Final Review

May 16, 2006

Review for Final Exam

Larry Caretto Mechanical Engineering 375

Outline
Basic equations, thermal resistance Heat sources Conduction, steady and unsteady Computing convection heat transfer
Forced convection, internal and external Natural convection

Heat Transfer
May 16, 2007

Radiation properties Radiative Exchange

2

Final Exam
Wednesday, May 23, 3 5 pm Open textbook/one-page equation sheet Problems like homework, midterm and quiz problems Cumulative with emphasis on second half of course Complete basic approach to all problems rather than finishing details of algebra or arithmetic
3

Basic Equations
Fourier law for heat conduction (1D) k (T1 T2 ) kA(T1 T2 ) & & & q= or Q = qA = L L Convection heat transfer
& Qconv = hAs (Ts T )

Radiation (from small object, 1, in large enclosure, 2)

& Qrad ,12 = A1 1 T14 T24

Heat Generation
Various phenomena in solids can generate heat & Define egen as the heat generated per unit volume per unit time
Figure 2-21 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

Rectangular Energy Balance

c p & q y q z & & q T & = x + egen t x y z
heat inflow heat outflow +

Stored = energy

heat generated

c p

T T T T & = k + egen + k + k t x x y y z z
T Uses & q = k Fourier Law
6

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Final Review

May 16, 2006

Cylindrical Coordinates
T = t 1 T 1 T kr k + r r r r 2 T & + k + egen z z c p
& & dQr = qr dA = k T rddz r
7

Spherical Coordinates
T = t 1 2 T kr + r r 2 r 1 T k sin + r 2 sin 1 T & k + egen 2 2 r sin c p
8

Figure 2-3 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

Figure 2-3 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

Plot of (T - T0)/(TL - T0) for Heat Generation in a Slab

1-D, Rectangular, Heat Generation

TemperatureDifference Ratio

1.8

Temperature profile for generation with T = T0 at x = 0 and T = TL at x = L

1.6

1.4

H=0
1.2

T = T0

& egenx2 2k

& egenxL 2k

(T T )x 0 L
L

H = .01 H = .1 H=1 H=2 H=5 H = 10

0.8

& & egen 2x egenL (T0 TL ) dT & = k + q = k 2k L dx 2k

& q= & egen(2x L) k (T0 TL ) + 2 L

0.6

0.4

H=
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 x/L 0.6 0.7

0.2

k (TL T0 )
0.8 0.9 1

& L egen

10

Slab With Heat Generation

Both boundary temperatures = TB
2.4 2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Thermal Resistance
H = & L e gen kTB
H=0 H = .01 H = .1 H=1 H=2 H=5 H = 10

Conduction & k A(T1 T2 ) Q = T1 T2 & Q= L Rcond Convection

& Q = hA Ts T f

Rcond =

L kA
1 hA

T / TB

& Q=

Ts T f Rconv

Rconv =
1

Radiation
Dimensionless Distance, x/L
11

Rrad =

A1F12 T13 + T23 + T22T1 + T12T2

)= Ah

1 rad
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May 16, 2006

Composite Materials II

Composite Cylindrical Shell

Figure 3-26 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

1 1 = h2 A4 h2 2r4 L

13

1 r2 1 r3 ln ln 1 1 = k1L r1 k2 L r2 h1 A1 h1 2r1L

1 r4 ln k3 L r3

14

Fin Results
Infinitely long fin

Fin Efficiency
x hp kAc

= b e mx

T T = (Tb T )e

& & Qx =0 = Ac q x =0 = kAc hp (Tb T )

for uniform cross section

Heat transfer at end (Lc = A/p)

= T T = b cosh m( Lc x ) cosh m( Lc x) = (Tb T ) cosh mLc cosh mL
15

A fin = Lc p

& Qx =0 = kAc hp (Tb T ) tanh mL

Compare actual heat transfer to ideal case where entire fin is at base temperature & Q fin fin = & = Q fin,max & Q fin
hA fin (Tb T )
16

Figure 3-39 from engel, Heat Transfer

Overall Fin Effectiveness

Original area, A = (area with fins, Afin) + (area without fins, Aunfin)
& Q fin h( fin A fin + Aunfin )(Tb T ) = & Qno fin hAno fin (Tb T )

Lumped Parameter Model

Assumes same temperature in solid Use characteristic length Lc = V/A hA h b= = c p V c p Lc

(T T ) = (Ti T )e bt

or

T = (Ti T )e bt + T

total = & Q

& Q fin
no fin

A fin Aunfin = fin + Ano fin Ano fin

17

Must have Bi = hLc/k < 0.1 to use this

18

Figure 3-45 from engel, Heat Transfer

ME 375 Heat Transfer

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Transient 1D Convection

Slab Center-line (x = 0) Temperature Chart

Figure 4-15(a) in engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

Figure 4-11 in engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

All problems have similar chart solutions

19 20

T T = 0 T0 T

Chart II
Can find T at any x/L from this chart once T at x = 0 is found from previous chart See basis for this chart on the next page
Figure 4-15(b) in engel, Heat and Mass Transfer
21

Approximate Solutions
Valid for for > 0.2 Slab Cylinder
=
2 T T = A1e 1 cos 1 Ti T 2 r T T = = A1e 1 J 0 1 r Ti T 0

Sphere =

2 r T T r = A1e 1 0 sin 1 Ti T 1r r0

Values of A1 and 1 depend on Bi and are different for each geometry (as is Bi)
22

Semi-Infinite Solids
Plane that extends to infinity in all directions Practical applications: large area for short times
Figure 4-24 in engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

Multidimensional Solutions
Can get multidimensional solutions as product of one dimensional solutions
All one-dimensional solutions have initial temperature, Ti, with convection coefficient, h, and environmental temperature, T, starting at t = 0 General rule: twoD = onetwo where one and two are solutions from charts for plane, cylinder or sphere
24

Example: earth surface locally 23

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May 16, 2006

Multidimensional Example
T (r , x, t ) T T T i =

Flow Classifications
Forced versus free Internal (as in pipes) versus external (as around aircraft)
Entry regions in pipes vs. fully-developed

finite cylinder

x = a/2

T (r , t ) T T T i infinite
Figure 4-35 in engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

x = -a/2

T ( x, t ) T T T i infinite
slab
25

cylinder

Unsteady (changing with time) versus unsteady (not changing with time) Laminar versus turbulent Compressible versus incompressible Inviscid flow regions ( not important) One-, two- or three-dimensional
26

Flows
Laminar flow is layered, turbulent flows are not (but have some structure)
Figures 6-9 and 6-16. engel, Heat and Mass Transfer
27

Boundary Layer

Region near wall with sharp gradients

Thickness, , usually very thin compared to overall dimension in y direction
Figure 6-12 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer
28

Thermal Boundary Layer

Thin region near solid surface in which most of temperature change occurs Thermal boundary layer thickness may be less than, greater than or equal to that of the momentum boundary layer
Figure 6-15. engel, Heat and Mass Transfer
29

Dimensionless Convection
Nusselt number, Nu = hLc/kfluid
Different from Bi = hLc/ksolid

Reynolds number, Re = VLc/ = VLc/ Prandtl number Pr = cp/k (in tables) Grashof number, Gr = gTLc3/2
g = gravity, = expansion coefficient = (1/)(/T)p, and T = | Twall T |

Peclet, Pe = RePr; Rayleigh, Ra = GrPr

30

ME 375 Heat Transfer

Final Review

May 16, 2006

Characteristic Length
Can use length as a subscript on dimensionless numbers to show correct length to use in a problem
ReD = VD/, Rex = Vx/, ReL = VL/ NuD = hD/k, Nux = hx/k, NuL = hL/k GrD = 2gTD3/2, Grx = 2gTx3/2, GrL = 2gTL3/2

How to Compute h
Follow this general pattern
Find equations for h for the description of the flow given
Correct flow geometry (local or average h?) Free or forced convection

Determine if flow is laminar or turbulent

Different flows have different measures to determine if the flow is laminar or turbulent based on the Reynolds number, Re, for forced convection and the Grashof number, Gr, for free convection
31 32

Use not necessary if meaning is clear

How to Compute h
Continue to follow this general pattern
Select correct equation for Nu (laminar or turbulent; range of Re, Pr, Gr, etc.) Compute appropriate temperature for finding properties Evaluate fluid properties (, k, , Pr) at the appropriate temperature Compute Nusselt number from equation of the form Nu = C Rea Prb or D Rac Compute h = k Nu / LC

Property Temperature
Find properties at correct temperature Some equations specify particular temperatures to be used (e.g. /w) External flows and natural convection use film temperature (Tw + T)/2 Internal flows use mean fluid temperature (Tin + Tout)/2

33

34

Key Ideas of External Flows

The flow is unconfined Moving objects into still air are modeled as still objects with air flowing over them There is an approach condition of velocity, U, and temperature, T Far from the body the velocity and temperature remain at U and T T is the (constant) fluid temperature used to compute heat transfer
35

Flat Plate Flow Equations

Laminar flow (Rex, ReL < 500,000, Pr > .6)
C fx = wall
2 U

Cf =

2 wall

= 0.664 Re 1 / 2 x = 1.33 Re 1/ 2 L

2 U 2

hx x = 0.332 Re1 / 2 Pr1/ 3 x k hL Nu L = = 0.664 Re1 / 2 Pr1/ 3 L k Nu x = Nu x = hx x = 0.0296 Re 0.8 Pr1 / 3 x k hL Nu L = = 0.037 Re 0.8 Pr1 / 3 L k
36

Turbulent flow (5x105 < Rex, ReL < 107)

C fx = Cf = wall
2 U 2 wall 2 U 2

= 0.059 Re 1 / 5 x

= 0.074 Re 1 / 5 L

For turbulent Nu, .6 < Pr < 60

ME 375 Heat Transfer

Final Review

May 16, 2006

Flat Plate Flow Equations II

Average properties for combined laminar and turbulent regions with transition at xc = 500000 /U
Valid for 5x105 < ReL < 107 and 0.6 < Pr < 60
Cf = wall
2 U 2

Heat Transfer Coefficients

Cylinder average h (RePr > 0.2; properties
5/8 hD 0.62 Re1 / 2 Pr1 / 2 Re 1 + Nu = = 0.3 + 1/ 4 k 0.4 2 / 3 282,000 1 + Pr Sphere average h (3.5 Re 80,000; 0.7 Pr 380; s at Ts; other properties at T)

at (T + Ts)/2

4/5

0.074 1742 Re1 / 5 Re L L

Nu L =

hL = 0.037 Re 0.8 871 Pr1 / 3 L k

37

hD Nu = = 2 + 0.4 Re1 / 2 + 0.06 Re 2 / 3 Pr 0.4 k s

1/ 4

Figure 7-10 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

38

Other Shapes and Equations

Tube Bank Heat Transfer

Part of Table 7-1 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

39

Table 7-2 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

40

Key Ideas of Internal Flows

The flow is confined There is a temperature and velocity profile in the flow
Use average velocity and temperature L

Area Terms
D L H

Acs is cross-sectional area for the flow

Acs = D2/4 for circular pipe Acs = WH for rectangular duct

Wall fluid heat exchange will change the average fluid temperature
There is no longer a constant fluid temperature like T for computing heat transfer
41

Aw is the wall area for heat transfer

Aw = DL for circular pipe Aw = 2(W + H)L for rectangular duct

Figure 8-1 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

42

ME 375 Heat Transfer

Final Review

May 16, 2006

Average Temperature Change

Let T represent the average fluid temperature (instead of Tavg, Tm or T ) T will change from inlet to outlet of confined flow
This gives a variable driving force (Twall Tfluid) for heat transfer Can accommodate this by using the first & & law of thermodynamics: Q = m cp(Tout Tin) Two cases: fixed wall heat flux and fixed wall temperature

Fixed Wall Heat Flux

& Fixed wall heat flux, qwall, over given wall area, Aw, gives total heat input which is related to Tout Tin by thermodynamics & q A & & & Q = qwall Aw = mc p (Tout Tin ) Tout = Tin + wall w & mc p Outlet can be any point along flow path where area from inlet is Aw We can compute Tw at this point as Tw = & Tout + qwall /h
44

43

Constant Wall Temperature

(Tout Ts ) = (Tin Ts )e
hAw & mc p

Log-mean Temperature Diff

This is usually written as a set of temperature differences
LMT =

& hAw / mcp = NTU, the number of transfer units This is general equation for computing Tout in internal flows
Figure 8-14 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer
45

(Tout Tin )
T T ln out s T T in s

(Tout Ts ) (Tin Ts )
T T ln out s T T in s

& hA (T T ) Q = w out in = hAw ( LMT ) T T ln out s T T in s

engel uses Tlm for LMT

46

Developing Flows
Momentum boundary layer development

Fully Developed Flow

Temperature profile does not change with x if flow is fully developed thermally This means that T/r does not change with downstream distance, x, so heat flux (and Nu) do not depend on x Laminar entry Lh 0.05 Re D lengths Turbulent entry lengths
Lt 0.05 Re Pr D

Thermal boundary layer development

47

Lt Lh = 1.359 Re1 4 10 D D
48

ME 375 Heat Transfer

Final Review

May 16, 2006

Entry Region Nusselt Numbers

Internal Flow Pressure Drop

General formula: p = f (L/D) V2/2 Friction factor, f, depends on Re = VD/ and relative roughness, /D For laminar flows, f = 64/Re
No dependence on relative roughness

For turbulent flows

Colebrook
Eggs from Figure 8-9 in engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

D 1 2.51 = 2.0 log10 + 3.7 Re f f

Haaland 1
49

6.9 D 1.11 1.8 log10 + Re 3.7 f

50

Moody Diagram

Laminar Nusselt Number

Laminar flow if Re = VD/ < 2,300 Fully-developed, constant heat flux, Nu = 4.36 Fully-developed, constant wall temperature: Nu = 3.66 Entry region, constant wall temperature:
Nu = 3.66 +
51

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5/E by Bruce Munson, Donald Young, and Theodore Okiishi. Copyright 2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

1 + 0.04[(D L ) Re Pr ]2 3
52

0.065 (D L ) Re Pr

Noncircular Ducts
Define hydraulic diameter, Dh = 4A/P
A is cross-sectional area for flow P is wetted perimeter For a circular pipe where A = pD2/4 and P = D, Dh = 4(D2/4) / (D) = D

From engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

For turbulent flows use Moody diagram with D replaced by Dh in Re, f, and /D For laminar flows, f = A/Re and Nu = B (all based on Dh) A and B next slide
53 54

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May 16, 2006

Turbulent Flow
Smooth tubes (Gnielinski) 0.5 Pr 2000 ( f 8)(Re 1000) Pr Nu = 3 6 0.5 23 1 + 12.7( f 8) (Pr 1) 3 x10 < Re < 5 x10
Petukhov : f = [0.790 ln (Re ) 1.64]
2

Free (Natural) Convection

Flow is induced by temperature difference
Forced
6

3000 < Re < 5 x10

Tubes with roughness

Use correlations developed for this case As approximation use Gnielinski equation with f from Moody diagram or f equation
Danger! h does not increase for f >4fsmooth
55

Free (Natural)
Eggs from Figure 1-33 in engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

No external source of fluid motion Temperature differences cause density differences Density differences induce flow
Warm air rises

Volume expansion coefficient: = [(1/)(/T)]

For ideal gases = 1/T
56

Grashof and Rayleigh Numbers

Dimensionless groups for free (natural) convection Ra = Gr Pr = gTL3 2gTL3 c c Gr = = gTL3 c 2 2 -2
g = acceleration of gravity (LT ) = (1/)(/T) called the volume expansion coefficient (dimensions: 1/)

Equations for Nu
Equations have form of AGraPrb or BRac Since Gr and Ra contain |Twall Tfluid|, an iterative process is required if one of these temperatures is unknown Transition from laminar to turbulent occurs at given Ra values
For vertical plate transition Ra = 109

T = |Twall Tfluid| (dimensions: ) Other terms same as previous use

57

Evaluate properties at film (average) temperature, (Twall + Tfluid)/2

58

Vertical Plate Free Convection

10000

Vertical Plate Free Convection

Simplified equations on previous chart for constant wall temperature
Nu = 0.10 Ra1/ 3
109 < Ra < 1013

1000

Nu = hL 100 k
10

More accurate: Churchill and Chu, any Ra

Nu = 0.59 Ra1 / 4
104 < Ra < 109
1.E+02 1.E+04 1.E+06 1.E+08 1.E+10 1.E+12 1.E+14

0.387 Ra1 / 6 L Nu L = 0.825 + 9 / 16 8 / 27 1 + (0.492 Pr )

Any RaL

1 1.E+00

More accurate laminar Churchill/Chu

Rayleigh Number
Plate figure from Table 9-1 in engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

Nu L = 0.68 +
3

Ra =

gTL 2

Pr =

gTL

3
59

[1 + (0.492 Pr ) ]

0.670 Ra1 / 4 L

9 / 16 4 / 9

0 < Ra L < 109

60

ME 375 Heat Transfer

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Final Review

May 16, 2006

Vertical Plate Free Convection

Constant wall heat flux
& Use q = hA(Tw T) to compute an unknown temperature (Tw or T) from known wall heat flux and computed h Tw varies along wall, but the average heat transfer uses midpoint temperature, TL/2 & q & qwall = hAwall (TL / 2 T ) TL / 2 T = wall hAwall Use trial and error solution with TL/2 T as T in Ra used to compute h = kNu/L
61

Vertical Cylinder
Apply equations for vertical plate from previous charts if D/L 35/Gr1/4 For this D/L effects of curvature are not important Thin cylinder results of Cebeci and Minkowcyz and Sparrow available in ASME Transactions
62

Cylinder figure from Table 9-1 in engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

Horizontal Plate
Cold surface Cold surface

Horizontal Plate II
Cold surface facing up or hot surface facing down Lc = area / perimeter (As/p)
For a rectangle of length, L, and width, W, Lc = (LW) / (2L + 2W) = 1 / ( 2 / W + 2 / L) For a circle, Lc = R2 / 2R = R/2 = D/4
Figures from Table 9-1 in engel, Heat and Mass Transfer
63

Hot surface facing up or cold surface facing down Lc = area / perimeter (As/p)
For a rectangle of length, L, and width, W, Lc = (LW) / (2L + 2W) = 1 / ( 2 / W + 2 / L) For a circle, Lc = R2 / 2R = R/2 = D/4
Figures from Table 9-1 in engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

Nu = 0.54 Ra1 /c 4 10 4 < Ra < 107 L Nu = 0.15 Ra1 /c3 L 10 < Ra < 10
7 11

Nu = 0.27 Ra1/c 4 105 < Ra < 1011 L

64

Sphere and Horizontal Cylinder

0.387 Ra1 / 6 D Nu D = 0.6 + 9 / 16 1 + (0.559 Pr )

Horizontal Enclosures
L

8 / 27

NuD results are average values

Nu D = 2 +

[1 + (0.469 Pr ) ]

0.589 Ra1 / 4 D

9 / 16 4 / 9

Top side warmer: no convection Conduction only, Nu = hL/k = 1 Bottom warmer: convection becomes significant when RaL = (Pr)gTL3/2 = gTL3/ > 1708
Figure 9-22 in engel, Heat and Mass Transfer
66

Figures from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

65

ME 375 Heat Transfer

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Final Review

May 16, 2006

Horizontal Enclosures II
Jakob, for 0.5 < Pr < 2
Nu = 0.195Ra1 / 4 10 4 < RaL < 4 x105 L Nu = 0.068Ra1 / 3 L 4 x105 < Ra L < 107

Vertical Enclosures
Berkovsky and Polevikov, any Pr
Pr Nu L = 0.18 Ra L 0.2 + Pr
0.29

1< H / L < 2 Ra L Pr 0.2 + Pr > 103

Globe and Dropkin for a range of liquids

Nu = 0.069 Ra1 / 3 Pr 0.074 L 3x105 < Ra L < 7 x109

Hollands et al. for air; also for other fluids if RaL < 105 1708 Ra + max 0, L 1 RaL < 108 Nu = 1 + 1.44 max 0, 1 RaL 18
67

Figure 923 in engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

0.28 1/ 4 2 < H / L < 10 Pr Ra L L Nu L = 0.22 RaL < 1010 0.2 + Pr H MacGregor and Emery

L Nu L = 0.42 Ra1 / 4 Pr 0.012 L H

0.3

10 < H / L < 40

1 < H / L < 40 1 < Pr < 20 10 < RaL < 10

6 9

1 < Pr < 2 x10 4 10 4 < RaL < 107

68

Nu L = 0.46 Ra1 / 3 L

Heat Exchangers
Used to transfer energy from one fluid to another One fluid, the hot fluid, is cooled while the other, the cold fluid, is heated May have phase change: temperature of one or both fluids is constant Simplest is double pipe heat exchanger
Parallel flow and counter flow
Figure 11-1 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer
69 70

Compact Heat Exchangers

Shell-and-Tube Exchanger

Counter flow exchanger with larger surface area; baffles promote mixing
Figure 11-3 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer
71

Figure 11-4 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

72

ME 375 Heat Transfer

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Final Review

May 16, 2006

Shell and Tube Passes

Tube flow has three complete changes of direction giving four tube passes Shell flow changes direction to give two shell passes 73

Overall U
U is overall heat transfer coefficient Analyzed here for double-pipe heat exchanger
R= 1 1 + Rwall + hi Ai ho Ao 1 1 1 = = = U o Ao U i Ai UA

Figure 11-5(b) from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

Figure 11-7 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

74

Heat Exchange Analysis

Heat transfer from hot to cold fluid

Parallel Flow

& Q = UAT

& & Q = mc c pc Tc,out Tc,in First law energy & & Q = mh c ph Th,in Th,out balances Assumes no heat loss to surroundings
Subscripts c and h denote cold and hot fluids, respectively Alternative analysis for phase change

( (

) )

& Parallel flow Q = UATlm heat exchanger

Tlm = T2 T1 T1 T2 = T T ln 2 ln 1 T T 1 2

Tlm =

(Th,out Tc,out ) (Th,in Tc,in )

T T ln h,out c,out T T h,in c,in
76

75

Figure 11-14 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

T2 = Th,out Tc,in

Counter Flow
Difference in T1 and T2 definitions

Heat Exchanger Problems

With Tlm method we want to find U or A when all temperatures are known If we know three temperatures, we can find the fourth by an energy balance with known mass flow rates (and cps)
& Can find Q from two temperatures for one stream and then find unknown temperature
78

Same basic equations

T T1 & Q = UATlm = UA 2 T ln 2 T 1
Tlm =

T1 = Th,in Tc,out

(Th,out Tc,in ) (Th,in Tc,out )

T T ln h,out c,in T T h,in c,out
77

& & Q = mc c pc (Tc,out Tc,in ) & & ) Q = m c (T T

h ph h,in h,out

Figure 11-16 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

ME 375 Heat Transfer

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Final Review

May 16, 2006

Correction Factors
Correction factor parameters, R and P
Shell and tube definitions below

Correction Factor Chart I

t 2 t1 Tshell ,in Ttube,in T1 t1 & mc p Tshell ,in Ttube,in T1 T2 = = R= & Ttube,out Ttube,in t 2 t1 mc p P= =

Ttube,out Ttube,in

( )tube ( )shell
79

Correction factor charts show diagrams that illustrate the equations for P and R
Figure 11-18 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer
80

Effectiveness-NTU Method
Used when not all temperatures are known Based on ratio of actual heat transfer to maximum possible heat transfer Maximum possible temperature difference, Tmax is Th,in Tc,in
Only one fluid, the one with the smaller value & of mcp, can have Tmax & & Define Cc = (m cp)c and Ch = (mcp)h
81

Effectiveness,
= & & Q Q = & (Th.in Tc,in ) Qmax Cmin Cmin = min (Ch , Cc )

In effectiveness-NTU method we find , & & then find Q = Q max & Use C T to find Q because C T
= C2T2 or T2 = C1T1/C2 If T2 = Tmax and C1/C2 > 1, T2 > Tmax CminTmax is maximum heat transfer that can occur without impossible T < Tc,in
min max max 1

82

Find
Example chart for finding effectiveness from NTU = UA/Cmin and Cmin/Cmax ratio For NTU = 1.5 and Cmin/Cmax .7 = 0.25, = ?
Figure 11-26 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer
83

Effectiveness Equations
Double pipe parallel flow
NTU =

1 e NTU (1+c ) 1+ c

UA Cmin

Double pipe counter flow

c=

1 e NTU (1c ) = 1 ce NTU (1c )

Cmin Cmax

Figures from Figure 11-26 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

84

ME 375 Heat Transfer

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Final Review

May 16, 2006

Ultraviolet

Infrared

Black-Body Radiation
Basic black body equation: Eb = T4
Eb is total black-body radiation energy flux W/m2 or Btu/hrft2 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
= 5.670x10-8 W/m2K4 = 0.1714x10-8 Btu/hrft2R4

Spectral Eb
Energy (W/m2) emitted varies with wavelength and temperature Maximum point occurs where T = 2897.8 mK T increase shifts peak shift to lower
86

Must use absolute temperature

Radiation flux varies with wavelength

Eb is flux at given wavelength,
85

Figure 12-9 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

Partial Black-body Power

Black body radiation between = 0 and = 1 is Eb,0-1

Radiation Tables
Can show that f is function of T
f = 1 T
4
1

Eb,01 = Eb d
0

Eb d = T 4 5 (eC
0 0

C1
2

d =

(T )5 (eC1 T 1) d (T )
C
2

Fraction of total radiation (T4) between = 0 and any given is f

Radiation tables give f versus T

See table 12-2, page 672 in text Extract from this table shown at right
88

f =

1 T 4

Eb d'
0
87

Figure 12-13 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

Radiation in finite band,

f 1 2 = 1 T 4
2 2

Emissivity
Ratio of actual emissive power to blakc body emissive power
Diffuse surface emissivity does not depend on direction Gray surface emissivity does not depend on wavelength Gray, diffuse surface emissivity is the does not depend on direction or wavelength
Simplest surface to handle and often used in radiation calculations
90

1 T 4

E d =
b
1

1 1 Eb d T 4 0 0 = f (2T ) f (1T )

Eb d

f (0) = 0
Figure 12-14 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

f ( ) = 1
89

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Final Review

May 16, 2006

Average Emissivity
Average over all wavelengths
=
1

T 4

E d = T (e
b 4 5 C2 0 0

C1
T

) d = (T ) (e
5 0

C1
C 2 T

d (T )

For emissivity with constant values in a series of wavelength ranges T T 3C1d (T ) 1C1d (T ) 2C1d (T ) 1 1 1 = + + 0 (T )5 (eC T 1) T (T )5 (eC T 1) T (T )5 (eC T 1)
1 2 2 2 2 1 2

= 1 [ f (1T ) 0] + 2 [ f (2T ) f (1T )] + 3 [1 f (2T )]

Applies to other properties as well

91 92

Properties
Incoming radiation properties
Reflectivity, Absorptivity, Transmissivity,
Figure 12-31 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer
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Energy balance: ++=1

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Data
Solar radiation has effective source temperature of about 5800 K
Figure 12-33 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

Kirchoffs Law
Absorptivity equals emissivity (at the same temperature) True only for values in a given direction and wavelength Assuming total hemispherical values of and are the same simplifies radiation heat transfer calculations, but is not always a good assumption
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Final Review

May 16, 2006

Effect of Temperature
Emissivity, , depends on surface temperature Absorptivity, , depends on source temperature (e.g. Tsun 5800 K) For surfaces exposed to solar radiation
high and low will keep surface warm low and high will keep surface cool Does not violate Kirchoffs law since source and surface temperatures differ
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View Factor, Fij or Fij

Fij or Fij is the fraction of radiation, leaving surface i, that strikes surface j
AiFij = AjFji kFik = 1 (enclosure) F12+3 = F12 + F13

Fkk = 0 only if k is a flat surface View factors from equations or charts

Figure 13-1 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer
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All Black Surface Enclosure

Heat transfer from surface 1 reaching surface 2 is A1F12T14 Heat transfer from surface 2 reaching surface 1 is A2F21T24 = A1F12T24 Net heat exchange between surface 1 and surface 2: A1F12(T14 T24)
Negative value indicates heat into surface 1 For multiple surfaces
& Qi = & Qi j = Ai Fij (Ti4 T j4 )
N N j =1 j =1
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Gray Diffuse Opaque Enclosure

Kirchoffs law applies to the average: = at all temperatures For opaque surfaces = 0 so + = 1 For gray, diffusive, opaque surfaces then = 1 = 1 Define radiosity, J = Eb + G = emitted and reflected radiation A E Ji 1 i & Qi = i i (Ebi J i ) = bi where Ri = Ri Ai i 1 i
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Net Radiation Leaving Surface

& Q = A(J G) Can show
A & (Eb J ) Q= 1
& Qi =
N j =1

Gray Diffuse Opaque II

& Qij = Ai Fij (J i J j ) =
N N j =1

Ji J j Rij

Rij =

j =1

1 Ai Fij

& E Ji Qi = b ,i Ri Ri =
1 i A i
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& Combining two equations for Qi N J J N J J E J J E i Rij j = biRi i i Rij j + i Ri bi = 0 j =1 j =1

Solve system of N simultaneous linear equations for N values of Ji & Black or reradiating surface ( Qi = 0) has 4 Ji = Ebi = Ti
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Figure 13-20 from engel, Heat and Mass Transfer

ME 375 Heat Transfer

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Final Review

May 16, 2006

Review Circuit Analogy

Look at simple enclosure with only two surfaces Apply circuit analogy with total resistance
E Eb 2 Eb1 Eb 2 & Q12 = b1 = 1 1 1 1 2 RTotal + + A1 1 A1 F12 A2 2
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Three-Surface Circuit
Three or more surfaces easirer by system of equations & Exception: Q3 = 0

E Eb 2 Eb1 Eb 2 & = Qnet ,12 = b1 RTotal R1 + Rc + R2

Rc =

1 1 1 + R12 R13 + R23

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Review Three-Surface Circuit

& & If Q3 = 0, Qnet,12 can be found from circuit with two parallel resistances
E Eb 2 Eb1 Eb 2 & Qnet ,12 = b1 = RTotal R1 + Rc + R2
Rc =

Radiation Exchange
Two possible surface conditions: (1) & known temperature, (2) known Q i N A & Qi = i i Ebi J i = Ai Fij J i J j i = 1, K, N 1 i j =1 1 N 1 i N i (1) 1 + Fij J i Fij J j = Ebi = Ti4 i j =1, j i i j =1, j i Solve this set of N N N & Ai Fij J i Ai Fij J j = Qi simultaneous (2) equations for j =1, j i j =1, j i

1 1 1 + R12 R13 + R23

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N values106 Ji of

Radiation Exchange II
Once all Ji values are known we can & compute unknown values of Ti and Qi
For known Ti

Numerical Heat Transfer

Finite difference expressions with truncation error Computers give roundoff error Convert differential equations to algebraic equations
Solve system of algebraic equations to get temperatures at discrete points Reduce step size for stability

A A & Qi = i i Ebi J i = i i Ti4 J i 1 i 1 i

& For known Qi

Ebi = J i +

1 i & Qi Ai i

Ti =

1 1 i & 4 Ji + Qi Ai i
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Will not be covered on final

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