Dam Break Analysis

Causes & Breach Analysis

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Contents
Executive Summary....................................................................................................................................... 3 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 4 Possible Causes Of Dam Failure & Relevant Safety Measures: .................................................................... 4 Over topping: ............................................................................................................................................ 5 Sliding ........................................................................................................................................................ 5 Piping ........................................................................................................................................................ 6 Internal Seepage ....................................................................................................................................... 6 Overturning ............................................................................................................................................... 7 Overstressing ............................................................................................................................................ 7 Cracking..................................................................................................................................................... 8 Bearing capacity ........................................................................................................................................ 8 Maintenance ............................................................................................................................................. 8 Rapid Drawdown....................................................................................................................................... 8 Dam Breach Analysis ..................................................................................................................................... 8 Breach Parameters.................................................................................................................................... 9 Methods Used For Dam Evaluation .......................................................................................................... 9 Problems of These Approaches .............................................................................................................. 10 Dam-Break Modeling .................................................................................................................................. 10 Performance of Dam Break Modeling .................................................................................................... 11 Specifications of Dam Break Structures .................................................................................................. 13 Failure Modes ......................................................................................................................................... 13 Initial Conditions ..................................................................................................................................... 14 Points To Consider During Modeling of Dam Failure .............................................................................. 14 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 16 References .................................................................................................................................................. 18

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Executive Summary
The report contains a comprehensive view of the possible causes of dam failure and the protective measures required to mitigate this risk. The relation of these possible causes as per the specification of the dams is also part of this report. Second part of this report is dam breach analysis. in this part, the characteristics of dam breach are discussed. along with that, the possible methods of calculating these breaches are also mentioned. Where these methods are discussed, the shortcomings related to these methods are also discussed. The third part of the report is concerned with dam break modeling. in this area, the performance of dam breaking model and specifications of the dam break structure are thoroughly discussed. Since, there have been considerable researches done and various case studies have been drafted on various instances of the dam failures, therefore a comprehensive of learning derived from this available literature is also made part of this document.

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Introduction
Where we have experienced various dam breaks in U.S. over decades. There are various ways of avoiding it and there are number of measures that can be taken for avoidance of this calamity which causes heavy losses not only to human lives but also to nature as well. Therefore, it is ne4cessary that while performing construction of dams, all the risk factors are duly considered and mitigated. During the life of a dam, it is necessary that all the risks have been analyzed, and worked on timely basis. The document gives a preview of how dam protection should be evaluated before its constructed, during its construction and after construction. Furthermore, it explains how the breaches to the dams should be calculated in case of a dam break. Where in todays world, water shortage is the common problem faced by nations all across the globe, irrigation and electricity production has sustained major shocks. Apart from this, the dam breaks or failures have a tendency of having catastrophic effect on the population and property around these dams as the uncontrollable release of water can have a disastrous impact. A dam break is usually caused by the breach of dam measurements which have certain parameters. A dam break takes place when a high flood wave travelling at a very high speed enters the dam and the area around it. Hence, to avoid these disastrous outcomes, it is necessary that these threats are well-considered at the dam of construction and have been well-taken care of.

Possible Causes Of Dam Failure & Relevant Safety Measures:

Given below, are the possible causes of dam failure (DSCU, 2005):

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Over topping:
This is usually caused by passing over of water above the dams crest. This will lead to subsequent washing away and in case of concrete dam, complete destruction. Another possible causes of overtopping will be earthquakes where a large wave of water can pass over the dams crest. For safety purposes, it is necessary that maximum expected conceivable flood should be measured well and the height of the dam should be designed accordingly. Moreover, the difference between the height of the dam and the expected height of the water behind the dam should be between 2 and10 ft. This distance is called freeboard and it represents a factor of safety against unexpected events. Also, the design height should account for the highest expected wave in the dam that can be caused by wind or earthquake.

Sliding
When the water seeps below the dams foundation, an upward pressure is exerted on the dam. This causes the dam to uplift however this lift is mitigated by the weight of the dam. At this point, there are several forces acting on the dam which are : 1) The active force, ph that is exerted on the upstream side of the dam and is caused by the

upstream water level and the upstream soil pressure. The active force is mainly a hydrostatic driving force for sliding. 2) The passive force that is applied on the downstream face of the dam is mainly represented as

a hydrostatic force and /or a force applied by the soil. The passive force is a resisting force against sliding which acts in the opposite direction of the active force. 3) The weight of the dam that is concentrated at its center of gravity.

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4)

The uplift force exerted by the water seeping under the dam: this force depends on the

height of the water stored behind the dam. Hence, the higher the water level is, greater will be the hydrostatic and uplift forces will be. For mitigating the impacts of this uplift force, the dam should be designed in a manner that the uplift pressure is either decreased or the weight of dam is more than the expected lift. These two can be achieved by: 1) 2) Introducing a drainage system Introducing a deep impermeable sheet or cutoff wall at the upstream side of the dam that

will lengthen the water path, leading to the decrease in the head consequently in the uplift pressure

Piping
When the water seeps under the dam, it causes the soil to erode at the downstream side. Where the erosion continues, this erosion may move up to the upstream side. As a result, a cavity is developed under the bridge which may lead to dam failure. However, the nature of soil under the dam is the major determinant in deciding the extent of erosion. Or to be more precise, the hydraulic conductivity of the soil is the major active factor. Piping can happen under any dam irrespective of its nature. To avoid piping, installation of grader filter will be beneficial as it reduces the washing away of soil particles. This phenomenon may occur under any type of dam.

Internal Seepage
Internal seepage is a type-dependent dam failure. It is dependent on the quality of material used during dam construction. The conditions of the terrain, structures stiffness, efficiency of the construction team, number of segments in the concrete dams, imperfect measurement of these
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joints, internal erosion, development of cavity under dam, are some of the major factors of internal seepage. It can be curtailed or avoided by using a filter between the core and the downstream shell of a zoned dam. As far as concrete dams are concerned, an opening which allows passing of water can cause internal seepage. Hence, by avoiding the opening of these openings, internal seepage can be avoided.

Overturning
Where the acting moments on the structure are not balanced, overturning can take place easily. Mostly gravity dams are subjected to failure because of this reason as concrete and steel are used heavily. Also, the active force, the passive force, weight of the dam and the upward force by water, cause the dam to collapse. For avoiding this type of failure, the dam should not be given a structure of one-unit, rather a model of embankment dams should be used. Furthermore, while designing the dam, the correct estimation of these forces should be made and the resisting moment and overturning forces should be kept in balance.

Overstressing
It usually happens when an enormous amount of flood water current enters into the dam,. And an extreme pressure is exerted on the dam. As a result, either the whole dam or part of it collapses due to over stress. The dam might subject to damage to particular parts, sliding or overturning. Due to this overstress, the rate of seepage and erosion may also increase resulting in dam failure.

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Cracking
The cracking can appear in the structure of dam due to various reasons. The most common ones are earthquakes and natural dams settlings. As a result, a crack appears which requires immediate repair as it may get enlarged and can cause a fatal dam failure.

Bearing capacity
There is a higher possibility that the foundation of the dam gets weak because of various reasons and is therefore unable to bear it. Where the foundation weakens, the dam may subject to failure.

Maintenance
Dam is a huge water reservoir which requires continuous maintenance. Where the gates are not well-clogged with sediments, failure can take place. There are various measures which are important for the application of dam maintenance and they should applied continuously and thoroughly.

Rapid Drawdown
Rapid drawdown usually takes place in embankment dams. This is so because its building material comprises of discontinued soil particular and thus lacks natural bonding. It usually takes place when the dam is being emptied at an exponential rate and that too in an abrupt manner. Landslides might take place in the upstream face of the dam causing a rapid drawdown.

Dam Breach Analysis

There are two measures which are required to be taken for dam breach analysis. This includes 1) The prediction of the outflow hydrograph, which can be done by: A) Predicting the breach characteristics such as the shape, depth and width of the breach
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B) Routing the reservoir storage and inflow through the predicted breach form. Most computer models use different 1d routing methods. 2) Outflow hydrograph routing through the downstream valley: most models perform these routing procedures but each one uses different 1 d routing techniques. However, each model treats the breach simulation differently (Anderson et. al, 2006).

Breach Parameters
Dam breach analysis involves the thorough evaluation of dam breach parameters. Some of these parameters are as follow: 1) 2) 3) Breach width Breach depth or height Breach side slope factor

Usually it is referred to it as z where the side slope of the breach is given by z h: 1v. 4) 5) Breach initiation time Breach formation time

The time of failure as used in DAMBRK is the duration of time between the first Breaching of the upstream face of the dam until the breach is fully formed (Gee, 2010).

Methods Used For Dam Evaluation

For evaluation of breaches, the methods used are : 1) Case study methods

-parametric models -predictor equations: these equations are most of the time empirical and they estimate

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-Peak discharge based on case study data -analysis by comparison 2) Physically based models. Usually DAMBARK is used as a simulation model (Atallah, 2002).

Problems of These Approaches

Like every other methodology, these approaches also have certain problems which should be considered while evaluating them: 1) 2) Comparative analysis is only valid in case of small models Since predictor equations are also based on small dams, therefore regression equations can

produce highly doubtful results. 3) Physical models can be erroneous where in sufficient information and understanding of

breach is available. A small variation in breach parameters can lead to enormous variations in peak flows especially for small dams. Models most commonly used for modeling are DEMBARK AND HEC-RAS, HEC-HMS, NWSDAMBRK, NWS-FLDWAV which are used to check hypothetical breaches (Mohamed, 2002).

Dam-Break Modeling
For this purpose, dam break modeling is performed using various methodologies. During this stage, the impact of the flood is calculated through simulation and its outcomes are measured (FEMA, 2004). Usually, the necessary information required to measure the impact of the flood is:

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1) Peak water level extent of inundation 2) Time of peak water level 3) Depth and velocity of flood water (allowing estimation of damage potential) 4) Duration of flooding The nature, accuracy and format of information produced from a dam break analysis will be Influenced by the end application of the data. On the basis of information gathered after this simulation, further emergency planning and development plans are made. 4) time of first arrival of flood water

Furthermore, at a later stage, the outflow hydrograph caused by dam breach is predicted and following activities are performed: 1) Routing of dam breach flood hydrograph through the downstream valley to get the

maximum water level and discharge along with time of travel at different locations of the river downstream of the dam 2) Routing the PMF through the reservoir and downstream valley without dam breach to get

the maximum discharge and water level at different locations of the river downstream of the dam 3) Channel routing the PMF through the downstream valley to get the maximum discharge and

water level at different locations of the river downstream of the dam.

Performance of Dam Break Modeling

Usually two methods are used for dam break modeling which are scaled physical hydraulic Models, and mathematical simulation using computer. Out of these two, mathematical simulation is the effective one in cost management and reasonable outcomes. For this purpose, onedimensional or two dimensional analyses are performed. For this purpose, information such as

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magnitude of the flood, time of arrival, velocity of flow, variation of surface level etc. Are considered (USSD, 2011). The basics of this modeling is hydrodynamic modeling which involves finding Solution of two partial differential equations originally derived by Barre De Saint Venant in 1871. The equations are: 1) Conservation of mass (continuity) equation

(q/x) + (a + a0) / t - q = 0 2) Conservation of momentum equation

(q/t) + { (q2/a)/x } + g a ((h/x ) + sf + sc ) = 0

Where, q = discharge; A = active flow area; A0 = inactive storage area; H = water surface elevation; Q = lateral outflow; X = distance along waterway; T = time; Sf = friction slope; Sc = expansion contraction slope and G = gravitational acceleration. For achievement of accurate results, it is important to select a model which ensures the right balance between modeling accuracy and cost (both in terms of software cost and time spent in
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developing & running the model). Furthermore, for simulation of branches and loops, following three approaches are used: 1) 2) 3) Kinematic wave approach Diffusive wave approach Dynamic wave approach

Specifications of Dam Break Structures

The following information relating to dam break structures need to be specified: (I) Geometrical specifications (ii) Breach characteristics (iii) Failure moment, and (iv) Failure mode One of the vital inclusions in dam break structure estimation is evaluation of breach development. Where earth dams do not undergo collapse immediately, breaches do develop which increase exponentially causing a complete failure. This rate of failure depends on the dam geometry and the construction model. Furthermore, these parameters define the breach outflow hydrograph, and an accurate description of the breach development is, therefore, required in near field dam breach studies. As far as the far-field studies are concerned, the accuracy of estimating the flood routing has a vital role because the outflow variation is rapidly damped out as the flood propagates downstream (WRRL, 1998).

Failure Modes
Where modeling of dam break is performed, it is necessary to have a breach development models. For this purpose, the suitable mechanism used will be either linear failure mechanism or an erosion based formulation. For erosion based formulation, the sediment continuity equation is
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used where various sediment transport formulas are available for this purpose. However, due to the development of a wall boundary layer along the often very steep side walls of the breach, the theories for bed load and suspended load do not apply. As an approximation, the sediment transport at the sloping walls is assumed to be proportional to that in the central part of the breach (Fread, 1991).

Initial Conditions
It has been observed that dam failure does not usually take place of on a dry river bed downstream of the dam. However, in certain cases, for evaluation the continuity of water depth, finite difference algorithm is applied. Hence, before the actual simulation, a hot-start file containing subsequent dam break simulation is created. This file is require for giving:

1) 2) 3)

Giving a lateral inflow at the first h-point in the river Setting the inflow into the reservoir to zero, and Specifying the dam break structure to fail by overtopping, ensuring that the dam crest level

is greater than the specified reservoir level. Initial conditions (water level and discharge) must be specified in HD parameter file which includes the reservoir level as well.

Points To Consider During Modeling of Dam Failure

After evaluation of various studies, it has been established that there are certain areas which need special consideration at the modeling phase of dam planning in order to any catastrophic outcomes (XIONG, 2011). These areas include the following:

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1)

Conversion of cross section stationing to the suitable unit system before construction of all

unsteady flows should be performed. The MM&C standard unit system for river stationing is set to miles. Not converting before building flow files, results in inefficiencies. When the stationing changes so do all the links in the flow files, which will delete the existing hydrograph links, initial water surface elevations, and initial flows, causing the modeler to recall data from memory or to retrieve from a backup flow file. 2) During modeling, it must be ensured that adherence of proper vertical datum to key

elevations continues throughout. The MM&C standard vertical datum has been set to NAVD 88. Where the datum does not have coherence with inline structure, the addition burden of time adjustment falls on lateral structure and storage elevation. 3) Channel data must be included during modeling. In majority of scenarios, the availability of

detailed bathymetric information may not be available. However, in case of availability, existing HEC-RAS geometries, dredge soundings, and estimates using aerial photography for stream width along with an existing stream bed profile, can be used as other source of data. In the absence of this data, the skewness of the model will inclined towards lower pool elevation failures or non-failure scenarios. 4) Encompassing the full inundation areas by the cross-section and storage areas should be

ensured during modeling. For this purpose, the judgment or quick development of failure model which is directly related to the maximum high pool failure scenario can be performed by including a previous inundation map. Where these extents remained unchecked in the early phase of development, a substantial amount of time will be required for the correction later. 5) Modelers should include a reach with cross sections for tributaries that may be modeled in

the future. During the development of the geometry it is important to think of future modeling

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efforts. Incorporating extra reaches will reduce the effort needed to model other dam failure projects that fall within the same watershed. 6) Criticality of file management in the dam failure model development cannot be undermines.

For this purpose, a conventional file naming mechanism should be followed. Furthermore, deletion of obsolete data has an equivalent importance as it may create confusion for the team as well as the modelers. 7) Where the model is developed by using HEC-RAS, the stability of model should be ensured.

during HEC-RAS model development it is important that the model is stable. Oscillations in hydrographs before the dam failure can cause consequence data to be skewed when using the HEC-FIA software. HEC-RAS restart files can improve model stability and in certain cases prevent these oscillations from skewing consequence data. 8) Review of modelers work should be performed thoroughly on the early stage and should be

done frequently. Needs of end-users should never be ignored.

Conclusion
There is a long list of dam failures across the globe. Before actually constructing a dam, it is necessary to have all the risk factors thoroughly evaluated and have been mitigated while construction. it is necessary to understand the risks inherent to the types of the dams. At the time of construction, it is necessary that the manufacturing material used is suitable to be used as per the requirement of the land, the intake of water expected and other natural calamities. Furthermore, constant maintenance and checks can substantially reduce the risk of dam breaks. At the planning stage, a simulation of a dam failure can reduce the chances of actual dam collapse substantially. Hence, all the possible causes of dam breach and failure should be
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considered prior to construction and should not be forgotten at the development phase and also during the life of the dam.

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References
Anderson, L.R. Bowles, D.S. & Chauhan, S.S. (2006), Do Current Breach Parameter Estimation Techniques Provide Reasonable Estimates For Use In Breach Modeling? Atallah, T.A. (2002), A Review On Dams And Breach Parameters Estimation Dam Safety and Construction Unit.(2005). Guidelines for Cooperation with the Alaska Dam Safety Program FEMA. (2004), Federal Guidelines for Dams Security: Selecting and Accommodating Inflow Designs of Dams Fread, L.D. (1991), BREACH: An Erosion Model For Earth Dam Failures Gee. D.M. (2010). Comparison of Dam Breach Parameter Estimators
Mohamed, M. (2002), Embankment Breach Formation and Modeling Methods. Ph.D. Thesis. The Open University.

U.S. Society on Dams. (2011), 21st Century Dam Design Advances and Adaptations, 31st Annual USSD Conference, San Diego, California, Water Resources Research Laboratory. (1998), Prediction of Embankment Dam Breach Parameter-Literature Review, DSO-90-004 Xiong, Y. (2011), A Dam Break Analysis Using HEC-RAS, DOI: 10.4236/jwarp.2011.36047

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