Chapter 1 - Nature of Business

* Industry * Qualities of Good Businessman * Capitalism * Socialism * Economic System of Pakistan

Chapter 1 Industry * 1 Industry o 1.1 Manufacturing Industry o 1.2 Extractive Industry o 1.3 Construction Industry o 1.4 Genetic Industry Industry Manufacturing Industry Manufacturing Industry converts the basis goods (raw materials) into the finished goods. In other words, industry creates form utility in the goods already produced by nature like furniture by wood, machines by iron and cloth is made by cotton. Extractive Industry Extractive industry is generally related with the production of Primary Gods. These industries are associated with agriculture, pastures, mining, and fish keeping or finishing. These industries produce primary goods, which are used in the manufacturing industries as raw materials. These industries get the goods from surface, beneath the surface and in the space. Construction Industry Activities of the construction industry are related to the houses, buildings, dams, bridges, canals etc. Genetic Industry Genetic Industry is concerned with the activities, which increase the kinds of species. These industries can increases or change the kinds and species of plants, fruits, animals. etc. through genetic changes.

Qualities of Good Businessman A well-managed business is generally a reflection of a person or persons who have inherent or acquired qualities of leadership and direction. So a businessman to succeed must be a well-balanced and full-

fledged man of talent. He must have a consistent mind for clearness, steadiness and firmness in his dealings with others. Some of important and basic qualities of businessman are following: 1. Accuracy The businessman is that who knows what he is talking about, and what he mean, because he deals with a number of simple wants. Accurate actions depends upon accurate thinking. The goods businessman must be able to grasp his problems by treating them quantitatively. 2. Time Sense Besides quantity and the nature of his product, the businessman must appreciate time. He must always thinking in terms of time. Actions cannot be taken in complete isolation from each other. There is also a chain of actions, which must fit in with the rapidly changing desires of the ultimate consumer. This makes it vital to be able to visualize the various actions in their places in time. There are no hunches in business, but all actions depend upon figures and facts. The businessman who has given adequate attention of quality and time will always be ready to make the most of each opportunity as it arises, and to look ahead as far as he needs. 3. Alertness A businessman keen on success must keep in with the world, and not keep himself to himself. He should move about and see what is going on for he has to gauge new wants and new inventions for creating fresh wants. In this sense he is to be merchant. For selling goods, which have been produced requires character and knowledge. Even to decide what sort of articles to try and produce with his machinery. The producer must be something of a merchant. He must be wide-awake and meet the existing demands and be in a position to create new ones. 4. Honesty In order to adequately satisfy consumer demands, the businessman must be honest. Misfit sales may be forced for a time by high pressure salesmanship or misleading publicity, but they will not maintain themselves; for each sale installs in the possession of the buyer an article which begins at once to educate him as to error he made in acquiring it, and there is little likelihood of a second order. But if the seller uses all his ability to provide precisely what is wanted, he makes goodwill for himself. This honesty and optimism which goes with it are attributes of the businessman at his best.

5. Ability to Co-Operate Another notable quality of the businessman is ability to co-operate with a large number of other. He must be able to compromise, adjust, adapt and be willing to admit that his judgment may on occasions be wrong. Besides he must be temperamentally fitted to exercise a divided authority. He shall be a goods businessman, if he can place himself in the shoes of other people inside his own business so as to see into the minds of customers who are outside it. 6. Dependability Having once brought an organization into existence the businessman should use every effort to hold it

constant and dependable, so that those who work under it know what to expect, as it remains unfluctuating from day to day. At all times everybody knows what can and what cannot be done. What is expected of him and what somebody else will do and can adapt himself accordingly. A dependable businessman has satisfied co-workers who are inevitably loyal to him and the unit directed by him. 7. Energy A bountiful endowment of physical and nervous energy is another requisite without which other qualities are hardly of any value. As in any other activity so in business, infinite capacity to taking pains is essential. In addition to possessing an abundance of energy, he should possess forcefulness enough to put across his ideas and suggestions, which he believes to be right. 8. Character All talents are greatly enhanced in value when to them is added moral character, because this gives the promise of energy, loyalty and steady growth in ability and economy in supervision. Such a person, in the words of Professor Hocking, will "through his eye, through his voice, through his gestures, through the substance of what to say, through absorption in his work and belief in his mission infuse his own, state of mind into his men." He will avoid any sort of double-dealing, either with his associates or with the rank and file. All false dealing is futile; and it is absolutely destructive of loyalty.

Capitalism

Economic Systems Any society, whether it is rural without any advancements or it is specialized, must somehow confront three fundamental and inter-dependent economic problems. 1. What and how much to produce? 2. How to produce? 3. For whom to produce? These three questions are fundamental and common to all economic but different economic systems differ in the fact that they try to solve these differently. Over the past two hundred years, different philosophies have developed in regard to the accomplishment of the economic function. The basic nature of all economic systems is the same. It is the role of the individuals and the governments that are quite different.

Capitalism Definition Under Capitalism, all means of production are the property of private individuals and firms. They are free to use them with a view of making profit or not to use them, if it so suits them. The desire for profit is the sole consideration with the property-owners in the use of their property. Besides free and unfettered use of their property, everybody is free to enter into any contract with other fellow-citizens for his profit.

What to produce, how to produce and for whom to produce-all these central problems of economics are settled by the free working of the forces of demand and supply. Salient Features of Capitalism 1. Right of Private Property Everybody has a right to acquire private property, to keep it, and after his death, to pass it on to his heirs. The result of this system is that inequalities of wealth distribution are perpetuated. 2. Freedom of Enterprise This freedom implies three things: a) freedom of enterprise b) freedom of contract and c) freedom to use one's property. Everybody is free to take up any occupation that he likes and to enter into contracts or agreements with his fellow-citizens in a manner most profitable to him. Every citizen has the freedom to form any firm or company and set up a factory anywhere hi likes. 3. Freedom of Choice by the Consumers Every consumer enjoys a freedom of choice of the commodities and services that he wishes to consume. It is the consumers likes and dislikes which determine the magnitude and pattern of production. 4. Profit Motive The profit motive of individuals governs business enterprise. Those commodities and services are produced under capitalism, which are expected to yield maximum profit rather than social benefit. 5. Class Conflict The society has been divided into two classes the "Haves" and "Have-Nots" which are constantly at war with each other class conflicts is inherent in capitalism. 6. Un-Coordinated Nature There is no conscious regulation or central direction of economic activity. Every thing seems to go on automatically. Somehow the demand and supply adjust themselves to each other. Price serves as the signpost or the signal. 7. Entrepreneurs Role The entire productive machinery of the country is under the direction of the entrepreneur. It is he who hires the other factors of production and undertakes to pay them. Everything hinges on him. 8. Control With Risks This has been called the Golden Rule of Capitalism. He who risks his money must also control the business. 9. Competition The producers compete with one another is selling the commodity as much as they can through advertisement. On the other hand, there is also competition among the buyers to obtain the commodity who did against one another and offer higher prices for the purpose. Similarly, there is competition among

workers for jobs. 10. Importance of Price System Capitalism is said to be governed by price. It is the price which equates the demand and supply of commodities and factors of production. Price is a signal which guides the producers as to what to produce and what not to produce. A higher price is also warning to the consumers to cut down their consumption. 11. Economic Inequalities A few are very rich indulging in all sorts of conceivable luxuries, whereas the masses are not able to get even two square meals a day. The gulf between the rich and poor is ever widening.

Merits of Capitalism 1. Automatic Working Capitalism does not require any central directing authority for its functioning. It functions automatically through the price-mechanism. It at any time, there is some disturbance in the economy, it is rectified through price change. 2. Higher Efficiency and Incentive of Hard Working Under capitalism workers and entrepreneurs are encouraged to work hard to earn higher profits and higher wages. Hence the entire manpower resources of the country work the hardest (In this way the national output increases and economic development is accelerated). 3. Higher Rate of Capitalism Formation People under capitalism have the right to hold property and pass it on to then heirs and successors. Owing to this people save a part of their income so that it can be invested to earn more income and leave larger property for their heirs. This accelerates economic growth. 4. Economic Development and Prosperity The lure of profit compels the entrepreneurs to take risks and to conquer new fields in production. Capitalism offers great incentive for saving and large opportunities for investment. It encourages innovation and technological progress. It is thus conductive to economic growth and prosperity. 5. Optimum Utilization of Resources Every producer and entrepreneur tries to use the productive resources at his disposal in the most economical manner in order to make maximum profit. In this way, capitalism encourages the most efficient use of the resources of the country. 6. Just System The richest reward under capitalism goes to the ablest, the most daring as well as the most prudent entrepreneur. A man who shows extraordinary resourcefulness and pluck makes the highest profits. 7. Democratic

In the capitalistic economy an attempt is made to adjust production to the consumer wishes. They consume that they like and not what is supplied to them. The consumers constitute the general public. Hence, the system is democratic. 8. Encouragement to Enterprise Capitalism discourages the entrepreneurs to take risks and adopt bold policies. Higher the risk greater is the profit. They also make innovations in order to cut their costs and maximize their profits. Hence, capitalism brings about a great technological progress in the country. 9. Flexibility One of the principal advantages of capitalism is its flexibility and adaptability, which has enabled it to function from time to time according to changing circumstances and emerge victorious. Demerits of Capitalism 1. Wasteful Competition Competition is a sheer waste. Colossal expenditure is incurred on advertisement and salesmanship simply to defeat a rival. Resources employed by those who are defeated go to waste. Competition results in the production of too many varieties. But too much variety is wasteful, because a small variety, but each large in quantity, can be more economically produced. 2. Human Welfare Ignored The economic decisions made by individual entrepreneurs and producers under capitalism are based on their self-interest and not from the point of view of good of the society. However, necessary and useful the commodity may be, the producers will produced it if price does not exceed the cost, because it is only the profit motive which drives them. Social welfare is ignored altogether. 3. Economic Instability and Unemployment Production is unplanned and is being augmented by ever increasing accumulation of capital, while the bulk of the consumers are being impoverished more and more. The result is economic instability. The workers have to live under a perpetual dread of losing their job. They have no sense of security. 4. Property Rights take Precedence Over Human Rights Capitalism lays under emphasis on property rights as against human rights. Money, not man, rules the world and debases humanity. 5. Class-Conflict Capitalism divides the society into two hostile camps of capital and labour, the "haves" and "have nots". The labour wants higher wages and short working hours, which is against the interests of capitalists. Strikes and lockouts are inevitable. 6. Economic Inequalities A feature of capitalistic countries is the glaring inequalities of wealth and income. A few are very rich indulging in all sorts of luxuries, whereas the masses are not able to get even two square meals a day. The

gulf between the rich and poor is ever widening. 7. Mis-Allocation of Resources Capitalism is also criticized on the ground that the productive resources are utilized for the production of luxuries for the rich without producing sufficient quantity of goods for mass consummating. The market prices are not a correct index of the wishes and needs of the general public because the rich people are able to influence the market prices by their higher income. 8. Emergence of Monopolies I also happens under capitalism that perfect and free competition ceases to prevail and instead of big combinations of powerful producers and monopolies emerge against whom it becomes difficult for an ordinary entrepreneur to compete. The monopolists produce small quantity but charge high prices and thus exploit the consumers. There is lot of concentration of economic power in a few hands. 9. Malpractices In recent years, the image of capitalism has been tarnished by malpractices indulged in by high industrialists and businessmen. Such practices include payment of handsome salaries to influential directors, the large-scale evasion of fiscal laws, luxurious living at nation's cost and persistent generation of black money. 10. Lack of Coordination The in-coordinated nature of such an economic order sometimes becomes a disadvantage. Production is conducted as a result of the decisions of numerous isolated entrepreneurs and consumers, which is liable to create confusion in the system.

Socialism Definition Socialism is an economic system, which implies state ownership of instruments of production. The management of business and industry is reduced to the monopolistic control of the government. What is produced is equally divided among those who helped produce rather than having anything into profits. Thus, economy is run for social benefit rather than private profit.

Salient Features 1. State Ownership of Means of Production The means of production are the property of the state and not of private individuals. The profits of all enterprises go to the state exchequer to be utilized for the benefit of society rather than for the benefit of few private individuals. 2. No Private Enterprise

production is to be initiated and conducted by the state, which will pay wages and other costs and keep profits to itself. Interest and rent as payments respectively to the capitalists and the landlords will disappear, the for the state will by the capitalist, landlord and entrepreneur. 3. Economic Equality Remuneration for work is to be according to the nature of work and is not to be equal. Earnings will vary according to ability. 4. Equality of Opportunity Every individual, whether he belongs to a rich family or a poor family has an equal opportunity to rise in life under socialism. Every young person is given equal opportunity to receive education or training according to his aptitude os that he can enter a profession of his choice. 5. Economic Planning The state is in charge of both production and distribution. The allocation of the productive resources of the community will be determined according to the direction of a central authority. 6. Social Welfare and Social Security It is social welfare consideration, which guides productive activity in the economy rather than private profit. Commodities and services of such type and in such quantities are produced which are essential for promoting social welfare. 7. Classless Society The socialists believe in a classless society where the distinction between the rich and the poor and the "haves" and the "have-nots" has completely disappeared.

Merits of Socialism 1. Social Justice Under socialism, the inequalities of income are reduced to the minimum and the national income is more equitably and evenly distributed. 2. Better Allocation of Resources The productive resources of the nation are more economically and optimally allocated among the various productive uses. A central planning authority determines the allocation of resources among the various uses who is in a better position to assess the basic needs of the people and the intensity of their desires. 3. Rapid Economic Growth A socialist state promotes rapid economic growth. The task of promoting economic growth is not left in the hands of free private enterprise or market mechanism. A socialist state adopts economic planning and makes it possible to use potential productive resources in the most effective and fruitful manner. 4. Improving Productive Efficiency

Under socialism, improved techniques of production and scientific research are made freely available to all organizations that may need them. Also, under socialism, concentrating production in big firms results in improvement of production techniques. A socialist state makes the fullest use of productive activity. 5. Social Security and Welfare The socialists believe that people should be given protection against uncertainties relating to income work and living conditions and the burden of this provision should be borne by the entire society. That is why modern socialists include in their programme, schemes of the social insurance covering unemployment, accidents, sickness, old age pensions, death grants, etc. 6. Economic Stability Socialism eliminates trade cycles, We do not come across depression, unemployment and idel productive capacity in socialists economies. Since the means of production are owned and controlled by the state, the level of investment and the level of aggregate demand can also be effectively determined. This ensures economic stability. 7. Equality of Opportunity Every individual, whether he belongs to a rich family or a poor family has an equal opportunity to rise in life under socialism. Every young person is given equal opportunity to receive education or training according to his aptitude so that he can enter a profession of his choice. 8. Social Welfare and Social Security It is social welfare consideration, which guides productive activity in the economy rather than private profit. Commodities and services of such type and in such quantities are produced which are essential for promoting social welfare. 9. Classless Society The socialists believe in a classless society where the distinction between the rich and the poor and the "haves" and the "have-nots" has completely disappeared. Demerits of Socialism 1. Bureaucracy and Red Tapism The most important set of arguments advanced against socialism is one against the bureaucratic running of the economic machinery. The civil servant does not feel the same keen self-interest as the employee of a private corporation, where his tenure is not so secure. His main concern is to lot things go on somehow without a positive break down. Bureaucracy will further mean bossism, loss of individual liberty, Gestapo, etc. 2. Not Successful in Business The government personnel are not such as can conquer new fields. The conditions in government services are not congenial for the display of extraordinary ability. 3. Insufficient Resources

It is also urged that government cannot raise the huge amounts of capital, which are necessary for the efficient running, and expanding of all industries and trades. 4. Mis-Allocation of Resources Under socialism, there will be no automatic indicator like price mechanism for the most economical allocation of the resources of the community among different industries. Some commodities will be produced in excess and wasted, whereas there may be a shortage of others resulting in unsatisfied demand. As such a chronic maladjustment in demand and supply is feared. 5. Lack of Incentives It is also feared that incentive to hard work and stimulus to self-improvement will disappear altogether when personal gain or self-interest is eliminated. Inventive ability, enterprising spirit and the go-ahead attitude will languish. 6. Loss of Economic Freedom A serious charge against socialism is that, when freedom of enterprise disappears, even the free choice of occupation will go. Workers will be assigned certain jobs and they cannot change them without the consent of the planning authority. 7. No Economic Equality Socialism has failed to bring about economic equality. The dream of a classless society is far from being realized. Some degree of skepticism in the efficacy of socialism as a panacea for all social ills has grown and damped the armour of some enthusiastic socialists. 8. Concentration of Power in the State Under socialism, the State is not merely a political authority but it also exercises unlimited authority in the economic sphere. The State is everything and individual is nothing. He may not count at all. 9. Loss of Personal Liberty That under socialism there is no unemployment is conceded out. Critics regard a socialist State as one big prison-house and they do not think that employment is any compensation for the loss of liberty.

Economic System of Pakistan In Pakistan, we have neither of the two extreme systems but our economic system is a via media compromise of both the systems of capitalistic and socialistic patterns. It can safely be said that it is a mixed economy.

Concept of Mixed Economy Mixed Economy is an economic system, which combines in itself the elements of socialism as well as of

capitalism. It is an economic system, which is planned and directed partly by the state and by private enterprise. Under the "Mixed Capitalist System" or "Mixed Enterprise System", both State and private institutions exercise economic control. Panacea of the Defects of Capitalism and Socialism A privately owned capitalist system cannot guarantee full employment and elimination of poverty. It may lead to unequal distribution of wealth and air and water pollution. It produces trade cycles. i.e. sometimes depression and at other times an inflationary situation. On the other hand, a government owned business system might stifle innovation and invention. It may not be quickly responsive to public desired for products and services and may even limit the freedom of the people. It is so realized that economic development cannot be achieved at the desired rate of growth without any active government help and guidance. That is why most of the capitalistic and socialistic economics of world have become mixed economics in order to minimize the evils of unadulterated capitalism and socialism to accelerate economic growth.

Salient Features of Economic System of Pakistan 1. Co-Existence of the Public and Private Sectors In the economy both public sector and the private sector function together. In one part are those industries, the responsibility for the development of which is entrusted to the state and they are owned and managed by the state. Other industries are left under the authority and control of the private entrepreneurs. The private sector is free to develop them and start new enterprises in this sector. 2. Role of Price System And Government Directives So far as the public sector is concerned, economic decisions relating to production, prices and investment are made by the government or authorities appointed by the government. In industries in the private sector, the decisions regarding investment, production, prices, etc, are made by private entrepreneurs with the object of making maximum profit on the basis of the price system. 3. Government Regulation and Control of Private Sector In a mixed economy, the government adopts necessary measures to regulate and influence the private sector, so that it may function in the interests of the nation rather than exclusively in the interests of the private entrepreneurs. 4. consumer's Sovereignty Protected The consumers are free to buy commodities of their choice and the private entrepreneurs produce commodities according to consumer's demand or preferences, although the government can control their prices in public interest so that they can be prevented from rising unduly high. Besides, the government can also ration the commodities in short supply so that the limited available quantities can be fairly distributed. 5. Government Protection of Labour In a mixed economy, Government saves labour from exploitation by the exploitation by the capitalists.

Several factory acts have been passed to regulate the working conditions of labour. The government also takes necessary steps to prevent industrial disputes. 6. Reduction of Economic Inequalities The governments in mixed economics take necessary steps for the reduction of inequalities of income and wealth for promoting social justice and social stability and social welfare, increasing production and for providing equal opportunities for all. 7. Control of Monopoly A charge against monopolies is that they reduce output and raise prices in order to get maximum profit leading to miss-allocation of productive resources of the community, economic inequalities, and unemployment and hampering of industrial development. The government tries to control and regulate monopolies in order to remove the above evils and make them function in public interest. Also, when the government considers it necessary in public interest, it takes over monopolies and operates them in public interest. 8. Government Provision of Public Services The government provides certain indispensable public services without which community life would be unthinkable and which by their nature cannot appropriately be left to private enterprises. Examples are the maintenance of national defence, of internal law and order and the administration of justice etc. Business Environment and Social Responsibility

Business Environment Business environment refers to the conditions prevailing in a society in which a business is to be operated. It is defined as the total of all things external to business firms and industries, which effect their organization and operation. The number and scope of environmental factors, which effect business, is broad. There should be included all aspects of our social, scientific, economic, political and cultural life which have some bearing upon business. Relationship of Environment to Business To understand fully the nature of business, its structure, its organization and its behavior, one must look not only at the business properly, but also at the environment within which business operates. More specifically, this means that business exists in surroundings external to its direct or operating components of firms and industries. The significant elements of environment for a business house comprise persons, physical resources and climate, economic and market conditions, altitudes and laws of the land. These elements effect the course of action of the company. Business and its environment interact. In our business-oriented society, business has influenced

environmental conditions probably as much as or even more than environmental forces have shaped business. The firm depends upon its environmental conditions for the resources and opportunities necessary for its existence. The environment determines the limits of the firms' activities. The environment contributes valuable resources to the business firm only if the firm provides the desired goods or services to the environment. A firm must look to public needs and attitudes remain sensitive to human values and alert to the social set up. Good businesses, therefore, are always responsive to the total environment in which they operate.

Economic Environment Business is greatly influenced by the economy of the country. Its operational success depends upon an adjustment and meeting the requirements of the economy. The important factors that are to be looked into and effectively handled are: 1. Desires, Customers and Markets The purpose of business is to anticipate desires of people and purpose goods and services accordingly to satisfy them. Let these goods and services so produced be carried effectively to the place of customers. But it is not possible unless businessman produces them at proper time and makes them available to customers at reasonable price. Hence, timing of production and reasonable price. Hence, timing of production and reasonable price of products are important considerations. Further, the intensity of competition existing in the market and the degree of marketing strategies to be adopted also are important points to be considered by a business entrepreneur. 2. Availability Businessmen must assess the source or sources of capital as well as the cost at which it is available. For a developing country like ours, obtaining capital is not so easy. It is definitely a problem as its availability depends upon will and capacity of people to save and invest, existence of good capital and money market, and economic and financial policy of the government etc. 3. Availability of Labour Operational efficiency of a business enterprise greatly depends upon the availability of labour at a reasonable price. If such manpower in the shape of skilled and unskilled workers is sufficiently available to a business according to its requirement and within reasonable wage rate, it can carry on its activities and expect profit. But to get workers at right time and at right price is not so easy. There are many factors that influence their availability. 4. Level of Productivity Productivity at a reasonable level depends upon how the activities are planned, organized, directed and controlled. The use of the latest production techniques, machines, manpower, and motivation and techniques of people to work sincerely and devotedly are some of the requirements to achieve the desired level of productivity.

5. Imaginative Entrepreneurship The success of an entrepreneur depends upon the quality of his imagination and skill. More he is intelligent, imaginative, and farsighted, more he is effective in grabbing the opportunity and playing his role in the economic growth and betterment of people. 6. Qualified and Capable Manager The competent role of managers has greatly improved the efficiency of work operation, reduced cost and enhanced capability to face challenge of competition. The science of management is undergoing a fast improvement in the light of research, study, experiences and observation. Every business enterprise is struggling to avail the benefit of intelligent, qualified, and competent managers. 7. Market Size Market size of a business depends upon its production policy and programme. If its production target is limited, it will have a small market. On the other hand, if it has a large-scale production programme, it has to expand its market. Such business enterprises even go to international markets. Desire to expand the size of market causes them to adopt new marketing strategies and planned efforts to go as deep to different places as possible and create as many customers as it could be. 8. Price Levels and Inflation In case if price level is changing fast, it becomes difficult for a business enterprise to plan its activities that would ensure a reasonable gain. Changing price, levels make the cost of capital, production, distribution, and profit unpredictable and uncertain. But still then we find entrepreneurs coming up with fair guess and estimation to make their business operate with better results and survive the vagaries of changing price levels and inflation. 9. Government Fiscal and Monetary Policy Government collects revenue through taxes, duties, fees etc, and spends the same on administration, public utilities like roads, bridges, canals, buildings, hospitals etc. Greater burden of taxes imposed by the government on people may reduce their ability to save and could affect investment climate. Similarly, monetary policy, which influences supply of money within the country, does also have its impacts on business activities. Central Bank of the country as controller of credit plays its role to regulate money supply together with the government.

Social and Cultural Environment Businesses produce goods and services for people who dwell in the society. Thus the number of people, their age and educational composition has great significance for business. What a person buys or the service he consumes is a reflection of his religious and cultural constraints. Thus the cultural religious and ethnic pressures have a vital bearing on the affairs of the business. 1. Population Growth

for a businessman, population growth presents both opportunities and problems. Opportunities arise from the fact that there are continually more consumers to buy business output and more workers to produce and sell it. Problems are caused by the fact that as more people want and need jobs, businesses must make them available otherwise the society will have to face the menace of unemployment. 2. Population Composition (a) Age-Wise Composition Different age groups have different demands. Young people are interested in automobiles, musical instruments, sport equipments etc. Older people may be interest in medical care and health, food etc. (b) Education Standard An illiterate population can be easily deceived. Gone are the days of the sellers society. The society where consumers are educated is the buyers society. People can well judge between good and bad and reap the economies of modern technology. (c) Economic Standards Higher income people can afford to satisfy tastes that people of lower incomes cannot. Thus when the medium family income increases, the market for business products and services also expands. (d) Changing Job Opportunities With increased investment in human resources, the opportunities to improve labour productivity are enhanced. The occupational shifts have been towards professional, technical, managerial jobs and in service industries. The opportunities for farm workers, craftsmen, machine operators etc, is declining substantially. 3. Social Attitudes and Beliefs Businesses have to take into account the attitudes, desires, beliefs, tastes, problems and customs of the consumers. These aspects vary in individuals, groups and even nations. Americans hold attitudes like respect for all individuals, strong regard for education, faith in science and technology, belief in innovation, belief in competition, belief in an environment cleansed of air and water pollution, lovable communities with decent housing, safe streets, efficient transportation, educational and cultural opportunities. Such social beliefs have a considerable impact on business climate. 4. Pluralism The society is broken down into many kinds of groups' consumers, investors, labour organizations, managers, government's bureaucrats and politicians, religious groups, racial groups etc. In everything that business managers do, they must be alert to this pluralistic feature of the society. While the existence of so many interest groups tends to complicate business operations, they constitute a major safeguard against dominance of the society by any single interest group.

Technological Environment There has always been a strong link between business and technology. Any business that wishes to

survive in a changing world must be aware of the modern technological changes and also use technology to develop and modernize its products or services, to meet cost competition and to improve marketing. The alert businessman must not only be aware o technological changes affecting his operations and his customs, he needs to forecast the state of the art so that he will have time to use it successfully before he finds his products or processes obsolete. This he must also do so that he is the first one to put up a new product at the suitable time in the market and not lag behind which will be a degrading position in the world of competition.

Political Environment Political environment has a great impact on the establishment, operation, growth and expansion of business. Stable political climate makes things more certain and predictable. Businessman fined themselves in a better position to estimate future and plan their business. In other worlds, greater is the political stability, better may be the opportunity for successful business. That is the reason why we often witness flight of capital from the country where there is political instability or where policy of government frequently changes.

Legal Environment Every business is encircled by the laws, regulations, and court decisions of the land. Almost each and every decision made by a businessman should be within the permissible limits of laws and regulations of the country. He should know that his action or decision might be subjected to a challenge in the court of law. Thus all decisions and steps should be within the framework of the law of the land. This success depends upon how he meets all legal requirements. We know that in certain cases rules and regulations may be burdensome. But they all aim at creating an atmosphere that is best suited to good conduct of business and protect the interests of customers and workers as well.

Social Responsibility in Business A large part of an organization's response to its environment is called SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY. "Social Responsibility has been defined as the organization's obligation to take actions that protect and improve the welfare of the society as a whole, along with advancing its own interests." Basically business is said to possess this responsibility because of its extreme power to influence societal conditions. Business Environment and Social Responsibility

Business Environment

Business environment refers to the conditions prevailing in a society in which a business is to be operated. It is defined as the total of all things external to business firms and industries, which effect their organization and operation. The number and scope of environmental factors, which effect business, is broad. There should be included all aspects of our social, scientific, economic, political and cultural life which have some bearing upon business. Relationship of Environment to Business To understand fully the nature of business, its structure, its organization and its behavior, one must look not only at the business properly, but also at the environment within which business operates. More specifically, this means that business exists in surroundings external to its direct or operating components of firms and industries. The significant elements of environment for a business house comprise persons, physical resources and climate, economic and market conditions, altitudes and laws of the land. These elements effect the course of action of the company. Business and its environment interact. In our business-oriented society, business has influenced environmental conditions probably as much as or even more than environmental forces have shaped business. The firm depends upon its environmental conditions for the resources and opportunities necessary for its existence. The environment determines the limits of the firms' activities. The environment contributes valuable resources to the business firm only if the firm provides the desired goods or services to the environment. A firm must look to public needs and attitudes remain sensitive to human values and alert to the social set up. Good businesses, therefore, are always responsive to the total environment in which they operate.

Economic Environment Business is greatly influenced by the economy of the country. Its operational success depends upon an adjustment and meeting the requirements of the economy. The important factors that are to be looked into and effectively handled are: 1. Desires, Customers and Markets The purpose of business is to anticipate desires of people and purpose goods and services accordingly to satisfy them. Let these goods and services so produced be carried effectively to the place of customers. But it is not possible unless businessman produces them at proper time and makes them available to customers at reasonable price. Hence, timing of production and reasonable price. Hence, timing of production and reasonable price of products are important considerations. Further, the intensity of competition existing in the market and the degree of marketing strategies to be adopted also are important points to be considered by a business entrepreneur. 2. Availability

Businessmen must assess the source or sources of capital as well as the cost at which it is available. For a developing country like ours, obtaining capital is not so easy. It is definitely a problem as its availability depends upon will and capacity of people to save and invest, existence of good capital and money market, and economic and financial policy of the government etc. 3. Availability of Labour Operational efficiency of a business enterprise greatly depends upon the availability of labour at a reasonable price. If such manpower in the shape of skilled and unskilled workers is sufficiently available to a business according to its requirement and within reasonable wage rate, it can carry on its activities and expect profit. But to get workers at right time and at right price is not so easy. There are many factors that influence their availability. 4. Level of Productivity Productivity at a reasonable level depends upon how the activities are planned, organized, directed and controlled. The use of the latest production techniques, machines, manpower, and motivation and techniques of people to work sincerely and devotedly are some of the requirements to achieve the desired level of productivity. 5. Imaginative Entrepreneurship The success of an entrepreneur depends upon the quality of his imagination and skill. More he is intelligent, imaginative, and farsighted, more he is effective in grabbing the opportunity and playing his role in the economic growth and betterment of people. 6. Qualified and Capable Manager The competent role of managers has greatly improved the efficiency of work operation, reduced cost and enhanced capability to face challenge of competition. The science of management is undergoing a fast improvement in the light of research, study, experiences and observation. Every business enterprise is struggling to avail the benefit of intelligent, qualified, and competent managers. 7. Market Size Market size of a business depends upon its production policy and programme. If its production target is limited, it will have a small market. On the other hand, if it has a large-scale production programme, it has to expand its market. Such business enterprises even go to international markets. Desire to expand the size of market causes them to adopt new marketing strategies and planned efforts to go as deep to different places as possible and create as many customers as it could be. 8. Price Levels and Inflation In case if price level is changing fast, it becomes difficult for a business enterprise to plan its activities that would ensure a reasonable gain. Changing price, levels make the cost of capital, production, distribution, and profit unpredictable and uncertain. But still then we find entrepreneurs coming up with fair guess and estimation to make their business operate with better results and survive the vagaries of changing price levels and inflation.

9. Government Fiscal and Monetary Policy Government collects revenue through taxes, duties, fees etc, and spends the same on administration, public utilities like roads, bridges, canals, buildings, hospitals etc. Greater burden of taxes imposed by the government on people may reduce their ability to save and could affect investment climate. Similarly, monetary policy, which influences supply of money within the country, does also have its impacts on business activities. Central Bank of the country as controller of credit plays its role to regulate money supply together with the government.

Social and Cultural Environment Businesses produce goods and services for people who dwell in the society. Thus the number of people, their age and educational composition has great significance for business. What a person buys or the service he consumes is a reflection of his religious and cultural constraints. Thus the cultural religious and ethnic pressures have a vital bearing on the affairs of the business. 1. Population Growth for a businessman, population growth presents both opportunities and problems. Opportunities arise from the fact that there are continually more consumers to buy business output and more workers to produce and sell it. Problems are caused by the fact that as more people want and need jobs, businesses must make them available otherwise the society will have to face the menace of unemployment. 2. Population Composition (a) Age-Wise Composition Different age groups have different demands. Young people are interested in automobiles, musical instruments, sport equipments etc. Older people may be interest in medical care and health, food etc. (b) Education Standard An illiterate population can be easily deceived. Gone are the days of the sellers society. The society where consumers are educated is the buyers society. People can well judge between good and bad and reap the economies of modern technology. (c) Economic Standards Higher income people can afford to satisfy tastes that people of lower incomes cannot. Thus when the medium family income increases, the market for business products and services also expands. (d) Changing Job Opportunities With increased investment in human resources, the opportunities to improve labour productivity are enhanced. The occupational shifts have been towards professional, technical, managerial jobs and in service industries. The opportunities for farm workers, craftsmen, machine operators etc, is declining substantially. 3. Social Attitudes and Beliefs

Businesses have to take into account the attitudes, desires, beliefs, tastes, problems and customs of the consumers. These aspects vary in individuals, groups and even nations. Americans hold attitudes like respect for all individuals, strong regard for education, faith in science and technology, belief in innovation, belief in competition, belief in an environment cleansed of air and water pollution, lovable communities with decent housing, safe streets, efficient transportation, educational and cultural opportunities. Such social beliefs have a considerable impact on business climate. 4. Pluralism The society is broken down into many kinds of groups' consumers, investors, labour organizations, managers, government's bureaucrats and politicians, religious groups, racial groups etc. In everything that business managers do, they must be alert to this pluralistic feature of the society. While the existence of so many interest groups tends to complicate business operations, they constitute a major safeguard against dominance of the society by any single interest group.

Technological Environment There has always been a strong link between business and technology. Any business that wishes to survive in a changing world must be aware of the modern technological changes and also use technology to develop and modernize its products or services, to meet cost competition and to improve marketing. The alert businessman must not only be aware o technological changes affecting his operations and his customs, he needs to forecast the state of the art so that he will have time to use it successfully before he finds his products or processes obsolete. This he must also do so that he is the first one to put up a new product at the suitable time in the market and not lag behind which will be a degrading position in the world of competition.

Political Environment Political environment has a great impact on the establishment, operation, growth and expansion of business. Stable political climate makes things more certain and predictable. Businessman fined themselves in a better position to estimate future and plan their business. In other worlds, greater is the political stability, better may be the opportunity for successful business. That is the reason why we often witness flight of capital from the country where there is political instability or where policy of government frequently changes.

Legal Environment Every business is encircled by the laws, regulations, and court decisions of the land. Almost each and every decision made by a businessman should be within the permissible limits of laws and regulations of the country. He should know that his action or decision might be subjected to a challenge in the court of law. Thus all decisions and steps should be within the framework of the law of the land. This success depends upon how he meets all legal requirements. We know that in certain cases rules and regulations

may be burdensome. But they all aim at creating an atmosphere that is best suited to good conduct of business and protect the interests of customers and workers as well.

Social Responsibility in Business A large part of an organization's response to its environment is called SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY. "Social Responsibility has been defined as the organization's obligation to take actions that protect and improve the welfare of the society as a whole, along with advancing its own interests." Basically business is said to possess this responsibility because of its extreme power to influence societal conditions.
Chapter 5 - Operating A Business

Marketing Marketing is the process by which the demand structure for econoic goods and services is anticipated and satisfied through the conception, promotion, exchange and physical distribution of such goods and services. In words of Stanton, "Marketing is a total system of business activities designed to plan, price, promote and distribute satisfying goods and services to present and potential customers." 1. It is a managerial system. 2. The entire system of business action should be market or customer oriented. 3. The definition suggests that Marketing is a dynamic business process. 4. The Marketing programme starts with the idea of the product and does not end until the customers wants are satisfied which may be after the sales. 5. It implies that to be successful, marketing must maximize profitable sales over the long run.

Score of Marketing At first, the marketing department primary responsibility was for sales activities. But as marketing managers gained experience, they gradually realized that is was far more sensible to make what people wanted to buy rather than to try to make them buy what they didn't ask for. Marketing began to enlarge its scope, taking over company activities such as market research and customer services, advertisig, public relations and promotions. Product development, product servicing and forecasting also began to come under the jurisdiction of the marketing manager. The purpose was to help make the entire company more responsive to the consumer. Industries shifted from a production orientation to a marketing orientation. Thus, marketing includes not only the whole process of distribution, but also the preliminary activities before distribution. The domain of marketing grew until marketing could be defined as: "The performance of business activities which direct the flow of goods and services from producers to consumers or users in order to satisfy customers and accomplish the company's objectives." In short, we can say that marketing includes all efforts to: 1. Discover the present and potential requirements of consumers. 2. The evolution of the products, which would satisfy those requirements. 3. All the effective methods of product distribution. 4. All the efforts to improve and modify the products.

Importance of Marketing Marketing is a fundamental human activity that facilitates and expedites exchange. In the following point we could find, its importance; 1. It is the Essence of Modern Business

Marketing of goods and services is the prime objective of every business. In view of growing competition and abundant supply of goods and services, marketing helps the business to face the challenge and survive. Through effective marketing activities, the producers find new outlets of the goods and services and keep the spiral of economic growth moving upward. 2. It Is A Total System of Interacting Business Activities Marketing of today is no longer limited to the sales force. It is a total system designed to plan, price, promote and distribute want satisfying products and services to present and potential customers. Marketing activities have emerged as a total system with a closer contact with each other and integrated efforts to bring the desired result. 3. It creates Interest in the Product Creating utility in the product and developing its usefulness is the most important role of marketing. Even the best produced goods cannot be appreciated by the customers unless they are properly introduced to them. Hence marketing helps in creating interest in the product through proper introduction. 4. It Creates Employment Marketing is a paraphernalia of many activities like advertising, indoor and outdoor salesmanship, warehousing, transportation, communication, market research and market information. All these have opened new avenues for jobs. A good number of people have found it a profitable source of employment. 5. It Provides Customer or Consumer Satisfaction Marketing specialist tries to find out exactly what goods and services consumers are ready to buy. Product research goes on to make it more useful and more satisfactory to people. This is what a good business enterprise aims at. Thus, we can say that the essence of marketing activities is consumer satisfaction.

Market Segmentation A market segment is a group of individuals or firms, within a market, that share one or more common characteristics. The process of dividing a market into segments is called market segmentation. "When the market for a product is divided into two more homogenous groups of consumers, and variations of the product are developed to satisfy each group, market segmentation has occurred." Market segmentation is a product development strategy. It allows a marketing manager to develop a strategy that will be responsive to the needs of a unique market sector and render perfect satisfaction to a part of the market. Target Markets "A target market is a market segment towards which a firm directs its marketing efforts." A firm may have more than one target market for a particular product. Its product may be demanded by persons who are between 20 and 34 years old and also by those who are in the 45 to 54 years age bracket. On the other hand, a firm may develop different products for different target markets e.g. a manufacturer of athletic shoes may target the professional athlete and at the same time it may produce shoes and clothing to appeal the recreational athlete as well. Bases of Segmentation A company may select one common characteristic to identify a market segment. Marketers make use of wide variety of segmentation bases like: 1. Geographic Bases For many years, marketing managers have reacted to geographical differences in markets like market density, climate, region and classification as urban, sub-urban and rural. 2. Demographic Bases Socio-economic variables such as family income, age level, education level, family size, sex distribution, nationality, occupation, religion, social class, etc are types of demographic date often used to classify markets. 3. Psychographics Bases Segmenting markets by identifying individuals who share common attitudinal or behavioral pattern is called psychographics market segmentation. A college professor and a skilled labourer may be earning dis-similar incomes, they may be of different ages and may have contrasting educational backgrounds, yet both may hold common attitudes towards numerous products. 4. Market Bases One important way to segment is according to whether the purchaser is a consumer (who purchases goods and services for his own personal use) or an industrial user (who purchases products to use in producing other products). Because those two groups purchase goods and services for different reasons, marketers use different marketing strategies to reach them. 5. Product Related Bases Target markets may be set on product related bases such as volume of usage, end use, benefit, expectations, brand loyalty and price sensitivity etc.

Marketing Mix / Marketing Strategy Once market segmentation has identified various target markets, the firm faces the challenge of signing a marketing strategy appropriate for each. The several elements of such a strategy is known as Marketing Mix. Marketing mix refers to the combination of decision elements in a company's marketing programme. It consists of four major components; that of product, distribution, promotion and price. Those components are called marketing decision variables, because a marketing manager can vary the type and amount of each element. It is carried to satisfy consumer's needs and to have a better and successful grip over the market.

Ingredients of Marketing Mix 1. The Product Variable To maintain a satisfying set of products that will help an enterprise to achieve its gals, a marketing manager must be able to develop new products, modify existing ones and eliminate those that no longer satisfy buyers and yield acceptable profits. Product strategies are concerned with the design of the product, product planning, development, modification and innovation, branding, warranties and packaging decisions. 2. Distribution Variable In dealing with the distribution variable, a marketing manager attempts to make products available in the quantities desired to as many customers as possible and to hold the total inventory, transportation, and storage costs as low as possible. He may even motivate intermediaries (wholesalers and retailers) in developing and managing transportation and storage systems. 3. The Promotion or Communication Variable Promotion is used to increase public awareness of an enterprise about its existing or new product or brand. In addition, promotion is used to educate customers about the features of the product or renew interest in a product whose popularity is declining. Promotional strategies are concerned with communicating to consumers and the related personal, selling, advertising and sales promotion decisions. 4. The Price Variable In the area of the price variable, marketing managers usually have a hand in establishing pricing policies and determining product prices. Since price is important to consumers, it is a delicate components of the marketing mix. If prices are too low, the company may be lost. The supply and demand of the product, transportation costs, size of the order and payment patterns etc. affect the price of a product.

Life Cycle of A Product Every product progresses through a product life cycle, which is a series of stages in which its sales, revenue and profits increase, reach a peak and then decline. Thus products are born, they grow up, enjoy their peak years and eventually wane. Few products last forever, some products have minimum typical pattern showing a gradual increase to maturity, reaching a maturity stage and then coming to declining stage. Few periods in the life cycle of a product are generally recognized. 1. Introduction Stage 2. Growth Stage 3. Maturity Stage 4. Decline Stage Some products pass through these stages rapidly, in a few weeks or months. Others may take years to go through each stage. 1. Introduction Stage In the introduction stage, both the sales growth rate and the level of sales are low. The slow sales growth results from one or more of the following situation. a) Delays in expansion of production capacity. b) Technical problems in the product or production c) Delays in achieving adequate distribution through retail outlets. Profits are usual non-existent and at this stage, costs of production and the cost of marketing will be high if there is a genuine product deferential. A company may benefit in different ways e.g. by high initial pricing or by rapid market penetration. 2. Growth Stage It is characterized by rapidly increasing sales. In this stage, price should be maintained at a high level to allow the company to improve its cash position. Advertising and other sales promotional expenditure remains high as compared to expenditures for established products. The number of competitors increase at this stage and buying resistance will build up. An imitation of the product by the competitors starts and the new product of the same style come in the market. Unit margin profit rises rapidly. Sales and profit also increases rapidly. Due to entry of the competitors in the market, the management must be ready to face in new products and adjust marketing tactics in lying with anticipated cycle. 3. Maturity Stage During this period, sales volume continues to grow and the market reaches to full maturity. Sales may continue to increase but at a decreasing rate. Competitors share the market and their market profitability at different stages of market development. Programmes to reach more consumers and to find and promote new uses for mature products become important means of competing. Deduction in price changes in advertising and promotion techniques designing and quality may prove helpful at this stage. 4. Decline Stage At this stage profit margin becomes very small and very effort has to be made to reduce cost and improve distribution efficiency. Price becomes a major issue and this may lead to restriction to distribution to large outlets. A product which is at the declining stage in one country may find a market in another country with a less developed economy. The cost of maintaining business at this stage of cycle must be weighed against the opportunity for investment elsewhere. Marketers should be aware of the life-cycle stage of each product they are responsible for, and they should know how long the product is expected to remain in that stage.

Product Planning and Development

Product development is a more united term and includes the technical activities of product research, engineering and design. Steps in Product Development Despite the risk involved, new product development is a competitive necessity and has given incentive to many companies to adopt a formal procedure for dealing with complexities and uncertainties involved in product planning and development. Process of product planning and development consist of the following steps: 1. The Search for New Product Ideas The starting point for the new product development process is to present ideas. Management concentrates its efforts on those product ideas that appear to be most promising. New product ideas may occur from many sources, internal and external to the organization. Primary internal designing and company personnel. The most important external sources are the customers and competitors. 2. Screening New Product Ideas Ideas for new product must be completely screened at an early stage. This reduces the number of product ideas that can undergo further detailed analysis. Screening determines the productivity of the idea, amount of investment required, market possibilities, customers reactions and media chances of distribution to be employed. 3. Business Analysis The basic purpose of business analysis is to determine financial aspects of new product introduction. Such an analysis is tied directly to the potential profitability of a proposed undertaking. The analysis is basically of the cost and benefit i.e. the total cost of developing a new product and increase in turnover. 4. Development and Testing At this stage, no product has been developed. Only a product concept has been creaed. Most product concepts that successfully passed the business analysis stage are tested with potential consumers before actual development begins. When consumers are shown the concept statements, they are asked to evaluate the product idea from the stand point of their need and use of it. They are further asked to evaluated the idea, suggest improvements in the product and to indicate general features they would like to have. 5. Test Marketing It is the introduction of a product in a limited geographical area to determine if the product should be introduced to the national market. In test marketing, a product is produced on a limited scale under rightly controlled conditions. It is the last opportunity for the company to modify the product for the marketing strategy. 6. Introduction and Evaluation This is the last stage in product planning and development. In this stage, the product is ready for national distribution and takes its place as a part of the companies existing line and total mix. The marketing programme designed to assist the new product will be determined by the information generated in the early phases in planning and development.

Marketing Channels / Channels of Distribution Marketing channels refer to the routes that are followed in carrying the products from manufacturers to final consumers or users or the course taken in the transfer of title of a commodity. These channels vary according to the nature of goods, the market, the character of demand and so on. It is also known as channels of distribution. In view of growing competition and desire to reach the consumers with all possible avenues, the channel of distribution adopted by a manufacturer is normally more than one. To expedite and facilitate the flow of products of producers, middlemen or intermediaries have come up to play their positive role. Hence in usual practice we find the following marketing channels for consumer products. Channels for Consumer Products A. Producer - Consumer B. Producer - Retailers - Consumers C. Producer - Wholesalers - Retailers - Consumers D. Producer - Agents - Wholesalers - Retailers - Consumers E. Producer - Salesman - Consumer Channel A as given above is followed or adopted by a producer where the product is highly perishable or fast deteriorating or where a direct personal service is desired. Channel B is chose to avoid delay in distribution and keep the producer nearer the consumers to make him understand their desire or liking with greater closeness. In all other cases, channels C and D are adopted specially where producers have to sell over a large geographical area and where they would like to transfer distribution burden to middleman. Channel E is commonly termed door-to-door selling or personal selling and typified the method selected by certain companies. Channels for Industrial Products F. Producer - Industrial buyers G. Producer - Industrial Distributors - Industrial Buyers H. Producer - Agents - Industrial Buyers I. Producer - Agents - Industrial Distributors - Industrial Buyers Among buyers there are industrial customers also who buy the product for industrial consumption or for use in finishing their product or for assembly

purpose. Industrial customers, as such, are potential buyers of certain products. For them, producers use one or more of the above channels. In normal case, Channel F is being followed in carrying the product to industrial buyers. But this is practicable where such buyers are in limited number. If the number of industrial buyers increases, the help of intermediaries is sought and therefore channel G can also be adopted. Where the producer wants to pay more attention to other things, channel may be placed up where agents are appointed to serve industrial buyers. In still other cases channel I may also be used to serve a large number of industrial buyers in different parts of the country of geographical area. Hence these different marketing channels are useful in their own cases and are adopted by producers according to their needs and requirements. Pricing Importance of Price Price is the value of a commodity expressed in terms of money. Pricing is considered by many to be the key activity within the capitalistic system of free enterprise. price, thus, is a basic regulation of the economic system. Price determines what will be produced (supply) and who will get how much of these goods and services (demand). Management may decide to improve the quality of the products or add differentiating features. This decision can be implemented only if the market will accept a price high enough to cover the costs of these changes. Poorly made and implemented price decisions result in a weaker market position generally and in the extreme outright business failure. Pricing Objectives No marketing job can be done properly without a goal, and pricing is no exception. Management should decide upon its pricing objectives before determining the price itself. But very few firms clearly state their specific price policies. The main goals in pricing may be classified as follows: 1. Achieve Target Return on Investment or Net Sales A firm may price to achieve a certain percentage return on investment or on net sales. They set a percentage markup on sales that is large enough to cover anticipated operating costs plus a desired profit for the year. It was selected as a goal by manufacturers that were leaders in their industries. 2. Stabilize Prices Price stabilization is often the goal in industries with a price leader. Price leadership does not mean that all items in the industry charge the same price as set by the leaders. 3. Maintain or Improve Share of Market In some companies, both large and small, the major pricing objective is to maintain or increase the share of the market held by the firm, and through it, it can usually determine what shares of the market it enjoys, in some respects, it is better goal than target return especially when the total market is growing. A firm might be earning a reasonable return, but might be getting a deceased share of the market. 4. Meet or Prevent Competition Countless firms, regardless of size, price their products simply to meet competition. When a company sells its output in this manner, we can almost say that it has no control over the goal and the means used to reach it, or either we fix the price of a commodity so that the competitors do not enter the market. 5. Maximize Profits the pricing objective of making as much money as possible is probably followed by a larger number of companies than any other policy. A profit maximization policy if practiced over the long run. For this, the firm may have to accept short run losses. A firm producing a new product does best by setting low prices and making least profits for the first few years, but they are laying the solid foundation for adequate profits over the long run. The goal should be to maximize profits on total output rather than on each single item marketed. Factors Influencing Price Determination After setting their objectives, executives must determined the base price of their product or service. By base price, we mean the price of one unit of the product at the point of production or resale. In the price determination process, several factors usually influence the final decision. Factors may be both internal and external that affects the price at which a product is offered for sale. Internal factors include the intersection of other marketing controllable like product distribution and promotion. However, following are the key factors that management should consider. 1. Demand for the Product The first stage in pricing a product is to estimate the total demand for it. Two practical steps in demand estimation are: a) The Expected Price This is the price of the product at which the customers value it. It is what they think the product is worth of. If the price is much lower than what the market expects, sales may be lost. The producer may submit their articles to experienced wholesalers or retailers or engineers and ask them to estimate its price. Another possibility is to observe prices of comparable competitive products. A third alternative is to survey potential customers by showing them the articles and asking them to determine its price. However, a much more effective approach is to market the product in a few limited test areas. By trying different prices under controlled research conditions, the seller can determine at least a reasonable range of prices. b) Estimates of Sales At Various Prices It is extremely helpful to estimate what the sales volume will be at several different prices. Here experience with the product or with like products is the best source of information. A product with an elastic demand should usually be priced lower than an item with an inelastic demand. 2. Target Share of Market the market share targeted by a company is a major factor to consider when determining the price of a product or a service. A company striving to increase its market share may price more aggressively (lower base price, larger discounts) then a firm that wants to maintain its present share.

The expected share of the market is influenced by present production capacity and ease of competitive entry. 3. Competitive Reactions Present and potential competition is an important influence is determining a base price. The threat of potential competition is greatest when the field is easy to enter and the profit prospects are encouraging. 4. Cream Skimming Pricing Versus Penetration Pricing While pricing a product, the management should consider, whether to enter the market with a high price or low price. These opposite alternatives are termed as skim the cream pricing and penetration pricing. The cream-skimming strategy involves setting a price that is high in the range of expected prices. A seller may follow this policy for long, or later lower the price to tap other market segments. It is particularly suitable for new products. In penetration pricing, a low initial price is set to reach the mass market immediately. It can also be employed at a later stage in products life cycle. If there is free duty in the market of a product, management should adopt the penetration pricing policy. On the other hand, where the market is not large enough to attract the big competitors, it is feasible to adopt cream-skimming policy. 5. Other Parts of the Marketing Mix - The Product, Distribution Channels and Promotion In the course of determining a base price, management should consider the other major parts of its marketing mix. a) The Product The price of a product is influenced by whether it is a new item or an older, established one. The importance of the product in its end use must also be considered. b) Channels of Distribution Often a firm sets a different price for wholesalers and retailers. The price to the wholesalers is lower because they provide facilities such as storage, granting credit to retailers and selling to small retailers. c) Promotional Methods The promotional methods used, and the extent to which the product is promoted by the manufacturers or the middleman are considered in pricing. If major promotion is done by retailers, they will be charged a lower price for a product.

Promotion Basic Nature of Promotion In its promotional activities, a firm gets its chance to communicate with potential customers. It should be noted particularly that promotion and sales promotion are different. Promotion is the all inclusive term representing the broad filed and sales promotion is only a part of it. Promotion is the most criticized of all the marketing activities. Basically, promotion is an exercise in information, persuasion, and communication. These three are related, because to inform is to persuade, and conversely a person who is persuaded is also being formed. And persuasion and information become effective through some form of communication. Need for Promotion A company needs promotion to aid in differentiating its products, to persuade the buyers and to bring more information into the buying decision process. Through the use of promotion, a company hopes to increase a products sales volume at only given price. Several factors point up the need for promotion. 1. Distances and Number of Consumers As the distance between the producers and consumers increases, and as the number of potential customers grows, the problem of market communication becomes significant needs an effective promotional programme. 2. Disseminate Information Once the middlemen are introduced in a marketing pattern they must be informed about the products. Wholesales must promote the products to retailers and retailers to consumers. Even the most useful product will be a failure, if no body knows about it. A basic purpose of promotions is to disseminate information to let the customer know. 3. Competition between the Firms The intense competition between different industries and even between different firms within an industry needs promotional programmes. Since, variety of goods are growing in the market and since customers are more selective in their buying choices, so a good promotional program is needed to reach them. 4. Periods of Shortages Promotion is also needed during the periods of shortages, as advertising can stress product conversation and efficient uses of the product. The sales force can also help custoemrs in solving their shortage induced programmes. 5. Economic Decline Any economic decline quickly points up the importance of selling. During such a period, product planning, the channels and the pricing structure remain unaffected and unchanged. The key problem is selling. However, promotion is needed to maintain the high material standard of living and the high level of employment. Methods or components of Promotion The major components or the tools of promotion are as follows: 1. Advertising Advertising is the principal method of demand creation. It consists of all the activities involved in presenting to a group, a non-personal, oral or visual, openly sponsored message regarding a product, service or idea. This message, called advertisement, is disseminated through one or more media and is

paid by the identified sponsor. Advertisement is the message itself while advertising is a process. The factor of payment made by the sponsor to media differentiates advertising from propaganda and publicity. It is advertising that has enabled the businessmen to make continuous mass production for the wide markets. It ensures the introduction and acceptance of a new product in the market. Advertising, being a comparatively cheaper method, is directed to prepare the necessary ground for the activities relied upon to a great extent. 2. Personal Selling Selling is essential to the health and well being of our economic system. The goal of all marketing efforts is to increase profitable sales by offering want satisfaction to the market. Personal selling is by far the major promotional method used to reach this goal. Personal selling consists of individual, personal communication and it has the advantage of being more flexible in operations. In other words, personal selling is an oral representation in a conversation with one or more prospective buyers for the purpose of making sales. In personal selling, the company has an advantage to pinpoint its target market effectively. 3. Sales Promotion Sales promotion consists of those marketing activities, other than personal selling, advertising and publicity, that stimulate consumer purchasing and dealer effectiveness, such as displays shows and expositions, demonstrations, and various non-current selling efforts not in the ordinary routine. It serves as a bridge between advertising and personal selling. These devices are very important at the point of purchase because they inform, remind or otherwise stimulate the buyer. The sales promotion department of a manufacturer may work with many different groups consumers, dealers and distributors, or other sections of the marketing department. Thus, the marketing managers must carefully consider the role played by sales promotion in the marketing mix. 4. Publicity Publicity is a non-personal form of demand stimulation and is not paid for by the person or organization benefiting from it. Publicity refers to any message concerning an organization appearing in the mass media as a news item for which the organization does not pay and is not generally considered to be the source. 5. Public Relations The market target of public relations effort may be any given public such as customers, a government agency, employees, or people living near the promotional organization. Chapter 6 - Business in the Global Market

International Marketing International marketing refers to the marketing activities that are performed across the international boundaries. The planning and control of such marketing activities are carried by the parent producing company through its strategic marketing activities that are designed and established to meet the requirements of such a market. The main goal is to introduce and familiarize the product in a manner that customers get satisfied, develop liking for the product, and build a better image of the multinational manufacturer. Marketing strategies are adopted to overcome hindrances and restraints. Greater the multinational companies pay attention to marketing mix, greater becomes the possibility of exercising effective control or better grip over the international market. Further the success of international marketing also depends upon how the producers understand social and cultural built up economic pattern, political environment, and the technological advertisement that has been acquired by the country where goods and services are to be provided. In fact, successful international marketing depends upon how the producing company gets adjusted and fully familiarized with the conditions that prevail in the country where the goods and services are to be provided.

Balance of Trade By balance of trade we mean the difference between what a country pays for imports and what is receives for its exports. It records all visible items that are exported to and imported from other countries through sea, air and land routes. Balance of trade, as such gives an estimation of total inflow and outflow of goods that are recorded at the inlet and outlet points.

Balance of Payment Balance of payment refers to the net results that are drawn after recording all the visible and invisible items that are imported and exported from the country. Balance of payment, as such, provides a comprehensive statement over the net results of foreign trade and gives a true picture as to where the country stands in the international trade. It clearly exposes the economic viability, strength, and in capability by correctly measuring its imports and exports, competency in goods and services as well as technical know-how. By services we mean the services of shipping lines, insurance companies, banking concerns, and others. It also includes the foreign loan that is either provided by it or accepted from other country or countries.

Arguments for Restraints on International Trade Free international trade is hardly found today. The most popular arguments that are given for restricting foreign trade among nations are as follows: 1. Military Argument This argument holds that all industries vital to the national defence should be kept alive through tariff protection, if necessary. 2. The Home Industry Argument This argument holds that if foreign goods are kept out of the country. Domestic manufacturers will enjoy a larger home market. But this argument favours selfish businessmen who are thus able to free themselves from foreign competition and charge high prices for their own goods. In this view, protective tariff unnecessarily makes imported goods costlier and render local producers to enjoy a larger home market where by losing foreign buyers. 3. The Infant Industry

The tenor of this argument is that young struggling industries should be protected from foreign competition until they are matured enough to face it. But determining how long this protection is needed for each individual industry and when it should be discarded is a difficult task. 4. The Wages Argument This argument holds that by excluding foreign goods, goods made by higher paid domestic labour are encouraged thereby raising the domestic wage level. But by doing this: 1. The domestic prices are unduly raised. 2. Since high wages do not cause high productivity, this results in subsidizing uneconomic production to the long run disadvantage of all parties concerned. 5. Favourable Balance of Trade Argument In an attempt to have a favourable balance of trade, a country may make every effort to reduce the import burden as much as possible by resorting to increased import duty, surcharge etc. while on the other hand, to increase exports to gain as much favourable results of foreign trade as possible. Methods of Restricting Free Trade Some of the methods used as barriers to free foreign trade are briefly given as follows: 1. Tariffs Tariffs are simply taxes imposed by a nation on products imported from other nations. There are two broad types of tariffs: (a) Revenue Tariffs, which are imposed to raise revenue, not necessary to prohibit specific imports. (b) Protective Tariffs, which are designed to protect domestic industries against foreign competition. Revenue tariffs are specific duty tariffs and they are levied on imports of a stated amount per unit (such as per pair, per kilo, per liter and so on). The usual objective is to produce revenue. Protective tariffs, on the other hand are based on the value of imported products, rather than the quantity. They are of often known as ad valorem taxes that aim at controlling the retail prices. They thus protect the domestic producers. If the ad valorem tax is high enough, it can keep foreign products out of the domestic market altogether. 2. Quotas It is a trade restriction technique where a country simply sets an upper limit on the amount of a certain product that may be imported. Quota is fixed to restrict import of a certain commodity, to avoid foreign competition and the home industry operates without any major upset. 3. Embargo An embargo is a completed prohibition on imports of certain products or from certain countries. It is more a political motivated action that puts a ban on imports rather than an economic one. Example may be given of the United States tat prohibited the imports of products from certain communist countries. 4. Difficult Custom Procedures The creation of complicated and expensive custom procedures can be effective in limiting imports. It can also be used to discourage exports. Importers and exporters get fed up with difficult custom procedures that are intelligently introduced by the government.

Organization for Multinational Operation Multinational operations are conducted by companies with the help of one of different organizational structures. The four identified organizational structures are: 1. International Division Some companies set up a separate division, which looks after the multinational operations. The international division created for the purpose assumes its own-identity apart from the principal organization. 2. Geographical Division Some companies have separated divisions to handle business independently in different parts of the world. 3. Functional Division A third form of organizational structure is based on function. The marketing for the world wide organization is planned by the Marketing Division. The Finance Department manages international finance along with domestic finance. 4. Product Division A company divides its operations according to products of the company. A specific department handles the complete activity of producing and marketing its products.

Problems of Multinational Operation Problems tend to sneak up on executives of multinational firms in the most unexpected ways, including the following: 1. Language Differences Differences in language constitutes one of the outstanding barriers to international trade. Failure to communicate properly and adequately through correspondence, advertising and conversation retards attainment of the full possibilities of a foreign market. 2. Different Monetary Standards Every nation has its own peculiar currency. Rupee in Pakistan yen in Japan, Lira in Italy etc. This situation requires not only a mechanism whereby the seller may be paid in his own currency while the buyer makes payment in his, but also a method whereby each of these national currencies may be value in

terms of every other one. The non-existence of gold standard, which at one time served as a common denominator, has greatly complicated the problem. 3. Local Attitudes Local attitudes about certain products may become very important. If a product is thought to be mainly for men or mainly for children, its sales could certainly be affected. Furthermore, stereotypes about foreign countries are often incorrect and misleading. 4. Difference of Tastes Tastes vary from country to country and even within a country from person to person. This difference of taste may cause drastic problems to multinational companies, which intend to have their plan of operations in many countries. 5. Lack of Marketing Information Lack of precise, current marketing information about most foreign countries may also cause a hindrance .Helpful data can be secured from such sources as foreign trade associations, banks etc. but this information is usually quite general and can be applied only in part to problems concerning specific products and markets. 6. Trade Barriers Practically all countries for one reason or another, interpose barriers that tend to restrict the free flow of goods across their borders. These barriers can make the free practice of business very difficult. They consist of tariffs, quotas, exchange restrictions, barter arrangements, laws and occasionally absolute prohibitions to the import of certain commodities. 7. Climate Difference In this area, difficulty is anticipated but still encountered. For some commodities, which are sensitive to climate conditions, special scheduling, and packaging are often required for protection from exceptional moisture, heat or cold. 8. Business Customs and Bargaining Customs Business customs and bargaining customs are rarely part of written law. Nevertheless they are sure to affect marketing strategy. 9. Shortage of Qualified Management Personnel There is critical shortage of qualified management personnel for multinational operations. Schools are now training for international management. Some companies are beginning to try to make overseas experience attractive and a requisite for advancement within the corporation. 10. Interface of Divisions A final difficulty often occurs in the upper echelons of multinational companies at the critical interface of divisions. Relationships between divisions can become strained and aggressive when the competitiveness of division executives is increased by nationalistic pride. Hence great care, for detail and fairness must be tied, into the agreements and plans for marketing areas and responsibilities of each corporate arm. Chapter 7 - Creating Goods and Services

Production Control Production control consists of a well defined set of procedures that has its objective, the coordination of all the elements of productive process men, machines, tools and materials into a smoothly flowing whole, which results in the fabrication of products with a minimum interruption. Management is responsible to see that all business plans are properly adhered to and the standard sets are attained. production control therefore involves in control of cost, quality, and time of production. An effective system of production control minimizes the idleness of men and machines, optimizes the number of setups required, keeps in process inventories at a satisfactory level, reduces material handling and storage costs and consequently permits good quality and sufficient quantity of production at low unit cost. Steps in Production Control The basic steps in production control, in occur in which they occur are: (a) Planning Planning is the part of production control that determines which materials and work are needed in order to produce the products offered from the manufacturing division. Each order is broken down into its basic parts on a bill of materials, which lists all the materials, parts and sub assemblies needed to complete that order. The time needed to supply all required materials must be determined, and thus must be indicated to other production control personnel. Further, the production controller has to determine whether the required equipment and trained employees are available for the job at band. (b) Routing Routing is the part of production control that determines which route, or path the work will take through the factory and where and by whom the processing shall be done. This requires the production controller to know in detail how each machine operation or work process is performed. Route, sheets are prepared to show the sequence of operations for all parts and materials and for all activities. Route charts are constructed to indicate the production processes. A route file is constructed that consists of all the necessary job tickets required to move the materials out of stock to the various machine positions. (c) Scheduling Scheduling involves the getting up o the time tables that will govern the movement of the work, which is subjected to the various fabricating processes. For this, the production controller ha to understand the nature of work and workload capability of each department. After reviewing them he prepares a master schedule, which indicates the number of finished products that will come off the assembly each month or weak until the order is completed. When the job on hand involves several departments, a weekly departmental schedule is used to show the expected production from each department for each week of the total production period. Finally load ahead schedule is prepared to indicate the amount of back work that must be processed in each department before it can handle new work. (d) Dispatching dispatching is that part of production control that releases final work orders to the operating departments. it is the step where work order spell out which work is to be done and the amount of time estimated for its completion. Besides authorizing the department to proceed with work on the job, the work order states the priority of the work and gives necessary instructions about it.

(e) Performance Follow-up and Control Lastly, the production controller must verify or assess the performance results. for this purpose elaborate control boards are some time set up, utilizing various printed forms that show the progress of the work section wise or department wise and serve as indicators of satisfactory or unsatisfactory performance. Many managements use schedule performance reports for this purpose. These reports are issued by the production controller, but the information on them comes from the operating departments. The report compares what was accomplished with, what was assigned and scheduled. Additional follow up control is achieved through scrap reports. They show which work was rejected by inspectors, and why and what is to be done with rejected products.

The Emerging Service Industry Service industry has gained prominence during the last two decades. Principles of production management applicable to manufacturing industry apply to service industry also. The difference between the two types of industries is of nature of product. One producers goods (tangible) whereas the produces services (intangible). Banking, insurance, transportation, hotels and motels are engaged in production of services for customers. As such, planning is as important in banking a in steel industry. Routing must be of a major concern to a taxi driver. Scheduling should be important for doctors for listing patients. The characteristics of most of the service industries are as follows: * There is no inventory of completed products in stock. It is so because an unsold airline seat cannot be restored for the future. * Preferably operated under single ownership, because the initial investment involves small capital. * Operation area usually remains limited because it needs personal attention and supervision. * In a service industry, skill is more important than capital. * Labour is the largest expenditure because of the smaller investment and importance of skilled personnel. * The product is often intangible and consists of maintenance. Haircuts, health care and entertainment need to be replaced on a regular basis. Chapter 8 - Making Goods and Services Available Purchasing Producers or manufacturers purchase raw materials to be fabricated into products that are needed in the market. These products may be purchased by industrial customers for further processing, or by distributors for eventual sale to ultimate consumers. Purchasing, as such, is a major task of a businessman. For producers, such purchases should be sufficient enough and timely to ensure uninterrupted production, and for distributors it should be at a reasonable level to avoid the risk of under or overstocking. High degree of skill, therefore, is required in making purchases. Steps in Purchasing 1. Establishing Specification and Determining the Need For Goods The first step in purchasing is to determine exactly the goods that are to be acquired. It is done in the light of specifications that are received by purchase office from departments concerned. For non-repetitive goods, endorsement is also obtained from engineering or technical department to determine their exactness. For repetitive goods, confirmation as obtained from production department in case of manufacturers or assemblers, and sales manager in case of distributors or middleman. 2. Investigating the Supply Market After determining the requirements, the next step is to search out all possible sources of the supply market. Purchase officer must find out all the suppliers, their products, their prices, the quality of their wares, their terms and conditions, their reputation in the trade and other related things that would help him in deciding the list of potential suppliers. 3. Starting Purchasing Negotiations After searching or investigating the market and picking up the names of potential suppliers the purchase officer carries negotiation with them. Through letters of inquiry, information is collected about the goods. Letters of quotation provide him facts regarding price, mode of packing, terms of sales, and the time of delivery. Purchase officer through such negotiation tries to obtain maximum facility that a supplier could give and comes in a position to decide to which he should place the order. 4. Placing the Order Soon after deciding about the supplier, the purchase officer places the order to him for supply of the goods on terms and conditions already settled. Such order is usually placed in writing to have evidence in case of any dispute that may arise later on. Order in writing carries an exact description of the goods required, the prices, the quantities desired, the delivery date, the discount terms, shipping or dispatch instructions, billing instructions, and mode of packing etc. A copy of the purchase order is always maintained by the purchase officer. 5. Following Up the Order In order to make sure that the order is executed by the supplier in time, following up the order becomes the usual step in purchasing. Purchase officer, therefore, monitors the progress of this order and finds out whether it is being executed by the supplier in time and as desired. This involves frequent contacts with suppliers and efforts to make certain that there are no delays in dispatch of the goods on their part and the goods so ordered will be received in time. 6. Receiving the Goods On receiving the goods, the purchase officer immediately makes them to be compared with order form to see whether these are correctly sent by the supplier and meet the requirements as per order form. If the shipment is correct in both quality and quantity, the goods are sent to stock. If there is any differences in the order and the shipment, the matter is immediately brought to the knowledge of the supplier. Till the settlement of the discrepancy, the goods so received are held in the receiving room.

Inventory Control Need of Inventory Control With few exceptions, most businesses have a considerable financial investment in materials of all kinds. Inventories are maintained in stock rooms, in process and in transit to and from the company. Such inventories really constitutes life blood of the business organization. It is very important that this stream of materials be properly maintained without gaps and without overflows. Too little means that production will stop or those customers cannot be served. Too much means excessive storage, and investment costs, with possibilities excessive deterioration or obsolescence. The right solution lies in steering between two disasters. It is therefore necessary to take steps to see that flow and amount material supplies throughout the operations are properly adjusted. Th steps taken are termed inventory control. Importance of Inventory control Such controls serve the following purpose: 1. Provide opportunities to save money and eliminate wastes in the quality of goods selected, in the quantities ordered and used and in the expenditures for transportation, storage, and distrubution to markets. 2. Replenish supplies before they are dangerously depleted. 3. Prevent accumulation of excessive supplies. 4. Allocate materials to specific needs. 5. Provide proper accounting of inventory positions. a) Provide written record of transfer of materials from one department to another. b) provide record of the manufacturing processes through which the materials pass. c) Serves as an authority for such movement. d) Serves as a source of cost data for the cost accounting department. Control Procedure The details of materials control procedure vary from company to company. The basic philosophy of the operation however is much the same in all concerns. 1. When the goods are first received and placed in stock, records are made of all pertinent data. 2. All subsequent movements of the materials are accompanied by such paper work as is necessary to inform the management of their exact location at all times. 3. Periodic counts are made to e certain that cone of the items have been lost in the production process. 4. Whenever materials move from one place to another within the plenty, records are adjusted to reflect this transfer and to fix the responsibility for their custody. 5. Identifying tags accompany all goods to facilitate accurate checking. 6. As a means of providing information on the number of items of each kind in the stock room, perpetual inventory records are kept.

Chapter 9 - Human Resources and Personnel Management

1. Determination of Needs For this purpose job analysis becomes the first requirement. Job analysis involves inquiry into all the details of each job of the company that is to be filled up. Location of the job, its duties and responsibilities, working conditions, the salary, the promotion opportunities, and whether or not any training for the job is offered, are the things that are looked into. Job analysis practically makes a job description and helps in guiding the person responsible for making selection in determining the qualification, experience and health requirements of the conditions to be considered for the job.

2. Selection and Recruiting The procedures for recruiting applicants vary depending upon the firm and the type of work. In usual cases generally they agree to follow: Screening Screening is usually carried through processing the applications blanks and preliminary interview. Each application or job letter is throughly examined in the light of the job to determine the suitability of the candidate. Preliminary interview helps in filtering out the correct persons. Tests

Tests are carried to find out the proficiency and capability of the candidates. For this purpose there could be intelligence test, aptitude tests, and ability or achievement tests. This may include medical tests to determine physical fitness. Main Interview Applicants who clear above two stages are then invited to a personal or main interview. It involves the most careful and balanced judgment on the part of the manager, as upon this the human balance sheet of the enterprise depends.

3. Orientation and Training Orientation

After the applicant has been hired he must be properly introduced to the policies of the company, to the job and the surrounding and to the people with whom he will work. The idea is to relive tension, minimize critical sensitivity and ease the adjustment in new environment. Things Helpful in the Procedure of Orientation * Lectures in the personnel department on history, producers, policies of the company. * Movies, pamphlets and booklets, which cover company operations and services. * A conducted tour of the factory of office. * A personal introduction to fellow workers and new surroundings. Subjects Covered in An Orientation Programme Whatever the method, the following types of subjects are usually covered: 1. Company history, products and major operations.

2. General company policies and regulations.

3. Relation of foremen and personnel department. 4. Rules and regulations regarding: a) Wages and wage payment b) Hours of work and overtime c) Safety and accidents d) Holidays and Vacations e) Methods of Reporting Tardiness and Absences f) Discipline and grievances g) Uniforms and badges h) Parking

5. Economic and recreational services available: a) Insurance plans b) Pensions c) Athletic and Social Activities

6. Opportunities a) Promotion and transfer b)Job stabilization c) Suggestion systems

Training

Employee training is the process of teaching and operating technical employers, how to develop their present jobs more efficiently. It aims at improving employee skill and abilities. Companies that hope to stay competitive typically make huge commitments to employee training and development. Methods or Types of Training A variety of methods are available for employee training and development. Following are the various methods that can be used: 1. Training on the Job This is the most universal method and makes the most lasting impression. Certain types of work lend themselves to training on the job, whereby the employees learn by doing the work under the supervision of an instructor. 2. Vestibule Training This is the method in which the work situation is simulated in a separated area so that learning takes place away from day-to-day pressures of work. Many firms operate company schools to which new employees are sent for training. This is used when the work involves dangers or costs, which might lead to expensive mistakes. 3. Apprentice Training Apprentice training is traditional in various trades, crafts and technical fields where proficiency is acquired after years of instruction by experts. It is a combination of class room lectures, special work area practice and actual work experience. 4. Internship This provides for cooperation between schools and businesses with intermittent periods of time assigned to each. Outside experiences can well enhance the development of a new manager. 5. Class Room Teaching and Lectures Training with industry or short lecture and demonstration courses to show supervisors how to develop better methods of handling human relationships and to rain subordinates. 6. Conference and Seminar Techniques Here small groups are brought together to discuss problems, exchange ideas or be briefed on various situations. Participation in small groups of no more than fifteen is an excellent means of learning. 7. Psychodrama or Role Playing This is the training in which executives learn by acting out what they should do in actial situations under the guidance of a trainer from the personnel department. 8. Job Rotation At higher levels of an organization, management training may take place through job rotation. Position rotation or moving executives from one job to another so that they get to know the individual and total problems of a company. Assistant to promotions permit trainees to broaden their view point and background. 9. Outside Courses These are used by many organizations that do not have the resources to do their own training. Outside courses in colleges, correspondence courses, trade association conferences and evening schools are also commonly used to educate executives. 10. Understudy Plans This provides for an assistant to be assigned o a skilled worker or executive. By working directly under a particular man, the under study can learn the ropes and then take on the job when vacancy occur. 11. The Group Dynamics Under this method, employees are organized into a squadron or group with a view to giving them broad idea and necessary skills on a number of jobs. This is applicable particularly in those cases where a large number of potential executives care to be trained up to fill different executive and managerial positions. 4. Performance Appraisal Performance appraisal or evaluation makes the personnel manager estimate and understand the effectiveness and performance capability of an employee. This also helps him to find out to what extent the employee has made improvement in his work performance. Further performance appraisal can also guide the manager in correctly rewarding the employees, honestly allocating the human resources, fairly filling up the higher jobs and building the atmosphere of trust and confidence within the enterprise. To the employee, performance appraisal provides a feedback to him that can greatly guide his future adjustment and greater preparedness to overcome his weaknesses.

5. Compensation Compensation is the monetary reward and other benefits that are offered to employees. People should be paid or rewarded according to what they produce or how much risk they take. It is because compensation is real lubricant to work performance. Fair compensation to employees always pays in the long run. That is the reason good personnel manager always recommends a fair compensation to employees. Compensations that are expected by employees today and which are included in the programme are: 1. Fair wages 2. Continuous employment

3. Reasonable hours of work 4. Pleasant and safe working conditions 5. Future prospects 6. Feeling of contribution

6. Promotion One of the important considerations in personnel policy is to device and work out the way that would assure promotion to deserving employees of the enterprise. The hope for earning promotion on the basis of their competency makes the employees work with greater devotion and sincerity. Good personnel managers do recognize it and take care in deciding this issue with fair justice. They know that attraction of good employees and their retention within the enterprise depends upon a formidable promotion policy.

7. Termination The employees may retire from their jobs after attaining certain age or completing the terms of service. They may leave the job on their own accord or may be declared surplus by the management. These all virtually result in termination of the job. Such termination should always end with a happy note. The management in recognition of the service of their employees determines the retirement benefit in the shape of pension, provident fund and gratuity.

Trade Unions Definition Modern industrialization has given rise to great number of problems.There has come to be a clash between the interests of labour and organization, the former claiming higher wages and the latter higher profits. Today, labourers have come to realise that they can improve their conditions of work only through collective bargaining with the employees. Thus they combine themselves into Trade or labour unions. The aim of the trade unions is thus to protect the interests of the workers by 1. Conserving the advantages already received. 2. Doing everything legally possible to obtain further the just and genuine benefits from the employers. Function of Trade Unions Trade unions assist labour in that they perform three types of functions. a. Militant Function. b. Fraternal Function. c. Political Function.

(a)Militant Functions The main function of the trade union is to fight for the basic rights and interests of its members. In doing this they offer the following benefits to the labour community. 1. Collective Bargaining Labour has weak bargaining power as against his employer. A labourer sells his services as an individual while the employer buys them on a large scale. Labour is therefore in much greater competition for employment then the employers are for labour. If labourers do not combine themselves into trade unions they are likely to be taken advantage by the employers. Trade unions strengthens the bargaining power of labour through the introduction of what is called collective bargaining. Now instead of each worker negotiating with the employers on various demands, the trade unions bargain on behalf of them all. If their reasonable terms are not accepted, they curtail the supply of labour and resort to strikes boycotts or lockout etc. 2. Standardizing Wage Rate Modern trade unions fight for the raising of standard wage rate. For that, they try to improve the efficiency of labour, (by standardizing conditions of work and fostering habits of honesty regularity etc) ensure that wages are raised up to marginal productivity level, restrict labour supply, increase labour demand and thereby seek to establish standard wage for a standard quality of work. 3. Job Security For achieving this objective, seniority rights of workers, control over hiring of labour, grievance procedure for handling cases of discharge etc. are used as devices. 4. Improving Conditions of Work Trade unions put pressure on the employers to provide workers with better conditions of work, sufficient recreation, standardized hours of work etc. 5. Limitation of Output If a given number of labourers produce more than what they ought to, employment for labour will be reduced. Hence, output per worker is standardized by the unions.

(b) Fraternal Functions Fraternal functions consist of mutual help for the welfare of the workers. In this context, trade unions offer the following benefits: 1. A Ministrant Association Trade unions act as ministrant association and provide monetary protection to workers against temporary unemployment, sickness, accident etc. Some trade unions give loans and advances to their members for meeting their social obligations. 2. Professional Training Trade unions also arrange for education and professional training of their members and as such assist them in improving their efficiency and skill. 3. Source of Information Trade unions serve as a source of defusing labour information the workers. The workers are guided and advised by trade unions leaders who also defuse information by organizing of workers. 4. Insurance Facilities Trade unions also arrange for insurance facilities against risks of accidents. 5. Legal Help Trade unions help the labourers in legal proceedings at the court, in the disputes of labourers. (c) Political Functions Many trade unions fight elections to capture the government. In many countries, strong labour parties have grown up. We have some labour seats in the legislature.

Business Risks
Risk is the danger that something will happen to destroy the best-laid plans. The more venturesome the enterprise, the greater the profits or losses that can be expected. Despite the return for risk taking, the businessman prefers to eliminate as many hazards to successful operation as possible. Some he must assume while others he can reduce to a minimum. Kinds of Business Risks Hence, the risks that confront a business may be divided into 2 types: 1. Uninsurable Risks 2. Insurable Risks

Uninsurable Risks Some risks may be due to external causes over which little or no control can be exercised. These are uninsurable risks and few of them are as follows: 1. Fluctuations in Price Level A business firm typically produces goods in anticipation of demand and incurs expenditure on raw material, wages and various other costs with a view to sell goods at profit. In the meantime of the prices of the product fall, the firm will have to bear loss. 2. Changes in Distribution Method The recent development of chain stores, supermarkets and shopping centers has had an impact on small, independently owned stores. Many of them have been forced to shut their doors. 3. Changes in Laws Often changing of laws also affects business e.g. if the government bans the import of certain items for any reason or plates excessive duties on their import, the dealers of such items will be forced out of business. 4. Change in Technology (Advancement) The development of new products or new brands of better quality, new production techniques etc constitute a continuous hazard for those who do not keep up with time. 5. Change in Consumer Tastes A company produces goods keeping in view the tastes of customers. A shift in the whims and fancies of customers and consequently a fall in demand constitute a risk and bring loss to the company.

Insurable Risks Not all risks are insurable. Only those that are economic in character can be insured. But not all economic risk is insurable either. They can be divided into SPECULATIVE and PURE RISKS. Speculation consists of chances and can result in either gain or loss. Insurance is limited to pure risk because in it there is not chance of gain. By definition, insurance is a system devised to reduce the burden of financial loss due to some specified but uncertain event. 1. Risk of Fire A factory or office building may be damaged by fire. This risk is insured with the insurance company, whereby the insurance carrier agrees to make goods any loss sustained by a person on property destroyed by fire. 2. Risk of Theft A business may be robbed by burglars or a dishonest employee may steal money or goods handled by the business.

3. Transportation Risk Maritime perils like sinking, capsizing, damage by sea water etc, and risks due to rains, accidents etc faced by goods while in transit come under this category. 4. Casualties A business may suffer losses due to each casualties as wind store or earthquake, employee accidents, suits against directors and officers by disgruntled stockholders etc. @import "/extensions/GoogleAdSense/GoogleAdSense.css"; Other Risks 1. Marketing Risks Risks are involved in marketing a new product. Even after a product is successfully introduced to the market, risks continue to plague its existence. To minimize these risks, many companies often use the means of test marketing. 2. Equipment Risks The purchase of special facilities and equipment can involve great risks. The expensive equipment required to produce that new wonder drug may prove useless, if the drug has dangerous side effects. Practically any major purchase decision involves risks. 3. Credit Risks Each time a company extends credit to a customer, there is danger that the customer will not pay his bill. If the credit manager becomes too careful and screen out everybody who has ever been late with a payment, he runs the risk of restricting company sales. 4. Inventory Risks Inventories also present the businessman with a dilemma. If he fails to buy adequate supplies, there is the danger of running out of stock. Yet, the maintenance of large inventories means heavy storage costs plus potential dangers of theft, deterioration, price declines of obsolescence. 5. Government Risks Certain Federal laws add to the risks associated with being a businessman. Product Liability means that the manufacturer may be held liable if someone is injured because of a defective part in his product and so on with other government laws and conditions.

Methods of Handling Risks Risks are inherent in business. Some risks must be assumed while others can be minimized. Following are the five general risk management techniques: 1. Risk Avoidance A manufacturer can avoid the risk of product failure by refusing to introduce the new products. But this risk avoidance would be at a very high cost. The business that does not take a chance on new products will probably fail when the product life cycle catches up with it. There are however situations in which risk avoidance is a practical technique. Individuals who stop smoking or jeweler stores that lock up their merchandise in vaults are avoiding risks. 2. Risk Reduction (Protective Measures) If a risk cannot be avoided, perhaps it can be reduced. A manufacturer can reduce the risk of product failure through careful product planning and market testing. Among the techniques used to reduce risks are: Establishment of employee safety programmes. Use of proper safety equipment. Burglar alarms, security guards etc. Fire proof building, fire alarms, sprinkler system etc. Accurate and effective accounting and financial controls. 3. Self Insurance (Risk Assumption) A firm takes on certain risks as part of doing business e.g. a firm assumes that some creditors will not come up with payments. Risk assumptions is then the act of taking on responsibility for the loss or injury that may result from a risk. This usually means setting aside a financial reserve that can be drawn upon, should the loss occur. (Self-insurance is the process of establishing a monetary fund that can be used to cover the cost of a loss) e.g. companies maintain an allowance for bad debts. Self insurance does not eliminate risks, it only provides a means for covering losses. it is more appropriate for large organizations than for the small businesses. 4. Business Adaptation and Flexibility Another method of dealing with risks seeks to reduce the potential impact of an undesirable event. Business firms confronted by risk due to rapid changes in technology should stress on maximum adaptation of production facilities, organizational structure and procurement method. By hedging they can minimize the losses due to fluctuation ins price levels. 5. Shifting Risks (Insurance Coverage) The most commonly used method of dealing with risks is to shift or transfer the risk to professional risk taker the insurance company. The insurance company is a firm that agrees, for a fee, to assume financial responsibility for losses that may result from a specific risk. The fee charged by an insurance company is called Premium. A contract between an insurer and the person or firm whose risk is assumed is known as an Insurance Policy. Generally an insurance policy is written for a period of one year and is renewed each year. Insurance is thus the protection against loss that is afforded by the purchase of an insurance policy. Insurance companies only assume insurable risks. These estimate on the basis of past experience, the amount that will have to pay in case losses occur. In addition to covering the losses, it must also recover its own costs of operation.

Types of Insurance Coverage Life Insurance Life insurance does not insure life, as tis replacement is impossible. Practically it provides insurance either to the assured or beneficiary on agreed amount of money that becomes payable either maturity of the period or in case of death of the assured. In case if the assured amount becomes payable to the assured on the expiry of certain period it is known as endowment policy. In case if the insured amount becomes payable on death only, it is known as whole life policy. In whole life policy the some of the beneficiary must be specified or mentioned by the insured so that payment could be made to correct person in case of this death. For the benefit and facility of the insured, there is limited payment plan policy also that also permits the insured to pay insurance premium to a limited number of years. After that period the policy comes the paid up policy for the full value of the insured amount. In life insurance, group life coverage is also gaining popularity due to its sizeable fringe benefits employees. Employers obtain group life insurance policy to cover all employees less expensively than employees could buy individual polices for themselves. Fire Insurance Fire insurance policies protect property owners against losses resulting from damage to property used by fire, Now its scope has been widened to cover losses from windstorms, hail, riots earthquake, explosion, flood, chemical or smoke. The amount of premium chargeable by fire insurance companies depend upon the amount of coverage obtained, type of property, and fire fighting arangements made by the company obtaining protection. Marine Insurance Marine insurance protection is available to merchandise in transit. In fact international trade owes to it. Had there been no marine insurance, perhaps foreign trade would not have expanded to the extent which we find today. By offering protection to shippers and foreign traders, marine insurance is playing a vital role in international commerce. It insures cargo, ship and freight. When a ship sinks in ocean, three things are lost. Firstly, we lose cargo, secondly the ship itself and thirdly the freight that would have been earned by the shipping lines. Cargo is insured by the trader, while ship and freight are insured by the shipping company. Burglary, Theft and Robbery Insurance The insurance company draws fine distinctions among burglary, theft and robbery. Burglary is taking of property by forcible entry, theft is the unlawful taking of property and robbery is the unlawful taking of property from another person by force or threat of force. Insurance premium rates vary for these different types of risks. Where all three risks are covered by insurance the insured pays an average premium and is protected against any losses that do occur. Automobile Insurance Automobile insurance offers protection against fire, theft, bodily inquiry, property damage, and collision. It also covers public liability or damage to the insured automobile. Bodily injury liability insurance under it will pay the policy holder legal liability, for injury to one person or to a group. If a driver hits a pedestrian or causing injury to person in other car, the insurance company will pay damages up to the amount of coverage carried. Workmen's Compensation Insurance The purpose of workman's compensation insurance is to guarantee medical and salary payments to workers who are injured on the job unless it can be show that the employees injury or death was will full or caused by intoxication. This insurance is now required in many countries of the world as a part of legal requirement. The cost of insurance is born by both employers and employees, but the major share is assumed by employers. Fidelity and Surety Bonds Fidelity bonds are usually written to cover employees occupying positions of trust in which they have jurisdiction over funds. The employer is guaranteed against loss caused by the dishonesty of such employees and the insurance company will reimburse the policy holder for loss up to the amount specified in the policy. Surety bonds are written to protect the insured against loss from the non-performance of a contract. A building contractor, for example, who agrees to erect a factory according to specification and within a certain time, might be required to furnish surety bonds guaranteeing performance of the contract. Such fidelity and guarantee are covered by insurance company. Title Insurance Title insurance guarantees the title to real estate that is purchased by a firm or by an individual. There are many examples on record of people who build homes on plots that were not theirs. With title insurance, losses that result under such circumstances are covered by the title insurance company. Title insurance, therefore, is essential on all real estate owned by a business. Credit Insurance This insurance is designed to protect a business firm against excessive, losses from accounts receivable that are owned to the firm. Most policies of this type cover only losses that exceed the normal rate of loss on such debt and the rate is specified in the policy. This insurance is taken up by business firms to protect against excessive bad debts. Aviation Insurance Air travel has now become a common means of transport. It involves passengers, cargo and aircraft itself. They need insurance and for which aviation insurance has come up in action. The insurance of aircraft relates to aeroplanes, gliders and helicopters. The comprehensive policy issued in respect of aeroplane covers loss or damage to the aircraft itself and third party legal liability including legal liability for accidents to passengers. Beside the aircraft it also offers protection to air traveling passengers and crew members. Further, goods sent by air could also be insured against loss.