = 1
and y
os 36 =
os 108 (this being the dot produ
t of the ve
tors of the
two edges ). Therefore
5)=4
os 108 (1
p
=
y=
os 36 (1 + 5)=4
80
1.16 Turkey
1. Let
1996
Y
n=1
1 + nx3
n
a1996 = 10 + 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 3 + 2 = 45:
2. In a parallelogram ABCD with \A < 90, the
ir
le with diameter
AC meets the lines CB and CD again at E and F , respe
tively, and
the tangent to this
ir
le at A meets BD at P . Show that P; F; E
are
ollinear.
Without loss of generality, suppose B; D; P o
ur in
that order along BD. Let G and H be the se
ond interse
tions of
AD and AB with the
ir
le. By Menelaos's theorem, it su
es to
show that
CE BP DF
= 1:
EB P D F C
First note that
BP AD sin \BAP sin \AP D sin \BAP
=
=
:
AB DP sin \AP B sin \DAP sin \DAP
Sin
e AP is tangent to the
ir
le, \BAP = \HAP = \HCA =
\F AC ; similarly, \DAP = \GCA = \EAC . We
on
lude
BP AD sin \F AC F C
=
=
:
AB DP sin \EAC EC
Finally we note that DF=BE = DA=AB be
ause the right triangles
AF D and AEB have the same angles at B and D and are thus
similar. This proves the
laim.
Solution:
81
3. Given real numbers 0 = x1 < x2 < : : : < x2n < x2n+1 = 1 with
xi+1 xi h for 1 i 2n, show that
n
1 h X
< x2i (x2i+1
2
i=1
x2i 1 ) <
1+h
:
2
the dieren
e between the sum of the areas of the re
tangles bounded
by the lines x = x2i 1 , x = x2i+1 , y = 0, y = x2i and the triangle
bounded by the lines y = 0; x = 1; x = y. The area
ontained in the
re
tangles but not the triangle is a union of triangles of total base
less than 1 and height at most h, as is the area
ontained in the
triangle but not the re
tangles. Hen
e the sum diers from 1=2 by
at most h=2, as desired.
Solution:
82
n, and the sets generated by (0; a) and (1; b) have the
ommon value
(a b)2 + a = (a b)2 + (a b) + b. Thus we have a = 0 or a = 1
universally.
First suppose a = 0. If b
6 2 (mod 4), then (0; b) and (0;
) give
a
ommon value be
ause b
is a dieren
e of squares;
learly this
pre
ludes having three disjoint sets. Now suppose a = 1. If b
is
even, we
an nd x; y su
h that b
= (x + y + 1)(x y), and so
x2 + x + b = y2 + y +
; again, this pre
ludes having three disjoint
sets.
6. For whi
h ordered pairs of positive real numbers (a; b) is the limit of
every sequen
e fxn g satisfying the
ondition
lim (axn+1
n!1
bxn ) = 0
zero?
Solution: This holds if and only if b < a. If b > a, the sequen
e
xn = (b=a)n satises the
ondition but does not go to zero; if b = a,
the sequen
e xn = 1 + 1=2 + + 1=n does likewise. Now suppose
b < a. If L and M are the limit inferior and limit superior of the
given sequen
e, the
ondition implies M (b=a)L; sin
e L M ,
we have M (b=a)M , and so L; M 0. Similarly, the
ondition
implies L (b=a)M , and sin
e M L, we have L (b=a)L, so
L; M 0; therefore L = M = 0 and the sequen
e
onverges to 0.
83
=
=
=
=
=
(m + n)(m
(m + n)(m
(m + n)(m
(m + n)(m
(m + n)(m
n) = 101 1
n) = 143 7
n) = 91 11
n) = 77 13
n) = 110 10
f (n) =
84
2 1996
:
n(n + 1)
Namely,
1
3992
3992
f (n) = 2
++
n 1 12
(n 1)n
3992
1 1 1
1
= 2
1
+
++
n 1
2 2 3
n 1
1
3992
1
=
(n + 1)(n 1)
n
3992
n 1
3992
=
=
:
(n + 1)(n 1) n
n(n + 1)
In parti
ular, f (1996) = 2=1997:
1
n
line P Q makes the same angle with the line CQ as the tangent to
the
ir
um
ir
le of ABC through C . Hen
e P Q is parallel to the
tangent, so perpendi
ular to OC .
4. Dene
n
q(n) = p
b n
(n = 1; 2; : : :):
Determine all positive integers n for whi
h q(n) > q(n + 1).
Solution: We have q (n) > q (n + 1) if and only if n + 1 is a perfe
t
+ + xrn
n
1=r
x
+ + xn
;
n
u(v + w u) = a2 ;
v(w + u v) = b2 ;
w(u + v w) =
2 :
86
a2 + b2
2 = w2
a2 + b2
2
2ab
r
(w + u v)(w u + v)
=
4uv
r
w2 u2 v2 + 2uv
=
4uv
1 p
= p 1
os U
2
from whi
h we dedu
e
os U = 1 2
os2 A =
os( 2A). Therefore
U = 2A, and similarly V = 2B , W = 2C .
os C =
a + b +
+ d = 12
ab
d = 27 + ab + a
+ ad + b
+ bd +
d:
Solution: The rst equation implies ab
d 81 by the arithmeti
geometri
mean inequality, with equality holding for a = b =
=
d = 3. Again by AM-GM,
ab
d 27 + 6(ab
d)1=2 :
However, x2 6x 27 0 for x 3 or x 9, so (ab
d)1=2 9,
hen
e ab
d 81. We
on
lude ab
d = 81, and hen
e a = b =
=
d = 3.
88
Solution:
(2)
whi
h is equivalent to
2 sin 2 sin 1+2(2 sin 4 sin 1)+ +89(2 sin 178 sin 1) = 90
os 1: (3)
Using the identity 2 sin a sin b =
os(a b)
os(a + b), we nd
2 sin 2 sin 1 + 2(2 sin 4 sin 1) + + 89(2 sin 178 sin 1)
= (
os 1
os 3) + 2(
os 3
os 5) + + 89(
os 177
os 179)
=
os 1 +
os 3 +
os 5 + +
os 175 +
os 177 89
os 179
=
os 1 + (
os 3 +
os 177) + + (
os 89 +
os 91) 89
os 179
=
os 1 + 89
os 1 = 90
os 1;
so (1) is true.
Note: An alternate solution involves
omplex numbers. One expresses sin n as (ein=180 e in=180 )=(2i) and uses the fa
t that
si
< si
si
= ai ak ;
3. Let ABC be a triangle. Prove that there is a line ` (in the plane of
triangle ABC ) su
h that the interse
tion of the interior of triangle
ABC and the interior of its re
e
tion A0 B 0 C 0 in ` has area more
than 2=3 the area of triangle ABC .
First Solution: In all of the solutions, a; b;
denote the lengths
of the sides BC; CA; AB , respe
tively, and we assume without loss
of generality that a b
.
Choose ` to be the angle bise
tor of \A. Let P be the interse
tion of
` with BC . Sin
e AC AB , the interse
tion of triangles ABC and
90
91
and (bn ) as \type A" and \type B", respe
tively. For ea
h binary
sequen
e (x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn ) there is a
orresponding binary sequen
e
(y0 ; y1 ; : : : ; yn ) obtained by setting y0 = 0 and
yi = x1 + x2 + + xi mod 2; i = 1; 2; : : : ; n:
(2)
xi = yi + yi
mod 2; i = 1; 2; : : : ; n;
and it is easily seen that (1) provides a one-to-one
orresponden
e between the set of all binary sequen
es of length n and the set of binary
sequen
es of length n + 1 in whi
h the rst term is 0. Moreover, the
binary sequen
e (x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn ) has three
onse
utive terms equal
to 0, 1, 0 in that order if and only if the
orresponding sequen
e
(y0 ; y1 ; : : : ; yn ) has four
onse
utive terms equal to 0, 0, 1, 1 or 1, 1,
0, 0 in that order, so the rst is of type A if and only if the se
ond
is of type B. The set of type B sequen
es of length n + 1 in whi
h
the rst term is 0 is exa
tly half the total number of su
h sequen
es,
as
an be seen by means of the mapping in whi
h 0's and 1's are
inter
hanged.
Se
ond Solution: The expression 2an
so
2 sin x
os 40 = sin(80 x) sin x = 2 sin(40 x)
os 40:
93
Se ond Solution:
i ( 4)i 6
k
X
i=0
94
di ( 4)i (mod 4j );
95
1.19 Vietnam
1. Solve the system of equations:
7y 1
1
= 2
x+y
p
1
= 4 2:
x+y
3x 1 +
2
u
=p
2
u +v
p3
v
4 2
v
= p :
u2 + v2
7
Now let z = u + vi; the system then redu
es to the single equation
u+
p1 + 2p 2 i :
3
7
1
z+ =2
z
z = t t2 1
p
p
1 2 2
2
= p + p i p + 2I
3
7
21
from whi
h we dedu
e
2
1
u= p p
3
21
2
!2
2 2 p
v= p 2
7
2. Let ABCD be a tetrahedron with AB = AC = AD and
ir
um
enter O. Let G be the
entroid of triangle ACD, let E be the
midpoint of BG, and let F be the midpoint of AE . Prove that OF
is perpendi
ular to BG if and only if OD is perpendi
ular to AC .
We identify points with their ve
tors originating from
the
ir
um
enter, so that A B = A C = A D and A2 = B 2 =
Solution:
96
C 2 = D2 . Now
1
(A + E ) (B G)
2
1
= [(2A + B + G) (B G)
4
1
=
[18A B 6A (A + C + D) + 9B 2
36
1
=
[2A D 2C D:
36
Therefore OF ? BF if and only if OD ? AC .
(O
F ) (B
G) =
(A + C + D)2
+
1
ot
2
4
98
1
ot :
6
2
3s2 + s3 = 4 ) s1 s2 :
It su
es to prove the (un
onstrained) homogeneous inequality
3s22 s21 + s3 s31 4s32;
as then 3s2 + s3 = 4 will imply (s1 s2 )3 + 3(s31 s32 ) 0.
We now re
all two basi
inequalities about symmetri
means of nonnegative real numbers. The rst is S
hur's inequality:
3s31 + s3 4s1s2 ;
while the se
ond,
s21 s2
is a
ase of Ma
laurin's inequality sii+1
prove the
laim:
3s22 s21 + s3 s31 3s22s21 +
sii
s22 s3
s1
+1
. These ombine to
4s :
3
2
Finally, for those who have only seen S
hur's inequality in three
variables, note that in general any inequality involving s1 ; : : : ; sk
whi
h holds for n k variables also holds for n + 1 variables, by
repla
ing the variables x1 ; : : : ; xn+1 by the roots of the derivative of
the polynomial (x x1 ) (x xn+1 ).
99
tan
e between the segments MN and AC ; if this distan
e is h, extrapolating from the extremes MN = AC and M = N = D gives
that
2AB AC
AM + MN + NC = AC +
h:
BD=2
In parti
ular, if the segments MN and P Q maintain
onstant total
distan
e from AC , as they do if their distan
e remains
onstant, the
total perimeter of the hexagon is
onstant.
2. Let m and n be positive integers su
h that n m. Prove that
2n n!
(m + n)!
(m n)!
(m
+ m)n :
Justify
101
a+b + b+ a+ +a b a+ b+
a and + a b are
2(x + y) x + y + 2 xy = ( x + y)2
by the AM-GM inequality, with equality for x = y. Substituting
x = a + b
; y = b +
a, we get
a + b + b + a 2 a;
102
n 2:
Pn (x) =
x
[(x 1)n 1:
x 2
1
1 = (x2 + z 2) + (y2 + t2 ) [(x + z )2 + (y + t)2 j(x + z )(y + t)j
2
by two appli
ations of the power mean inequality.
5. A
onvex polyhedron P and a sphere S are situated in spa
e su
h
that S inter
epts on ea
h edge AB of P a segment XY with AX =
XY = Y B = 13 AB . Prove that there exists a sphere T tangent to
all edges of P .
Solution: Let AB and BC be two edges of the polyhedron, so that
the sphere meets AB in a segment XY with AX = XY = Y B and
meets BC in a segment ZW with BZ = ZW = W C . In the plane
ABC , the points X; Y; Z; W lie on the
ross-se
tion of the sphere,
whi
h is a
ir
le. Therefore BY BX = BZ BW by power-ofa-point; this
learly implies AB = BC , and so the
enter of S is
equidistant from AB and BC . We
on
lude that any two edges of
P are equidistant from S , and so there is a sphere
on
entri
with
S tangent to all edges.
104
1in
M
and so M
2
+
L
1
kM 2
kL
105
8. Show that there is no polynomial P (x) of degree 998 with real
oe
ients satisfying the equation P (x)2 1 = P (x2 + 1) for all real
numbers x.
The equation implies P (x) = P ( x); sin
e P has
even degree, it must be an even polynomial, that is, P (x) = Q(x2 )
for some polynomial Q of degree 499. Then Q(t)2 1 = Q(t2 +2t +1)
for innitely many values of t (namely t 0), so this equation is also
a polynomial identity. However, it implies that Q(t) = Q( 2 t);
if we put R(t) = Q(t 1), we have R(t) = R( t), so that R is an
odd polynomial. In parti
ular, R(0) = 0, so Q( 1) = 0. But now
we nd Q(1) = 1; Q(4) = 0; Q(25) = 1; : : :; this pro
ess produ
es
innitely many zeroes of Q, a
ontradi
tion.
Solution:
107
1
2
1
OG2 = (A + B + C )2 = R2 + R2 (
os 2A +
os 2B +
os 2C ):
9
3
9
Hen
e R2 OG2 = (a2 + b2 +
2 )=9. On the other hand, by the
standard area formula K = rs = ab
=4R, we have 2rR = ab
=(a +
b +
). We now note that
(a2 + b2 +
2 )(a + b +
) 9ab
by two appli
ations of the AM-GM inequality, so 2rR R2 OG2 ,
proving the
laim.
2. Let p > 5 be a prime number and X = fp n2 jn 2 N ; n2 < pg.
Prove that X
ontains two distin
t elements x; y su
h that x 6= 1
and x divides y.
Write p = m2 + k with k 2m. If 1 < k < 2m and
k is either odd or a multiple of 4, we
an write k = a(2m a) =
m2 (m a)2 , and then kjp2 (m a)2 . If k is even but not a
multiple of 4, write 2k = a(2m a) and pro
eed as above, whi
h
still works be
ause 2k < m2 for p > 5.
We
an't have k = 2m sin
e m2 + 2m = m(m + 2) is
omposite, so
the only
ase left is p = m2 +1. In this
ase let t = 2m = p (m 1)2
and write either t or 2t as a dieren
e of squares (m 1)2 (m a)2 ;
this still works be
ause 2t < (m 1)2 for p 7.
Solution:
4. Show that there exists a subset A of the set f1; 2; : : : ; 1996g having
the following properties:
(a) 1; 21996 1 2 A;
(b) every element of A, ex
ept 1, is the sum of two (not ne
essarily
distin
t) elements of A;
(
) A
ontains at most 2012 elements.
Solution: We state the problem a bit dierently: we want to
write down at most 2012 numbers, starting with 1 and ending with
21996 1, su
h that every number written is the sum of two numbers
previously written. If 2n 1 has been written, then 2n (2n 1)
an be obtained by n doublings, and 22n 1
an be obtained in
one more step. Hen
e we
an obtain 22 1; 24 1; : : : ; 2256 1
in (1 + 1) + (2 + 1) + + (128 + 1) = 263 steps. In 243 steps,
we turn 2256 1 into 2499 2243 . Now noti
e that the numbers
2243 2115; 2115 251; 251 219; 219 23; 23 21; 21 1 have all been
written down; in 6 steps, we now obtain 2499 1. We make this into
2998 1 in 500 steps, and make 21996 1 in 999 steps. Adding 1 for
the initial 1, we
ount
109
1. Let Z denote the set of nonzero integers. Show that an integer p > 3
is prime if and only if for any a; b 2 Z, exa
tly one of the numbers
p 1
p+1
N1 = a + b 6ab +
; N2 = a + b + 6ab +
6
6
belongs to Z .
Solution: If N1 = 0, then p = (6a
and
a (a b) = b:
a b = , a + b + 0 (mod n):
1
1
S1 vi = S1 v:
3
3
i=1
5
X
i=1
=1=
5
X
i=1
ki =
5
X
i=1
Si
;
S
S=
5
X
p
i=1
!2
Si
5
5
X
i=1
Si
by the power mean (or Cau
hy-S
hwarz) inequality. Equality holds
only when all of the Si are equal, as are the vi , whi
h o
urs when
M is the
enter of the ins
ribed sphere of the pyramid.
111
SABC vC BC BL + LM + MC
=
=
=
:
SABF vF F K
FK
112
LM F M EC AC
=
=
=
F K F P AC AE
and similarly
CM NF CD BC
=
=
=
1:
F K F K BD BD
The required assertion follows by putting this all together and noting
BL = F K .
113
and AMN )
along the lines, painting their paths red, a
ording to the following
rules:
(i) First A moves, then B , then C , then A, and so on in su
esion.
On ea
h turn, ea
h
ounter moves the full length of a side of
one of the short triangles.
(ii) No
ounter may retra
e a segment already painted red, though
it
an stop on a red vertex, even if another
ounter is already
there.
Show that for all integers n > 0 it is possible to paint all of the
segments red in this fashion.
Solution: The
ases n = 1; 2 are trivial; we use them as the base
ases for an indu
tive proof. We des
ribe the moves for A, understanding that the moves for B and C are the same moves rotated
by 2=3 and 4=3, respe
tively. To x dire
tions, imagine the triangle is oriented with one side parallel to the horizontal and the third
vertex above it, and suppose A starts at the bottom left. We rst
move A right for n 1 steps. We then alternate moving it up to the
left and down to the left for a total of 2n 5 steps. We then tra
e
a path through the inner triangle of side n 2 using the indu
tion
hypothesis, ending at another
orner. Finally, we follow the unused
edges from that
orner, ending three steps later.
Ai A2k
j
1 2
(A1 A2 A1 A3
os \A3 A1 A2 )(A1 A2 A2 A4
os \A1 A2 A4 )
=
3 4
(A3 A1 A3 A4
os \A1 A3 A4 )(A2 A4 A3 A4
os \A2 A4 A3 )
A1 A22 2
+
=
= 1 2:
A3 A4
3 + 4
Therefore 1=1 + 1=2 + 1=3 + 1=4 = 0, as desired.
117
2. Fifty numbers are
hosen from the set f1; : : : ; 99g, no two of whi
h
sum to 99 or 100. Prove that the
hosen numbers must be 50; 51; : : : ;
99.
Solution: In the sequen
e
\AP D, it lies at the same distan
e from the lines AP and DP . The
ratio of this distan
e to the distan
e from C to AP is AM=AC , while
118
son has held at least one party lie in dierent
onne
ted
omponents
of the original (and nal) graph of a
quaintan
e. If two people are
onne
ted by a path of length n, they will be
onne
ted by a path
of length n 1 after one person along the path (in
luding either of
the two people at the ends) holds a party, by a path of length n 2
after two of them hold a party, and so on. After ea
h person holds
a party, the two people on the ends will be a
quainted.
5. Let M be the interse
tion of the diagonals of a
y
li
quadrilateral,
N the interse
tions of the lines joining the midpoints of opposite
sides, and O the
ir
um
enter. Prove that OM ON .
Solution: We use ve
tors. If A; B; C; D are the verti
es of the
quadrilateral in order, then N = (A + B + C + D)=4; in parti
ular, if
E and F are the midpoints of AC and BD, respe
tively, then N is
the midpoint of EF . The
ir
le with diameter OM passes through E
and F , so OM OE and OM OF ; moreover, in any triangle, the
median to a side is no longer than the average of the other two sides
(rotate the triangle by about the foot of the median, so twi
e the
median be
omes a diagonal of a parallelogram, and use the triangle
inequality). Hen
e OM ON .
6. Prove that for every polynomial P (x) of degree 10 with integer
oe
ients, there is an innite (in both dire
tions) arithmeti
progression
whi
h does not
ontain P (k) for any integer k.
Solution:
1)
119
su
h lists. To ea
h list of preferen
es (a1 ; : : : ; an ) whi
h allows all drivers to park, asso
iate the list
(b2 ; : : : ; bn ), where bi is the dieren
e mod n + 1 between the numbers of the spa
e driver i wants and the spa
e the previous driver
took. Clearly any two lists give rise to dierent sequen
es of bi .
We now argue that any list of bi
omes from a list of preferen
es.
Imagine that the n parking spa
es are arranged in a
ir
le with an
extra phantom spa
e put in at the end. Put the rst driver in any
spa
e, then for i = 2; : : : ; n, put driver i in the rst available spa
e
after the spa
e bi away from the spa
e taken by driver i 1; this
gives a list of preferen
es if and only if the one spa
e not taken at
the end is the phantom spa
e. However, by shifting the position of
the rst driver, we
an always ensure that the phantom spa
e is the
spa
e not taken.
Thus the sequen
es of bi are equal in number to the lists of preferen
es, so there are (n + 1)n 1 of ea
h.
1
+ 5n
divides 3n + 5n .
that
sn = (3 + 5)sn 1 3 5 sn 2
so sn 1 must also divide 3 5 sn 2 . If n > 1, then sn 1 is
oprime
to 3 and 5, so sn 1 must divide sn 2 , whi
h is impossible sin
e
sn 1 > sn 2 .
120
10. Several positive integers are written on a bla
kboard. One
an erase
any two distin
t integers and write their greatest
ommon divisor and
least
ommon multiple instead. Prove that eventually the numbers
will stop
hanging.
Solution: If a; b are erased and
< d are written instead, we have
min(a; b) and d max(a; b); moreover, ab =
d. From this we
may
on
lude a + b
+ d by writing ab + a2 =
d + a2 a
+ ad (the
latter sin
e (d a)(
a) 0) and dividing both sides by a. Thus
the sum of the numbers never de
reases, and it is obviously bounded
(e.g. by n times the produ
t of the numbers, where n is the number
of numbers on the board); hen
e it eventually stops
hanging, at
whi
h time the numbers never
hange.
that the sets of values of the two polynomials on the integers are
disjoint.
Solution: If p is odd, then x2 + px + q has the same parity as q for
122
Q(x) =
j 2T
xj ;
1):
i
i2S x
and
This follows by noting that x 1jP (x) Q(x) sin
e both groups have
the same number of elements, and that x2n 1 + + 1jP (x) + Q(x)
sin
e ea
h of the numbers 1; : : : ; 2n o
urs exa
tly on
e.
17. The points A0 and C 0 are
hosen on the diagonal BD of a parallelogram ABCD so that AA0 k CC 0 . The point K lies on the segment
A0 C , and the line AK meets CC 0 at L. A line parallel to BC is
drawn through K , and a line parallel to BD is drawn through C ;
these meet at M . Prove that D; M; L are
ollinear.
Solution: Let M 0 and M 00 be the interse
tions of DM with MK
124
125
(a+2; b 2) and the se
ond player is for
ed to
over it and (a+3; b 2),
and so on. After (a+k; b k) is marked, the result is a stable position.
(Note that the assumption b k 6= 1 ensures that the moves des
ribed
do not
ross the edge of the board.)
To nish the proof, we need to show that su
h a
hain of
orners must
exist. Write the labels (a1 ; b1 ); : : : ; (ak ; bk ) in a row, and join two
adja
ent labels by a segment if they are of the form (a; b); (a+1; b 1).
If two adja
ent labels (a; b); (a + i; b j ) are not joined by a segment,
then either i = 1 or j = 1 but not both. If i = 1, draw an arrow
between the labels pointing towards (a + i; b j ); otherwise draw
the arrow the other way. Also draw arrows pointing to (a1 ; b1 ) and
(ak ; bk ). There is now one more
hain of
orners (joined by segments)
than arrows, so some
hain has two arrows pointing to it. That
hain
satises the
ondition above, so the rst player
an use it to
reate
another stable position. Consequently, the rst player
an ensure
vi
tory.
20. Let BD be the bise
tor of angle B in triangle ABC . The
ir
um
ir
le
of triangle BDC meets AB at E , while the
ir
um
ir
le of triangle
ABD meets BC at F . Prove that AE = CF .
Solution: By power-of-a-point, AE AB = AD AC and CF CB =
126
22. Prove that there are no positive integers a and b su
h that for ea
h
pair p; q of distin
t primes greater than 1000, the number ap + bq is
also prime.
Solution: Suppose a; b are so
hosen, and let m be a prime greater
127
5 nY1
1
8 i=6
2i
We show this by indu
tion on n: a good assignment on n 1 verti
es
an be extended to a good assignment on n verti
es simply by
avoiding having all edges from the last vertex pointing in the same
dire
tion, whi
h o
urs in 2
ases out of 2n 1.
Now it su
es to show that the above expression is more than 1=2.
In fa
t,
1
1 i 4
Y
X
1 1
1 i
1+
i
2
i=5
i=5 2
1 i+1
1 X
= 1+ 5
2 i=0 2i
1X
1 1
1 X
= 1+ 5
2 i=0 k=i 2i
1 1
1 X
= 1+ 5
2 i=0 2i 1
4 9
= 1+ 5 =
2
8
Thus the fra
tion of good assignments is at least (5=8)(8=9) = 5=9 >
1=2.
25. The positive integers m; n; m; n are written on a bla
kboard. A
generalized Eu
lidean algorithm is applied to this quadruple as follows: if the numbers x; y; u; v appear on the board and x > y, then
x y; y; u + v; v are written instead; otherwise x; y x; u; v + u are
written instead. The algorithm stops when the numbers in the rst
pair be
ome equal (they will equal the greatest
ommon divisor of
m and n). Prove that the arithmeti
mean of the numbers in the
se
ond pair at that moment equals the least
ommon multiple of m
and n.
Solution: Note that xv + yu does not
hange under the operation, so it remains equal to 2mn throughout. Thus when the rst
128
two numbers both equal g
d(m; n), the sum of the latter two is
2mn= g
d(m; n) = 2l
m(m; n).
26. A set of geometri
gures
onsists of red equilateral triangles and
blue quadrilaterals with all angles greater than 80 and less than
100. A
onvex polygon with all of its angles greater than 60 is
assembled from the gures in the set. Prove that the number of
(entirely) red sides of the polygon is a multiple of 3.
Solution: We rst enumerate the ways to de
ompose various angles
= 180
= 3T; 2Q
= 360
= 6T; 3T + 2Q; 4Q
(The range for Q
annot be in
reased, sin
e 3Q ranges from 240
to 300; even in
luding the endpoints would allow for additional
ombinations above.)
The set of all of the verti
es of all of the polygons
an be divided
into three
ategories, namely those whi
h lie in the interior, on an
edge, or at a vertex of the large polygon. The above
omputation
shows that the number of T angles at interior or edge verti
es is a
multiple of 3; sin
e the total number is three times the number of
triangles, we dedu
e that the number of T angles at verti
es of the
large polygon is also a multiple of 3.
Next note that every edge is entirely of one
olor, sin
e we
annot
have both a T and a Q at a 180 angle. Additionally, no vertex of
the large polygon
onsists of more than two angles, and a T
annot
o
ur by itself. All this means that the number of red sides is half
the number of T angles at the verti
es, whi
h is a multiple of 3.
it for n = 4:
1
14
11
8
5
2
15
12
9
6
3
16
13
10
7
4
Note that the sum of the numbers written may also be
omputed as
the produ
t of ea
h number with the number of empty spa
es in its
row and
olumn at the time it was pla
ed.
We now simply note that the
ontribution from rows is at least that
of the minimal arrangement, and analogously for
olumns. This is
be
ause we end up multiplying n numbers by ea
h of 0; 1; : : : ; n 1.
By the rearrangement inequality, the total is minimizing by multiplying 1; : : : ; n by n 1, n + 1; : : : ; 2n by n 2, and so on.
130
3.1 Austria
1. Solve the system
(x 1)(y2 + 6) = y(x2 + 1)
(y 1)(x2 + 6) = x(y2 + 1):
2. Consider the sequen
e of positive integers whi
h satises an = a2n 1 +
a2n 2 + a2n 3 for all n 3. Prove that if ak = 1997 then k 3.
3. Let k be a positive integer. The sequen
e an is dened by a1 = 1, and
an is the n-th positive integer greater than an 1 whi
h is
ongruent
to n modulo k. Find an in
losed form. What happens if k = 2?
4. Given a parallelogram ABCD, ins
ribe in the angle \BAD a
ir
le
that lies entirely inside the parallelogram. Similarly, ins
ribe a
ir
le
in the angle \BCD that lies entirely inside the parallelogram and
su
h that the two
ir
les are tangent. Find the lo
us of the tangen
y
point of the
ir
les, as the two
ir
les vary.
131
3.2 Bulgaria
1. Find all real numbers m su
h that the equation
(x2
4x 2m(m2 + 1)) = 0
x ; x ; x 2 A;
e ; e ; e 2 f 1; 0; 1g;
at least one of e ; e ; e
if xi = xj , then ei ej 6=
1
is nonzero;
1.
132
3x x
os
+ +2=0
2a
2a 3
2
+ b
3 + sin x
x2 2ax + b = 0
x2 2bx +
= 0
x2 2
x + a = 0
are natural numbers.
133
x2 + y2 + z 2 + 3(x + y + z ) + 5 = 0
has no solutions in rational numbers.
(a) Prove that Pn+3 (x) = 3Pn+2 (x) 3Pn+1 (x) + (x + 1)Pn (x).
(b) Find all integers a su
h that 3b (n 1)=2
divides Pn (a3 ) for all
n 3.
19. Let M be the
entroid of triangle ABC .
(a) Prove that if the line AB is tangent to the
ir
um
ir
le of the
triangle AMC , then
2
sin \CAM + sin \CBM p :
3
134
2 +1 a + 2 +1 b + 2 +1 :
22. Let ABC be a triangle and M; N the feet of the angle bise
tors of
B; C , respe
tively. Let D be the interse
tion of the ray MN with
the
ir
um
ir
le of ABC . Prove that
1
1
1
=
+
:
BD AD CD
23. Let X be a set of
ardinality n + 1 (n 2). The ordered ntuples (a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an ) and (b1 ; b2 ; : : : ; bn ) of distin
t elements of X
are
alled separated if there exist indi
es i 6= j su
h that ai = bj .
Find the maximal number of n-tuples su
h that any two of them are
separated.
135
3.3 Canada
1
1 3
1997 1
<
< :
1999 2 4
1998 44
4. Let O be a point inside a parallelogram ABCD su
h that \AOB +
\COD = . Prove that \OBC = \ODC .
5. Express the sum
n
X
( 1)k
n
3
2 + 26k + 24 k
k
+
9
k
k=0
in the form p(n)=q(n), where p; q are polynomials with integer oef ients.
136
3.4 China
1. Let x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; x1997 be real numbers satisfying the following
onditions:
(a)
(b)
p
xi 3 for i = 1; 2; : : : ; 1997;
p
x +x ++x
= 318 3.
p13
1997
12
1
Determine the maximum value of x12
1 + x2 + + x1997 2.
2. Let A1 B1 C1 D1 be a
onvex quadrilateral and P a point in its interior. Assume that the angles P A1 B1 and P A1 D1 are a
ute, and similarly for the other three verti
es. Dene Ak ; Bk ; Ck ; Dk as the re
e
tions of P a
ross the lines Ak 1 Bk 1 ; Bk 1 Ck 1 ; Ck 1 Dk 1 ; Dk 1 Ak 1 .
(a) Of the quadrilaterals Ak Bk Ck Dk for k = 1; : : : ; 12, whi
h ones
are ne
essarily similar to the 1997th quadrilateral?
(b) Assume that the 1997th quadrilateral is
y
li
. Whi
h of the
rst 12 quadrilaterals must then be
y
li
?
3. Show that there exist innitely many positive integers n su
h that
the numbers 1; 2; : : : ; 3n
an be labeled
a1 ; : : : ; a n ; b 1 ; : : : ; b n ;
1 ; : : : ;
n
in some order so that the following
onditions hold:
(a) a1 + b1 +
1 = = an + bn +
n is a multiple of 6;
(b) a1 + + an = b1 + + bn =
1 + +
n is also a multiple
of 6.
4. Let ABCD be a
y
li
quadrilateral. The lines AB and CD meet at
P , and the lines AD and BC meet at Q. Let E and F be the points
where the tangents from Q meet the
ir
um
ir
le of ABCD. Prove
that points P; E; F are
ollinear.
5. Let A = f1; 2; : : : ; 17g and for a fun
tion f : A ! A, denote f [1 (x) =
f (x) and f [k+1 (x) = f (f [k (x)) for k 2 N . Find the largest natural
number M su
h that there exists a bije
tion f : A ! A satisfying
the following
onditions:
137
an+m an + am (m; n 2 N ):
Prove that
an ma1 +
for all n m.
138
n
1 am
3.5 Colombia
139
140
3.7 Fran
e
1. Ea
h vertex of a regular 1997-gon is labeled with an integer, su
h
that the sum of the integers is 1. Starting at some vertex, we write
down the labels of the verti
es reading
ounter
lo
kwise around the
polygon. Can we always
hoose the starting vertex so that the sum
of the rst k integers written down is positive for k = 1; : : : ; 1997?
2. Find the maximum volume of a
ylinder
ontained in the interse
tion
of a sphere with
enter O radius R and a
one with vertex O meeting
the sphere in a
ir
le of radius r, having the same axis as the
one?
3. Find the maximum area of the orthogonal proje
tion of a unit
ube
onto a plane.
4. Given a triangle ABC , let a; b;
denote the lengths of its sides and
m; n; p the lengths of its medians. For every positive real , let ()
be the real number satisfying
a + b +
= () (m + n + p ):
(a) Compute (2).
(b) Determine the limit of () as tends to 0.
(
) For whi
h triangles ABC is () independent of ?
141
3.8 Germany
1. Determine all primes p for whi
h the system
p + 1 = 2x2
p2 + 1 = 2y2
has a solution in integers x; y.
2. A square Sa is ins
ribed in an a
ute triangle ABC by pla
ing two
verti
es on side BC and one on ea
h of AB and AC . Squares Sb and
S
are ins
ribed similarly. For whi
h triangles ABC will Sa ; Sb ; S
all be
ongruent?
3. In a park, 10000 trees have been pla
ed in a square latti
e. Determine the maximum number of trees that
an be
ut down so that
from any stump, you
annot see any other stump. (Assume the trees
have negligible radius
ompared to the distan
e between adja
ent
trees.)
4. In the
ir
ular segment AMB , the
entral angle \AMB is less than
90. FRom an arbitrary point on the ar
AB one
onstru
ts the
perpendi
ulars P C and P D onto MA and MB (C 2 MA, D 2
MB ). Prove that the length of the segemnt CD does not depend on
the position of P on the ar
AB .
5. In a square ABCD one
onstru
ts the four quarter
ir
les having
their respe
tive
enters at A, B , C and D and
ontaining the two
adja
ent verti
es. Inside ABCD lie the four interse
tion points E ,
F , G and H , of these quarter
ir
les, whi
h form a smaller square
S . Let C be the
ir
le tangent to all four quarter
ir
les. Compare
the areas of S and C .
6. Denote by u(k) the largest odd number that divides the natural
number k. Prove that
n
2
1 X
u(k)
2n k=1 k
32 :
x3 = 2y 1
142
y3 = 2z 1
z 3 = 2x 1
8. Dene the fun
tions
143
3.9 Gree
e
1. Let P be a point inside or on the sides of a square ABCD. Determine
the minimum and maximum possible values of
144
3.10 Hungary
1. Ea
h member of a
ommittee ranks appli
ants A; B; C in some order.
It is given that the majority of the
ommittee ranks A higher than
B , and also that the majority of the
ommitee ranks B higher than
C . Does it follow that the majority of the
ommittee ranks A higher
than C ?
2. Let a; b;
be the sides, ma ; mb ; m
the lengths of the altitudes, and
da ; db ; d
the distan
es from the verti
es to the ortho
enter in an
a
ute triangle. Prove that
ma da + mb db + m d =
a2 + b2 +
2
:
2
145
3.11 Iran
1. Suppose w1 ; : : : ; wk are distin
t real numbers with nonzero sum.
Prove that there exist integers n1 ; : : : ; nk su
h that n1 w1 + +
nk wk > 0 and that for any permutation of f1; : : : ; kg not equal to
the identity, we have n1 w(1) + + nk w(k) < 0.
2. Suppose the point P varies along the ar
BC of the
ir
um
ir
le
of triangle ABC , and let I1 ; I2 be the respe
tive in
enters of the
triangles P AB; P AC . Prove that
(a) the
ir
um
ir
le of P I1 I2 passes through a xed point;
(b) the
ir
le with diameter I1 I2 passes through a xed point;
(
) the midpoint of I1 I2 lies on a xed
ir
le.
3. Suppose f : R+ ! R+ is a de
reasing
ontinuous fun
tion su
h that
for all x; y 2 R+ ,
146
3.12 Ireland
1. Find all pairs (x; y) of integers su
h that 1 + 1996x + 1998y = xy.
2. Let ABC be an equilateral triangle. For M inside the triangle, let
D; E; F be the feet of the perpendi
ulars from M to BC; CA; AB ,
respe
tively. Find the lo
us of points M su
h that \F DE = =2.
3. Find all polynomials p(x) su
h that for all x,
(x 16)p(2x) = 16(x 1)p(x):
4. Let a; b;
be nonnegative real numbers su
h that a + b +
Prove that a2 + b2 +
2 ab
.
ab .
a b = 2(a) 1 (b 3) + a:
(a) Prove that if a; b 2 S , then a b 2 S .
(b) Prove that if a; b;
2 S , then (a b)
= a (b
).
6. Let ABCD be a
onvex quadrilateral with an ins
ribed
ir
le. If
\A = \B = 2=3, \D = =2 and BC = 1, nd the length of AD.
7. Let A be a subset of f0; 1; : : : ; 1997g
ontaining more than 1000
elements. Prove that A
ontains either a power of 2, or two distin
t
integers whose sum is a power of 2.
8. Determine the number of natural numbers n satisfying the following
onditions:
(a) The de
imal expansion of n
ontains 1000 digits.
(b) All of the digits of n are odd.
(
) The absolute value of the dieren
e between any two adja
ent
digits of n is 2.
147
3.13 Italy
1. A re
tangular strip of paper 3
entimeters wide is folded exa
tly
on
e. What is the least possible area of the region where the paper
overs itself?
2. Let f be a real-valued fun
tion su
h that for any real x,
(a) f (10 + x) = f (10 x);
(b) f (20 + x) = f (20 x).
Prove that f is odd (f ( x) = f (x)) and periodi
(there exists
T > 0 su
h that f (x + T ) = f (x)).
3. The positive quadrant of a
oordinate plane is divided into unit
squares by latti
e lines. Is it possible to
olor some of the unit
squares so as to satisfy the following
onditions:
(a) ea
h square with one vertex at the origin and sides parallel to
the axes
ontains more
olored than un
olored squares;
(b) ea
h line parallel to the angle bise
tor of the quadrant at the
origin passes through only nitely many
olored squares?
4. Let ABCD be a tetrahedron. Let a be the length of AB and let
S be the area of the proje
tion of the tetrahedron onto a plane
perpendi
ular to AB . Determine the volume of the tetrahedron in
terms of a and S .
5. Let X be the set of natural numbers whose de
imal representations
have no repeated digits. For n 2 X , let An be the set of numbers
whose digits are a permutation of the digits of n, and let dn be the
greatest
ommon divisor of the numbers in An . Find the largest
possible value of dn .
148
3.14 Japan
1. Prove that among any ten points lo
ated in a
ir
le of diameter 5,
there exist two at distan
e less than 2 from ea
h other.
2. Let a; b;
be positive integers. Prove the inequality
(b +
a)2
(
+ a b)2
(a + b
)2
+
+
2
2
2
2
(b +
) + a
(
+ a) + b
(a + b)2 +
2
35 ;
149
3.15 Korea
1. Show that among any four points
ontained
in a unit
ir
le, there
p
exist two whose distan
e is at most 2.
2. Let f : N
3.
=1
2xyz = 0.
6. Find the smallest integer k su
h that there exist two sequen
es fai g,
fbig (i = 1; : : : ; k) su
h that
(a) For i = 1; : : : ; k, ai ; bi 2 f1; 1996; 19962; : : :g.
(b) For i = 1; : : : ; k, ai 6= bi .
(
) For i = 1; : : : ; k 1, ai ai+1 and bi bi+1 .
P
P
(d) ki=1 ai = ki=1 bi .
151
3.16 Poland
1. The positive integers x1 ; : : : ; x7 satisfy the
onditions
x6 = 144;
n = 1; 2; 3; 4:
Compute x7 .
2. Solve the following system of equations in real numbers x; y; z :
3(x2 + y2 + z 2 ) = 1
x y + y2 z 2 + z 2x2 = xyz (x + y + z )3 :
2 2
a1 = 0;
an = abn=2 + ( 1)n(n+1)=2
n > 1:
\F CE = \F DE and \F EC = \BDC:
6. Consider n points (n 2) on a unit
ir
le. Show that at most n2 =3 of
the segments p
with endpoints among the n
hosen points have length
greater than 2.
152
3.17 Romania
1. In the plane are given a line and three
ir
les tangent to and
externally tangent to ea
h other. Prove that the triangle formed by
the
enters of the
ir
les is obtuse, and nd all possible measures of
the obtuse angle.
2. Determine all sets A of nine positive integers su
h that for any n
500, there exists a subset B of A, the sum of whose elements is n.
3. Let n 4 be an integer and M a set of n points in the plane, no three
ollinear and not all lying on a
ir
le. Find all fun
tions f : M ! R
su
h that for any
ir
le C
ontaining at least three points of M ,
X
P 2M \C
f (P ) = 0:
4. Let ABC be a triangle, D a point on side BC and ! the
ir
um
ir
le of ABC . Show that the
ir
les tangent to !; AD; BD and
to !; AD; DC , respe
tively, are tangent to ea
h other if and only if
\BAD = \CAD.
5. Let V A1 An be a pyramid with n 4. A plane interse
ts the
edges V A1 ; : : : ; V An at B1 ; : : : ; Bn , respe
tively. Suppose that the
polygons A1 An and B1 Bn are similar. Prove that is parallel
to the base of the pyramid.
6. Let A be the set of positive integers representable in the form a2 +2b2
for integers a; b with b 6= 0. Show that if p2 2 A for a prime p, then
p 2 A.
7. Let p 5 be a prime and
hoose k 2 f0; : : : ; p 1g. Find the maximum length of an arithmeti
progression, none of whose elements
ontain the digit k when written in base p.
8. Let p; q; r be distin
t prime numbers and let A be the set
A = fpaqb r
: 0 a; b;
5g:
Find the smallest integer n su
h that any n-element subset of A
ontains two distin
t elements x; y su
h that x divides y.
153
f (x2 + y2 ) = f (x2
y2 ) + f (2xy):
fa
+ a 1; a3 + a2
1; : : :g
3.18 Russia
1. Show that the numbers from 1 to 16
an be written in a line, but
not in a
ir
le, so that the sum of any two adja
ent numbers is a
perfe
t square.
2. On equal sides AB and BC of an equilateral triangle ABC are
hosen
points D and K , and on side AC are
hosen points E and M , so
that DA + AE = KC + CM = AB . Show that the angle between
the lines DM and KE equals =3.
3. A
ompany has 50000 employees. For ea
h employee, the sum of the
numbers of his immediate superiors and of his immediate inferiors is
7. On Monday, ea
h worker issues an order and gives
opies of it to
ea
h of his immediate inferiors (if he has any). Ea
h day thereafter,
ea
h worker takes all of the orders he re
eived on the previous day
and either gives
opies of them to all of his immediate inferiors if he
has any, or otherwise
arries them out himself. It turns out that on
Friday, no orders are given. Show that there are at least 97 employees
who have no immediate superiors.
4. The sides of the a
ute triangle ABC are diagonals of the squares
K1; K2 ; K3 . Prove that the area of ABC is
overed by the three
squares.
5. The numbers from 1 to 37 are written in a line so that ea
h number
divides the sum of the previous numbers. If the rst number is 37
and the se
ond number is 1, what is the third number?
6. Find all paris of prime numbers p; q su
h that p3
q5 = (p + q)2 .
7. (a) In Mexi
o City, to restri
t tra
ow, for ea
h private
ar are
designated two days of the week on whi
h that
ar
annot be
driven on the streets of the
ity. A family needs to have use of
at least 10
ars ea
h day. What is the smallest number of
ars
they must possess, if they may
hoose the restri
ted days for
ea
h
ar?
(b) The law is
hanged to restri
t ea
h
ar only one day per week,
but the poli
e get to
hoose the days. The family bribes the
poli
e so that for ea
h
ar, they will restri
t one of two days
hosen by the family. Now what is the smallest number of
ars
the family needs to have a
ess to 10
ars ea
h day?
155
8. A regular 1997-gon is divided by noninterse
ting diagonals into triangles. Prove that at least one of the triangles is a
ute.
9. On a
halkboard are written the numbers from 1 to 1000. Two
players take turns erasing a number from the board. The game ends
when two numbers remain: the rst player wins if the sum of these
numbers is divisible by 3, the se
ond player wins otherwise. Whi
h
player has a winning strategy?
10. 300 apples are given, no one of whi
h weighs more than 3 times any
other. Show that the apples may be divided into groups of 4 su
h
that no group weighs more than 11=2 times any other group.
11. In Robotland, a nite number of (nite) sequen
es of digits are forbidden. It is known that there exists an innite de
imal fra
tion,
not
ontaining any forbidden sequen
es. Show that there exists an
innite periodi
de
imal fra
tion, not
ontaining any forbidden sequen
es.
12. (a) A
olle
tion of 1997 numbers has the property that if ea
h number is subtra
ted from the sum of the remaining numbers, the
same
olle
tion of numbers is obtained. Prove that the produ
t
of the numbers is 0.
(b) A
olle
tion of 100 numbers has the same property. Prove that
the produ
t of the numbers is positive.
13. Given triangle ABC , let A1 ; B1 ; C1 be the midpoints of the broken
lines CAB; ABC; BCA, respe
tively. Let lA ; lB ; lC be the respe
tive
lines through A1 ; B1 ; C1 parallel to the angle bise
tors of A; B; C .
Show that lA; lB ; lC are
on
urrent.
14. The MK-97
al
ulator
an perform the following three operations on
numbers in its memory:
(a) Determine whether two
hosen numbers are equal.
(b) Add two
hosen numbers together.
(
) For
hosen numbers a and b, nd the real roots of x2 + ax + b,
or announ
e that no real roots exist.
The results of ea
h operation are a
umulated in memory. Initially
the memory
ontains a single number x. How
an one determine,
using the MK-97, whether x is equal to 1?
156
y2 )2 = 1 + 16y:
160
161
3.20 Spain
1. Cal
ulate the sum of the squares of the rst 100 terms of an arithmeti
progression, given that the sum of the rst 100 terms is 1 and
that the sum of the se
ond, fourth, . . . , and the hundredth terms is
1.
2. Let A be a set of 16 latti
e points forming a square with 4 points on
a side. Find the maximum number of points of A no three of whi
h
form an isos
eles right triangle.
3. For ea
h parabola y = x2 + px + q meeting the
oordinate axes in
three distin
t points, a
ir
le through these points is drawn. Show
that all of the
ir
les pass through a single point.
4. Let p be a prime number. Find all k
positive integer.
2 Z su h that k
pk is a
162
3.21 Taiwan
1. Let a be a rational number, b;
; d be real numbers, and f :
[ 1; 1 a fun
tion satisfying
f (x + a + b) f (x + b) = bx + 2a + bx 2bx + a
bb + d
+ + a2 102 + a0 ;
9. For n k 3, let X = f1; 2; : : : ; ng and let Fk be a family of kelement subsets of X su
h that any two subsets in Fk have at most
k 2
ommon elements. Show that there exists a subset Mk of X
with at least blog2 n
+ 1 elements
ontaining no subset in Fk .
164
3.22 Turkey
1. In a triangle ABC with a right angle at A, let H denote the foot of
the altitude from A. Show that the sum of the inradii of the triangles
ABC; ABH; ACH equals AH .
1
2. The sequen
es fan g1
n=1 ; fbn gn=1 are dened as follows: a1 = ,
b1 = , an+1 = an bn , bn+1 = an + bn for all n 1. How
many pairs (; ) of real numbers are there su
h that a1997 = b1 and
b1997 = a1 ?
3. In a so
er league, when a player moves from a team X with x players
to a team Y with y players, the federation re
eives y x million
dollars from Y if y x, but pays x y million dollars to X if x > y.
A player may move as often as he wishes during a season. The league
onsists of 18 teams, ea
h of whi
h begins a
ertain season with 20
players. At the end of the season, 12 teams end up with 20 players,
while the other 6 end up with 16; 16; 21; 22; 22; 23 players. What is
the maximum amount the federation
ould have earned during the
season?
4. The edge AE of a
onvex pentagon ABCDE with verti
es on a unit
ir
le passes through the
enter of the
ir
le. If AB = a, BC = b,
CD =
, DE = d and ab =
d = 1=4,
ompute AC + CE in terms
of a; b;
; d.
5. Prove that for ea
h prime p 7, there exists a positive integer n and
integers x1 ; : : : ; xn ; y1 ; : : : ; yn not divisible by p su
h that
x21 + y12 x22 (mod p)
x22 + y22 x23 (mod p)
..
.
x2n + yn2
x
2
1
(mod p):
3.23 Ukraine
1. A re
tangular grid is
olored in
he
kerboard fashion, and ea
h
ell
ontains an integer. It is given that the sum of the numbers in ea
h
row and the sum of the numbers in ea
h
olumn is even. Prove that
the sum of all numbers in bla
k
ells is even.
2. Find all solutions in real numbers to the following system of equations:
x1 + x2 + + x1997 = 1997
x41 + x42 + + x1997
= x31 + x32 + + x31997 :
4
3. Let d(n) denote the greatest odd divisor of the natural number n. We
dene the fun
tion f : N ! N su
h that f (2n 1) = 2n and f (2n) =
n + d2(nn) for all n 2 N . Find all k su
h that f (f ( f (1) )) = 1997,
where f is iterated k times.
4. Two regular pentagons ABCDE and AEKP L are situated in spa
e
so that \DAK = 60. Prove that the planes ACK and BAL are
perpendi
ular.
5. The equation ax3 + bx2 +
x + d = 0 is known to have three distin
t
real roots. How many real roots are there of the equation
4(ax3 + bx2 +
x + d)(3ax + b) = (3ax2 + 2bx +
)2 ?
6. Let Q + denote the set of positive rational numbers. Find all fun
tions f : Q + ! Q + su
h that for all x 2 Q + :
(a) f (x + 1) = f (x) + 1;
(b) f (x2 ) = f (x)2 .
7. Find the smallest integer n su
h that among any n integers, there
exist 18 integers whose sum is divisible by 18.
8. Points K; L; M; N lie on the edges AB; BC; CD; DA of a (not ne
essarily right) parallelepiped ABCDA1 B1 C1 D1 . Prove that the
enters of the
ir
ums
ribed spheres of the tetrahedra A1 AKN ,
B1 BKL, C1 CLM , D1 DMN are the verti
es of a parallelogram.
166
167
xk = 0 if xk
= 0;
pk
xk 1
if xk
6= 0;
+ (b3 + 3 + ab )
+ ( 3 + a3 + ab )
(ab
) :
1
168
3.26 Vietnam
1. Determine the smallest integer k for whi
h there exists a graph on
25 verti
es su
h that every vertex is adja
ent to exa
tly k others,
and any two nonadja
ent verti
es are both adja
ent to some third
vertex.
2. Find the largest real number for whi
h there exists an innite
sequen
e a1 ; a2 ; : : : of positive integers satisfying the following properties.
(a) For ea
h n 2 N , an > 1997n.
(b) For every n 2, an does not ex
eed the greatest
ommon
divisor of the set fai + aj : i + j = ng.
3. Let f : N
pi j 2t
if and only if
k j 2t :
4. Find all pairs (a; b) of positive reals su
h that for every n 2 N and
every real number x satisfying
4n2 x = log2 (2n2 x + 1);
we have ax + bx 2 + 3x.
169
S =1+
1
1
1
+
++
;
1
1
1
1
1
1
1+ 3 1+ 3 + 6
1 + 3 + 6 + + 1993006
where the denominators
ontain partial sums of the sequen
e of re
ipro
als of triangular numbers. Prove that S > 1001.
2. Find an integer n with 100 n 1997 su
h that n divides 2n + 2.
3. Let ABC be a triangle and let
m
m
m
la = a ; lb = b ; l
=
;
Ma
Mb
M
where ma ; mb ; m
are the lengths of the internal angle bise
tors and
Ma; Mb ; M
are the lengths of the extensions of the internal angle
bise
tors to the
ir
um
ir
le. Prove that
la
l
l
+ b +
3;
sin2 A sin2 B sin2 C
with equality if and only if ABC is equilateral.
4. The triangle A1 A2 A3 has a right angle at A3 . For n 3, let An+1
be the foot of the perpendi
ular from An to An 1 An 2 .
(a) Show that there is a unique point P in the plane interior to the
triangles An 2 An 1 An for all n 3.
(b) For xed A1 and A3 , determine the lo
us of P as A2 varies.
5. Persons A1 ; : : : ; An (n 3) are seated in a
ir
le in that order, and
ea
h person Ai holds a number ai of obje
ts, su
h that (a1 + +
an )=n is an integer. It is desired to redistribute the obje
ts so that
ea
h person holds the same number; obje
ts may only be passed
from one person to either of her two neighbors. How should the
redistribution take pla
e so as to minimize the number of passes?
170
4
V + St + Lt2 + t3 :
4
3
172
f (f (x) + y) = f (x2
y) + 4f (x)y
( 1997
1996)1998 = N
1?
2. Find all real numbers with the following property: for any positive
integer n, there exists an integer m su
h that
m 1
< :
n 3n
174
175
176
177
178
1:
181