AFLATOXIN

CONTAMINATION

IN

GROUNDNUT

AND GROUNDNUT EXTRACTIONS 1. Background

The aflatoxin producing fungi, Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, can invade groundnut seed in the field before harvest, due to pod damage for various reasons including borers, during drying and curing after harvest, in storage and transit. Groundnut and more so its extractions, have been identified as high risk commodities for aflatoxin contamination. Groundnut extractions are rich in nutrition and are thus exposed to infection by A.flavus and A.parasiticus. Regions with light soils and hot & humid climates are hot spots for aflatoxin contamination. Typically, the semi-arid tropical environment is more conducive to pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination when the crop experiences end-season drought, whereas in wet and humid areas, post-harvest contamination is a problem. Aflatoxin contamination problem is mainly faced by the houses exporting groundnut in shell, seed and groundnut extractions. India exported about 0.90 lakh tonnes of groundnut seed in 1996 and this year it is expected to be around 1.25 lakh tonnes. Indonesia is the largest importing country of groundnut in shell and seed. The other countries are the United Kingdom, Germany, Greece, Japan, Malaysia, the Netherlands, the Philippines, Australia, Oman, Russia, Saudi Arabia and Singapore. In 1996, Rs. 200 crore rupees worth foreign exchange was earned through exports. The product from Saurashtra region of Gujarat is preferred as the seed quality is good and aflatoxin content is below the tolerable limits. The major oil-cake and oil-cake meal importing countries are Indonesia, Chinese Taipei, Malaysia, Russia, Singapore and Thailand. Groundnut oil is relatively free from aflatoxin contamination due to filtering and solvent extraction. However, the future of groundnut lies in its use as food rather than oil. So, management of aflatoxin contamination becomes all the more important issue both for foreign trade as well as domestic consumption.

2. Weather conducive for aflatoxin contamination

Intermittent drought during seed formation and crop maturity. Sudden release of long stretches of drought. Wet weather during harvest and drying. High humidity and temperature during storage.

3. Aflatoxin contamination management

Aflatoxin contamination can be minimized by adopting some cultural, produce-handling and storage practices. Cultivars resistant to seed invasion by aflatoxin producing fungi

or to aflatoxin production would be of great value to the countries.

farmers

in developing

A. Resistance Breeding
a. Resistance mechanisms
IVSCAF(in vitro seed colonization by Aspergillus flavus)-resistance to other genetic backgrounds has been successfully transferred. However, conflicting reports appear on relationship between IVSCAF-resistance and natural seed infection and between IVSCAF resistance and aflatoxin contamination. The exact relationship between different resistance mechanisms, their interactions and possible contributions in reducing aflatoxin contamination is not available.

b. Genetics of resistance
Not much information is available on inheritance, especially due to non-availability of a reliable method of identification of resistance in segregating material.

c. Current progress in breeding

Progress by conventional methods of breeding for either resistance to seed infection or aflatoxin load has not been of much consequence so far. No efforts have been made to breed for resistance to pod infection. A major stumbling block in the conventional resistance breeding is that an accurate protocol for selection of individual plant in the segregating population is not available. No genotype screened so far possesses high degree of any kind of resistance whereas the need is for genotypes with resistance to pod and seed infection, colonisation and aflatoxin production all together. GRP-34, ICG 239, Ah20, and some other germplasm accessions have been reported to be resistant to IVSCAF. At NRCG, B99-1, B99-5, Chitra, Spancross supported low aflatoxin production. B95 (released as Koyna in Maharashtra), ICG 239, ICGVs 88145, 89063, 89092, 89106, and 89115 have shown resistance/tolerance to seed infection and higher yields.

d. Future prospects in resistance breeding

Though, it may be possible to breed cultivars with resistance to seed infection, colonization and low aflatoxin levels by conventional means, they are unlikely to satisfy the stringent standards like that for zero or near zero levels of aflatoxin by 2000 AD fixed by EC countries. It is evident that some of the cultivars possess fairly good amount of tolerance to aflatoxin contamination. If these genotypes could be screened for resveretrol, they can be used as parents in the breeding programme and the elite accessions can be screened using this phytoalexin as a selectable marker. Similar exercise is yet to be explored for the germplasm accessions.

B.

Other

methods

of

aflatoxin

contamination

management
Since, cultivars with resistance to aflatoxin contamination are not available, management of aflatoxin contamination becomes all the more essential. The important management components are listed below: Cultivation of export quality groundnut, preferably, in vertisols and in areas where the crop is not caught in rains during harvesting and drying. Harvesting at the correct maturity as over-mature pods are more susceptible to aflatoxin menace. Avoiding damage to the crop and clean cultivation. Supplemental irrigation to avoid prolonged moisture stress. Drying the pods quickly to 8% moisture level and storing at low temperature and low humidity. Use of propionic acid (0.2%) or propionic acid-based chemicals which reduce significantly aflatoxin contamination problem. Sorting out damaged and discoloured seeds. For the management of the aflatoxin contamination, especially in groundnut extractions, meal, and peanut butter, different types of clays could be used so that the animals are saved from aflatoxicosis.

Another area yet to be explored is that of Systemically Acquired Resistance. If protocols are developed for identification of such chemicals which can induce phytoalexin synthesis or stimulate other modes of resistance operative against A. flavus they and thier use on large scale in the domestic as well as export commodity, they can be exploited. This involves screening of inorganic and organic salts which have a potential to induce such resistance and at the same time not harmful to both humans and animals.

C. Opportunities for exploiting biotechnological means

Transgenic protection through introduction of genes for production of chitinases and glucanases help in induction of a general type of resistance against a broad spectrum of planty pathogens. These enzymes hydrolyze fungal walls and thus kill them. Stilbenes have been identified in groundnut and grapes as a class of phytoalexins offering defense mechanism. They have been found to be anti-A.flavus. Groundnut germplasm might show natural variability for stilbene accumulation which could be exploited in breeding programmes. These genes have already been successfully cloned and transgenic tobacco expressed enhanced stilbene synthesis. Production of

transgenics with enhanced production of stilbenes by introducing genes for stilbene synthase in groundnut may be fruitful. Male mice with high glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity show resistance to carcinogenic effects of aflatoxins. GST converts aflatoxin B1 (the most toxic among the aflatoxins) to its epoxide which is less toxic. The genes for GST have already been cloned in maize. Attempts could be made to produce transgenics with GST genes in groundnut also.

4.

General

constraints

in

adopting

preventive

practices
Lack of awareness among the farmers, traders and exporters. Lack of resources with the farmers. Rain-dependent crop cultivation. Non-availability of modern processing technologies with processors of HPS

groundnut and extractions for export. Lack of systematic farmer-exporter network.

5.Coordination research efforts

and

consolidation

of

integrated

A working group on groundnut aflatoxin management was constituted under the aegis of Cereals and Legumes Asia Network in 1996 to coordinate research on aflatoxin contamination management in Asian and South-East Asian countries. A pathologist from NRCG has been identified as National Coordinator for this purpose. A project is operating with the funding from UNDP, to educate the farmers about the aflatoxin contamination management. The project is operative at Ananthpur district of Andhra Pradesh.

6. Future thrust
Future thrust should be laid on the following major fronts. Promotion of groundnut cultivation for export purpose in non-aflatoxin contamination prone zones by way of suitable policies and incentives to the farmers of these areas and form an effective farmer-exporter network. Moderniasation of processing technologies. In aflatoxin contamination prone zones, suitable strategic management of contamination should be designed to promote groundnut as food. The above targets can be achieved by

Training of extension personnel to train in turn farmers. Conducting groundnuts. On-Farm Demonstrations of technologies for cultivating HPS

Training of scientists to conduct research in frontier areas of research such as biotechnology for aflatoxin contamination management.

Upgrading facilities at SAUs and NARS for aflatoxin research. Development of simple and reliable diagnostics for qualitative and quantitative estimation of aflatoxins.

Standardization of protocols for identifying resistance in segregating material to make the the conventional breeding methods successful.