Green Energy and Technology

I. Pilatowsky R.J. Romero C.A. Isaza

S.A. Gamboa P.J. Sebastian W. Rivera

Cogeneration Fuel CellSorption Air Conditioning

Systems

123

I. Pilatowsky, Dr.
S.A. Gamboa, Dr.
P.J. Sebastian, Dr.
W. Rivera, Dr.
Universidad Nacional Autnoma
de Mxico
Centro de Investigacin en Energa
Cerrada Xochicalco s/n Colonia Centro
62580 Temixco
Morelos
Mxico
ipf@cie.unam.mx
sags@cie.unam.mx
sjp@cie.unam.mx
wrgf@cie.unam.mx
www.cie.unam.mx

R.J. Romero, Dr.

Universidad Autnoma del Estado
de Morelos
Centro de Investigacin en Ingeniera
y Ciencias Aplicadas
Avenida Universidad 1001
62210 Cuernavaca
Morelos
Mxico
rosenberg@uaem.mx
www.uaem.mx
C.A. Isaza, Dr.
Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana
Instituto de Energa, Materiales y Medio
Ambiente
Grupo de Energa y Termodinmica
Circular 1, no.73-34
70-01, Medelln
Colombia
cesar.isaza@upb.edu.co
www.upb.co

ISSN 1865-3529
e-ISSN 1865-3537
ISBN 978-1-84996-027-4
e-ISBN 978-1-84996-028-1
DOI 10.1007/978-1-84996-028-1
Springer London Dordrecht Heidelberg New York
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Control Number: 2011920835
Springer-Verlag London Limited 2011
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
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Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Preface

The global energy demand increases every day with increase in population and
modernization of the way of life. The intense economic activity around the world
depends largely on fossil fuel based primary energy. The indiscriminate use of
fossil fuel based energy has inflicted severe damage to air quality, caused water
contamination, and environmental pollution in general.
The exploitation of renewable energy sources has been proposed as a solution
to encounter the above mentioned global problems. The major problems associated with the exploitation of renewable energy sources are their intermittency,
high cost of energy conversion and storage, and low efficiency. In addition, the
wide spread utilization of renewable energy leads to the culture of energy saving
and rational end use.
Hybrid systems based on different renewable energy sources are becoming
more relevant due to the intermittency of single primary energy sources, the increase in the final efficiency in energy conversion in a hybrid system, and the final
cost reduction. Moreover, hybrid systems can satisfy the energy demand of a specific application un-interruptedly. There are different types and combinations of
hybrid energy systems presently employed around the world. To mention a few,
there are photovoltaic-wind energy systems, photovoltaic-thermal energy systems,
wind-hydrogen-fuel cell systems, etc.
Combined heat and power (CHP) systems have been known for quite some
time as a part of hybrid systems. The advantage of this kind of system is its high
efficiency, low cost compared to other hybrid systems, and low economic impact
without sacrificing continuous energy supply to the load.
This book deals with a new concept in CHP systems where a fuel cell is used
for generating electricity and the heat released during the operation of the cell is
used for air conditioning needs. For the CHP system considered in this book, we
have chosen heat proton exchange membrane fuel cell in particular due to the
temperature of the ejected and the air-conditioning needs of the CHP system.
For the authors to have a general understanding of the topic we have treated the
energy and co-generation processes in detail. The thermodynamic principles govv

vi

Preface

erning energy conversion in general and fuel cells in particular have been treated
briefly. The principles of CHP systems have been explained in detail with particular emphasis on sorption air-conditioning systems.
The authors would like to thank Mara Angelica Prieto and Mara del Carmn
Huerta for their collaboration in the English grammatical review and formatting,
respectively. Also the authors would like to thank Geydy Gutirrez Urueta for her
contribution in the revision and suggestions in the present work.
Mexico/Colombia
December 2010

I. Pilatowsky
R.J. Romero
C.A. Isaza
S.A. Gamboa
P.J. Sebastian
W. Rivera

Contents

Energy and Cogeneration ......................................................................

1.1
Introduction ...................................................................................
1.1.1 Energy Concept................................................................
1.1.2 Energy and Its Impacts.....................................................
1.2
Overview of World Energy ...........................................................
1.2.1 World Primary Energy Production and Consumption .....
1.2.2 Energy Consumption by the End-use Sector....................
1.2.3 World Carbon Dioxide Emissions ...................................
1.2.4 Energy Perspectives .........................................................
1.3
Air Conditioning Needs.................................................................
1.4
Cogeneration Systems ...................................................................
1.4.1 Centralized versus Distributed Power Generation ...........
1.4.2 Cogeneration Technologies..............................................
1.4.3 Heat Recovery in Cogeneration Systems .........................
1.4.4 Cogeneration System Selections ......................................
1.5
Cogeneration Fuel Cells Sorption Air Conditioning Systems ....
1.5.1 Trigeneration....................................................................
1.5.2 Fuel Cells in the Trigeneration Process............................
References.................................................................................................

1
1
1
2
7
7
9
11
12
13
14
16
17
19
20
22
22
23
24

Thermodynamics of Fuel Cells ..............................................................

2.1
Introduction ...................................................................................
2.2
Thermodynamic and Electrochemical Principles ..........................
2.2.1 Electrochemical Aspects ..................................................
2.2.2 Thermodynamic Principles ..............................................
2.3
Fuel Cell Efficiency.......................................................................
2.4
Fuel Cell Operation .......................................................................
References.................................................................................................

25
25
25
25
31
33
34
36

vii

viii

Contents

Selected Fuel Cells for Cogeneration CHP Processes .......................... 37

3.1
Introduction ................................................................................... 37
3.2
Fuel Cell Classification ................................................................. 37
3.2.1 The Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell ..................... 38
3.2.2 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells .............................................. 43
3.2.3 Alkaline Electrolyte Fuel Cells ........................................ 45
3.2.4 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells.............................................. 48
References................................................................................................. 53

State of the Art of Sorption Refrigeration Systems .............................

4.1
Introduction ...................................................................................
4.2
Commercial Systems .....................................................................
4.2.1 Absorption Chillers ..........................................................
4.2.2 Adsorption Chillers ..........................................................
4.2.3 Absorption and Adsorption Small Capacity Systems ......
4.3
Systems under Development .........................................................
4.4
Research Studies............................................................................
4.4.1 Experimental Studies .......................................................
4.4.2 Theoretical Studies...........................................................
References.................................................................................................

55
55
56
57
59
60
61
62
62
66
70

Sorption Refrigeration Systems.............................................................

5.1
Introduction ...................................................................................
5.2
Thermodynamic Principles............................................................
5.2.1 Heat to Work Energy Conversion ....................................
5.2.2 Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle .........................
5.3
Sorption Processes.........................................................................
5.3.1 Introduction......................................................................
5.3.2 The Sorption Refrigeration Cycle ....................................
5.3.3 Sorption Refrigeration Cycle Efficiency..........................
5.3.4 Sorption Work Fluids.......................................................
5.4
Absorption Refrigeration Systems.................................................
5.4.1 Introduction......................................................................
5.4.2 Working Substances.........................................................
5.4.3 Absorption Refrigeration Cycles......................................
5.5
Advanced Cycles ...........................................................................
5.5.1 Multieffect Absorption Refrigeration Cycles...................
5.5.2 Absorption Refrigeration Cycles
with a Generator/Absorber/Heat Exchanger ....................
5.5.3 Absorption Refrigeration Cycle
with Absorber-heat-recovery ...........................................
5.6
Adsorption Refrigeration System ..................................................
5.6.1 Adsorbent/Adsorbate Working Pair .................................
References.................................................................................................

75
75
75
75
80
81
81
82
84
86
88
88
88
90
95
95
97
98
99
100
100

Contents

ix

Cogeneration Fuel Cells Air Conditioning Systems..........................

6.1
Introduction ...................................................................................
6.2
Considerations for Cogeneration Systems Based on Fuel Cells
and Sorption Air Conditioning ......................................................
6.2.1 Coupling of Technologies ................................................
6.2.2 Concepts of Efficiency.....................................................
6.3
Modeling of Cogeneration Systems Using Fuel Cells.
Promising Applications .................................................................
6.3.1 Operation Conditions .......................................................
6.3.2 Modeling of a Cogeneration System Using
an Absorption Air Conditioning System
with WaterLithium Bromide as Working Fluid .............
6.3.3 Modeling of a Cogeneration System Using
an Absorption Air Conditioning System
with a WaterCarrol as Working Fluid ........................
6.3.4 Modeling of a Cogeneration System Using
an Absorption Air Conditioning System
with MonomethylamineWater as Working Fluid...........
6.4
Modeling of Trigeneration Systems ..............................................
6.5
Conclusion.....................................................................................
References.................................................................................................

103
103

Potential Applications in Demonstration Projects ...............................

7.1
Introduction ...................................................................................
7.2
A New Era in Energy Revolution: Applications of Fuel Cells ......
7.2.1 Stationary Applications....................................................
7.2.2 Mobile and Transportation Applications..........................
7.2.3 Portable Applications.......................................................
7.2.4 Military Applications .......................................................
7.2.5 Combined Heat and Power...............................................
7.3
Examples of Combined Heat and Electricity Use
from Fuel Cells in Demonstration Projects....................................
7.3.1 Stationary PAFC Cogeneration Systems..........................
7.3.2 PEMFC in Mobile Systems..............................................
7.3.3 CHP Systems with Fuel Cells ..........................................
References.................................................................................................

121
121
122
123
125
126
127
127

Profitability Assessment of the Cogeneration System .........................

8.1
Introduction ...................................................................................
8.2
Elements of Profitability Assessment............................................
8.2.1 Time Value of Money ......................................................
8.2.2 Annual Costs and Cash Flows..........................................
8.2.3 Capital Costs ....................................................................
8.2.4 Methods for Estimating Profitability................................

133
133
134
134
137
137
138

103
105
106
107
108
109
111
114
116
119
119

128
128
128
129
131

Contents

8.3

Profitability Assessment of the Systems........................................

8.3.1 Profitability Assessment of a PEM Fuel Cell...................
8.3.2 Profitability Assessment of a Compression
Air Conditioning System .................................................
8.3.3 Profitability Assessment of an Absorption
Air Conditioning System .................................................
8.3.4 Profitability Assessment for the PEMFC-CACS .............
8.3.5 Profitability Assessment for the PEMFC-AACS .............
8.3.6 Comparison of the Profitability Assessment
of the PEMFC-AACS and the PEMFC-CACS ................
8.4
Conclusions ...................................................................................
References.................................................................................................

141
141
143
145
148
149
151
153
153

Index ................................................................................................................. 155

Notation

A
ACF
ACI
ACTR
ADCF
AE
AG
ANCI
AS
AT
ATC
ATE
AD
AEP
AFC
AFCH2
ARC
ARS
CFC
CHP
CE
CFC
CFCR
CG
CH2
CL
CP
CTC
CWC
CFR

Annual cost or payments ( years1)

Annual cash flow ( years1)
Annual cash income ( years1)
Annual cooling time required ( years1)
Annual discount cash flow ( years1)
Annual cost of electricity ( years1)
Annual cost of gas ( years1)
Net annual cash income ( years1)
Annual sales ( years1)
Annual amount of tax ( years1)
Annual total cost ( years1)
Annual total expenses ( years1)
Average annual amount of depreciation ( years1)
Annual electricity cost ( years1)
Alkaline fuel cell
Annual fuel cost of hydrogen ( years1)
Absorption refrigerating cycle
Absorption refrigerating machine
Chlorofluorocarbons
Cooling, heating, and power or combined heat and power system
Electricity unit cost ()
Fixed capital costs ()
Fuel cell replacement cost ()
Gas unit cost ()
Hydrogen cost ()
Land cost ()
Heat capacity (kJ kg1 C1)
Total capital costs ()
Working capital costs ()
Capital recovery factor (dimensionless)
xi

xii

COP
COPAC
COPR
COPT1
COPT2
DAHX
DMFC
Et
E0
E
EOC
EOT
ETP
EU
EUAC
EV4
F
fAF
fAP
fi
fd
FC
GAX
G
G0
GDP
HE
H
HRSG
I0
I0,U
IRR
i
iE
iG
iL
i0
K
mw
MCFC
MEA
n
NPC
NPV
P

Notation

Coefficient of performance (dimensionless)

Air-conditioning COP (dimensionless)
Coefficient of performance of refrigeration cycle (dimensionless)
Coefficient of performance for type 1 system (dimensionless)
Coefficient of performance for type 2 system (dimensionless)
Desorber/absorber/heat exchanger
Direct methanol fuel cell
Thermo-neutral potential (V)
Ideal standard potential (V)
Ideal equilibrium potential or reversible potential (V)
Efficiency of cogeneration (dimensionless)
Efficiency of tri-generation (dimensionless)
Equivalent tons of petroleum
European Union
Equivalent uniform annual cost ( years1)
Expansion valve
Future worth (), Faradays constant (9.65 104 C mol1)
Annuity future worth factor (dimensionless)
Annuity present worth factor (dimensionless)
Compound interest factor (dimensionless)
Discount factor (dimensionless)
Fuel cell
Generator/absorber/heat exchanger
Free energy change (kJmol1)
Free energy change at standard conditions (kJmol1)
Gross domestic product (dimensionless)
Heat exchanger
Enthalpy change or standard enthalpy of formation (kJkg1)
Heat recovery steam generators
Investment at the beginning of the project ()
Initial cost per unit or energy ()
Internal rate of return (fraction or %)
Interest or discount rate (fraction of %) or current density
Electricity inflation (fraction or %)
Gas inflation (fraction of %)
Limiting current density (Am2)
Exchange current density (Am2)
Constant of electrical power for fuel cell (W)
Cooler flow into the FC (kgs1)
Molten carbonate fuel cell
Membrane electrode assembly
Number of interest periods or number of electrons (dimensionless)
Net present cost ()
Net present value ()
Present worth () or pressure (Pa)

Notation

Pe
PH2
PAFC
PBP
PC
PEM
PEMFC
Q
QG
QT
QW
QIN
QU
R
Rc
S
ST
S
SOFC
SRC
T
TO
Tf
TGE,out
Ti
TDARS
Tc
V
We
Welect,max

xiii

Electrical power (W)

Energy from hydrogen (kJ)
Phosphoric acid fuel cell
Payback period (years)
Compressor power capacity (kW)
Proton exchange membrane
Proton exchange membrane fuel cell
Heat (kJ)
Thermal energy supplied (kJ)
Thermal energy (kJ)
Waste heat (kJ)
Energy input (kJ)
Useful energy (kJ)
Gas constant (8.34 J mol1K1)
Cell resistance (Ohm)
Scrap value () or entropy (kJkg1 C1)
Thermal source (dimensionless)
Entropy change (kJkg1C1)
Solid oxide fuel cell
Sorption refrigeration cycle
Temperature (K, C)
Operating time (h years1)
Final temperature in the fuel cell outlet (C)
Exit temperature of Absorption heat pump to fuel cell (C)
Initial temperature at the fuel cell inlet (C)
Thermal driven adsorption refrigeration system
Coupling temperature difference (C)
Volume change (m3)
Maximum electrical work (kJ)
Maximum electrical work (kJ)

Subscripts
A, AB
C, CO
CF
D
E, EV
G, GE
HF
MC
P
R

Absorber
Condenser
Cooling fluid
Desorber
Evaporator
Generator
Heating fluid
Mechanical compressor
Pump
Rectifier

xiv

RC
RF
S
SF
SO
TM
X

Notation

Recipient of condensate
Fluid cooling
Sorber
Sorber fluid
Sorption
Thermal machine
Heat exchanger

Greek Letters

act
con
e
elect
ohm
In
Ex

Charge transfer coefficient (dimensionless)

Efficiency (dimensionless)
Activation polarization (V)
Concentration polarization (V)
Thermal efficiency (dimensionless)
Efficiency of conversion (dimensionless)
Ohmic polarization (V)
Theoretical thermal efficiency for internal regime (dimensionless)
Theoretical thermal efficiency for external regime (dimensionless)