Nonlinear FE analysis of fiber reinforced concrete floor diaphragms undergoing horizontal seismic actions

C. Zanotti, A. Marini, G. Plizzari

Department of Civil, Architectural, Environmental and Land Planning Engineering, DICATA, University of Brescia, via Branze 43 25123 Brescia Italy.

ABSTRACT: The earthquake hazard reduction of historical buildings often requires the strengthening of existing floors in order to obtain stiff diaphragms, able to transfer the horizontal action to the shear resistant masonry walls. Past experiences showed that a suitable technique consists in overlaying the floor with a thin concrete slab, although the dead load and therefore the seismic action are significantly increased. Since the thickness of the slab cannot be reduced because of the minimum concrete cover required by the steel mesh, the substitution of the ordinary reinforcement with steel fibres is proposed in this paper. The removal of the mesh allow for a reduction of the slab thickness and, consequently, of both the dead load and the seismic action. The efficiency of the proposed solution is evaluated by means of nonlinear finite element analyses. 1 INTRODUCTION The structural rehabilitation of historical constructions often involves the earthquake hazard reduction. The out-of-plane perimeter wall overturning and bending are numbered among the main seismic vulnerability forms of existing masonry structures (DAyala & Speranza 2002, Giuriani 2004). Past experiences evidenced the effectiveness of horizontal perimeter ties in avoiding the wall overturning. However the efficiency of the structural work can be jeopardized in the case of large span to thickness ratios. In this scenario, stiff roof and floor diaphragms may be adopted to improve the seismic performance of existing masonry buildings (Giuriani 2004, Giuriani & Marini 2008). The diaphragms can be adequately connected to the perimeter walls in order to counteract both overturning and bending of the transverse wall and to transfer horizontal actions to the shear resistant walls. This way, the building exhibits a box-structure behavior. Upon completion of the structural rehabilitation, the seismic vulnerability is associated to the wall out of plane bending mechanism, regardless of the adoption of either roof diaphragms or perimeter ties. The resistance to horizontal loads may be provided by considering the techniques developed for the strengthening of existing floors with respect to vertical loads. To this purpose, different solutions were proposed in the past. Benedetti (1981) and Giuriani et al. (2005) studied wooden diaphragms that can be obtained with plywood panels or new thick planks. This solution presents the major advantage of a minor dead load increase, but the enhancement of stiffness and strength is not satisfactory in the case of either high vertical loads or severe seismic actions. In order to minimize the dead load increase and obtain high structural performances at the same time, the existing floor might be overlaid by a very thin steel plate (Giuriani & Plizzari 2000); as a drawback, this technique is fairly expensive and involves a difficult construction process. An economical and feasible option is provided by the solution of the ordinary reinforced concrete slab, placed at the extrados of the existing floor (Giuriani & Frangipane 1993). The RC diaphragm can be arranged and proportioned by reference to the chord and panel structure (Fig. 1), as often adopted in aerospace engineering (Bruhn 1973). According to this simplified model, the perimeter chords support the bending moment, while the shear force is resisted by the web panel, which can be designed by reference to the strut and tie model. Furthermore, proper safety factors should be applied so that the brittle shear failure of the panel is avoided and the rebar yielding in the chord under tension is favored. The major disadvantages associated to the employment of the concrete slab are given by the low compatibility with original structures and the significant dead load increase. Because of the minimum concrete cover required by the steel mesh placed as in plane shear reinforcement, the slab thickness must be larger than 4-5 cm. As a consequence, the shear panel turns out to be often over proportioned and both the dead load and the seismic actions are con-

siderably increased. The substitution of the ordinary steel mesh with steel fibres might simplify the construction process and remove the issues related to the correct laying of the mesh. Therefore, the slab thickness and the dead load could be minimized. Past experiences largely demonstrated that the tensile behavior of cracked concrete can be significantly improved by adding an adequate amount of fibers in the mix (Romualdi & Batson 1963, Shah & Rangan 1971, di Prisco et al. 2004, van Mier 2004, Gettu 2008). As a matter of fact, fibers sew cracks thus limiting the crack opening and increasing the concrete fracture energy (Fig. 2). In the case of Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC) diaphragms, the smeared reinforcement given by steel fibres should provide sufficient shear resistance so that the structure ductility is still ensured. Aim of the present study is to evaluate the feasibility of FRC floor diaphragms. To this purpose, the behaviour of both RC and FRC diaphragms are analyzed by means of nonlinear finite element simulations.

Figure 1. RC diaphragms (Giuriani et al. 2005).

the finite element program Diana 9.1 (TNO DIANA BV 2005). The performance of concrete diaphragms having different thicknesses and amounts of reinforcement are analyzed by referring to the case study proposed by Giuriani et al. (2005). The first floor of a 6 m tall masonry building is considered. The 20x10 m wooden floor is made of a 30 mm thick wooden plank, overlaying 80x120 mm rafter beams having a spacing equal to 0.6 m. The equivalent static method was adopted in order to proportion the steel reinforcement (chord rebars and panel mesh) with respect to four different seismic levels: Very High Seismicity, High Seismicity, Medium Seismicity, Low Seismicity (Marini et al. 2008, Zanotti et al. 2008). The design values of the equivalent horizontal load (conventionally assumed), normalized to the vertical load on the floor, are listed in Table 1; furthermore, the amount of both shear and flexural reinforcement is shown. In order to avoid a brittle compressive failure due to the bending moment, the chords are slightly over proportioned by adopting a 20x30 cm cross section. The thickness of the RC diaphragm is equal to 5 cm. In the case of FRC diaphragms, the absence of the ordinary mesh allows the thickness minimization; therefore the thickness value can be reduced from 5 to 2 cm. A C30/37 concrete is adopted. Two different amounts of hooked steel fibers are considered, corresponding to a volume fraction of 0.38% and 0.64%. The fiber length (l) and the transverse diameter (d) are respectively equal to 50 mm and 1 mm; therefore, the fiber aspect ratio (l/d) turns out to be 50. For both the chord rebars and the panel mesh, a standard B450C steel is assumed.
Table 1. Design values of the equivalent horizontal load (Fh,d) conventionally assumed for the different seismic levels, normalized to the vertical load on the floor (W = 1798 kN). Amounts of steel reinforcement in the chords (As,c) and in the panel (as,p). Fh,d/W As,c [cm2] as,p [cm2/m] VHS 0.53 4.9 0.99 HS 0.38 3.5 0.71 MS 0.23 2.1 0.43 LS 0.076 0.71 0.15

Figure 2. Comparison between the tensile responses of plain concrete and fiber reinforced concrete after cracking.

2.1 Finite element modeling In order to evaluate the diaphragm performance, a simplified schematization is adopted (Fig. 3). Since the second order effects are neglected, the floor diaphragm is modeled as a two-dimensional planestress structural element. The effect of transverse masonry walls is neglected, while the constraints provided by shear resistant masonry walls are modeled by means of linear elastic translational springs, whose stiffness is

2 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF RC AND FRC DIAPHRAGMS Nonlinear structural analyses of RC and FRC diaphragms, based on nonlinear fracture mechanics (Hillerbord et al 1976), are carried out by means of

stress [MPa]

obtained by uniformly distributing the shear stiffness of the wall (Marini et al. 2008, Zanotti et al. 2008). A monotonically increasing load is uniformly distributed along the whole diaphragm surface. Furthermore, the mid-span displacement is indirectly controlled by means of the arc-length method. Two-dimensional linear strain elements, with a mean dimension of 125 mm, are adopted for the concrete parts. The mechanical properties of plain concrete are defined by reference to the European codes: Eurocode2 (2004) for the Young modulus and for both the compressive and the tensile strength; CEB-FIP Model Code (1990) for the fracture energy (Gf). The compressive and the tensile behaviors are defined by means of the laws given respectively by Thorenfeldt et al. (1987) and Cornelissen et al. (1986), as shown in Figures 4, 5. The addition of steel fibers in the mix significantly affects only the post-cracking behavior of concrete under tension, which is represented with a simplified bi-linear function (Fig. 4). In order to determine the FRC mechanical properties, reference is made to the experimental work of Cominoli et al. (2005). Crack development is numerically simulated by using a smeared approach, combined with a total strain rotating crack model (Rots 1988). The ordinary steel reinforcement is modeled with two-node embedded reinforcing elements. Both the compressive and the tensile behavior of steel are described by means of a symmetrical elasto-plastic law, with a hardening branch following a platou after yielding (Fig. 6). In order to validate the material models and, especially, the crack model, experimental tests on inplane shear concrete panels, carried out by Giuriani et al. (1999), were numerically simulated (Zanotti et al. 2008). 2.2 Results The response of RC diaphragms having different amounts of reinforcement (that is, proportioned for four different seismic levels) is shown in Figure 7a. For all the RC diaphragms studied in the present work, the first cracking occurs in the chord under tension and the peak of the curve is reached when rebars yield. Therefore, as expected, the steel mesh, proportioned by reference to the chord-panel model, prevents the brittle shear failure and favor a flexural collapse. However, the diaphragms designed for both the medium and the low seismic levels exhibit a brittle behavior after cracking, due to a sudden high release of energy (curves C and D). As a matter of fact, in these cases the first cracking and the rebar yielding occur at the same time because of the low content of steel reinforcement.

The chord failure is subsequently followed by the panel shear cracking and by the mesh yielding. The final trend of the curves is almost horizontal, thanks to the effectiveness of the ordinary steel reinforcement in stabilizing the structural behavior of concrete elements. The crack patterns observed at the peak load (that is, the rebar yielding) and at the mesh yielding are shown in Figure 8a, b.
panel (thickness variable from 5cm up to 2cm) H = 10m springs modeling shear resistant masonry walls chords (30x20cm) simmetry in-plane load (monotonically increasing)

L/2 = 10m Figure 3. Simplified schematization of the in-plane floor diaphragm.

plain concrete fctm = 2.9 MPa; Gf = 95 J/m2 FRC Vf fctm Gf s1 w1 wc 0.38% 2.95 1888 1.05 0.025 3.53 0.64% 2.95 3271 1.60 0.020 5.05 (wc, 0)

mid-span displacement, f (indirect control)

(0, fctm) stress [MPa]

(w1, s1)

Gf [J/m2]

crack opening [mm] Figure 4. Tensile laws assumed for cracked concrete, fracture energy (Gf) and strength (fctm). In the case with fibers, two different fiber volume fractions (Vf) are accounted.
40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 strain [] Figure 5. Compressive law (Thorenfeldt et al. 1987) assumed for both plain and fiber reinforced concrete.

750 stress [MPa] 600 450 300 150 0 20 90 100 strain [] Figure 6. Elasto-plastic behavior assumed for the ordinary steel reinforcement under both tension and compression. 0 10

Concerning the FRC elements, the same mechanisms always affected the diaphragm response regardless of the fiber content, the panel thickness and the amount of ordinary reinforcement in the chord; a typical trend is shown in Figure 7b. As in the RC diaphragms, the first cracks occur at the mid-span, due to bending; later on, shear cracks, spread along the panel edges, appear. The peak of the curve coincides with the yielding of the chord rebars under tension; therefore, according to the numerical results, adequate contents of hooked steel fibers can avoid an early shear failure of the structure. The peak is followed by a platou, as fibers effectively bridge micro-cracks, thus improving the concrete performance in the smalldeformation field. Afterwards, a slightly softening branch is observed. In the large-deformation field, the diaphragm resistance is provided by an arch mechanism. Chord rebars, working as arch ties, are instrumental in providing the diaphragm ductility; hence, unlike the ordinary mesh, the ordinary flexural reinforcement cannot be removed (in the chord). In Figure 8c, d, the crack patterns at the peak load of the response (that corresponds to the rebar yielding) and the arch mechanism are shown.
1.2 1 0.8 F/W 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 D (A) VHS; (B) HS; (C) MS; (D) LS 0.001 0.002 0.003 f/L 0.004 0.005 (a) 0.006 C

More details about the diaphragm responses and the involved mechanisms are reported in Marini et al. 2008, and Zanotti et al. 2008. In Figure 9, the diaphragm strength at the peak load of the curve (that is, the maximum strength) and at significant drift values are shown. In particular, three drift values, equal to 1%, 3% and 5%, are considered. The responses of both RC and FRC diaphragms are compared with the design load, coinciding with the predicted chord rebar yielding. Furthermore, for the solutions with fibers, the role of both the panel thickness and the fiber volume fraction (Vf) may be evaluated. It can be observed that all the diaphragms exhibit strength much higher than the design load. Two main causes can be numbered: 1) with the simplified chord-panel model, the web contribution to flexure is neglected; 2) in the RC structure, the concrete tensile strength is usually neglected.

first cracking chord rebar yielding

A B

(a)

(b)

L/2 H p f
0.001 0.002

F/W

(d) Figure 8. Crack patterns of both FRC and RC diaphragms. RC diaphragms in correspondence to the peak (a) and the mesh yielding (b); FRC diaphragms in correspondence to the peak (c) and the arch mechanism (d).

(c)

H = 10 m; L = 20 m F=pxLxH W = 1798 kN

(b)

0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 f/L Figure 7. a) Responses of RC diaphragms designed for different seismic levels; b) response of the 5 cm thick FRC diaphragm, having a volume fraction of fibers equal to 0.38% and chord rebars proportioned with respect to the VHS zone.

It can be finally noticed that, due to the crack bridging provided by the fibers, the first cracking of FRC diaphragms is accompanied by a more stable behavior and, consequently, a lower loss of strength, in comparison with RC diaphragms.

For every design zone (requiring different amounts of ordinary reinforcement), the strength of ordinary RC diaphragms can be exceeded by adopting equally thick FRC diaphragms. In order to safely minimize the thickness of the diaphragm, the postpeak strength of the diaphragm should be accounted for. In fact, different thickness values, depending on both the actual seismic level and the fiber content, may be obtained. In the case of diaphragms designed for the VHS zone, the maximum strength of a 5 cm thick RC diaphragm is provided by a 4 cm thick diaphragm having a fiber content of 30 kg/m3 (Vf = 0.38%) or, as an alternative, by a 3 cm thick FRC diaphragm with a fiber content of 50 kg/m3 (Vf = 0.64%). As a drawback, fibers cannot easily ensure the ductility

provided by the ordinary mesh, since a fairly high amount of ordinary reinforcement is required for this seismic level. Therefore, in order to guarantee the design strength even in correspondence to high drift values, a thickness at least equal to 4 cm should be adopted; alternatively, fiber volume fractions higher than the ones considered in the present study should be chosen. For the other seismic levels, lower amounts of ordinary shear reinforcement are enough. Therefore, thin FRC diaphragms can exhibit higher performances than RC diaphragms. For the lowest seismic levels (that is, both Medium and Low Seismicity), FRC diaphragms, having a thickness equal to just 2 cm and a fiber volume fraction equal to 0.68%, provide almost the same maximum strength of the solutions with the ordinary
VHS 1.5 F 1 W 0.5 peak drift = 1% 1.5 F 1 W 0.5 4 0 5 t [cm] 1.5 F 1 W 0.5 0 5 t [cm]

mesh. Furthermore, the FRC diaphragm response is more reliable and stable provided that, for high drift values, the strength of FRC diaphragms exceeds the strength of RC diaphragms. Cracking of RC diaphragms is followed by a high loss of strength, due to the contemporary yielding of chord rebars; conversely, in FRC diaphragms, fibers allow a much more gradual release of energy. In the case of High Seismicity, a suitable solution might be a 2 or 3 cm thick diaphragm. For the 3 cm diaphragm, the design strength is ensured with a lower fiber content (Vf = 0.38%); otherwise, a lower thickness, equal to 2 cm, requires a higher fiber content (Vf = 0.64%).

HS 1.5 F 1 W 0.5 peak drift = 1% 1.5 F 1 W 0.5 4 0 5 t [cm] 1.5 F 1 W 0.5 0 5 t [cm]

0 t [cm] 2

0 t [cm] 2

1.5 drift = 3% F 1 W 0.5 0 t [cm] 2 3 4 5 MS peak

drift = 5%

1.5 drift = 3% F 1 W 0.5 0 t [cm] 2 3 4 5 LS peak

drift = 5%

1.5 F 1 W 0.5

drift = 1%

1.5 F 1 W 0.5 4 0 t [cm] 5 1.5 F 1 W 0.5 0 t [cm] 5

1.5 F 1 W 0.5

drift = 1%

1.5 F 1 W 0.5 4 0 5 t [cm] 1.5 F 1 W 0.5 0 5 t [cm]

0 t [cm] 2

0 t [cm] 2

1.5 drift = 3% F 1 W 0.5 0 t [cm] 2 3 4 5

drift = 5%

1.5 drift = 3% F 1 W 0.5 0 t [cm] 2 3 4 5

drift = 5%

RC diaphragm

FRC diaphragm Vf = 0.38% Design strength

L/2 H p f

H = 10 m; L = 20 m; F = p x L x H; W = 1798 kN Drift = f / h; h = 3 m is the height of the floor diaphragm

FRC diaphragm Vf = 0.64%

Figure 9. Diaphragm strength (F), normalized to the vertical load of the floor (W), at the peak of the response and at significant drift values. For every seismic level - very high (VHS), high (HS), medium (MS), low (LS) the performances of both RC and FRC diaphragms, having different values of the slab thickness (t) and the fiber volume fraction (Vf), are compared with the design load.

3 CONCLUDING REMARKS Finite element analyses on both RC and FRC diaphragms were carried out, in order to evaluate the effectiveness of fiber reinforcement that may allow for a thickness minimization and, as a consequence, the dead load reduction. The principal remarks deduced from the numerical results can be summarized as follows: - FRC diaphragms are an efficient alternative to RC diaphragms for the seismic strengthening of existing floors. Steel fibers, substituting the ordinary steel mesh, effectively provide the required shear reinforcement. - FRC diaphragms exhibit a stable behavior due to the fiber effect in the small-deformation field and to the arch mechanism occurring in the large-deformation field. Their ductility can reach or exceed the ductility of the solution with the ordinary mesh, depending on the panel thickness, the fiber content and the seismic level. - The design of FRC diaphragms can be optimized by reducing the panel thickness and by adequately increasing the fiber volume fraction in the concrete mix. - By referring to the fiber contents considered in the present work (Vf=0,38 and 0,64%), the thickness can be reduced up to either 4 cm for the VHS zone, 3 cm for the HS zone or 2 cm for both the MS and the LS zones. REFERENCES
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